THE theory and practice OF THE ART OF WEAVING, BY HAND AND POWER. WITH CALCULATIONS AND TABLES, FOE THE USE OF THOSE CONNECTED WITH THE TRADE. JOHN WATSON, MANUFACTURED, CONSULTING ENGINEER, AND PATENTEE OF THE DAMASK POWER-LOOM. Illustrated with Drawings and Diagrams. [NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION.] GLASGOW: GEORGE WATSON, INGRAM STREET. MDCCCLXXIII. [All rights of reproduction and translation reserved.] CdaJS 75 ii°to U)3 Y PBINTED BY GEORGE WATSON, INGRAM STREET, GLASGOW. PREFACE. To acquire a competent knowledge of any Art it must be learned, either by reading, verbal teaching, observation and reflection, or actual practice; and as it is of the utmost importance to the apprentice in any branch of business to be told the theory of it, and shown how to use the tools connected with that particular branch, it must be of use to the apprentice or young beginner in the Weaving Trade also. Be¬ lieving this, I have written this volume on the theory and practice of Weaving, and have through its pages given instructions how any one with ordinary capacity and perseverance may learn the theory of the Art. The Writer, when a beginner in the trade, had often felt the want of such a book, and considering that others would be similarly situated, was induced to undertake to write this work; for at the time he began his apprenticeship in the Power-Loom Trade, it was more the rule to keep the apprentice in ignorance, than teach him the theory of the Art; however, that narrow-minded selfishness is, happily, now the excep- IV PREFACE. tion. This volume is written more especially for Power-Loom Weaving, but it may prove of equal use to the Hand-Loom manufacturer, as the principles in both are the same. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. In preparing for the Second Edition of the u Art of Weaving,” we have spared no time in making it complete, and have added a Chapter on the Weaving of Woollen Goods, as this department of Weaving is now a very important branch of our Trade, and one that is now being done to a large extent in the Power-Loom. We have also given all the improve¬ ments, but not all the alterations, (for a number of them are no improvements), that have been made in machinery connected with Weaving. The Author will finish this short Preface by hoping that the time he has spent in writing this Work will not be entirely lost. That it will be a benefit to those who come after him in the Power- Loom Trade is his sincere desire. CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Original Power-Loom—The First Power-Loom Tenter—The Antiquity of Weaving—The Indian Mode of Weaving—An old Tradition—Weaving introduced' into Great Britain—The Pro¬ gress of Weaving, found from the Consumption of Cotton—Prices of Cotton in different years—The probable increase of the Con¬ sumption of Cotton—Use of Technical Education—Bead Chapter Six. CHAPTER I. ON YARNS. Gristing Yarn—’Diameter of Reel—Hants and Yards in one Spyndle—Yarn in Cope—Yarn on Beam—Yarn in Chain—How Spinners make an Average Number—Linen Yarn—Wool Yarn— The Scotch and English Reed—The Fineness of Cloth by Porters— A Uniform Standard—Calculation of Warps—Number of Ends in a Web—Warp in a Web—Short Method—The Shrinkage in Cloth —Calculation of Wefts—Short Method for finding the Quantity of Weft. CHAPTER II. WEAVING. Ancient Mode of Weaving, &c.—Winding Machine—Winding from Bobbins, Copes, and Hanks—Pirn Winding Machine—Im¬ provement in Plate for Winding Machine—Warping Mill— Warping by Power—Warping Striped Work—How to make the Patterns—Expanding Cylinders—Beaming Yarn, Dyed in Chain—Sizing—Dressing—Crank-Dressing Machines—Cylinder Machine—Setting the Reeds—How to make Dressing—Tape- Leg Dressing Machine—To Dress Dyed Yarns—Drawing or Entering the Web—Twisting—Draughts or Treading—Plain Cloth—Tweeling—Three Leaf Tweel—Herring Bone Tweel— Four Leaf Tweel—Sheeting Tweel—A Seven, Eight, and Nine Leaf Tweel—Blanket Tweel—Five Leaf Tweel for Damasks— Ten Leaf Fancy Tweel—Twelve Leaf Fancy Tweel—Sixteen VI CONTENTS. Leaf Satin Tweel—Diapers for Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, and Eight Leaves—Eight Leaf Diaper, with Fourteen Treads— Ten Leaf Diaper, with Thirty-six Treads. CHAPTER III. ON STARTING POWER-LOOMS. Starting Power-Looms—How to arrange and place the Looms —How to Level the Looms—Ho.w to find the Length of the Belt —Selecting the Shuttles—How to Pitch the Loom—Putting the Web in the Loom—How to find the proper Pinion for a given number of Shots. CHAPTER IV. POWER-LOOMS. On Power-Looms—The old Power-Loom at Pollokshaws—The advantage of its Uptaking Motion, and its Moveable Reed—An old Method for driving Power-Looms—Double Looms, Vertical and Horizontal—Their Advantages and Disadvantages for Two Webs—Two Webs in the Hand-Loom—Air Pump Pick—Weav¬ ing by Compressed Air—Common Power-Loom—Weft Stopper —Fly Reed—Bullough’s Specification—Remarks on Bullough’s Improvement—Fly Roll—Todd’s Loom—Float or Scob Preventer —Shuttles with Hooks or Cutters—A Contrivance for Changing the Shuttle—Articles about a Loom. CHAPTER V. DAMASK LOOMS. Check and Damask Power-Loom—.Watson’s Specification— Description of the Drawings—How the Jacquard gets its Motion —Form of Cam—Disengaging Apparatus—Mode of Working the Heddles—The Stenting Rollers—Selvage Protector—Shifting of the Shuttle Boxes—Taking back the Driver—Box Protector— Double Weft Stopper—Mounting a Harness Loom—Mails, Leads, Harness Twine—Slabstock—Harness or Hole Board—Standers— How to prepare the Harness—Tying up the Harness—Position of the Jacquard Machine—Adjusting the Jacquard Machine— Making Cloth—Pressure Harness Looms—How the figure is formed—How to find the Threads for each Mail—Drawing the Web—Mounting the Heddles—How to regulate the number of CONTENTS. Vll Shots for each Card—The use of the Stenting Rollers for Flax Yarn—Shedding a Pressure Harness—Power-Loom, with six Shuttles—Making Cloth Patterns—Hints for making Check Looms —Putting on the Check Pattern. CHAPTER VI. WOOL WEAVING. Wool—Weight of Yarn—The Spyndle—Scouring—Winding— Warping—Calculations of Warps—Horizontal Mill—Beaming from Warping Mill—Dressing or Sizing Substances for Sizing Wool Yarn, and how to use them—Heddles—Reeds for Wool —Looming the Web—Clear Shed—Remarks on Designing— England and France compared regarding Design—School for Weaving—Fine Arts in Scotland—Drawing from the Round— Drawing and Designing—Design Paper—Sketching—Articles used in Drawing—Selecting the Patterns—Taste—Saving in Cards—Table Covers—Split Harness—Tweeling and Plain Cloth —How to make Thick and Thin Cloth alternately with the Weft. CHAPTER VII. LAPPET AND GAUZE WEAVING, &c. Lappet Weaving, &c.—Imitation of Sewing—Embroidering Machine—Ground of Lappet Cloth—Different kinds of Whip— How Whip should be made—Calculations for Whip—Lappet Loom—Lappet Wheel—New kind of Lappet Wheel—Lappet Needles and Pins—Lappet Lay—Arranging the Frames and Needles—Best kinds of Lappet Looms—Starting a Lappet Web —Drop Lappets—Gauze Stripes—Gauze and Plain Cloth—Plain Gauze—Gauze made without Heddles—Jacquard Machine for working Gauze and Lappets—Needle Frames for Fancy Gauze— Sewing Frames for Looms—The Principle of Sewing Frames— Mode of working the Frames—Rack and Circle Frames—Tube or Bottle Sewing Frames—The Difficulties of applying the Sewing Frames to the Power-Loom. CHAPTER VIII. MOUNTING, &o- Mounting for Tweels, Diapers, &c.—How the Tweeling Shafts are Driven—Top Mounting for Three Leaves—Four Leaf Mount- Vlll CONTENTS. ing—Double Barrel—Mounting for Five Leaf Tweel—Traverse of Treadle—Diameter of Barrel—Tweeling Treadles—Mounting for a Six Leaf Tweel—Mounting for a Seven Leaf Tweel— Mounting for an Eight Leaf Tweel—Four Shots of Tweel and Plain alternately—Plain and Tweel Stripes in the Warp—Diaper and Plain Cloth—Mounting for a Ten Leaf Tweel—Mounting for a Twelve Leaf Tweel—Mounting for large Tweels—Mounting for a Sixteen Leaf Tweel—Mounting for Diapers—Mounting for Three Leaf Diapers—Mounting for Four Leaf Diapers—Mounting for Five, Six, Seven, and Eight Leaf Diapers—Mounting for Ten Leaf Diapers, with Thirty-six Treads—Jacquard Machine with¬ out Cards—Diced Work—Double Cloth Mounting—Tube Weav¬ ing—Inkle Loom—Bags woven without a Seam—Bed and Toilet Covers—To make Broad Cloth in a narrow Loom—Crumb-Cloths —Carpets, Plain and Tweel, with Weft Cords—Tape Checks made with one Shuttle. CHAPTER IX. CALCULATIONS, TABLES, &c. Costing Goods—Bating for Shirting—Bating for a Tape Check —Bating for a Blue and White Check—Form of Bating Book —Oncost Expenses—Cost per Loom for Fancy Dress Goods— Statement for Expenses for One Year—Charges for One Loom per Day—The Advantage of a Large Production—Manufacturers’, Warpers’, and Beamers’ Tables. CHAPTER X. MISCELLANEOUS. Miscellaneous Bemarks connected with Power-Loom Weaving —Erecting a New Factory—Situation—Size of the Mill—Arrange¬ ment—Steam Boilers—How to Keep the Boilers Clean—Water Indicator—Management of Furnaces—Smoke Burning—N ew Patent Furnace—Air Engine to Utilize the Water-Power—Steam Engines—Speed Indicator—Gearing—New Mode of Driving Looms without Belting—Calculations of Speeds—Speed of Engine—Speed of Shafts—Examples—Safety Valves—Quadrant —Colours—New Beaming Machine. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON ®Jrc ^rt of To discover the origin of Weaving would be rather a difficult task, and one that does not form part of our plan in this work ; our purpose being more to show its present state, and give a description of the latest improvements that have been made in the power-loom, than to go into a long history of its origin, although we believe that it would be both in¬ teresting and amusing if such a history had been kept, there being scarcely anything of more importance to the human family than the records of the arts of the preceding generations. However, we will give some of the remarks that can be found. But before doing so, we will give some statements about the origin of the power-loom. About the year 1809, in a factory at Pollokshaws (a place about three miles from Glasgow), a consider¬ able number of the original power-looms were started, and were still working in their primitive state in the year 1818, and for many years afterwards, without A 10 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON any alteration having been made upon them worth mentioning. But power-looms were working in another place before they were put up at Pollokshaws, which will be seen from the following remarks:— Mr. Bullough, one of the inventors of the motion for stopping the loom when the weft fails (that is the motion with the fork 7 now almost universal, the other plans being now superseded), was in Glasgow in the year 1845, and called upon me, when I was manager in Gilmour and Kerr’s, about some business in con¬ nection with his patents. He had brought with him from England an old man who had been long acquainted with power-looms, and as some of us in the trade felt interested in the old man, we resolved to give him some entertainment, such as a supper, which was done, along with a purse of sovereigns. The following is a copy of the circular we sent through the trade at the time:— 11 To the Poiver-Loom Masters , Managers , Teniers , and Dressers of Glasgow: u Gentlemen, 11 Perhaps it may not be generally known to you, that Andrew Kinloch, the first power-loom weaver in the world, is at present on a visit to Glas¬ gow, after a residence of forty-five years in England, to see two of his first apprentices in the power-loom trade, viz., Mr. Barclay, of James Finlay & Co.’s THE ART OF WEAVING. il Catrine Works, and Mr. Walter M‘Hutchison, man¬ ager of Wellington Factory. Andrew is now 85 years of age, having been born in Port-Glasgow in the year 1760. After leaving his native town, he, in 1793, with the assistance of an operative joiner and clockmaker, in Gallowgate Street, of our ain guid town, set up the first power-loom, with which—the propelling power being his own hand—he managed, after an outlay of one hundred guineas, to produce about 90 yards of cloth. This sum, we may explain, was jointly subscribed for the experiment by four members of the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce. Shortly afterwards, Andrew got the loom conveyed to Milton Printfield, at Dumbuck, where 40 looms on the same principle were erected under his special direction. These machines, with the exception of a few slight improvements, remain as they were, and at the present day may be seen working at Pollokshaws and Paisley. Andrew’s further history it will be unnecessary for us to relate; suffice it, that he left for England in the year 1800, and was employed in setting up similar looms in different towns in Lancashire. The first looms set up by him in England were at Staleybridge, near Man¬ chester. Fifteen of these in a short time were re¬ moved from that place to West Houghton, where they remained till the year 1812, when the hand-loom weavers of the neighbourhood, jealous of their interests being affected by the new invention, attacked the 12 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON factory and burned it to the ground, along with 170 looms and the other materials on the premises. Andrew, in detailing this circumstance, adds, that he believes the weavers would have burned himself had they got a hold of him. He has made other escapes besides this, having frequently been in danger of his life in different parts of England and Scotland. In this respect he may, therefore, to a certain extent, be esteemed a sufferer for the establishment of our trade—a trade which, at the present time, embraces the staple manufacture of our country, and from whence has been derived the princely fortunes of our richest merchants. “ Andrew, considering his years, is in the best of health ; but, like most other men who have introduced improvements for the benefit of mankind, he is by no means wealthy. He is contented and happy, however, and quaintly remarks, that perhaps if he had had £1000 a year to live upon, he would not have lived so long. Be this as it may, Andrew, in our opinion— for his many good qualities as an ingenious mechanic, as the first power-loom weaver in the world, and on account of his age and moral worth—is deserving of a token of respect from the masters, managers, tenters, and dressers of Glasgow ; and we, the undersigned, having taken the matter into consideration at a meet¬ ing held for the purpose, consider it our duty not to allow the opportunity to pass without appealing to you THE ART OP WEAVING. 13 as to the propriety of evidencing our regard for the power-loom veteran, by entertaining him to a public supper, and, if possible, presenting him with a sub¬ stantial mark of our esteem.—We are, gentlemen, your most obedient servants, John M'Bryde, manager of Nursery Mill, Chairman; David Brown, manager of Cogan’s Mill ; Daniel M‘Nab, manager of Hill Street Factory; John Watson, manager of Kerr & Gilmour’s Factory; William Sim, manager of Smith’s Factory, St. Rollox ; James Gibson, manager of Kelvinhaugh; Walter M'Hutchison, Wellington Factory; John Black, tenter, Clyde Bank; James Livingston, tenter, Smith’s Work, Townhead; John Foulds, tenter, Cook Street Factory; Robert Whitson, tenter, Corbett & Alex¬ ander’s Factory; William Muir, tenter, Nursery Mill; John Rae, dresser, Smith’s Work, St. Rollox; Hugh Kirkland, dresser, Cogan’s Factory, Graham Square ; James Brown, dresser, Burnbank Factory; James Aitken, manager, Cook Street Factory, treasurer; Thos. Richmond, 12, Stirling Square, secretary. U P.S.—As it is intended that the supper will be held on Wednesday, the 29th current, it is requested that persons having charge of subscription sheets will hand in the same on Saturday, the 25th current, from 6 to 9 evening, at Stenhouse’s Tavern, 8 Charlotte Street, so that the committee may make the necessary arrangements. “Glasgow, 20tli October, 1815.” 14 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON I have given the foregoing circular, because it con¬ tains nearly all I know, that can be depended upon, about the first power-looms. It will be seen that the art of weaving is very ancient from the following passages taken from the sacred volume:—Exodus xxxv. 25, “And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine linen.” 35, “ Them hath he filled with wisdom of heart, to work all manner of work, of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the embroiderer, in blue, and in purple, in scarlet, and in fine linen, and of the weaver, even of them that do any work, and of those that devise cunning work.” 1 Chronicles xi. 23, “And he slew an Egyptian, a man of great stature, five cubits high; and in the Egyptian’s hand was a spear like a weaver’s beam, and he went down to him w r ith a staff, and plucked the spear out of the Egyptian’s hand, and slew him with his own spear.” Job vii. 6, “My days are swifter than a weaver’s shuttle, and are spent without hope.” Many more passages from the sacred volume might be taken to show that the ancients were very well up to the art of weaving, although we do not understand the mode they had of doing it. It is evident they were able to make a great many kinds of figured work. It is frequently stated by writers, that weaving is one of the arts which furnishes one THE ART OF WEAVING-. 15 of the main distinctions between savage and civilized life. One says—“ For, though vve find finery and external adornment common to every people, yet comfortable clothing is almost exclusively confined to the inhabitants of those portions of the globe which are far advanced in civilization.” The Hindoos and Egyptians have been acquainted with weaving for thousands of years, and it is well- known, that the fabrics made in India were much valued, and yet they have made little or no improve¬ ment in their looms, although it appears that looms were originally invented in the East. One writer says, when speaking of the common forms of the loom, “that, simple as they are, they can yet be favourably contrasted with the rude contrivances still pursued in India, where the wretched weaver per¬ forms his labours in the open air, choosing his station under trees whose shade may protect him from the scorching rays of the sun. Here extending the threads which compose the warp of his intended cloth lengthways, between two bamboo rollers, which are fastened to the turf by wooden pins, he digs a hole in the earth large enough to contain his legs when in a sitting posture, then, suspending to a branch of a tree the cords which are intended to cause the recip¬ rocal raising and depressing of the alternate threads of his warp, he fixes underneath and connected with the cords two loops, into which, inserting the great 1G INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON toe of either foot, he is ready to commence his opera¬ tions. The shuttle with which he causes the cross¬ threads or woof to interlace the warp is in form like the netting needle, and being somewhat longer than the breadth of the warp, is made to perform the office of a baton, by striking the threads of the woof close up to each other.” With this rude apparatus the patient Hindoo suc¬ ceeds in weaving fabrics which, for delicacy of texture, cannot be surpassed, and can scarcely be rivalled by the European weaver, even when his labours are aided by the most elaborate machinery. But it is only in climates where the absolute natural wants of men are few, and under systems of government, where the oppressions of the dominant caste deprive the unhappy bulk of the people of all means for obtaining more than suffices for the barest supply of those wants, that such labour can be performed. An American writer gives the following on the antiquity of weaving; and we leave the reader to form his own opinion of it:— u £ It appears/ says His Holiness, Pope Alexander VI., ‘ that the world was first indebted to one Arkite Gliiden Ghelen, an extremely ingenious artisan of Nodville, for the first regularly manufactured piece of cloth ever produced on the surface of this terrestrial globe ; and, although it was akin to what we at this day and generation call matting, and produced by THE ART OF WEAVING. 17 twisting and interlacing leaf stems and fibres together, yet the workmanship cannot he surpassed by the best manufacturers of Bolton cloths of the present day. From this it would appear that His Holiness had a sample of the cloth actually in his possession. Per¬ haps, sewing the fig leaves, as mentioned in the Book of Genesis, has reference to the same process. (i 1 An obvious improvement on the garment of leaves,’ proceeds His Holiness, c which was suggested by twisting the peel of rushes into fine strings, by which means superior textures were produced; but this improvement was not adopted generally, in the part of the country of which we speak, till after the death of Methuselah. It did not escape the notice of the mat weavers, that their work was rendered more flexible and agreeable to the wearer (particularly for under¬ garments), by the use of a finer fibre, and accordingly we find that numerous trials were actually made with the fibres of various kinds of plants, such as those of the hemp and flax species.’ u It is curious how the descendants of our first parents obtained the knowledge of spinning flax into thread. We are credibly informed that it was by supernatural agency. We are indeed told by C. G. G., a learned metaphysician of Oxford, that a tradition exists in England which goes far to prove that spin¬ ning was first effectually practised in that country ; but we disregard such testimony, as we have found B 18 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON the true and original story from which C. G. G.’s one is evidently copied.- This discovery we have made in the collection of Sir Henry Hunlock, and we think it right to give his version, which is as follows:— u 1 There was once an old woman and her daughter who lived at the side of a hill (not under a hill as the Oxonian would fain have it), in the midst of a forest, near Nodville. They were very poor, and their only support was obtained from selling the thread which the daughter spun with her spindle and distaff. During the long winter, when the roads were so bad that mer¬ chants of the surrounding nations could not come to purchase the thread, the daughter, who was one of the most lovely creatures on earth, worked without cessa¬ tion, in order that she might have enough of thread when the spring market came, to enable her to purchase a cloak for her mother and a scarlet shawl for herself, in order that they might be properly attired while attending their devotions. (Where these shawls and cloaks were manufactured, is a question for hierologists to solve.) “‘It so happened that the king of that country, whose name was Zannkul K. Euzen, had an only son, who, while out one day deer-liunting, went astray in the forest of Akiel, and called at the widow’s cottage to inquire the way. He was greatly struck with the girl’s beauty, and not less with the numerous hanks of yarn which lay upon the floor of the cottage, and THE ART OF WEAVING. 19 equally attested her skill and industry. He asked how it happened that she had collected such an immense pile, and the old woman, whose name was Zabozok, replied that her daughter had spun the whole in a week. 1 In a week ! ’ exclaimed the astonished prince; ‘ if this he true, I have found a 1 gal ’ more worthy of my attachment than any other in the whole country. I will send you a load of flax, and if she has it done by the end of a week, I will, without any other proof of her merit, choose her as my bride ; but if not, I will have you both cut in pieces and thrown to the cormorants and loons, for deceiving the son of your sovereign.’ u 1 On the very next day, a long train of camels, laden with flax, stood before the door of the cottage, and the drivers, having unloaded them, told the girl that she must spin this quantity in a week, or prepare for death. When they departed, her poor heart was crushed with despair. She, however, was unwilling to reproach her mother, even by a look, but she went into the forest, and sitting down under a tree began bitterly to bewail her sad fate. While she was thus weeping and lamenting, a decrepit old man came up, and in¬ quired the cause of her tears, and in reply she told him the whole story. 1 Ho not weep, daughter,’ he said, c I will execute every one of the tasks imposed upon you by the prince, provided you will either give me your eldest son when he is twelve months and a 20 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON day old, or that you shall, in the intervening time, find out my name.’ She agreed at once to the terms. The old man, by some mysterious agency, conveyed away the flax, and about an hour before the time ap¬ pointed for the prince’s arrival (which was half-past five o’clock in the morning), returned with the finest and best twisted thread that had ever been seen in Nodville. The prince, according to his promise, married the girl, and conveyed her with her mother to the palace, which stood upon a beautiful rising piece of ground about a quarter of a mile from the city, and overlooking it. (This palace must have been a very magnificent building, as it cost rather more than eleven and a quarter talents of gold.) “ ‘ Every Monday morning, before sunrise, the prince gave out to his beloved the quantity of flax which he expected to be spun during the week, and every Saturday night the yarn was made ready for him by the mysterious old man. At length the princess be¬ came the mother of a beautiful boy, and the thoughts of the bargain she ha.d made almost drove her to distraction. Every effort she made to discover the name of the wonderful spinner utterly failed, and he, at every visit, reminded her that the time was near when he would have the right to claim her child. “ ‘One evening, as she sat oppressed with melan¬ choly, her husband, who had just returned from hunt¬ ing, inquired the cause of her sadness, but she was THE ART OF WEAVING. 21 unable to answer him a word. 1 Come, my love,’ said he, 1 do not be cast down, and I will entertain you with an account of a very surprising incident which occurred to me this very day. I lost my way while pursuing a fine stag, which ran towards the great rocks beyond the forest. While searching for his lurking place, I thought I heard a human voice, and following the direction of the sound, came to a cave, where I saw an old man, who did not notice my approach, so deeply was he engaged in a strange sort of labour; he was spinning, not as you do with the clistatf, but with wheels which flew round as rapidly as lightning, and gave out thread like water falling from a mountain torrent, and all the while he never ceased singing :— ‘ My mistress, little she knows my name, Which shan’t be forgot, which shan’t be forgot, When a prince as heir to the fortune I claim, Of Wallotty Trot, Wallotty Trot. I come at the end of a year and a day, And take the young prince, my heir, away. With my whack! she goes ! While nobody knows, My trusty machine, In this cave unseen, Here is the spot For Wallotty Trot. “ ‘ The princess made her husband repeat the rhymes several times, until she was sure that she could remember them perfectly, and wmited with confidence for the return of the old man. He came at the appointed time, and claimed the child. 1 Stop, 22 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON neighbour,’ said she, 1 there goes another word to that bargain. I have found out your name; it is Wallotty Trot.’ 1 You have, indeed, detected my name,’ said he, ‘ and my business on earth is well nigh finished; but before I depart I am bound to tell you the secrets of my art.’ So saying, he went into the forest, and in a few seconds returned with his wheels. He then taught the lady their use, showing her that she could spin sixty-six times more with them than she could accomplish by means of the distaff, and then vanished, after which he was never again seen in that part of the world. “ ‘ The prince and princess taught this new branch of industry to their subjects, which so enriched them that all the surrounding nations regarded them with envy and admiration.’ “These wheels are of similar construction to those introduced into Great Britain by Samuel Crompton, which are known by the appellation of the ‘ hall-in- the-wood ’ machine. It is unnecessary for us to give drawings and descriptions of them; Mr. Baines of Leeds, and Dr. Ure of London, in their histories of the progress of the cotton manufacture in Great Britain, having already done so. u After the death of Methuselah, the art of weaving appears to have made considerable advances in many parts of the East, and particularly in China, India, and Persia. The first loom of which there is any THE AET OE WEAVING. 23 authentic record still in existence is that invented by Arkite Ghiden Ghelen, when a lad of about seventy years of age; and after having been at great trouble and expense, we have succeeded in procuring a draw¬ ing of it, copied from an ancient parchment scroll, found among the curiosities of Sesac, founder of the Egyptian dynasty (who reigned thirty-four years); but from the dilapidated state of the document, and the draughtsman (Alexis Kersivenus of Alexandria) not being a weaver himself, we fear it is not in every particular like the original. This scroll appears, from indorsements on its back, to have been once in the possession of the Emperor of China, Teling Ching Ouang, from whom it descended to Chao Kong-hi-hi, his successor. “From this representation the loom was of a verti¬ cal construction, and seems to have been chiefly applied to the manufacture of plaids and chequers, the patterns of which were most probably suggested by the interlacing of bark or stripes of broad-leaved plants. Indeed, the modern plaids so obviously re¬ present this origin of their patterns, that no one, except the most sceptical, can for a moment doubt the correctness of this opinion. “ The process of weaving in this loom must have been very tedious, and of course the fabrics pro¬ duced would be expensive in the same proportion. The inventor does not appear to have been acquainted 24 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON with any instrument analogous to the shuttle, for we find from the perusal of accidental records (imperfect as they certainly are), that some weavers drew the weft through the web with their fingers, and others used an implement somewhat like a knitting needle, but having a hook at one end, similar to the crook of a shepherd’s staff, which doubtless insinuated the first idea of that most useful instrument.” There is no very reliable authority to tell us of the different kinds of implements (mountings) used by the ancients in weaving the different kinds of figured cloth, the only description being that of the Indian loom; and we shall now proceed to show the progress it has made in our own country. When weaving was first introduced into Great Britain the exact date is not known, but it appears, from what we can gather from history, that there was a considerable number of weavers in London in the year 1351. Twelve years previous to the above date, in the city of Bristol, which is 118 miles west of London, we find looms started for weaving woollen cloth ; very likely these looms were put up by for¬ eigners, as England was frequently invaded previous to this period. It will be seen from early history, that the inhabi¬ tants, who had settled near the sea-coast, possessed some property, and were therefore more easily inti¬ midated than those tribes that were dispersed through THE ART OP WEAVING. 25 the forest. None of them cultivated the ground; they all lived by raising cattle and hunting. Their dress consisted of skins; their habitations were huts made of wicker-work and coarse rushes ; their priests, the Druids, together with the sacred women, exercised a kind of authority over them. We find the following letter, which was written by one of the kings about the year 1030, from which will be seen that many foreigners must have been in England. In it mention is made of rich mantles and garments being given as presents. Part of this letter is given, not for anything it con¬ tains concerning weaving, but to show the strong probability that this country was first indebted to foreigners for this art, as we see from the letter, that the king himself was on friendly terms with them. “ Canute, King of all Denmark, England, and Norway, and part of Sweden, to Egelnoth, the Metro¬ politan, to Archbishop Alfric, to all the Bishops and Chiefs, and to all the nation of the English, both Nobles and Commoners, greeting: I write to inform you that I have lately been at Rome, to pray for the remission of my sins, and for the safety of my king¬ doms, and of the nations that are subject to my sceptre. It is long since I bound myself by vow to make this pilgrimage, but I have been hitherto pre¬ vented by affairs of state and other impediments. Now, however, I return humble thanks to the c 26 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON Almighty God, that He has allowed me to visit the tombs of the blessed Apostles, Peter and Paul, and every holy place within and without the city of Rome, and to honour and venerate them in person. And this I have done, because I had learned from my teachers that the Apostle St. Peter received from the Lord the great power of binding and loosing, with the keys of the kingdom of heaven; on this account I thought it highly useful to solicit his patronage with God. “Be it moreover known to you, that there was at the festival of Easter a great assemblage of noble personages, with the Pope John and the Emperor Conrad, namely, all the chiefs of the nations, from Mount Gargano to the nearest sea, who all received me honourably, and made me valuable presents; but particularly the emperor, who gave me many gold and silver vases, with rich mantles and garments. I therefore took the opportunity to treat with the pope, the emperor, and the prince, on the grievances of my people, both English and Danes, that they might enjoy more equal law, and more secure safeguard in their way to Rome, nor be detained at so many barriers, nor harassed by unjust exactions. My de¬ mands were granted both by the Emperor and by King Rodulf, to whom the greater part of the barriers belongs, and it was enacted by all the princes, that my men, whether pilgrims or merchants, should, for THE ART OF WEAVING. 27 the future, go to Rome and return in full security, without detention at the barriers, or the payment of unlawful tolls.” At the time the above letter was written, the inhabitants of Britain who wore woven clothing must have got it from the East, or the Continental nations; but when we pass on to the year 1376, we find woollen cloth made in Ireland, and a company of linen weavers established in London ten years after¬ wards. North-west from London 262 miles, stands Kendal, a borough town, which has long been cele¬ brated for its woollen manufacture, and mention is made of its coarse cloth as far back as the year 1390, and from the spirit and industry of its inhabitants, they have continued to flourish ever since; they have now mills established for both spinning and weaving. We now pass on to Manchester, the great centre of the cotton manufacture, and we find in the year 1641, the merchants of that place buying linen yarn from the Irish in great quantities, and getting it woven into cloth, and then returning the cloth to Ireland to be sold. In the year 1685, Louis XIV. revoked an edict which was issued by Henry IV., in the year 1598, the effect of which was that many foreign weavers came to Great Britain at this time, all adding to the industry of the country. Many other incidents might be taken notice of, but we will pass on to the 28 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON factory period, and we preface our remarks with a quotation from Dr. Ure :— u How different is the spirit of modern philosophy since it was first directed into the path of utility by Galileo, Bacon, Pascal, and Newton. It places its chief delight and honour in investigating the relations of number, figure, and all material substances, in order to apply the resulting discoveries, to assuage the evils and to multiply the enjoyments of social life. In its modern familiarity with the sublimest of speculations, that of the equilibrium and movements of the celestial bodies, mechanical science does not, however, disdain to study the most humble machine of manufacturing industry, and, indeed, may hold many of them up to the admiration of the transcen- dentalist, as the happiest achievements of the human mind. Should any one ask where, let him enter a cotton factory and look around.” We enter the factory and look around, and we first make inquiries as to age, and obtain answers which satisfy us that the factory system is little more than eighty years old; then we observe the fine arrangement of the different machines connected with power-loom weaving, the mode of working them, the regularity of their management, &c., which things constitute the principal theme of this volume; we allow the mind to contemplate the great number of different tradesmen that are required, and the amount THE ART OF WEAVING. 29 of labour that is spent before these machines can be made. It gives a kind of pleasure in making a con¬ trast between our loom of the present day and that of the Hindoos, which has been explained. Before one of these factories, with a thousand looms, can be put into operation, it will have given employment to more than one thousand individuals for more than six months, at the rate of three shillings per day for each individual. The parties who receive this employment are coal, iron, lead, and copper miners; labourers, brickmakers, bricklayers, plasterers, slaters, sawyers joiners, glaziers, glassmakers, nailers, millwrights, engineers, boilermakers, machine-makers, gasfitters, tinsmiths, and a whole host of others; indeed, it would be difficult to mention any kind of employment that does not get part of the money put out on the erection of a factory. Before the power-loom was brought into operation, the weaving power of this country was a mere drop in the bucket compared to what it is at the present day; indeed, it is within the last forty years that power-loom weaving has been brought to that extent that it could be called a trade, and now it is one of the most important in the kingdom. What has brought the power-loom trade to its present extent, must be attributed to a number of circumstances; for the power-loom would have been of little use, had not the invention of the spinning jenny taken place, which 30 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON was about 85 years ago; and neither the spinning nor the weaving machinery would have arrived at their present magnitude, had not the steam-engine been brought to their aid; while many other im¬ provements in the other arts have contributed to ad¬ vance the power-loom trade. It may also be stated, that had it not been for the industry of the people, and the security that capital has in this country, the power-loom trade could never have arrived at its present greatness. For unless capital is protected in such a manner that there is a fair chance of it being made profitable, by it being invested in business, it will not be employed where the chance does not exist; and the work-people should consider this subject more than they have done in many cases, before they make a turn out, leaving the whole machinery stand¬ ing idle; for what is the interest of the employer, is also the interest of the employed. We have felt a degree of diffidence in making this statement, knowing well the opinion that once existed among some work¬ men; but when a good feeling exists between the employer and his workers, both parties are benefited by it. The reason is obvious without explanation. - The weaving of cotton goods being the most exten¬ sive in this country, a very good idea may be formed of the progress of the power-loom from the quantity of cotton consumed at different periods. The time was when there was only a few bags of THE AKT OF WEAVING. 31 cotton consumed in Great Britain, but we will not go further back than the year 1822. The quantities will be given in bales, considering each bale to average 440 lbs., which is about the average weight at the present time, although the average weight was little more than the half of this in the year 1822; how¬ ever, this is taken into consideration in our calculations; and it appears that in 1822, the number of bales (at an average of 440 lbs.) were 330,564. The next year we take is 1825, and the increase over 1822 is 48,256 bales, which gives for that year 378,820 bales. The year 1826 was a very bad year for the cotton workers, as a great many of them were out of employment, and consequently for that year the consumption is considerably less than the four years previously; but in 1827 trade revives, and the con¬ sumption increases. As prices may have had some¬ thing to do with the increase, we will give the extreme prices for the years 1825, 1826, and 1827, of the three principal kinds of cotton, namely :—Surat, Uplands, and New Orleans, which are as follows :— Price of Surat Cotton for 1825, . 5|cl- to 16d. per lb. — Uplands — — . 6d. — 19|-d. — — New Orleans — — . 8d. — 22d. — — Surat — for 1826, . 4Jd. — 7d. — — Uplands — — . 5|d. — 8fd. — — New Orleans — — . 5fd. — ll|d. — — Surat — for 1827, . 3fd. — 6£d. — — Uplands — — . 4|d. — 7f d. — — New Orleans — — . 5|d. — 9-|-d. — 32 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON It will be observed that the prices for 1825 are high and very irregular, and that in 1826 and 1827 the prices are lower and more regular. The increase of consumption in 1827 over 1825 is 80,652 bales, the whole number of bales consumed being 459,472 bales. In 1829 the consumption is 508,040 bales, and the prices are as follows :— Price of Surat Cotton in 1829, . 2|d. to 5Jd per lb. — Uplands — — 4|d. — 7d. -— — New Orleans — — 4fd. — 9d. — We noAv pass on to 1832, and find the consumption to be 629,928 bales, which is nearly double the quan¬ tity that was required for the year 1822. The year 1833, the quantity consumed is rather less; but it comes up again in 1834. The following are the lowest prices for 1822 and 1832 :— Lowest Price of Surat Cotton in 1822, . 5|d. per lb. — — Uplands — — . 5fd. — — — New Orleans — . 6d. — — — Surat — in 1832, . 3|d. — — — Uplands — — . 5d. — — — New Orleans — . 5^d. — The price of cotton is higher in the year 1835, yet the consumption is greater than any year previous, it being 715,520 bales. The following are the extreme prices for the year 1835 :— Price of Surat Cotton, for 1835, . 6d. to 9d. per lb. — Uplands — — . 6|d. — i3£d. — — New Orleans— — . 6|d. — 14id. — THE ART OF WEAVING. 33 About this period many thought that cotton goods were being produced in too great quantities, and that ere long there must be a reaction; but instead of this, their production is still more and more. About ten years after this period we find the consumption of cotton, instead of 715,520 bales, to be about 1,064,000 bales per annum, showing the consumption to be more than double what it was in 1835, and it still goes on increasing, for we find at the present time, 1872, the consumption to be about 2,596,000 bales, about eight times more than what it was in 1822. When the American crop of cotton alone is seen to be upwards of 4,000,000 bales, independent of all the other places that send us cotton, the quantity used in Great Britain at first sight does not seem very large, until we calculate the quantity of cloth the 2,596,000 bales of cotton will make, then it appears very different. Suppose the yarn spun to average No. 40’s, and the cloth to average 10 00 , with 10 shots 36 inches wide, and allowing 20 per cent, for waste on the cotton, and 4 per cent, on the yarn, the cloth woven from the 2,596,000 bales of cotton would be 8,122,595,554 yards, or about 270 yards of cotton cloth per annum for each individual in Great Britain and Ireland, or about ten yards for each person in the world. Although this quantity of yarn is spun in Great Britain, it is not to be understood that it is all made into cloth by 34 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON the looms in this country, for rather more than one- sixth part of it is exported. But to counterbalance this exportation of cotton yarns, there are thousands of looms, both hand and power, that are employed weaving linen, woollen, silk, and jute yarns. How long the weaving trade in this country will continue increasing as it has done, is a question no one can answer, as it is liable to be affected by so many unforeseen circumstances, that it is almost im¬ possible to predict, with anything like certainty, what may be the condition of it a few years hence; but supposing there are no national struggles or commotions, and still heavier taxation, things which cannot be foreseen nor calculated upon, we do not think that there is anything in our condition, or in that of any of the manufacturing countries of the world, that should lead us to anticipate a reaction in the weaving trade for a long time. The natural capabilities possessed by this country for carrying on the business (all things considered) are decidely superior to those of any other people. And the superiority to which we have already arrived is perhaps the greatest advantage in our favour, and so long as this superiority can be kept up to that degree as will enable this country to make goods cheaper than any other, the probability is, that in other ten years after this the consumption of cotton will be at least 800,000 bales more per annum than what it is at present, THE ART OF WEAVING. 35 which will then make the consumption to be about 3,500,000 bales. However, we will state what has been written by another bearing on this subject. At the time when our consumption of cotton was about 600,000 bales, the following remarks regarding the cotton trade were made by Dr. Ure. At this time there was a duty on cotton of 5-16ths of a penny per lb. We state this, so as the remarks will be better understood. Ci The superior skill and dexterity of British opera¬ tives have been assumed as constituting one of our chief advantages. Their experience must no doubt be more extended, in proportion as the range and variety of British fabrics are greater than those of any other country; but in such goods as the foreigners carry into neutral markets, the superiority of the British operatives is a point by no means decided. Manufacturers of the United States, and of some parts of the Continent, claim for those employed by them at least an equality within the sphere of their own productions, and to which their competition with the fabrics of Great Britain is necessarily limited. The late remarkable ingenuity of the American artisans, in their mechanical improvements, gives no counten¬ ance to the notion of their inferiority. u The impolicy of the import tax on cotton wool is so glaring as hardly to require illustration. A tax on the raw materials of such manufactures as are princi- 36 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON pally consumed within the United Kingdom, would be comparatively harmless; but since two-thirds at least of British cotton goods are exported, a tax upon their raw material operates as a bounty upon the cotton manufactures of other nations. Where duties have been imposed on importation, as in the case of sugars, wines, spirits, &c., a corresponding drawback on their exportation has been always allowed; yet cotton, as if undeserving of fiscal justice, has been, ever since the year 1798, persecuted with a series of imposts, in twelve successive rates, all tending to turn the balance in favour of our foreign rivals in that trade. No government, except our own, possessing any pretensions to the title of enlightened, lays a tax upon the import of cotton wool, which is not counter¬ vailed by an equivalent drawback on exportation. The peculiar pressure of the competition in America is upon those coarse yarns and heavy cloths, for the production of which it possesses the advantages of an indigenous raw material, unencumbered with taxation, and procured at the minimum cost of carriage. The spinning also of the Continent of Europe has been hitherto directed principally to the coarse numbers of yarns, which are worked up into heavy fabrics, and with the effect of depriving this country of almost all European customers whom she not long ago supplied. “The very existence of this country depends on THE ART OF WEAVING. 37 retaining an ascendancy in the cotton manufacture, as the principal means of enabling her to sustain the enormous burden of taxation accumulated by the war¬ funding system. Were Great Britain as free from taxes as the States of America or the Continent of Europe, she might surrender to them a share of her cotton trade without suffering any national mis¬ fortune; but she has nothing to spare without in¬ volving her people in distress, and her public credit in jeopardy.” Since Dr. Ure wrote the foregoing about British manufactures, many changes have taken place in the cotton trade, and the duty on cotton, and a number of other articles, has been abolished; and the Con¬ tinental nations have been making strong efforts to compete with Britain in the manufacture of all tex¬ tile fabrics. Indeed, many of our manufacturers think that we are losing ground for want of a proper system of education being given to our work-people— more especially a technical education —and there is not the least doubt but that we are fast losing our position, for want of that system of training which France, Germany, and other nations have adopted. There is a desire in all nations to be first in what¬ ever they produce, that they may be able to hold a large share of the trade that is doing in the world. To be able to do so, there are many things which have to be taken into consideration ; but the greatest 38 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. tiling of all is the labour of the workmen, for the workmen have it in their power to drive the trade entirely out of the country. And if our work-people were to take the advice of some men, it would not take a very long time to do it; but it is well for themselves, and the nation at large, that they do not. These are subjects which might be greatly enlarged upon, but it is not our intention to enter into them in the present work. THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ®fjt ^rl 0f McsiMiit). CHAPTER I. GRISTING YARN. This chapter will be found to contain a number of calculations and observations that are necessary for Manufacturers and Managers in the Weaving Trade. It may be remarked that almost every substance that can be made to answer for warp or weft is now woven for some purpose or other; and as cotton yarn is the most common material now used in this country, we will begin with it; and we may mention that the same principle that applies to the calculating of cotton yarns applies to all the others, (that is a given number of yards of yarn in a given quantity of cloth), and how to find that we give the following remarks:— To find the grist or fineness of yarn, it was necessary to have some rule or standard to go by; and for cotton yarn it has been adopted in Great Britain and other countries where it is bought and sold, to have 15,120 yards in the spyndle, the yard being 36 inches; and 40 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF cotton spinners in this country all keep to the same measurement for the size of the reel, which is 54 inches in circumference, and eighty turns of the reel make one skein—this is the first shift made on the reel, and seven of these shifts make a number or hank. It is from the quantity of numbers contained in 1 lb. avoirdupois that the size of the yarn is determined; so that, when the yarn is said to be No. 50’s, there are 50 numbers or hanks in 1 lb.; when No. 60’s, there are 60 hanks ; when 70’s, 70 hanks, and so on. For every hank more in the lb., one number finer. The usual way for taking the size or grist of yarn, is to have a small reel for the purpose, and take seven copes, or bobbins, as the case may be, and give the reel eighty turns. This will make one hank at once. There is a wheel attached to the reel, with eighty teeth, to give an alarm when the reel has made eighty turns. When it is desirable to be very particular, eighteen hanks can be reeled which will make one spyndle, and, for the finer yarns, if it is wished to be more particular still, wind as many hanks as there should be in 1 lb. However, this will be made plainer as we proceed. The common way yarn is reeled is as follows:— 120 yards 1 skein. 840 “ 7 “ 1 No. or hank. 15,120 “ 126 “ 18 “ 1 spyndle, and put up in 10 or 5 lb. bundles to be sold. It will easily be seen then, by counting the No.’s in the THE ART OF WEAVING. 41 bundle, whether the proper sizes of yarn are given or not, by multiplying the weight of the bundle by its numbers. For example, a 10 lb. bundle of 36’s should have 360 hanks or numbers, because 36 x 10 = 360. A 5 lb. bundle of 60’s should have 300 No.’s, as 60 x 5 = 300. Cotton yarn is also sold in large quantities in cope, and on beams, and also in chains. The way to find the size of the yarn in copes, is to take 7 of them, and reel 1 skein off each, which will make 1 number, and weigh it, either on a quadrant, or small beam and scale for the purpose, and from this the size of the yarn will be found. YARN ON BEAM. To find the size of yarn when on beam, take off 80 ends 54 inches long—this will make 1 skein ; but it will be more exact to take 560 ends, 54 inches, and this will make 1 No., then weigh it to find the size; or, to make sure to find the size of the whole yarn that is on the beam, ascertain the weight of all the yarn that is on the beam, or beams; and after they are dressed, ascertain the number of yards they have run, then calculate according to the directions given to find the size of yarn in a chain. This is the most 42 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF correct method, because the yarn at the beginning of a beam may not be the same size throughout the beam or beams, as many of them have upwards of 7000 yards put on them. YARN IN CHAIN. To find the size of the yarn in a chain, take the whole chain and weigh it, ascertain the number of ends that are in the chain, also the length of it, and the hanks will be found from the length and number of ends; then divide the hanks by the lbs., and the answer will be the size of the yarn. Suppose a chain is 8 lbs., and has 846 ends, and is 284 yards long: then 846 x 284 is 240,264 ; divide by 840, and the answer is 286, the numbers in the chain: this divided by 8, the weight of the chain in lbs. is 35|, being the size of the yarn. EXAMPLE. 846 Ends 284 3384 6768 1692 240264 THE AET OF WEAVING. 43 8 840)240264(286-02 1680 - - 35f 7226 6720 5064 5040 2400 1680 720 840 It may be remarked here that the yarn bought in cope, chain, or beam, is in general from 3 to 6 per cent, coarser than the size ordered; this should not be, but still it is the case. Some spinners are more in the habit of spinning coarse than others, but it would be better to keep to the average size, and charge a little more per lb. for the yarn. It is well- known that it is almost impossible to keep the proper size in spinning, as there are so many things to con¬ tend with that alter the sizes; but suppose that 60’s is the number wanted, it might range from 57’s to 63’s, and the average would be 60’s; and to keep any of the yarn from being too soft spun, a twist pinion for 63’s should be put on, for if the twist was for 60’s, then the yarn that sized 63’s would be too soft. When yarn is bought in bundle, the proper length is 44 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF given, and no more than the weight in lbs.; this is managed by spinning average No.’s in the following manner:— Suppose a spinner is selling 40’s in bundle (as be¬ fore observed), the proper length must be in every bundle, as the buyer will not pay for more than 10 lbs., and must have both the weight and the length. When the party who has the charge of the sizes sees only 38’s, then he has to get as much spun of No. 42’s, and mix the two sizes in equal quantities to make them average 40’s. If this was attended to by the spinners, the weavers would have less difficulty in keeping the cloth to the proper weight, and the calculations for it would be more correct. The same principle of calculations apply to all the other kinds of yarn; as before observed, the main thing to know is, the number of yards contained in a given weight, and how the particular kind of yarn is sized. LINEN YARN. This yarn is spun from flax, and should be reeled (according to an Act of Parliament) on a reel 90 inches in circumference, and 120 turns of the reel will make 1 cut, and 48 cuts 1 spyndle. As 90 inches is 2J yards, multiply the 120 by 2J, and the product by 48, which will give the yards in a spyndle. THE AET OE WEAVING. 45 EXAMPLE. 120 x 21 H 240 60 300 x 48 48 2400 1200 14400 yards in a spyndle. But the spyndle is divided into other parts besides the above, as will be seen from the following table:— Cut. Heer. Hesp. Spyndle. 1 0 0 0 300 yards. 2 1 0 0 600 “ 24 12 1 0 7200 “ 48 24 2 1 14400 “ or 300 yards, 600 “ 7200 “ 14400 “ Cut. Heer. Hesp. Spyndle. 1 0 0 0 2 10 0 24 12 1 0 48 24 2 1 The fineness of linen yarn should be found from the number of cuts in the lb. avoirdupois. If there be 25 cuts in 1 lb., that is No. 25’s; if 50 cuts, No. 50’s, and so on, for every cut more in the lb., one number finer; but the fineness is expressed in different places by different terms; however, it would be better to have one common scale, and the number of cuts in 46 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 1 lb. of 16 oz. is considered the best; and it will also be observed that No. 48 linen yarn is equal in weight to No. 18’s cotton, because there are 48 cuts of No. 48’s in 1 lb. of linen yarn, and 18 hanks in 1 lb. of No. 18’s cotton yarn, and 1 spyndle in both: the cotton spyndle has 15,120 yards, and the linen has 14,400, making a difference of 720 yards; but as linen yarn has less elasticity than cotton, 1 spyndle of linen will make as many inches of cloth as 1 spyndle of cotton yarn, unless it be woven tighter than what is com¬ monly the case in weaving cotton. I wish it to be understood that these remarks about linen yarn having less elasticity than cotton, and that a given length of linen yarn will weave more cloth than the same length of cotton, that is, it is owing to the cotton shrinking more after it is woven, and that more especially in the weft. But it may be that the warp of a cotton web, in the weaving, may be stretched as much as to come out as long as linen, but the linen cannot be stretched to the same degree, because of it not being so elastic as cotton. The shrinkage in the warps will depend on the wefting. WOOL YARN. Wool yarn is spun from the short fibres of the fleece that is taken from the animal, and worsted yarn from the long staple. They are reeled on different sizes of THE ART OF WEAVING. 47 reels; the wool is in general reeled on the 54 inch reel, and has 18 hanks to the spyndle, but is one-third heavier than cotton yarn :—For example, 1 lb. of 18’s wool yarn has only 12 hanks, 840 yards long; and 1 lb. 18’s cotton has 18 hanks. Worsted yarn is sometimes reeled on the short reel, and sometimes on the long one, and is sold by the gross, a gross being 144 hanks. THE REED. The reed is a very important article in weaving, it divides the warp threads, and may also determine the fineness of the cloth, but a coarse web may be made in a fine reed, and a fine web may be made in a coarse reed, consequently, it is really the number of warp threads contained in a given space, that deter¬ mines the fineness of the cloth or web. For example, a 6 00 web can be made in a 12 00 reed, by putting only 1 thread in the split; and a 24 00 can be made in the same reed, by putting 4 threads in the split; or an 18 00 , by putting 3 in the split. However, the common practice is to put 2 threads in the split, and when speaking about the fineness of a web, it is always understood that 2 threads are in the split; but in other localities there are different scales or rules by which they name the fineness of the web. 48 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF In Scotland, the reeds are almost all made on the 37 inch scale, which was frequently called the Scotch ell. What is meant by the 37 inch scale is, the number of splits contained in 37 inches; if there are 300 splits contained in 37 inches, that reed is called a three hundred (marked 3 00 ); if 600, it is called 6 00 ; or if 1200 are in the 37 inches, it is called a 12 00 , and so on; for every 100 splits more, it is 1 set finer. By the common web glass used in Scotland, the fineness of the reed may be ascertained by counting the number of splits that are seen through the hole in it, when placed upon the reed; if 5 splits are seen, it is a 10 00 ; if 6 splits, a 1200, and so on; the measure¬ ment of the hole is contained 200 times in 37 inches, so by multiplying the number of splits seen through the glass by 200, the fineness of the reed will be found. EXAMPLE. Seven splits multiplied by 200 is a 1400 reed. But when the glass is placed upon cloth, and 7 threads of the warp are seen, it is a 7 00 , or if 12 threads are seen, it is a 12 00 , and so on, for every thread more, 100 finer. In England, the splits are called dents, and many of the reeds are rated by the number of splits contained in 1 inch, which is more simple than the Scotch scale for calculating warps, and their glasses are made with two spaces, of half, and quarter of an THE ART OF WEAVING. 49 inch. If the half-inch glass is used, and 25 threads are seen, it is called a 50, or if 36 threads are seen, it is called a 72, and so on. In some places the fineness of the web is named by porters, as a 25 porter, a 30 porter, and so on; the meaning of this is, that 20 splits or 40 threads are called a porter (and some keep to this yet), so that a 25 porter is equal to a 5 00 , because 25 x 40 = 1000 ends. 40 Threads in a Split 2)1000 500 Web. A 30 porter is equal to a 6°°, and every 5 porters 100 finer on the 37 inch scale. It is hoped that enough has been said to make the principle understood, how the fineness of a web is to be found, as it would be too tedious to give all the rules used in the differ¬ ent localities where weaving is carried on j it would however be better, if one scale for the reed was adopted by all the manufacturers throughout the country, and as an inch is a measurement of very general use, it might be made the standard, and the inch scale would answer for all the variety likely to be required. The old reeds could be wrought out in course of time, without any extra expense to the manufacturer. If all new reeds required were made on the 1 inch scale, it would be no inconvenience to F 50 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF the trade in general; for reeds could be made within a very small fraction on the 1 inch scale to the other scales now in use. Take a 12 00 Jaconet for example, it measures 33 inches of cloth, and has in it 2264 threads just now, and it tills 34^ inches in the reed ; if 2264 is divided by 34 x 9 0 it will give the number of threads in 1 inch, which is nearly 65; the differ¬ ence is so small between a 12°° and a 65, that no merchant would complain of the alteration. As most other trades are endeavouring to get a common measure established for the different articles they make, the weaving trade, which is of great im¬ portance, should have one common measure also. Some people may object to this, and think it against their interest, but what is to be a benefit for the country at large, is in general good for every individual, when taken in a proper view; this hint is merely made for others to consider, as it does not answer to discuss it here. CALCULATION OF WARPS. Having explained the principle of gristing yarn, and how to find its numbers, also the measure for the reed, it may now be shown how to calculate the warp of a web. The first thing to be ascertained is, the number of ends, or runners, that will be required to make the TIIE ART OF WEAVING. 51 proper breadth for the cloth wanted. The old method of calculation for warps, was to do it by ells, splits, porters, and spyndles, and that may have been the best at one time; but as all cloth is now sold by the yard, and as a warp is just so many threads, so many yards long, it has been thought better just to keep by the threads, yards, and hanks, this plan being more simple. When the number of threads are found, it is a simple matter to get the porters or spyndles, if they are required.—For porters, divide the number of ends in the web by 40, and for spyndles, divide the hanks in the web by 18. To find the number of ends in a web, ascertain the number of ends in an inch, multiply the number of ends in 1 inch by the given quantity of inches that are to be in the breadth of the web, and the answer is the number of ends required. EXAMPLE. Breadth of web 34 inches. Threads in 1 inch 54 136 170 1836 ends in the web. In the Scotch scale of reeds there is always a frac¬ tion in every breadth, except 37, 74, and 111 inches; 52 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF but the general way to find the number of ends is by simple proportion, taking 37 for the first term, the number of ends in 37 inches of the given set for the second term, and inches required in the breadth of the web for the third. EXAMPLE* Say a 12 00 reed, 33 inches wide. If 37 inches give 2400 ends, what will 33 inches give?— 37 : 2400 : : 33 33 7200 7200 37)79200(2140 Ends for 33 inches. 74 52 37 150 148 20 37 ✓ ° Any one who wishes to save time in calculating for the Ends in a Web, should procure one of the Tables that are published, showing the number of Ends or Splits in any given number of inches. These Tables may be had from the Publisher of this Work. THE ART OF WEAVING. 53 WARP IN A WEB. To find the quantity of Warp that is required for a web, say 265 yards long, with 2400 ends, multiply the ends by the yards, and divide them by 840 for the hanks. EXAMPLE. 2400 Ends. 265 Yards. 12000 14400 4800 840)636000(757 Hanks 1 Skein. 5880 4800 4200 6000 5880 120 The above example gives 757 hanks, 1 skein; and to find the weight of yarn that is in the web, divide the hanks by the size of the yarn. Suppose the warp to be No. 50’s, divide the 7571 by 50 for lbs. 50)757p(15’24 ounce full. 50 257 250 54 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF If the spyndles are required to be known, divide the 7571 by 18, and the answer is the spyndles. EXAMPLE. 18)757|(42 Sp. 1 Hk. 1 8k. 72 37 36 1 7 7)8(1 Hank. 7 1 Skein. In calculating warps, it has been a common rule to add 5 per cent, for waste and shrinking, but there can be no fixed standard for it j the manager or manufac¬ turer must find this out by practice on the different fabrics they make, as it entirely depends on the kind of cloth, and quality of the stuff that the web is made of. Therefore, all the examples given in this work are made out nett (except where stated), with the percent¬ age added, that has been found in practice to be correct, and even in the examples given it Avill not be always the same, as a great deal depends on the quality of the yarn. THE ART OF WEAVING-. 55 A short method to find the hanks in the warp of a web:— Always take 80 yards for the length, and divide the number of ends or runners that is required to make the warp by 10, and the answer is the number of hanks, with an allowance of 5 per cent: and as 80 is a number very easily divided, it can be reduced, or added to, with very little trouble in calculation. If the manufacturer is wishing to rate his goods by 5, 10, 30, or 40 yards, instead of 80, then for 5 take a Jg- When the number of threads has been found that will make the warp of a web, for example, say 1920 ends. EXAMPLE. To divide by 10, throw off the figure to the right hand, and the remainder is the answer. 1920 Ends in the web, that is 192 Hanks for 80 Yards. 96 „ 40 „ 48 „ 20 „ 24 „ 10 „ 12 „ 5 „ In the example given (page 53) the warp has 2400 ends, and is 265 yards long: these numbers are given to the warper with the number of pieces that are to 56 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF be in the web : and suppose it is a plain white web, the warper has to know how many numbers are on each bobbin, and divide the hanks in the web by the hanks on the bobbin, and the answer is the number of bobbins that will be required for the web. EXAMPLE. Say 8 Numbers on each bobbin, then 8 in 757— 8)757(94 keeping out the fraction. 72 37 32 5 8 This shows that 95 bobbins will be required to make the warp of the web. It is generally left to the warper’s own judgment how to arrange the bobbins in the bank. The process is explained under warping. To find the quantity of cloth that a given quantity of yarn will make, find the number of hanks in the given quantity of yarn, which will be found from a rule already stated; then fix upon the number of ends that will make the breadth of the cloth wanted. Suppose 220 hanks is the quantity of yarn, and the number of ends to make the breadth of the cloth to be 1800, multiply by 840, and divide by 1800, and the answer is the length of the web. THE ART OF WEAVING. 57 EXAMPLE. 220 Hanks. 840 8800 1760 ' 1800)184800(102f 1800 4800 3600 1200 2 1800 3 And suppose that 5 per cent, is the proper allowance for waste, &c., then the quantity of cloth would be 97 yards. The following are a few different fabrics with the kind and quantity of yarn that was required to make them; and it will be seen from each, the shrinkage both in length and breadth, which may be of some advantage in rating fabrics of a similar nature :— A 10 00 33 inch Shirting, 11 shots, No. 18's warp, 20’s weft, required 1876 runners, which is 35‘07 inches in the reed; and to make 60 yards of cloth, it required 64 yards of yarn, which is nearly 7 per cent, for shrinkage in length, and about 6 per cent, for the breadth. A 34 inch 10 00 11 shots Window Holland, No. 18’s warp, and No. 18’s weft, required 2024 runners, which G 58 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF gives in the reed 37‘44, or nearly 37J inches; this web also required 64 yards of yarn to make 60 yards of cloth, but in the finishing, it gained about 3 yards. A 54 inch 10 00 11 shots Window Holland, 18’swarp, 18’s weft, required 3168 ends, the breadth in the reed was 58‘60, or nearly 58§ inches, and 64 yards of yarn for 60 yards of cloth. A 9 00 11J shots Cross-over, 24’s warp, 12’s white weft, and No. 14’s blue weft, required 1848 ends, and 65 yards of yarn to make 60 yards of cloth. A 38 inch 9 00 11^ shots Cross-over, required 1904 ends. The white weft No. 12’s, and the blue No. 14’s, required 65 yards of yarn to give 60 yards of cloth. A 33 inch 12 00 11 shots Jaconet, with 60’s warp and 80’s weft, required 2264 ends, which fills 34io inches in the reed; and to make 25 yards of cloth, it required 26 yards of yarn. CALCULATION OF WEFTS. To find the quantity of weft for a given piece of cloth, first find the quantity of shots in one yard, and multiply them by the number of yards in the given piece of cloth, and the product by the breadth of the web in inches; then divide by 36 for yards, and the product by 840 for hanks. THE ART OF WEAVING. 59 EXAMPLE. 25 yards, with 11 shots on the glass 35 inches w r ide. As there is 200 shots on the yard for every shot seen in the glass, a web with 11 shots will have 2200 shots on the yard; so multiply 2200 shots by 25, for the quantity in 25 yards, and by 35 for inches, and divide by 36 for yards. 2200 x 25 25 11000 4400 55000 35 275000 165000 36)1925000(53472;- Yards. 180 125 108 170 144 260 252 80 72 8 2 36 9 60 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 840)53472(63§3 or about §. 5040 3072 2520 552 23 -=— or about § 840 35 There are shorter methods, however, than the one given, for finding the quantity of weft for a piece of cloth, but the preceding one shows the principle clearer than any other. The quantity of weft may be got from the quantity of warp that is in the web or piece of cloth, in the following manner:— Suppose a 12 00 33 inch Jaconet, it will be seen that there is 2264 ends, and from the 25 yards of cloth, there is 70’07 hanks; if 12 gives 70 (keeping out the fraction), what will 11 give?—i less, or in proportion to whatever the shots may be. EXAMPLE. 12 : 70 :: 11 11 12)770 In proportion 64^ always taking the hanks found in the warp of the web for the second term, and the set of the reed for the THE ART OF WEAVING. 61 first, or divisor; or in other words, multiply the hanks by shots, and divide by the set of the reed, thus: 70 11 12)770 64 ^ The foregoing is sufficiently correct for any prac¬ tical purpose, although not exactly correct; but the following short methods can be depended upon as correct:— Another mode of finding the quantity of weft that is required: Make 50 yards the standard, or fixed number of yards to calculate by; multiply the breadth of the web in inches by the shots on the glass, and the product by 33, and the answer will be the number of hanks, after taking off the two figures at the right hand. Suppose the web is 36 inches broad, and 11 shots to be on the glass: then 35 x 11 = 385 x 33 = 127'05. 35 Inch. 11 Shots. 385 33 1155 1155 127 , 05—127 Hanks of Weft. G2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF If the foregoing length do not suit, it will he an easy matter to find a number to multiply by for any other length that the manufacturer or manager wishes to rate by. Another method which is perfectly cor¬ rect, and which gives an allowance of five per cent, on the cotton standard (that is the spyndle with 15,120 yards). This rule is for 800 yards. Multiply the shots on one inch by the number of inches the warp yarn occupies in the reed, and the product is the number of hanks per 800 yards. Suppose you have 63 shots on the inch, and the web 32 inches wide, then multiply the 63 x 32. EXAMPLE. 63 on 1 inch. 32 inches broad. 126 189 2016 hanks for 800 yards. And if you divide by 8, for 100 yards, you have 252 hanks, or 14 spyndles, with five per cent, of an allow¬ ance. It will be obvious that the quantity of weft can be found for any other number of yards by the same rule, and it is the most simple I know. But where there are many ratings to make out, much time will be saved in calculation, by using the Tables made out for that purpose. THE ART OF WEAVING. 63 CHAPTER II. WEAVING. Weaving is the making of cloth from yam or threads; this is the most simple explanation of the word. Like all other arts that are carried on to any extent, the division of labour is found to be advantageous in weaving also. The first process is winding, and it may he mentioned here, that the ancient mode of winding, warping, and weaving, was as follows:— Winding they had none, as they spun the yarn on a spool or bobbin or into balls; and when a web was to be made, only one bobbin was taken at a time. The whole warping and weaving apparatus that was re¬ quired was two sticks, like walking canes, a little longer than the breadth of the intended piece of cloth: these sticks were placed in the ground at two or three yards apart, the length of the web; then taking the bobbin in hand, the person ran round the two sticks, making the warp of the web. After the proper quantity of yarn was fixed on the two sticks, the web was made, and the weft put in, much in the same manner as 64 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF darning a hole in a stocking, so that the primitive weaver required neither heddles, treadles, reeds, nor shuttles. But now in our days, winding machines, warping machines, dressing machines, twisting frames, and weaving machinery, are all required to bring out the cloth at a cheap rate. The yarn as it comes from the spinning factories, is either in cope or hank, except when in some instances the spinners have both wind¬ ing and warping, and sell their yarn warped on beams, ready to be put into the dressing machine; but when it is silk, worsted, or linen, it is generally got in hank. Then the power-loom weaver requires winding and warping machines, which will now be explained. WINDING. There are many varieties of Winding Machines, but they are all made to perform the same thing, al¬ though some do it better than others. The best wind¬ ing machines for winding water-twist yarn, or the yarn from small bobbins on to larger ones, are those that have the following improvements applied to them: The small bobbins as they come from the throstle frames to the winder are full of yarn (the yarn being spun on them). The small bobbins are put on a verticle spindle, running in a step and collar, tapered like a cone. When the throstle bobbin is put on, the TIIE ART OF WEAVING. G5 bobbin being on a tapered part of the spindle, its own weight is sufficient to keep it tight on the spindle, so that when the yarn is winding, the small spindle turns with the bobbin. This is a great improvement over the old mode, when the throstle bobbins had to run on a rod of iron or wood, causing the bushes in the bobbin to be more worn in the winding than they were in the spinning; and those who are acquainted with throstle spinning, will know the bad effect that this produces. Another improvement is a thin plate of iron put along the machine with small slits in it, one for each thread, and the yarn, when in the process of winding, passing through this slit, it takes off all the loose pieces of cotton seed or what is called gins, or any other loose substance that may be sticking to the yarn. It also serves to catch bad piecings, when the wander ought to take them off and knot the ends anew. After this, the thread passes through a brush, or over a woollen cloth, put on the machine in order to keep the yarn clean. In many of the machines yet in use, there is just one rod of iron for the ends to run under for building or guiding the yarn on to the large bobbins, but it is better to have a small piece of wire for each thread or spindle, with the one end of it screwed, so as it can be set up or down when required, and this will save all the washers or pieces of leather or cloth that is put underneath the h GG THEORY AND PRACTICE OF bobbins to make them build properly. But even with all these improvements, if the winder is not careful, bad piecing and lumps on the yarn will be passed. Some time after the first edition of this work was published, an improvement was made on the thin plate of iron, with the slits that the yarn passes through, and it is thus:—By having the one slit, as formerly, it was easy for the winder to lift the thread out of the slit when stopped by a bad piecing, or any other obstruction, and allow it to pass. But by this im¬ provement it is more trouble for the winder to take the thread out of the slit, than it is to knot it anew. The slit in the iron plate is made like an arrow, with a slit on each side of the main slit; so that if the winder attempts to lift the end up, it goes in either to the one or the other, and the winder is obliged to break the thread and knot it anew. The winding of cope (or mule) yarn is done in the same kind of machine, with this exception, that the copes are put on to skewers, and winded from the cope standing upright. But if the cope does not run till it is finished, which frequently happens, the skewer is put in a horizontal position and allowed to run free in centres, and at the same time steady ; this is accomplished by having the centres made movable, and held up to the end of the skewer with a small spring. It is an advantage to have three or four THE ART OF WEAVING. G 7 spindles in each winder’s charge, to run about half the speed of the others, where the bottoms of the copes may be wound when the skewers are placed in a horizontal position. This can be managed by having larger warves on the spindles, and giving the winder a few extra skewers, so as to save the time of changing the bottoms from one skewer to another. In winding warp from the hank, swifts or whisks are used, and as it is more difficult to do, the winder is not able to keep so many spindles employed as with the former. Sometimes a different kind of machine is used for this kind of winding, as the hank yarn takes up more room than the cope or bobbin. This machine has no cylinder nor spindles, and of course requires no band¬ ing for driving the spindles. It has one shaft the whole length of the frame, with small drums on it, one for each bobbin. In some of the double winding machines, one drum is made for two bobbins. This is accomplished by having the drums about ten inches in diameter, and placed along the top of the machine, in the centre, between the two sides; and the bobbins are driven, not on the exact top of the drums, but on each side, a little from the top.. The drums are made to fit the size of the bobbin between its ends. These machines have the advantage over the spindle kind, as the yarn always runs at the same speed; whereas, in the spindle machine, the speed of the yarn in¬ creases as the bobbin fills. 68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF The next machine we will notice is for winding weft, or what is called a pirn winding machine; but to describe all the different kinds that have been made during the last thirty years, would take up too much time. The best that have yet been made are those that have the mechanism or contrivance for accom¬ plishing the following things:—A separate building apparatus for each spindle; also one to stop the spindle when the thread breaks; also the plan to pre¬ vent doubles (that is, two ends going on the pirn at the same time), and the mechanism to make the yarn run at the same speed at the thick part of the pirn as at the small. When the machine wants this apparatus, the quantity winded is much smaller than with it. Also the apparatus for stopping the spindle when the pirn has received its proper quantity of weft.—A machine made with all these appliances will make a pirn much superior to the pirns wound by the hand. The pirn winding machines most in use, for light yarns, are those with the cone and the horizontal spindles, with the spindles driven by a cylinder and bands. The cone does for building the pirn. But some object to the cone for winding certain kinds of coloured yarns, as it rubs off the lustre. There are different methods for stopping the spindle when the pirn is full. One method is to have a long fixed warve on the spindle, with a loose pulley at the end of it, and, as the pirn fills, the spindle is pushed back THE ART OF WEAVING. 69 until the band goes on to the loose pulley, and the spindle stops. Another plan is to have a cross wire in the spindle, so that when the spindle is pushed back a given length, the wire catches upon a projec¬ tion which stops the spindle. This is not a good plan, because the friction of the band still continues on the warve of the spindle. Some machines have a small lever that is acted upon, when the pirn has re¬ ceived its proper quantity of weft, which throws the spindle out of gear and stops it. There has also been different plans for making the yarn run at a uniform speed, and some of them very good, but expensive. One of the plans is to have eccentric wheels for driving the cylinder at an increas¬ ing and decreasing speed to suit the bevel of the pirn. Another way to accomplish the same object, is by connection rods; and another way is to have one or two cones for driving the cylinder. When only one cone is used, a lever is required to keep the belt at the proper tention. There is another, and a very simple and cheap way of doing it, and that is, by having a rod of iron placed between the swifts and the pirns. All the ends pass over this rod of iron, and it is made to rise and fall with the traverse motion, to take up or give out the yarn at a uniform rate, according to the build of the pirn. Some pirn winding machines are made where the spindles are driven with friction plates, and the 70 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP shaft where the friction plates are keyed on, is made to oscillate in such a manner as gives the yarn a uni¬ form motion. The foregoing remarks will be understood, without giving drawings of the different apparatuses, by any machine maker who is in the habit of making pirn winding machines, and who understands the principle. I will now state the objections made by some manufacturers to the machines at present in use. The driving the spindles with banding is one, because of the expense of their frequent renewal, and the friction put on the bushes where the spindles run in. Having the swift down below instead of above the spindles is another, because when the swifts are placed below, the winder has to stoop when looking for the proper end, and if the yarn is not very good, they are more apt to make waste than when standing up¬ right, because their actions are better seen by the overlooker. Another objection to those that are driven with wheel and pinion, and without bands, is that the price is so high. I have no doubt but that a machine will be brought out soon to answer the pur¬ poses of the trade better than any in the market yet ; for the weaving of cloth, where pirn winding is required, has been greatly on the increase in the power-looms of late years. THE ART OF WEAVING-. 71 WARPING. Having explained winding and the winding machine, the next process in the art of weaving is warping, and it is done both by hand and power. Warping by hand requires a person with some knowledge of arithmetic, where complicated patterns are to be made in the warp, but this is treated on in another place. The common warping mills are con¬ structed of different circumferences and heights, but those most in use are the five-ell mills; it is a reel with three rows of arms, and 20 arms in each row: on the arms are fixed 20 spokes, and these spokes are divided into 20 equal parts 11J inches, which is \ of an ell to each; so 20 x 11^ = 225 inches 5, is equal to 5 ells. The arms are mortised into three centres, and these centres are put on a piece of wood, with iron pivots at each end for the mill to run upon: the mill is placed perpendicular, and the web is warped on to it from the bobbins in the bank in a spiral form. The length of the web is regulated by the number of turns the warper gives the mill before reversing its motion, and the breadth of the web is according to the quantity of bobbins in the bank, and the number of bouts the warper gives the mill. After the proper quantity of yarn is on the mill to form the web, it is taken off by the warper in links and put up into a chain; but before taking it off, a lease must be taken with the heck for the drawer or twister’s guidance. 72 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF Warping by power is far more simple than by hand, and is done cheaper. In general, the fourth part of the web is warped at once, by putting into the bank a sufficient number of bobbins to make up the fourth part, and putting all the ends through two reeds, with one thread in the split, the reeds being of the proper set to keep the warp on the beam the same breadth as the intended web; the reed nearest the bank is made in the common way, but the other which is to conduct the yarn on to the beam, has every alternate split filled with solder, about an inch from its rim, for the purpose of taking the lease. There are many different kinds of warping machines in use—the make most approved of is what is called the Cylinder Warping Machine, with its latest im¬ provements, which are explained in another place, our object here being to show how the warping is done in these machines. Suppose a 12 00 with 1160 splits or 2320 ends, is to be warped, then the fourth of 2320 is 580 bobbins, which will require to be put into the bank, each space in the bank holding 20 bobbins, leaving 29 spaces to be filled up to make the number 580, or 14^ spaces on each side of the bank. Care should always be taken to have an equal quantity on each side of the bank, so that there may be an equal quantity of yarn on each side of the beam, from its centre, otherwise the yarn will be badly warped. After all the bobbins are in the bank, THE ART OF WEAVING. 73 and the yarn taken through the two reeds, a rod of wood is cut the exact length of the space of the reed which is filled with the yarn, and the cylinder is made up to the same length as the rod, then the beam is flanged to answer the cylinder; when this is done and the measuring apparatus set at its proper place, the warping commences. After a little yarn is on the beam, it is common to hang a weight at each end of it, so as to make the yarn build harder on the beam, but it will be obvious, that unless the beam be of equal weight at both ends, it will have what is called a slack side, which is very annoying to the dresser, and makes the yarn after it is dressed, break more when it is being woven in the loom. The machine, and all the other things being adjusted, the warper’s duty is to watch when any of the threads break, stop the machine, and take the ends in (although some machines have an apparatus that, when a thread is broken, it stops itself.) With the old warping machines, a long practice was required before the worker was able to stop it properly, as they had no fly-wheels; but with the new machines, nothing more is required than to shift the belt from the fast pulley to the loose one, as the fly-wheel does the rest. The use of the fly-wheel on a warping machine is to allow the bobbins to stop gradually, for if the machine was stopped instantly, they would over-run, and break the threads. There is also a small roller, made of wood, used for this pur- ,T 74 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF pose, which floats upon the yarn, and if the beam is instantly stopped, the weight of the roller keeps the yarn from being slack, by it descending a little towards the floor. Suppose the length that is wanted is 6000 yards, the warper must watch when that quantity is indi¬ cated on the measuring apparatus, and take out the full beam, and put in an empty one, then go on as before, till he has four beams filled, which makes the set for the web. TO WARP STRIPED WORK. If the pattern is to be 2 of blue for any other colour), and 2 of white; or 4 of blue, and 4 of white; or 6 of blue, and 6 of white, or any other pattern that is half-and-half, up to 40 ends of the one, and 40 of the other, may be warped 2 beams of blue, and 2 beams of white, and the exact pattern is made by the twister when twisting the web; or if the pattern is J of one colour, and f of another, then warp three beams of the one and one beam of the other, and the drawer or twister makes the pattern. But if a pattern similar to the following is wanted :— 24 of Brown, 4 “ White, 4 “ Red, 14 “ White, 2 “ Red, THE ART OF WEAVING. 75 which is 48 ends in all, in 1 repeat of the pattern, and say the pattern is repeated 42 times, then 48 x 42 = 2016 -*-4, is 504 ends on each beam, which may be warped as follows:— 2 beams with 6 Brown and 2 beams 6 Brown. 1 White, 1 White. 1 Red, 1 Red. 3 White, 4 White. 1 Red. 12 12 Another example of this kind will show how the most difficult pattern can be warped on beams:— 60 ends of Brown. 2 U Red. 2 u Orange. 2 u Yellow. 8 u Green. 2 u Brown. 20 u Slate. 2 u Brown. 8 u Green. 2 u Yellow. 2 << Orange. 2 a Red. 10 u White. 10 u Brown. 10 a White. 4 u Red. 14 u White. 14 a Brown. 4 u Green. 2 u Orange. 20 u Brown. 20 u Slate. 9 times over. 76 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF 2 Beams with 15 Brown, and 2 Beams 15 Brown. 1 Red, 1 Orange. 1 Yellow, 2 Green. 2 Green, 1 Brown. 5 Slate, 5 Slate. 1 Brown, 2 Green. 2 Green, 1 Yellow. 1 Orange, 1 Red. 2 White, 3 White. 3 Brown, 2 Brown. 2 White, 3 White. 1 Red, 1 Red. 4 White, 3 White. 4 Brown, 3 Brown. 1 Green, 1 Green. 1 Orange. 5 Brown, 5 Brown. 5 Slate, 5 Slate. The following will show how the pattern should be on paper, and that paper is to he given to the warper, then the dresser, and after the web is dressed, the drawer gets it for his guidance:— GO Brown, 2 Red, 2 Orange, 2 Yellow, 8 Green, 2 Brown, 20 Slate, 2 Brown, 8 Green, 2 Yellow, 2 Orange, 2 Red, 10 White, 10 Brown, 2 Beams. 15 1 0 1 2 0 5 1 2 0 1 0 o 2 Beams. 15 0 1 0 2 1 5 0 2 1 0 1 3 o THE ART OF WEAVING. 77 10 White, 4 Red, 2 1 4 4 1 0 5 5 3 1 3 3 1 14 White, 14 Brown, 4 Green, 2 Orange, 20 Brown, 20 Slate, 5 5 220 55 9 times over. 55 Nine times over means that the pattern is repeated 9 times in the breadth of the web, which in this pattern makes 1980 ends, and say 8 threads for the selvage, gives 1988 in all, and this divided by 4, makes 497 ends for each beam. To warp patterns with fine and coarse yarn, the best method is to put the coarse on one beam, and the fine on another, and make the pattern in the dressing machine, or, by the drawer, when drawing the web into the heddles, whatever way the pattern answers best; but if both the coarse and fine are put on one beam, it will then be necessary to bank for the pattern, and in taking the yarn through the warper’s reed, it must be observed that splits will require to be left empty in proportion to the coarse yarn; for example, if the fine yarn is No. 60’s, and the coarse No. 20’s, then one thread of 20’s must have the space of 3 splits to keep it from forming a larger diameter on the beam than the fine. Suppose the pattern to be 80 78 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF threads of No. 60’s, and 10 threads of No. 20’s, then the 10 threads of 20’s would require to be drawn through the warper’s reed, 1 split full, and 2 splits empty alternately, and the 60s will have 1 thread in each split as usual. In power-loom warping it is a common practice for the warper to take out the bobbins before they are run near empty. Sometimes a considerable quantity of yarn is left on them, and to avoid this as much as possible, the barrel of the bobbin should be at least 1^ inch in diameter, for if it be less, the bobbin will not run until it is empty, without the risk of the yarn breaking frequently. Another advantage is gained by having the barrel of the bobbin large, namely, that less yarn is allowed to go to waste, the bobbin is stronger, and less liable to be broken. Some manufacturers have their bobbins painted different colours, a colour for each size; when this is done, the warper can see at once when the yarn is mixed. The apparatus for stopping the warping machine when any of the ends break, has not, as yet, come much into use. There are different ways of doing it, but the principle is, that each end or thread passes through a wire or mail, which is supported by the end in its position j and when the end breaks, it drops and comes in contact with a lever which is moving under the needles, and the belt is shifted to the loose pulley, and the machine stops. THE ART OF WEAVING. 79 The expanding cylinder is now applied to all new warping machines, which is an improvement over the old plan. And where very heavy yarns are used, the machine has two cylinder shafts, with two drums on one shaft, and one on the other; and the beam that the warp yarn is to be wound upon, lies on the top of the drums, and these drums are made to shift upon their shaft, so as to suit the breadth of the warper’s beam. This kind of machine is by some considered the best for either coarse or fine yarns. As it is very essential to have the yarn put on the beams, so as to have no slack pieces (more especially for linen yarns) a small cylinder about 9 or 10 inches in diameter, is employed for that purpose, by being placed between the two warper’s reeds, and the yarn is made to go almost round this cylinder, and the cylinder being made parallel, if the beam is not taking up the yarn properly, the warper will at once observe a slack side, because the friction of the yarn on the cylinder is sufficient to turn the bobbins in the bank. BEAMING. After the process of warping next comes beaming (if the web is to be dressed in the loom), which is to put the warp on the weaver’s beam in a proper man¬ ner. The first thing is to ascertain the number of 80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF half-gangs, and the breadth of the web, then pass two rods through the half-gang lease, which is made by the warper for the purpose of getting the web put into the ravel. After this is done, the ravel must be set to answer the breadth of the web, then fix the end of the chain to the beam, and commence winding it on. Kavels are now made to answer any set; the old kinds were made like reeds, and marked 5, 6, 7, or 8 score according to the fineness of the ravel. The beamer must be particular to tie all the broken threads, and in doing so, not to Cross them, or the weaver will have a deal of unnecessary trouble in making his web, by being obliged to stop frequently to take out the crossed yarn and put it in its proper place. Many of the beams yet used by the hand-loom weavers have no flanges on them to support the selvage of the web; and it is necessary to have the ravel coarser than the web, to form the headings in the process of beaming; this is done by holding the ravel oblique, as the beaming proceeds. In beaming for the power-loom, the web or chain must be starched or sized before commencing to beam. Generally the machine is driven by power. Some¬ times a reed is used instead of a ravel, and two threads put into one split of the reed, with a rod between them, so that when the yarn is wound on the beam, every thread takes its own place. This sort of beam¬ ing does much better for power-loom weavers in THE ART OF WEAVING. 81 general, than having the web beamed in half-gangs. When the chain or web is to be beamed in this manner, the warper of the chain will require to take a thread lease at both ends of the chain: it is obvious that the yarn will have less chance of being crossed on the beam when it is beamed in this way. When the yarn is dyed in the chain, and is to be dressed in the dressing machine afterwards, the reed should be used instead of the ravel, as it is more con¬ venient for the dresser, and for making patterns in the warp. For large quantities of one pattern, a considerable saving is made by having the yarn dyed in the chain, and the white bleached, as it does not require to be reeled into hank first, and then winded after having been dyed. The same principle as stated under warp¬ ing for making patterns, will answer for making the pattern in the beaming machine. For example: the pattern to be made has in it white, green, blue, orange, and black. The pattern being drawn out on paper in the usual way, it can be ascertained how many ends of each colour will be required to make the web, then dye a chain for each colour, and indent them at the beaming machine according to pattern. When a number of chains are required for one web, the beamer must be very careful to have them all kept the same tightness, otherwise some parts of the yarn will be overstrained. The machines in use for beamino- & 82 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF power-loom webs are made so as the speed of them can be changed from one speed to another, as the beaming proceeds. Some have for this purpose only two speeds, but a better plan is to have two cones, and then the speed of the yarn can be regulated to any degree of nicety, which is a great advantage where different qualities of yarns are to be beamed. It is also more suitable for beginners, because it can be driven according to the capability of the workman. SIZING AND DRESSING. SIZING Is to put the yarn that forms the warp of the web through a process whereby the fibres of the thread are all laid or glued together. There have been many different ways of accomplishing this. The method used by the hand-loom weaver is, to put the dressing on with two hand brushes, but before be¬ ginning to put the paste on, the lease rods will require to be taken back from their working place, to the yarn beam, and that part of the yarn that is to be dressed, should be cleared of all lumps, and the long ends of knots that would damage the cloth, or retard the progress of the weaving: when this is done, the dressing should be brushed on tenderly and regular, so THE ART OF WEAVING. 83 as not to have one part of the web with too much, and the other part with too little of the size. The weaver then separates the threads of the warp with the lease rod, by turning it on its edge; he then uses a fan for the purpose of drying the warp, at the same time, using one of the brushes to keep the threads from sticking together. After the warp is dried, sometimes a little soap or tallow is brushed over it, to make the web smoother. It is a very important part of the hand-loom weavers work, to be able to dress his web well; and it may be stated here, that when dressed yam is allowed to stand (with the common dressing generally used), for any considerable time before beino 1 woven into cloth, the air has a tendency to make it hard and brittle, and the yarn then has little or no elasticity, which makes it very difficult for the weaver to work; besides, the cloth is not so smooth and even, and the drier the weather is, the effect will be the worse. Another mode of sizing warps, although it cannot be called dressing, is to put the whole chain or chains, as the case may be, through a starching machine. This machine has the starch boiling in a large cistern, and the chain is conducted (in the shape of a rope) through this cistern by means of rollers working in¬ side of it; and after it has traversed for a sufficient length of time in the starch, it moves out at the opposite side of the cistern from where it entered, and 84 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF passes through between two rollers which presses the superfluous starch out of the chain; it then passes round a number of steam cans for the purpose of being dried. The number of cans in this machine are various, the more cans the greater the power of drying; and it is the drying power of the machine that regulates its speed. After the chain has passed over all the cans, it is rolled up into a ball, and if required, put through the machine again. (This is called double starching.) When a chain is put through the second time, the weaver does not require to dress his web. A great many chains now are done in this manner, as it re¬ quires less labour from the weaver, and consequently the cloth is woven cheaper. However, this will only do for certain kinds of work; where the yarn or reed is very fine, it still requires to be dressed in the loom or dressing machine. To prevent the yarn of the chain being torn or cut in the process of starching (which frequently happens), the rollers should be kept very smooth, and the starch put through a sieve, to take out any impurities that may be mixed with the flour. The chains that are starched in this kind of machine, should be allowed to lie in some damp place for at least twenty-four hours, before being beamed, otherwise the yarn will be brittle. Also, care must be taken to put them in a place that is free from rats and mice. THE ART OF WEAVING. 85 dressing. The old crank dressing machine is the best yet out for making good work when the yarn is fine. It is also well adapted for coloured yarns; but the draw¬ back with it in common work, is the small quantity that can be produced, although it may yet be improved in this respect. For the crank dressing machine the yarn is first warped on four beams, and two beams put at each end of the machine. It is then drawn through the back reed, two threads in each split; from this reed it is drawn into the copper (or hole board), with one thread in each hole: this keeps every thread perfectly dis¬ tinct, and from the copper into the fore-reed, with one in each split. The fore-reed is made so as a lease can be taken with it; but in putting the web at first into the machine, it is better to draw dressed yarn into the coppers and reeds, and then twist the beams to the yarn in them. This is in general done by the person that draws the webs for the looms. To work the crank machine properly, the following observations will be found useful to the new beginner: The machine should stand perfectly level on the floor; this can be ascertained by putting a straight edge along the machine, and applying a spirit level on the straight edge, and then putting it across the rolls. When it is made level and fixed down to the floor, set 86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP the yarn so that when the yarn is stretched in the machine it will be level also. Then pitch the machine for the brushing. This is done by taking the wheels out of gear that drives the wyper shafts, and placing the one shaft with the full part of its wypers exactly up, and the other with its wypers exactly the reverse. The crank shaft is then turned with its crank fair up or down, as the case may be, so as to make the brushes take hold of the yarn when they are in the act of moving from the copper. The wheels should all be put into gear again, when the three shafts are in the position above described, and the machine will then be pitched. A piece of cloth or leather of an equal thick¬ ness, the size of the friction wheel, should be put in between it and the plate. Some oil and a little black lead should be used to make the friction work regu¬ larly. If the machine is new, it should be allowed to run for a short time without the yarn, for the purpose of seeing that all the working parts are correct.—It is essential that all the dressing rolls be of the same diameter, otherwise the yarn will be strained in some parts more than it should be. The belts for the fans and brushes being on, and other little things in their places, the machine is ready for dressing; the workman must temper the dressing to answer the fabric of the cloth. This can only be known by ex¬ perience, but the first web, after it is in the loom, will give an idea what is required. The yarn, after pass- THE ART OF WEAVING. 87 ing through between the dressing rolls, should con¬ tinue in a moist state until it passes through the copper, but never allowed to go on to the weaver^ beam before it is properly dried. Many a web has been spoiled by allowing the yarn to go on damp. The brushes must be kept clean, by being washed regularly. Some workmen wash them every hour, some every two hours, and so on ; but it altogether depends on the kind of work and the quality of the yarn, as foul yarn will require that they be oftener w aslied than clean yarn. When all things are nicely set about the machine, the workman has just to move about and watch that the yarn is properly dried, and be very expert to mend any broken thread before it is out of his reach, and then he will have no complaints about bad work. There is an improvement made on the old crank machine which should bo applied to all dressing machines, and that is an apparatus for regulating the speed of the machine according to the drying power. The most common way is to have two cones driving the whole machine, except the fans (which should be kept at the full speed), and the yarn can be made to run at a speed sufficiently slow, so as it will be properly dried before it is allowed to go on to the weaver s beam. And it is advisable to have change pinions, to regulate the speed of the brushes (in the crank machine) at pleasure, to suit the different 88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF kinds of yarn, as some yarn requires less brushing than others. For driving the tape-leg dressing machine, some use a small high-pressure steam engine, and make use of the steam, after it has driven the engine, to heat the cylinder that dries the yarn. The exhaust steam from the engine can be so regulated as to keep up the required pressure in the steam can. CYLINDER MACHINE. This is another machine for dressing warps, and does its work very well with coarse yarns, but it is not so well adapted for fine as the crank machine. The observations made for working the crank will also apply to the cylinder machine:—The difference is, that it has no hole board. It has the back reed, the brush reed, the fore reed, and a set of heddles for taking the lease. It derives its name (cylinder) from the brushes, as they are made cylindrical, and brush the yarn as they revolve. To have the reed at the brush properly set is very important, and the proper way is to have it so as the brush may just touch the yarn with the points of the hair. This is regulated by thumb screws, with their points resting on the side framing of the machine. The dressing used in these machines is in general made from American sour flour, and is prepared in the THE ART OF WEAVING. 89 following manner:—the flour is steeped in the pro¬ portion of five pounds of flour to three gallons of water, for two or three clays. It is then put into the boiler and boiled for about two hours. When it is sufficiently boiled the dressing is drawn off, and put into tubs, and allowed to stand for two or three days more, before it is used, for, when it is used too new, the yarn is not well dressed. TAPE LEG DRESSING MACHINE. A machine has been in use for twelve or fifteen years, which is known by the name tape leg dressing machine (see tape leg dressing machine); it combines both the starching and dressing, and the yarn is put on the weaver’s beam at the same time. There are different kinds of these machines, which will be ex¬ plained under the head sizing and dressing machines, it will be sufficient to notice here the working of it, which is very simple. The yarn for this machine should be warped as wfide on the beams as the machine will take in, so as to give it the greatest power of drying. The warpers’ beams are placed in such a manner as to allow the yarn on the beam next to the machine, to unwind from the top, and the second from the bottom, the third from the top, the fourth from the bottom, and so on alternately, from top and L 90 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF bottom. The yarn is then taken and tied to cords, or pieces of an old chain, previously placed in the machine, round the cylinder, and over and under the different rollers that the warp has to pass in the pro¬ cess of dressing. The steam should now be put on, and after the dressing is brought to the boiling point, the yarn is submerged into it, and the machine put on, till the dressed yarn reaches the weaver’s beam. Then the yarn is put into the ravel, to answer the breadth of the intended web. The workman requires to cal¬ culate the number of threads that are to be put into each pin to bring out the proper width, and it is re¬ quisite, before stopping the machine (when it is to stand for more than five minutes), to take the yarn out of the boiling dressing. This is done by winding up the copper rolls that keep it submerged. If this is not attended to, the threads get all fixed one to another. To keep each thread distinct on the weaver’s beam, a lease cord is put between each of the warper’s beams, and run through the machine, until they come within a few inches of the ravel; and then round iron rods are put into the place where the lease cords are, and these rods remain in their place till all the yarn is dressed that is on the warper’s beams. This machine should have the elastic ravel, and the new improved keeling motion to make it complete. Manufacturers who make coloured work, and use the tape-leg machine, have different boxes in the machine for holding the THE ART OF WEAVING. 91 dressing; so that one colour can be put through one box, and thus prevent it from mixing with other colours which might destroy them. This arrangement is also useful for dressing bleached yarn, when it is de¬ sirable to dress it in a separate box; and as the boiling of the yarn hurts some colours, that class of yarn can be dressed with cold dressing, while the others are being put through boiling dressing. It will be observed that this arrangement of different boxes will suit a variety of purposes. DRAWING OR ENTERING. When the web is beamed, either by a beaming machine, or in the dressing machine, it is ready for the drawer. The beam is then hung up with two ropes or iron hoops about 6 feet from the floor, and a sufficient length of yarn turned off, so as to allow the end of it to come down to the drawer, who sits on a stool, with the heddles before him. Two rods are in¬ serted into where the lease cords are; these lease cords are put into the web either at the warping mill, or dressing machine. The ends of the rods are then fixed together, and the warp spread out to its proper breadth. The ingiver takes thread by thread, and hands it to the drawer, to take through the heddles with a hook, and the drawer takes the heddles in 92 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF regular succession according to the draught of the web. When the web is drawn into the heddles, it next re¬ quires to be put into the reed, which is in general done by the same person, who has a sley hook for the purpose. He commences at the right hand side of the web, and takes out the number of threads from the heddies that are intended to go into one split. This operation being done, the web is ready to be put into the loom, which is explained under weaving. TWISTING. As drawing and reeding a web is more expensive than twisting one, they are always twisted, except when new heddles are required. This operation is performed by boys. The heddles and reed, as they come from the loom with the yarn in them, are hung up in the twisting frame, opposite the web. The twister puts a piece of rope round the pulley, on the end of the beam, or round the beam itself, and hangs a weight to the end of it. He then takes a portion of the yarn, and fixes it be¬ tween his knees, till once the rods are put into the lease of the web. After the rods are in, and the yarn all made straight, he begins to twist the ends of the web, to the ends that are in the heddles. He picks out the yarn from the rods in the web, with his right hand, and twists with his left. THE ART OF WEAVING, 03 The twisting frame should be made with its upright standard sufficiently high, so as to allow a web to be hung from them for the purpose of being drawn into the hecldles, for, in general, the same person that twists the webs, also draws them into the heddles. By this arrangement it saves the room that would be taken up by a separate place for drawing the web. In drawing or twisting webs that have difficult draughts, or patterns, the worker should get his in¬ structions given him on a piece of paper, and this should be kept before him, until he can do without it. DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. After the web is put into the heddles and reed, it is ready for the loom; but before beginning to explain the operation of making it into cloth, it has been deemed proper to give the draught and treading of a few different kinds of fabrics, and the description given here, will answer for both the hand and power- loom. The explanations for mounting the different tweels will be given under another head. PLAIN CLOTH Is made by causing every thread of the warp and weft to cross each other at right angles, and tacked 94 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF together alternately. This is done by drawing the web into two leaves of heddles, with equal quantities on each leaf. But a plain web is in general drawn on four leaves, to keep the heddles from being too crowded on their shafts, and the two fore-leaves are fixed together as one, and the two back ones, as an¬ other, and mounted in the loom, as if they were just two leaves. The figures as shown at No. 1, is the draught of a plain web with four leaves. R. S. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, show how the yarn is drawn through the heddles, and R S are the shafts. They are sunk and raised alternately, to form plain texture. The term plain cloth, as applied here, must be understood as the kind of weaving, as there are many fabrics made by plain weaving that are not commonly called plain cloth, such as the great variety of ginghams, fancy dresses, blue and white checks, &c.; but only to distinguish it from that class of goods wdiere the yarn is flushed, and it is this flushing that forms all the variety of tweels and figures that are made in the loom by the warp and weft, being pro¬ duced by the order and succession in which the weft is interwoven with the warp. THE ART OF WEAVING. 95 TWEELING. Tweeled cloth is made for many different purposes. But before proceeding further, it may be remarked, that so far as its strength depends on the mode of weaving, it is rather diminished than increased, when compared with plain cloth, containing an equal quan¬ tity of warp and weft; for, in making plain cloth, as stated before, every thread is alternately interwoven, while in that of tweels, they are only interwoven at intervals, according to the kind of tweel. Now in the latter case, the threads can have no support from each other, except at the intervals where they are caught by the weft, and that part of them which is flushed, must depend on the strength of the individual threads, those of the warp being flushed upon one side, and those of the weft upon the other. For illustration, take the following:—Let two webs be made of equal length, breadth, quantity, and fine¬ ness of yarn; let the one be plain and the other tweeled, and their strength, as far as material is con¬ cerned, ought to be the same. But if the strength is to be understood by the durability of its wear, the tweeled cloth will be worn out long before the plain cloth is much injured. Tweeling is adopted for the purpose of getting a greater quantity of yarn put in the same space, which this mode of weaving affords, and the larger the tweel 96 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF is, the heavier the cloth can be made. This will be easily illustrated: When the shed of any web is opened, every thread of warp, either above or below the thread of weft, will oppose a certain resistance to the operation of weaving. Now in plain cloth, every thread is alternately interwoven, and therefore opposes its por¬ tion of resistance, whereas, in a six leaf tweel, every sixth thread is only intersected, and it will easily be seen, that less resistance will be given to get the weft on. It may be remarked that tweeling is often applied to light fabrics for the appearance it gives the cloth, and it is sometimes also applied to give the cloth a soft feel. I will now give the draughts and treading of a number of tweels. A THREE LEAF TWEEL. Three leaves are the smallest quantity that can make a tweel, and its fabric comes nearest to the fabric of plain cloth. There are a great many dif¬ ferent kinds of cloth made by the three leaf tweel, such as jane stripes for shirting, ticking for beds and pillows, furniture stripes, &c., <&c. From Figure No. 2, it will be seen, that two-thirds of the warp is on one side of the cloth, and two-thirds of the w r eft upon the other; this is accomplished by sinking two leaves, and raising one every shot. The handdoom weaver, THE ART OF WEAVING-. 97 when working a three leaf tweel, in general uses six treadles, although it can be woven with three; but in the power-loom never more than three is employed. No. 2. M 3 H 2 1 No. 3. 3 6 1 4 2 5 2 5 1 4 3 6 It will also be observed, that the yarn is drawn through the heddles, as follows:—One thread on the first, or front leaf, one thread on the second leaf, and one on the third, or back leaf; and the first shed is to sink the first and second leaves, and raise the third; the second shed is to sink the first and third leaves, and raise the second; the third shed is to sink the second and third, and raise the first, and repeat. To make what is called a herring bone tweel, with three leaves, the same treading as above will do, but the draught will be as follows:—Suppose the cloth is for bed tick, and the pattern 12 of blue, and 12 of white—Then the web will require to be drawn as shown in No. 3, which is 6 threads of blue drawn through the heddles, beginning with the first leaf, and 6 threads beginning with the third, and the white M 08 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF drawn in the same manner. It will be observed that the tweel turns upon two threads, which does not make the herring bone so neat; but if it be drawn, as shown in No. 4, with 10 threads of blue, and 10 No. 4. 3 6 9 13 16 19 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 1 4 _ 8 11 14 _ , 18 threads of white, then the tweel will turn on one thread, which is the proper way. A FOUR LEAF TWEEL Can either be drawn straight over, or a heddle on each leaf alternately; when it is drawn straight over, as shown in No. 5, the first shed is 4 fourth. 3 third. 2 second. 1 first. the back leaf up and the other three down; the second is the third leaf up and the other three down; the third is the second up and the other three down; and the fourth shed is the first (or front) leaf up and the other three down. Let the beginner understand this E No. 5. '//// 4 D 1 n 3 C n 2 B 1 A THE AET OF WEAVING-. 99 figure No. 5 thoroughly, and there will be no difficulty with the other tweels that follow. That part of the figure at E, is a representation of design paper, or the cloth with a four leaf tweel, and the dark squares are the warp threads that are above the weft, and the white squares are those that are below it. The spaces that are marked A B C D, represent the leaves of the heddles, and A is the leaf next to the lay, or what is called the front leap; the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, are the draught in the heddles once over. If a four leaf tweel be drawn, as shown in No. 6, which is the common way for the power-loom, it being more convenient where both plain and tweel cloth are working in the same factory; because by this draught, plain cloth is made by fixing the two front leaves to¬ gether as one, and the two back ones as another, and fewer spare thrums will be required, as they will do for either tweel or plain. 4 3 2 1 In this plan the treading will be different; the fourth leaf will be raised first; the second, second; the third, third; and the first fourth. A very large quantity of cloth is made by a four leaf tweel, where the warp and weft are equal on both No. 6. 4 D §1 2 C 3 B $li 1 A 100 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF sides of the cloth, this is managed by sinking two leaves, and raising two alternately. Take No. 6 for an example— 1st sink A and C 2nd “ B “ C 3rd “ B “ D 4th “ A “ D This tweel answers better for sheeting and skirt lining than the common four leaf tweel. The appear¬ ance it has on the cloth is shown by figure No. 7, the sheding being repeated two times over. No. 7. A FIVE LEAF TWEEL. Figure 8 is a regular Five Leaf Tweel, and figure 9 is what is called a broken one. And in these two No. 8. 1 H 5 n 4 3 1 2 fi 1 THE ART OF WEAVING. 101 No. 9. H 1 5 i n 4 3 i *//// 9 i m i i 1 figures, as in the other plans that follow, the black squares are the leaves that are raised, and the white ones those that are sunk, and the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are the draught. SIX LEAF TWEEL. No. 10 is a Six Leaf Tweel, and No. 11 is the same broken. No. 10. n 6 1 H 1 5 n 4 j-H 1 3 HI 1 2 HI 1 1 No. 11. 1 1 1 1 ft 6 ft III 5 1 1 ft 1 4 ft III 3 1 ft 2 HI 1 102 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF No. 12 IS A REGULAR SEVEN LEAF TWEEL. 1 1 n 7 1 1 6 i m 5 n 1 4 H 1 1 3 §§ 1 2 n 1 No. 13 Broken. ii 1 7 1 1 H 6 1 1 5 1 1 n 4 n 1 3 2 H I 1 1 No. 14 IS A REGULAR EIGHT LEAF TWEEL. 1 1 1 1 1 H 8 1 i n 7 1 n t 6 1 H 5 n 4 i§ 3 m 2 H 1 1 1 No. 15 Broken. 00 1 n 1 1 7 1 1 H 6 1 n 1 5 ///y l 4 1 H 3 '§§ 1 1 2 077/, vw> 1 i i i THE ART OF WEAVING. 103 No. 16 IS A REGULAR NINE LEAF TWEEL. H 9 1 1 GO 1 n 7 §§ 6 5 n 1 4 H II 3 1 2 1 1 II II 1 i No. 17 Broken. §n i i 1 9 1 1 n 8 1 §1 i f 7 1 1 v/s/s 6 5 4 Iff 1 3 1 il | 2 m i The examples given will be sufficient to show how regular tweeling is done. It is seldom that more than nine leaves are used for a regular tweel, for when the tweel is large and regular, the cloth has the appearance of small diagonal stripes, but when the draught or treading is changed, so as to raise the warp threads at intervals, of one, two, three or more from each other, the tweel will be broken, and the cloth will not have the corded appearance. The following plans are all Broken or Fancy Tweels, and they may be varied according to taste. But when it is possible, the intervals should be regular, as it 104 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF makes the tweel more perfect; and the tweel is said to be imperfect when the number of leaves will not admit of this. It will be observed in the foregoing examples of tweels, that one leaf is raised, and the others sunk; but in what follows, they are sunk and raised in all varieties to make the pattern wanted. No. 18 is the tweel generally called the blanket tweel; it is also used for making sheeting, and a number of other fabrics. No. 18 BLANKET TWEEL. H m ^ n p 3 §§§!§ 1 2 Us 1 1 No. 19 is a five leaf tweel, very much used for making table-cloths; and No. 20 is an eight leaf damask tweel, also much used in making table-linens. We will have more to write about this tweel under damask weaving. No. 19 A FIVE LEAF TWEEL FOR TABLE¬ CLOTHS, AND No. 20 IS AN EIGHT LEAF DAMASK TWEEL. No. 20. THE ART OP WEAVING. 105 No. 21 A TEN LEAF FANCY TWEEL. No. 22 A TWELVE LEAF FANCY TWEEL. This is a very good tweel, for some kinds of woollen goods, when the cloth is wanted to have a soft feel, such as scarfs for ladies or gentlemen. . 106 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF No. 23 A SIXTEEN LEAF TWEEL, WHICH IS CALLED THE FULL SATIN TWEEL. §§ 16 1 1 if 1 II 1 15 1 1 II i 1 III 14 1 1 H 1 13 1 II 11^ 12 H III 11 i m (i 10 i hi mi 9 1 1 Mil 8 1 III 1 HI 7 w i i 6 i i h i 5 m i mi 4 1 ii i ii ii m i 3 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 n 2 fi ii ii 1 DIAPER. Having given the draught and treading of a number of tweels, it is presumed that the examples given will be sufficient to make the principles of common tweel- ing understood; and if so, the method of drawing Diapers, and the treading of the same, will be readily comprehended. The few following patterns given here, have not been published before, so far as known to the writer, except in the first edition of this work: they were brought out for dresses and other fancy goods, and at that time had a very good run, and I see that THE ART OF WEAVING. 107 a number of them are still made, and sold at the present time. Diaper weaving was at one time chiefly confined to the manufacture of towelling and table-cloths, but it is now applied to a great many different kinds of goods. At the present day, hundreds of power-looms are making nothing else but diaper cloth, which is sent to the Indian market, under the name of figured long cloths, figured shirtings, &c., &c. The diaper 'is also used for pinafores, cloutings, neck-ties, ribbons, and dresses of all kinds, and they are all woven on the same principle, viz., reversing the tweel, and altering the draught. It will be obvious, that the more leaves that are used the greater will be the scope for making a large variety of patterns; the mounting of them in the loom will be explained under the head Diaper weaving. No. 24 A THREE LEAF DIAPER, A IS THE DRAUGHT, & B IS THE TREADING. No. 24 B. No. 24 A. This Diaper is called the Irish eye, and is the best ol all for nursery diapers, cloutings, and such like cloth. 108 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF No. 25 IS A FOUR LEAF DIAPER, A IS TFIE DRAUGHT, & B IS THE TREADING. No. 25 B. No. 25 A. It will be seen on examination, that the three leaf 0 Diaper has two-thirds of the weft thrown to the one side of the cloth, and two-thirds of the warp to the other; but the four leaf Diaper has the warp and weft equal on both sides, which makes by far the best bird-eye Diaper, although the three leaved one looks much finer, if they are both woven in the same set of reeds, and both have the same quantity of shots on the glass. But suppose the warp of the three leaf tweel to be white, and the weft brown, or some other dark colour, then the one side of the cloth w r ould be much darker than the other; this answers very well for some kinds of goods. No. 26 A FIVE LEAF DIAPER WITH EIGHT TREADS. THE ART OF WEAVING. 109 Drawn as shown at No. 27, which is called the diamond draught, and it has eight different treads to complete the pattern. No. 28 is also a Five Leaf Diaper with eight treads, and the Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, on the right hand side of the pattern show how the treading proceeds, and all other patterns are treaded on the same plan. No. 29 is a Five Leaf Diaper. This pattern when woven, has the appearance of being striped, and makes a neat little pattern for a cravat or neck-tie, when made in silk or worsted. No. 29. H i i n HI 2 w. §§ 3 §§ 4 m §§ 5 n 6 n 7 n HI 8 110 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP No. 30 is a Five Leaf Diaper, with Ten Treads, and answers for the same kind of cloth as No. 29; it has a bolder appearance when the warp and weft are different colours. No. 30. HP 1 l 1 I n 2 HI % 3 'M vyj 4 1 1 1 n 5 ip i 1 iff 6 Si 7 V/, 8 n 9 HI 10 No. 31 is a Five Leaf Diaper, with Eight Treads; the figure in this one appears smaller than in Nos. 29 and 30. No. 31. If i HH 2 3 4 H mm 5 §§H 6 7 HH 8 No. 32 is also a Five Leaf Diaper, and is the last one with five leaves that will be given in this place; THE ART OF WEAVING. Ill the cloth of it is firmer than the preceding ones, and will be better adapted for bleached cloth than for coloured goods.—It has only Eight Treads too. No. 32. No. 33 is a Diaper with Six Leaves, and has Ten Treads to complete the pattern; and although it has six leaves and ten treads, it makes as firm a piece of cloth as four leaves and six treads can do. No. 33. n i 1 n 2 §§ 1 3 1 §f 4 m m 5 i 6 n . 1 10 No. 35. 6 I 1 H 2 n f /yy? 3 VAt 4 'M w/a MM. 5 vXSNA^/ vfr. G 7 r/ i 8 HHfil tH 1 9 mu 1 10 No. 36 is a Six Leaf Diaper with Ten Treads; it is very much flushed, and is a pattern that will answer well for a heavy piece of cloth. No. 36. No. 37 and No. 38 are both Six Leaved Diapers with Ten Treads; they are good patterns for dresses, as the figure is well brought out, and a good fabric of cloth kept up. THE ART OF WEAVING. 113 No. 37. No. 38. No. 39 is a Seven Leaf Diaper with Twelve Treads, which does very well for towelling, in linen, when large diaper patterns are wanted for a fine class of goods; it also suits for figured long cloths and shirtings. No. 39. No. 40 is an Eight Leaf Diaper with 14 Treads, and has a fine bold appearance, and will answer for the same description of goods as No. 39. o 114 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF No. 40. ’ No. 41 is another Eight Leaf Diaper with 14 Treads: from the manner of its flushing, it is well adapted for making a heavy fabric; suitable for vest pieces, or any other kind of stout cloth. No. 41 THE ART OF WEAVING. 115 No. 42 is an Eight Leaf Diaper with 14 Treads; it is a sort of double figure, and looks very neat in fine cloth. No. 42. No. 43 is an Eight Leaf Diaper with 14 Treads; this one makes a kind of star. No. 43. \ THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 44 is a Ten Leaf Diaper with 36 Treads; it a very good fancy diaper figure. No. 44. Him m m l mum MM 2 0^n\NN> §nm umi 3 WMM. mm m 4 m unit WM 5 m ^T/Vava ///// CVVSN^/X/ 6 n 7 M i§i§i§ 8 m HI Him 9 i§ n i mil 10 mm mu mu §| 11 §§nt 12 mu i® 13 '//// m§n m 14 ill min 15 H 16 §§ a! 1 17 Wa m i §iiii§i 18 'MA n §i§i§§ 19 HI yyy. 1 §PH 20 n n ■■ 21 Wj m i mmm 22 m/. mum m 23 w. mumi Him 24 yy//. V/M L_ mu 25 [ nmm mm m 26 i i 27 mm ^§A2A mu 28 n§§§ hi 29 Ws 1 30 n m 31 §§ m i mmi 32 m 33 34 yys, V/U mu 35 1 HI 86 THE AET OP WEAVING. 117 It is given in this place, merely to show that almost any range can be taken, by increasing the number of movements in the round of the barrel so as to get more treads, and by putting on more flanges to increase the heddle leaves, if the loom will admit of the mounting. From No. 26 to No. 44 inclusive, are all drawn the diamond draught, which is shown at No. 27. By the late improvements made on the Dobie machine, it has been more generally used for larger tweels, which were done before by the barrel. 118 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CHAPTEE III. ON STARTING POWER-LOOMS. In the preceding pages we have given a general out¬ line of how a web should be prepared, and brought it forward till it is ready for the loom; also a number of draughts, and how the heddles should be treaded. We will now endeavour to show how the yarn is to be made into cloth; and as it is the loom that makes the cloth, an explanation of how it should be worked is deemed necessary. Manufacturers, managers, and tenters, or those who have the charge of setting power-looms agoing, should have a complete knowledge of the whole Theory; and as this is intended alike for beginners, as well as for those who have got a little practice, no excuse will be made for placing before the reader, in the plainest language possible, the whole system of starting power- looms. In another part of this work it will be taken notice of how a power-loom should be made. The reader is now to suppose himself in a factory where the gearing is already up, all right and ready THE ART OF WEAVING. 119 for motion. Well, the first thing to be done is to get a plummet; take the line that is attached to the plummet, and hang it from the end of the first shaft that is to drive the looms, and where the point of the plummet touches the floor, make a mark with the point of it, and put a chalk mark round the plummet mark, then go to the other end of the shaft and plum it in the same manner. After this is done, take a cord and rub it all over with chalk, then fix it on the floor, being careful to have it passing right over the two plum¬ met marks; then take hold of the cord with the points of the finger and thumb, near the centre, and lift it up a few inches from the floor, and then let go; this will leave the mark of the line on the floor. This line should also be drawn with a sharp point, to leave a permanent mark on the floor, so as it may be referred to at any time when required; and in some mills it is required pretty often when shifting looms, or taking down shafts and hangers. If the gearing is properly put up, all the shafts will be parallel with each other, and also with the line on the floor, so that there is no necessity for plumming all the shafts, if care be taken in the measurements. Now, that the first line has been got across the flat of the mill or shed, as the case may be, draw a line at right angles with the first line, along the whole length of the flat, as the walls of the mill are not in general straight, it is not the proper way to take 120 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF measurements from them; the proper way to get this line is off the first; take a rod of wood or a cord about ten feet long, and fix a nail or draw-point at each end, then put one point into the plummed mark which is on the first line, and draw part of a circle with the other point; then take the rod and go to the other plummet mark, and describe another part of a circle, till it intersects or crosses the other line drawn as part of a circle; when this is done, find the centre between the two plummet marks on the first line, then stretch a cord the whole length of the flat, causing it to pass over the marks in the centre of the first line, and over that part where the circle lines cross each other. Having got both the lines drawn to take the measurements from, for placing the looms, care must be taken to have them all set parallel with the shafts, or the belts which drive the looms will not work well. At the same time that they are set with the cross line, they must be kept at the proper distance from the line that is drawn along the flat, and that distance will de¬ pend upon the space that is to be allowed for the passages. If the looms are made with the driving pulleys to suit, then they are all set at the same distance from the long line; but if the looms are made with the driving pulleys all at the same distance from the ends of the looms, then they must be set to answer the belts, by keeping the one out from the long line one inch and the breadth of the pulleys farther than THE ART OF WEAVING. 121 the other, and so on alternately; this is done for the purpose of giving the belts room to work. When the looms are all set in their places, the next thing to be done is to get them made level: a straight edge and spirit level is required for this work. Place the straight edge along the loom, and put the level on it; if the loom is not standing fair, put a piece of wood under the foot at the low side, to bring it up to the level.— If the looms are to be placed down on stones, the stones should be made level before placing the looms upon them. When the looms have been all set fair and square and bolted down to the floor, the next thing to be done is to look if all the wheels are properly pitched; and the workman should not mind who is the maker of them, for the very best machine makers have some¬ times careless workmen, and a bad job may escape the eye of the manager at times; it is therefore better to look and see that all is right about the working parts himself, and to put a little oil on each journal before putting the driving belts on. To ascertain the length of the belt, the usual way is to take a cord and pass it round the drum and loom pulley, and measure the belt from it; but if the looms are to be driven from the flat below them, this will not be so easily done; and the method for finding the length of the belt in this case, is as follows:—Take the distance from the loom pulley to the floor, and from the floor p 122 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF to the shaft below; and find out the distance from the loom to the shaft, by boring a small hole in the floor, and putting down a plum-line right below the loom shaft; then measure from the cord to the shaft, and draw the drum and loom pulley on the floor at the distance found by the measurement; also draw a line to represent the floor, and the exact place will be seen where the floor should be cut for the belt, the length of the belt can be taken from this drawing. When putting the belt on to drive the loom, care must be taken to have all the joinings of the belt running in the same direction, and they should also run with the pulley or drum. The writer has seen workmen that had been years at the trade, who did not know, or if they did, they paid no attention to this simple rule, although it is a very important one. After fixing up the protector, and taking off the weft stopper fork, the belt should be put on and the loom allowed to run for a few hours without the shuttles; then put a reed into its place in the lay. A pair of shuttles should now be selected, and to ascertain if they are a pair, try them with callipers to see that they are both the same breadth, and place them on the race of the lay, or some other plain surface, to see if their tips are all the same distance from the bottom of the shuttle; this can be done by bringing .the tips of each shuttle in contact with the tips of its neighbour; if the shuttles are not properly matched, the workman need THE ART OF WEAVING. 123 not expect to have a good working loom; for if the shuttle box is made to fit the one it cannot fit the other, and the shed may answer for one of the shuttles and the other dip below some of the yarn, which will spoil the cloth. HOW TO PITCH THE LOOM. The common meaning in the trade as applied to Pitching a Loom, is to set the shedding and picking motion in the proper relation to each other; but the correct definition of pitching the loom extends to the fixing and setting of all its working parts; and the first thing to fix is the shuttle boxes, and the front box side should be set parallel with the back one, (not wider at the one end than it is at the other, as is very commonly done by some workmen who do not under¬ stand their business). The shuttles should go into the boxes quite easy, but not to have too much play; the boxes should be about the tenth-part of an inch wider than the shuttle is broad. After the shuttles are fitted into their boxes, the next thing is to put on the drivers, and if the lay has spindles, the drivers should be made to slide along on them quite free, and not to touch the race of the lay; when the drivers are got on, then put on the shuttle cords, keeping them both the same length, and when the lay is half way back, the drivers should come within one inch of the 124 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF end of the lay. If the drivers are allowed to strike against the end of the lay, the weft copes will be in danger of being torn, and also the drivers themselves will have a tendency to be split. The loom will now require to be what is (commonly) called pitched; that is, setting the shedding and pick¬ ing motion in their proper positions in relation to the other working parts of the loom. If it is for heavy work, the shed must be full open when the lay is just at the turn to go back; if it is for muslins, then the shed should be close when the lay begins to go back. This is in general done by taking the main wheel out of gear, and turning the wyper shaft round until it comes to the proper place for the shedding. After this is accomplished, the picking pulley (or cone, or whatever other article the loom has got for giving motion to the shuttle) is next set in its proper place, and as a general rule, the lay should be nearly half way back when the shuttle begins to move. To ascertain that the picking is properly set, the work¬ man takes hold of the lay with the one hand, and the driver with the other, and turns the loom until he feels the driver begin to move; he can then see if the lay is at its proper position, and if it is not, he alters the picking pulley to suit; if the loom is made on the right principle, the driver should come within two inches of the spindle head when the shuttle is full picked; if the driver comes up tight to the spindle THE ART OF WEAVING. 125 head, the form of the picking apparatus has not been made right, which will cause a loss of power. The protector or mechanism that stops the loom when any accident occurs, can now be arranged and put in right working order, so that when the shuttle is out of its place, the loom will be stopped in a proper manner; this should be attended to very carefully, as carelessness in setting this motion causes many smashes in the warp. If it is a loom with the old knock off (or chap off as it is called in Scotland) motion, with the spike and frog, the spike should be allowed to touch the frog, when the shuttle is out of the box, and be of sufficient length to have the loom stopped when the lay wants at least two-and-a-half inches from being full forward. The distance of the lay from the fell of the cloth will depend upon the size of the shuttle and the kind of yarn that is to be woven; and when the shuttle is in the box, it should clear the frog about a quarter of an inch. But if the loom be made with the fly reed motion, then the spike for stopping the loom does not act, except when the shuttle stops in the shed, and the reed is thrown back. The spike in this loom should be set so as just to touch the small nob on the handle of the loom, and the weight or spring which keeps the reed in its place when the shuttle is running, must be so set as to allow it to go back at the instant the cloth begins to press upon the shuttle. 126 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF The loom should now be put on to work for a short time with the shuttles, before the web is put into it; this is the best time to examine all the working parts again to see if they are all in good working trim; it is also the best time to see how the shuttle runs along the lay. If it runs straight, and enters the box with¬ out any stammering, it is all right; but if it has a quaver when it runs across the lay and does not go easily into the box, then there is something wrong, and that something must be made right. The following is a few of the things that occur to cause the shuttle to run uneven:—The shuttle itself may be round on its back, which will cause it; the reed may not be fair with the back of the shuttle box; the race of the lay may not be straight; the spindle for the driver, or the grove for the tongue of the driver may be wrong; the box sides may be so placed as to cause it, or the pick¬ ing itself may be too strong; and many a time it is caused by obstructions which occur for want of clean¬ liness, by allowing oil and dust to cluster in small pieces about the box. After all has been ascertained to be right, the web can be placed in the loom; the cords are now put into the lieddle shafts at the places where they will suit for the roller above, and the marches or treadles below; the lieddles are then hung to the small straps for sup¬ porting them, and the reed is fixed in the lay. The eyes of the lieddles should now be made to hang THE ART OF WEAVING-, 127 opposite the centre of the reed, and parallel with the race of the lay; the pace cord is next put on, and then the yarn of the web is tied to a rod which is fixed with cords to the cloth beam; this is knotting up the web (as it is termed in the trade). While knotting up the web, the workman uses a brush to bring forward all the slack ends before he ties them; after all is tied, the heddles are moved a little back¬ wards, and as much yarn unwound from the beam as will allow the rod to pass over the breast-beam. The heddles are next attached to the treadles, and are ad¬ justed with the cords, straps, or screws, in such a manner as both the heddles and treadles, will be even at the same time when the treadles are in contact with the wypers. By moving the loom now, it will be seen how the warps are shedded; if the sheds do not please, the heddles can be taken up or down by means of the cords, or straps, till once a proper shed is made; when the shed is full open, the warp threads should not be rubbing on the race of the lay, but as far down as just to clear it, nor touching the top rim of the reed; indeed, for light work the smaller the shed is, the better, if the shuttle has sufficient room to pass freely through it; but in heavy work the sheds are made larger, for the purpose of putting a proper finish on the cloth, by spreading the warp threads, &c. The loom and the web is now ready for making cloth, which can be done by putting the shuttle in 128 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF with weft in it, and setting the loom in motion, either with the hand for a few shots at first, or putting on the belt. It is the workman’s duty who starts the loom, to see that the proper quantity of shots are on the cloth, and that all other things are right about the loom and web before it is left to the superintendence of the weaver; it is very annoying to the weaver to have occasion to call him back frequently to adjust some trifling thing which might have been done at first. If the loom has a regular uptaking motion for the cloth, which requires the pinion to be changed to alter the quantity of shots, the pinion required is in general found by simple proportion; but when the loom is new, as the reader may suppose the one under explanation, the rule is very different, which will now be explained. The first thing is to ascertain the number of shots that are to be on the cloth; then find the circumference of the beam that winds up the cloth, (commonly called the card or emery beam), also the number of shots contained in the cloth, the length of which will be equal to the circumference of the beam; also count the teeth of the wheel on the end of the beam, and the number of teeth in the ratchet wheel, and from these the proper pinion will be found. EXAMPLES. Suppose the cloth is to have 10 shots on the glass, (Scotch glass), or 54 shots on the inch, which is THE ART OP WEAVING. 129 nearly the same; ancl suppose the circumference of the beam to be 13 inches, and the wheel on the end of the beam to have 140 teeth, and the ratchet wheel 120; multiply the shots on one inch by the circum¬ ference of the beam, and divide by the number of teeth in the ratchet wheel, and the answer will be the divisor for the beam wheel, and when divided, the quotient will be the number of teeth for the pinion. Shots on one inch, 54 Circumference of Beam, 13 Inch. 162 54 Teeth in Batchet Wheel 120)702(5-85 600 102-0 96-0 600 600 The teeth in the wheel on the end of the beam is divided by this number, 5*85, as under:— 5-85)140-0(23-93, nearly 24 Teeth 1170 2300 1755 5450 5265 1850 1755 It will be seen from the above calculation, that the pinion required has 24 teeth, and for any otlier Q 130 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF number of shots more or less, the pinion can be i found by simple proportion. For example, if 10 shots require 24 teeth, what will 8 require? 8 will require more : thus— 24 10 8)240 30 Teeth for 8 Shots. The principle upon which looms are made at present, a proper pinion cannot at all times be found to answer the exact number of shots; but if they were made with the shifting pinion to be the driven instead of the driver, then the proper number of teeth could be got for any given quantity of shots, and this would only require a little alteration in the construction of the loom for the uptaking motion. Suppose the loom is all in good working order for making cloth, the weaver’s principal work is to fill and shift the shuttles, and tie and take in through the hedclles and reed, all the broken ends. The weft stopper will stop the loom when the weft is exhausted in the shuttle; and when a warp thread breaks in the shed in a position to make a scob or float, the scob preventor will also stop the loom, and an appar¬ atus may also be applied to change the shuttle without stopping the loom; but those things will be explained in the next chapter, along with a number of other things that are now attached to the power-loom. THE ART OF WEAVING. 131 CHAPTER IV. ON POWER-LOOMS. The construction of Power-looms as they were made some sixty years ago, will still be remembered by many people yet living, as it is only a compar¬ atively short time since they were working in Messrs. John & Robert Cogan’s Mill at Pollokshaws. They were at first started by Mr. John Monteith, at that village, and they are taken notice of here for the purpose of showing the young reader how the power- loom has progressed, and it may be mentioned that the principle of some of the movements about this loom has formed subjects for patents within the last twenty-five years. The framing of the loom was made of wood, much in the same manner as the common hand-loom, and the lay swung from the top, and was made on the same plan as a hand-loom weaver’s. This loom had no crank shaft or connection rods to give motion to the lay; it had only one shaft which was called the wyper shaft, placed in the same position as the wyper shaft THE ART OF WEAVING. 133 is in the common power-loom at the present day, its length being the full breadth of the loom; this shaft received its motion from a small shaft with a fly-wheel upon it, which shaft was placed between two looms for the purpose of driving them both with one belt; each loom had a movable clutch or coupling on the wyper shaft, which was thrown into gear with the fly-wheel shaft when the weaver wished to put the loom in motion. By referring to Figure No. 45 it will be seen that the lay was taken back with the cams a, on the shaft B, by coming in contact with the treadles C, C, and depressing them, and pulling along with them the straps o, o, which are fixed to the lay. As soon as the full part of the cams had passed over the pulleys on the treadles C, C, the spring E pulled the lay forward to the fell of the cloth; but it will be evident that when no cloth was there (as at the beginning of a web) the lay would strike against the posts of the loom, so that the person who put the web in, had to hold back the lay with his hand till once a certain quantity of shots were woven. After the web was started, the uptaking motion regulated the traverse of the lay, and this uptaking motion was a very simple and ingenious one. The yarn beam was placed in the loom in the usual way with a spring added to the end of the pace cord for the purpose of allowing the warp yarn to yield to the shedding, and this spring was 134 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF fixed to the floor; the reed was so placed in the lay that it was at liberty to move back a little when it came in contact with the cloth (if the cloth was too thick). The spring for the purpose of pulling the lay forward was set to suit the force that was required for putting on the quantity of weft desired. With this explanation, the following description of the up- taking motion will be easily understood:—As will be seen from the drawing at figure No. 45, the beam for winding up the cloth has a wheel on its end, with the worm on the end of the small shaft working into it; on this small shaft was a ratchet wheel with its teeth about half-an-inch long, the teeth of which was made on its side, and the catch for giving motion to it was so arranged as it would take one tooth every pick of the loom just at the instant the lay was at the fell of the cloth, but if the lay moved the smallest space further forward than was necessary, it struck the top end of the catch and prevented it from turning the ratchet wheel, so that when the loom was working without weft, the cloth beam did not move. It will be obvious that the traverse of the lay could be made short or long by the setting of the uptaking motion catch; if it w r as set towards the breast beam, the traverse would be made long in proportion; if it was set back, then the traverse of the lay would be made shorter. This was a very simple way of altering the travel of the lay, and it had its advantages as well as THE ART OF WEAVING. 135 its defects. But it will be evident to the reader who is acquainted with power-loom weaving, that this loom could never have been made to make heavy work, unless a very powerful spring had been applied to it to puli the lay forward; and as it had no pro¬ tector to stop it, when the shuttle, by any accident stopped short in the shed, a strong spring would have broken the warp yarn, but with a proper pro¬ tecting apparatus, this loom was well adapted for giving the weft shot a double stroke as is done by the hand-loom customer weaver, a thing that has occupied the attention of many in the power-loom trade, and a thing that could be very easily done if it was abso¬ lutely wanted. It w r as only necessary in this loom to make the cams that took back the lay with a double perfory, and then the fell of the cloth would get a double stroke with the lay every shot. As already stated, the reed in this loom, was al¬ lowed to move back a little w T hen it came to the fell of the cloth, so that when the loom went without weft, the reed met with no resistance from the cloth, and the uptaking motion ceased to work. Mr. Stone had a patent loom, the reed motion of which was something similar, and he took advantage of this motion of the reed for the purpose of delivering the warp from the yarn beam, with an apparatus the same as was on this loom for the cloth beam; indeed the movable reed has been the principal feature in a great number of patents 136 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF both here and in America. We will take notice of some of them further on. In writing the first edition, we did not think it worth the trouble to give them; but as the writer has been repeatedly asked about some of these old things, they will be put into this edition. To prevent any one who may read this from troub¬ ling himself about inventing things that has already been done, it may not be out of place to state here a number of things that has been tried in connection with the power-loom, and now all given up, or at least not in general use. There was a power-loom mill put up in Glasgow that had no belts at all for driving the looms; it was four or five stories high, and an upright shaft went from the bottom to the top between each pair of looms for the purpose of driving them. The bevel wheels on the upright shafts geared into bevel wheels on the looms, and when the loom was to be put in motion the weaver drew a clutch into gear with the bevel wheel which was running loose on the loom shaft. This did all very well for driving the looms, but when it had to be stopped with the old frog motion, it very often broke something about the loom. Another mill was built about the year 1824, in a fine airy situation; it was got up with considerable taste and expense; the looms were placed in such a manner that the weavers all looked in the same direc- THE ART OP WEAVING. 137 tion when working; this looked very well, but the arrangement caused expense for double the quantity of gearing. Whatever was the cause, the party that started it did not succeed, and the work passed into other hands. DOUBLE LOOM. There was a great anxiety with some of the power- loom weavers at one time for working two webs in one loom, and one of them made a vertical loom for that purpose. The yarn beams were placed next the floor, and the cloth beams at the top of the loom, and the lay or lays went up and down by means of cranks and con¬ nection rods; as a matter of course the heddles were placed below the lay horizontally, and were tied across the loom from front to back beneath the reeds; when the sheds were opened, the shuttles began to run along the face of the reed to the other side of the loom. The other movements for pacing the warp and wind¬ ing up the cloth, &c., need not be explained, as this loom never came into practical use. Another party in the year 1846 got two looms made (for which a patent was obtained), for working two w T ebs in each loom. This loom will be readily understood, as it was just one loom fixed on the top of another, arranged to allow the weaver to work them (of course the framing 138 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF was made to answer this arrangement) with as much facility as possible As this loom had some advantages (for working plain light work), it deserves a few words of explanation The top or crank shafts were the same as those in the common loom now in use; the lay was placed on slides fixed at the sides of the loom, instead of being on swords, and the connection rods were fixed to the back of the lay, so as to have the space all clear between the two webs. This loom had no wyper shafts, and for the shedding motion, which is generally worked off the under shaft, it w r as mounted with a common heddle roller below the heddles, the same as above, and on the end of one of these rollers was a pinion, which geared into a segment of a wheel that received its motion from the wheel driven from a pinion on the crank shaft. (This shedding apparatus was almost the same as that in Todd’s patent loom for working the heddles); the crank shaft pinion made two revolutions for one of the wheel, and on this wheel was placed a picking pulley for the purpose of giving motion to the shuttle, in the same manner as what is understood in the trade by the name of dog leg pick. This loom had a wheel and pinion at each side of it, which was necessary for picking the shuttle, and for the purpose of giving the weaver as much space as possible for working the under web. The breast beam was made of cast iron, hollow below, to allow the cloth beam to be placed as THE ART OE WEAVING. 139 close to it as possible; the uptaking motion for the cloth beam and the pace for the yarn beam were of the common kind. In this double loom the two webs were perfectly distinct, the one could be working while the other was standing; each web had its own weft stopper, protector, and driving belt. The inventor of this loom expected to have got the following advantages from it:—He had a mill that was put up for four hundred common looms, and the same space filled with the double looms would have woven eight hundred webs; the same gearing except the drums would have done, and had there been no dis¬ advantages, the saving would have appeared thus:— For space 400 at 15s. each,.£300 ^ year. „ interest on gearing,. 45 ,, ,, interest on first cost of looms,. 20 „ £385 But a larger saving was expected from another source, and that was the working of four webs by one weaver. At the time this loom was brought out, a very strong prejudice existed among the power-loom workers in Glasgow against working four looms, and it was thought they could be got to work four webs in two looms at a lower price per piece; taking the whole into consideration, it was not at all what may be called a bad idea. 140 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF We made no mention in the first edition who the party was that took out the patent for this double loom, but as the writer has been asked about it by several persons, we shall state something regarding it. The gentleman who took out the patent was Mr. James Clark of St. Rollox. After experimenting for a considerable time with one loom, he and the workman that he employed being unable to manage to get the one web to work when the other was standing, which was one of the things Mr. Clark was anxious to accomplish, he sent for the writer, and showed him the loom that they had made, and wished to have his opinion about it. He told Mr. Clark that it was quite a practical thing to make double looms, or a loom to weave two webs, the same as the one for which he had taken out a patent, but that he was afraid it would not pay him, as it would be quite new to the workers, and they would accordingly require to be trained to work it, and that as the principal saving was in the space occupied by the looms, the inconvenience the weaver might have would counterbalance that saving. However, the consultation ended in Mr. Clark giving the writer an order to make two pair of looms. New patterns were made for the framing, and the two looms were made and started to Mr. Clark’s entire satisfaction, but not to the writer’s. The other loom we are about to describe was also THE ART OF WEAVING. 141 made by the writer for Mr. David Smith, manu¬ facturer, St. Rollox. Mr. William Syme was manager with Mr. Smith at the time the loom was made, and he was quite delighted with it, and being very fond himself to go and see any new thing in power-looms, he showed this loom off to all who asked to see it. As stated, the only novel thing about this loom was the mechanism for the centre box, which was called u the monkey.” It consisted of a lever hung by the centre on the catch that w r as attached to the protection rod, and in each end of the lever there was set screws for adjusting it. The following is the description :— Another loom for two webs was made about the year 1847, but no patent was taken out for it, and it seemed to have answered the purpose of the manu¬ facturer at the time, as he got a lot of them made after experimenting with two of the looms for some months; for what reason they were given up the writer does not know. This loom was made suffi¬ ciently broad so as to take in the two webs, with room in the centre of the lay for a shuttle box; the two shuttles were picked at the same time. Suppose one shuttle to be in the right hand box, and the other in the centre box; wdien the loom is set in motion, the shuttle in the centre box is driven to the left hand box, and the one on the right hand is driven into the centre box; the next pick will be the reverse, and so on alternately. It is evident that the centre box will 142 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF always have a shuttle in it every shot, and the only novel thing about this loom was the protection for stopping it when any thing happened to keep the shuttles from getting into the boxes, and this was managed by a double protecting rod, with a little extra mechanism at the centre box. The centre box had double slots or swells, and unless the shuttle was full in the box to operate on both swells, the loom would be stopped. The working of two webs in the hand- loom on this plan is very old, and is much adopted in some districts at the present time; but this system of weaving is most profitable where expensive mount¬ ings are required, such as those that are used in weaving damasks and brocades. The mode of weav¬ ing ribbons, braces, and all kinds of narrow cloth will be explained in another place. AIR PUMP PICK. The driving of the shuttles (or what is called picking) has occupied the attention of many, and many different contrivances has been tried and failed, but only one of them will be taken notice of in this place. The inventor no doubt had in his mind the great expense that power-loom weavers are at for shuttle cords, treadles, and picking sticks, and the annoyance that tenters had in adjusting the shuttle cords—it is a great THE ART OP WEAVING. 143 pity the invention did not succeed. The shuttle, in this loom, was driven by air, and to accomplish this, a small pump was placed at one side of the loom which was driven off the under shaft by means of a crank and connection rod, which gave motion to the piston of the pump that forced the air into a vessel, and from this vessel there was a pipe taken to a small cylinder which was fixed on the under side of the sole ot the lay near its centre. The cylinder was similar to the cylinder of a horizontal steam engine, with its piston rod coming out at both ends. These piston rods were made of sufficient length so as to extend to be right under the centre of the shuttle boxes, and on the ends of the rods were fixed the brackets for giving motion to the drivers; the valve of the cylinder was moved by the motion of the lay, and the air was ad¬ mitted into the cylinder in the same manner as steam is admitted into a steam engine. But it will be evident that the loom would require to be driven for a short time to get up the required pressure of air before the shuttle was put in; the force given to the shuttle was regulated by the pressure of air in the chest or air vessel, and the pressure in the chest was regulated bv a safety valve, which allowed the air to escape when it became too strong. The length of stroke in the air pump could be made short or long at pleasure, so as to give just the proper quantity of air required, without a waste of pov r er in driving the air pump. 144 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF Since the foregoing remarks were published, in the first edition, under the head “Air Pump Pick,” a loom was brought out by some party in England, (I do not know the name of the inventor,) and exhibited at Swan Pier, London, and from the remarks made in the newspapers at the time, it would appear that it was working well. But I think there must have been some drawbacks, or it would have been taken up by the trade before this time, if it had been an improve¬ ment on the present mode of picking. Before giving my own opinion, I will give a criticism that appeared in the Glasgow Herald upon it:— “ Glasgow, 12 th January, 1865. “ Sir, —In your issue of the 4th instant, there appeared an article, taken from the Observer , entitled, ‘Weaving by Compressed Air.’ Now, it seems to me that the writer of that article knows very little about existing power-looms, or the subject generally on which he professes to enlighten the public. For the last four years, or more, there have been power-looms in considerable numbers working in Glasgow and neighbourhood, at the rate of 220 strokes or ‘picks’ per minute, and having all the real merits claimed for this pneumatic loom. There is no spindle in the box for the ‘picker’ to travel to and fro on, from the fact that the ‘ picking stick’ passes through the bottom of the lathe (lay). There is no accumulation of floss, THE ART OF WEAVING. 145 cotton, or woollen fibres, neither are there any parts requiring oil, and having a tendency to throw oil spots on the cloth. “The writer in the Observer says: ‘So far as the other working parts of the loom (that is, the pneumatic loom) are concerned, there is really no difference be¬ tween the present power-loom and the new one. The only feature of difference consists in that the shuttle is wafted to and fro by a breath of air, instead of being driven backwards and forwards by the blows of the ‘ pickers.’ He adds, that at the exhibition of the work¬ ing of the pneumatic loom, at the Swan Pier, London, there was an ordinary and a pneumatic loom working under the same conditions of steam power, &c. ‘ There was also this remarkable fact, that although the yarns were precisely the same in quality and number, breakages were frequent on the ordinary loom, while none took place on that fitted on the pneumatic principle.’ u How, Sir, we have here a reputed discovery which may well claim the attention of all users of power- looms. Breakages in warps and weft, the annoyance of our manufacturers since the first loom was invented by Cartwright, are now, it seems, entirely to be got quit of. By simply adopting a system of puffing (yes, puffing is the word) the shuttle across the ‘shed,’ we are to have no more breakages in the yarns in weaving, whilst the quality of the work produced 146 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF is to be of such an extraordinary description, that it will require a microscope to discover defects in the cloth. Need I remark, Mr. Editor, that any one at all acquainted with power-loom weaving will be able at once to put the proper value on such absurd preten¬ sions, as well as on the data in which they are founded, appearing though they do in the columns of a journal of such standing and respectability as the Observer. “In the summer and autumn of the year 1862, there was exhibited in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, a loom running at the rate of 400 1 picks ’ per minute. But common warp and weft could not stand such speed, and breakages were consequently very frequent. But when a superior quality of yarns was employed, it was quite possible to keep running at the speed mentioned. If our pneumatic loom inventor of the Observer is disposed to bring his exhibition loom to Glasgow, I will be very glad to put alongside of it one, the same in every respect, as many thousands run at work here, and I have no doubt whatever as to what the result will be. “ Solomon wisely said 1 that there was nothing under the sun entirely new.’ Neither is the pneumatic scheme in weaving. It was tried at least fifty years ago, and laid aside; and in Paisley it was patented within the last ten years. The keeping of valves, joints, pistons, &c., perfectly tight—laying long lines of pipes for the air to pass through—working an air- THE ART OF WEAVING. 147 pump by the steam engine—having a cog-wheel upon the tappet-shaft to work the valves—involve great practical difficulties, and in respect to simplicity of machinery, and general intricacy of contrivance, will do fully more than counterbalance the c 38 parts ’ of the loom said to be dispensed with when the pneumatic principle is employed.” The principal objections the writer of the foregoing article has, are the keeping of valves, joints, pistons, &c., perfectly tight, the laying of long pipes for the air to pass through, &c. It appears to me there would be no great practical difficulty in managing that part of it; but like every other new thing, there will be difficulties that will require to be overcome, and I think there is no doubt but that they will be overcome by perseverance; indeed, this last attempt is far in advance of what has been done before in propelling the shuttle by compressed air. It does away with all the present appliances for driving the shuttle, in which are in¬ cluded picking sticks, pickers, spindles, shuttle-cords, straps, springs, besides the other machinery used for driving the shuttle. And what is required for the air- pick is the pipes to convey the air to the shuttle-box, valves to admit the air, and the apparatuses to work the valves. The same steam engine that drives the looms will drive the air-pump. To make the air-pick a successful invention, what is required is a properly constructed valve, or cock, to admit the air into the 148 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF shuttle-box, and the shuttle-box made air tight or nearly so, when the shuttle is in the box. The other things required in connection with it are already in use. The largest item of expense in keeping up a power- loom is in the picking apparatus, and it will just be a matter of calculation whether the old or the new system is the cheapest, after the new has been fairly tried. But I am of the opinion that the new mode of picking will be the cheapest after it is properly intro¬ duced. THE COMMON POWER-LOOM. What is meant here by the Common Power-loom, is a loom for working plain cloth, and a description of one of the best that is in use at the present time will be given in this place The writer believes that the credit belongs to James & Adam Bullough, of Black¬ burn, for the introduction of this loom, which has been a great acquisition to the manufacturer of plain power-loom cloth; indeed, before the introduction of Bullouglis’ weft stopper and fly reed, the power-loom was (comparatively speaking) very deficient, for with¬ out the weft stopper the looms used to run at times hundreds of picks without putting in a single shot of weft, and it was not only the loss of time and power when the loom was working in this way, but the sel¬ vages of the web got all chaffy and out of order when THE ART OF WEAYINO. 149 the loom was working without weft, and this also caused a considerable time to be lost in getting the selvage yarn put right again, besides spoiling the cloth. The advantages of the weft stoppers are so evident to any power-loom weaver, that no more need be said about them, for in fact, the half of the weaver’s time was taken up in watching the shuttles, so as the loom would not go without weft, knowing well the bad consequences. I remember of hearing a conversation in the year 1826 in a small power-loom factory in Mitchell Street, Glasgow. There was only 40 8 A looms in the factory, and they were to weave what was then termed li foundation muslin:” it was a 7 00 with 7 shots 70 s or 80 s warp, and 70 s or 80 s weft; and as no weft stopper was on the looms, there was considerable diffi¬ culty in getting the cloth properly made at the joining of the weft. The machine maker, and manager of the mill, had been for some time trying to make the up- taking motion stop when the weft broke, or got ex¬ hausted in the shuttle. This was accomplished by allowing the reed to move a little back by the pressure of the weft shot. At this time some one had been trying experiments to stop the loom when the welt broke, and the conversation was about the probability of its success. Both were agreed that it would be a good thing for the power-loom, but both came to the conclusion that it would require machinery as tine as 150 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF watch work to do it, and they thought that that would never do for the power-loom. The machine maker died, but the manager lived to see the weft stopper as it is at present used.—I merely mention this to show that although it may take a long time to complete an invention, we should not be too positive in saying that it will never do. THE FLY REED. When Mr. Bullough introduced his loom with the Fly Reed, it created quite a sensation in the trade; for before its introduction it was not considered profit¬ able to drive above one hundred and twenty shots per minute, and now they may be driven at two hundred shots per minute, with perfect safety. The difficulty of driving the old loom (as it is now called) at a high speed was caused by the knock-off motion; whenever it was attempted to run the looms beyond a certain speed there was great danger of breaking the swords of the lay, or the connection rods, or something else; even the framing of the loom was sometimes broken, so that the fly reed gave the manufacturer the advan¬ tage of driving his looms quick without the risk of these breakages; it also gave him the advantage of having a much lighter loom to do the same work. Another saving that this loom has over the old one, is, that the lay can work with a shorter traverse, and THE ART OF WEAVING. 151 by so doing it is easier on the yarn; and the reason that this loom can work with a shorter traverse is, that the spike that stops the loom does not take effect on the handle, till the lay is within three quarters of an inch off the fell of the cloth; whereas, with the other, it must strike the frog for stopping the loom when the lay wants about two and a half inches from the cloth. It will be seen from the following what the patentees themselves say about this loom, and the drawings as shown in Plate No. 5, will illustrate their inventions; the specification is given in full, so that the reader may see the legal form of such documents. The loom with the fly reed has many advantages, and does its work well in weaving light, or medium heavy cloth. But when the cloth is very heavy, and the weft difficult to put on, it does not answer so well. And to have the same advantage given to the loom for stout cloth, as the fly reed has given to the one for light cloth, something like the following plan would require to be adopted:— The lay to be made in the old way, having the reed made fast, and to have the back roll, (commonly called the whip roll), that the warp yarn comes over, move- able by being hung upon two strong levers. When the shuttle is in the box these levers are locked, and kept firm in their position, to resist any strain that may be brought upon the warp to move the roll when 152 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF the lay is in the act of knocking, or striking, up the weft. When the shuttle is not in the box the levers are unlocked, and the roll left at liberty to move to¬ wards the lay; being only restrained from doing so by springs being applied to the levers to keep the roll near its proper place when the shuttle is crossing the web. It will be evident that if the shuttle stops in the shed the levers will be unlocked, and the roll will yield to the pressure of the yarn brought to bear upon it, by the shuttle being pressed against the fell of the cloth. This yielding of the roll prevents (a smash) the warp yarn from being broken. In weaving most kinds of heavy cloth the shed re¬ quires to be full open when the lay is in the act of striking up the weft, for the purpose of spreading the warp yarn, and this will bring a strain on the yarn, which will cause the roll to yield towards the lay; but the levers, when in the act of being locked, bring the yarn to its proper tension, by causing the roll to move back to its proper place. As there are many different plans for locking and unlocking the levers, they need not be explained, as they will suggest themselves to any party making the experiment. J. & A. BULLOUGH’S SPECIFICATION. 11 To all to whom these presents shall come, we, James Bullough, of Blackburn, in the County of Lan- THE ART OF WEAVING. 153 caster, Machine Maker, and Adam Bullough, of the same, Overlooker, send greeting: Whereas, Her present most Excellent Majesty Queen Victoria, by Her Letters Patent under the Great Seal of Great Britain, bearing date at Westminster, the First day of December, in the tenth year of Her reign, and in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty-six, did, for Herself, Her heirs and successors, give and grant unto us, the said James Bullough and Adam Bullough, Her especial license, full power, sole privilege, and authority, that we, the said James Bullough and Adam Bullough, our executors, administrators, and assigns, and such others as we, the said James Bullough and Adam Bullough, our executors, administrators, or assigns, should at any time agree with, and no others, from time to time and at all times during the term of years therein ex¬ pressed, should and lawfully might make, use, exer¬ cise, and vend, within England and Wales, and the Town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, our invention of u Cer¬ tain Improvements in Looms eor Weaving;” in which said Letters Patent is contained a proviso that we, the said James Bullough and Adam Bullough, or one of us shall cause a particular description of the nature of our said Invention, and in what manner the same is to be performed, to be enrolled in her Majesty’s High Court of Chancery within six calendar months next, and immediately after the date of the said in 154 THEORY AND PRACTICE OE part recited Letters Patent, as in and by the same, reference being thereunto had, will more fully and at large appear. Now know ye, that in compliance with the said proviso, I, the said James Bullough, do hereby declare that the nature of our said Invention, and the manner in which the same is to be performed, is particularly described and ascertained in and by the drawings here¬ to annexed, and the following explanation thereof (that is to say):— These Improvements in Looms for Weaving apply to power-looms (whether used for plain or fancy weav¬ ing), and consist,— Firstly, in a certain novel arrangement of apparatus for the purpose of regulating the “letting off” of the yarn or warp from the yarn beam to be used in con¬ nection with a positive “ taking up ” motion, whereby the “letting off” of the yarn is governed by the “ taking up ” of the cloth. Secondly, in a modification of the above, in which arrangement the yarn beam is held fast by means of a friction break whilst the cloth is “beat up,” and when being released, the tension of the yarn will cause the yarn beam to let off as much warp as required. Thirdly, in an arrangement of mechanism con¬ nected with the ordinary “taking up ” wheel for the purpose of “ letting back ” the cloth by hand when requisite, without lifting the taking-up catches. THE ART OF WEAVING. 155 Fourthly, in a modification of the above motion, ■which may be made either self-acting or otherwise. Fifthly, in a swivelling ‘ 1 slay cap,” for the purpose of allowing the reed to give way whenever the shuttle stops in the u shed,” thereby preventing injury to the cloth, but which is held firm whilst beating up; and, Sixthly, our Invention consists in the application of a friction break, which is caused to act simultaneously upon the face of the spur wheels which connect the ordinary tappet and crank shaft (and are known as the tappet shaft wheel and the crank shaft wheel), for the purpose of stopping both shafts at one instant whenever the shuttle is absent from both boxes, in¬ stead of allowing the tappet shaft wheel to stop itself by concussion of its teeth against the teeth of the crank shaft wheel as heretofore. These several improvements wdll be better explained and more readily understood by reference to the Draw¬ ing accompanying these Presents, which is of a scale of about two inches to a foot, and has figures and letters of reference marked upon it corresponding with the following description thereof, the new parts being shaded with colour for the sake of distinction, and the ordinary parts of the loom being drawn in out¬ line, merely for the sake of illustrating the relative positions of the various improvements. Figure 1, is a side elevation of a loom with part of 156 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF my improvements attached thereto, and Figure 2 is a section of a loom exhibiting other parts of the Inven¬ tion. A, A, is the main framing of the loom; B, B, is the yarn beam; C, C, the crank shaft; D, is the slay; E, the breast beam; and F, the cloth roller. The first part of our improvements is seen best at Figure 2. Upon the ordinary tappet shaft G of the loom is a double tappet < 2 , a, which, as it revolves, causes the lever £, b, to rise and fall. This lever b is connected by a rod c to # a small lever d , which has its fulcrum upon cross shaft e ; there is also another lever f attached to the same shaft, which has a catch g affixed to it. When the cam or tappet a lifts the lever b , the lever d comes in contact with the lever /, and causes the catch g to take up one tooth of the ratchet wheel h, which being connected to the yarn beam B by the worm and wheel i, i, lets off the yarn. The quantity of yarn let off is regulated in the following manner:—The yarn or warp is caused to pass over a rod or bearer Jc, which vibrates upon sup¬ ports fixed at each end. This yarn bearer Jc is furnished with a weight and lever l at one end for the purpose of keeping the yarn at the proper tension, and at the other end of the same is a pin m, which vibrates between the stops n and o. When more yarn Is let off than is taken up, pin m comes into contact with the stop n and projects a small lever p, under¬ neath the lever /, and holds it up out of the reach of THE ART OF WEAVING. 157 the lever J, and thus stops the letting off; but as soon as the tension of the yarn, consequent upon the taking up of the cloth, causes the pin m, to come into con¬ tact with the stop o, it will withdraw the lever y>, and allows the “ letting-off” to proceed as before. Figure 3 is a side view of the ratchet wheel and levers, and Figure 4 is a plan view of the apparatus. The second part of our Invention is shewn in Figure 5. A is part of the framing of the loom, and G is the tappet shaft. When the yarn beam is placed in the loom the boss at the end thereof is placed inside the pulley a ) a pin upon the boss fitting between the two projections b, b , so that the yarn beam cannot turn without the pulley. Upon the tappet shaft G a tappet c is fixed in such a manner that the instant the reed is beating up the cloth, the tappet c causes the lever d to tighten the friction belt or break e, upon the pulley a , by means of the connecting links /, /, and thus prevent the yarn beam from “letting off” any warp whilst the reed is “beating up,” but releases it the moment afterwards, the tension of the yarn causing the yarn beam to let off as much warp as is required. The same arrangement of detached pulley may be applied without the break in those looms where friction is applied to the warp beam by a rope coiled around the end of the same and carrying a weight, the principal feature of novelty consisting in having the pulley to which the friction is applied detached from 158 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF the yarn beam, in order to afford more convenience in re-filling. The third part of our Invention is shewn in Figures 1 and 6. q is the ordinary “taking-up” ratchet wheel which is loose upon its stud, and has a ring of leather let into its side; there is also a ring of leather let into the boss of the spur wheel r, which wheel slides upon a feather on its stud, and is held firmly against the wheel q by the spring s. The wheel r gears with a pinion t upon the shaft u ) which is turned by a hand wheel fixed upon it near to the “setting-on rod,” not shown in the Drawing. Thus it will be evident, that by turning the hand wheel the cloth may be let back without lifting the catches from off the ‘ c taking-up wheel” q. If it be thought desirable to have the shaft u stationary while the loom is working, it may easily be accomplished by removing about four of the teeth of the pinion t. The fourth part of our Invention is shewn in Figure 7, which is a plan view of another arrangement of mechanism for letting back. The “taking-up wheel” q has a small pin or tooth v , which takes into the teeth on the face of the wheel w, which slides upon a feather, and is held against the wheel q by the spiral spring x, but may be thrown out of gear by the lever y either by hand or by being connected to the weft motion. When the wheel w is thrown out of sear the tension of the cloth will pull the cloth roller back one tooth THE ART OP WEAVING. 159 at a time, so that any required amount may be let back. The fifth part of our Invention is shewn in Figures 1 and 2. The “slay cap” 1, which holds the upper part of the reed 2 instead of being bolted to the “slay sword/’ as usual, swivels upon a pin or stud at each end, so that when the shuttle stops in the shed it allows the reed to give way, as shewn by dotted lines in Figure 2. The “slay cap” is held firm at the moment of “beating up” in the following manner. To one end of the same a small lever 3 is fixed, which lever is connected to the lever 4 by a link 5; the lever 4 at the moment of “beating up” passes above the pro¬ jecting piece 6, and thus holds the slay cap firm. The sixth and last part of our improvements is shewn in Figure 1; the ordinary “ stop rod finger” connected to the swell in the shuttle box, is shewn at 7. 8 is a break which is supported by the levers 9 and 10. When the shuttle is absent from both boxes the finger 7 remains in the position shewn in the Drawing, and coming against the projection upon the lever 9, draws the break 8 into contact with the crank shaft wheel 11, and the tappet shaft wheel 12 simul¬ taneously, thus stopping both shafts at once, and with less concussion than heretofore. In those looms where the ordinary break is applied to the fly wheel, we pro¬ pose to apply a fixed or stationary break attached to the framing of the loom at the opposite side of the 1G0 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF wheel to the ordinary break, to prevent straining of the crank shaft, and also to gain additional friction power. Having now described the nature and object of our several improvements in looms for weaving, and the manner of carrying the same into practical effect, I would remark, in conclusion, that we claim as our Invention,— Firstly, the novel arrangement of mechanism shewn in Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5, for “letting off” the yarn or warp (together with the application of the detached pulley to looms where friction is applied by a coiled rope and weight), and also the method of regulating the same, namely, by the tension of the yarn or warp threads. Secondly, we claim the apparatus shown in Figures 1, 6, and 7, for “letting back” the cloth when required without the necessity of lifting the catches from the “taking-up wheel,” to be worked either by hand or by the weft motion when the weft breaks. Thirdly, we claim the swivelling “slay cap” whereby the reed is allowed to give way whenever the shuttle stops in the shed, and also the apparatus shewn in the Figure I for holding the same firm whilst “beating up;” and, Fourthly, we claim the employment or use of a break, as shewn in Figure 1, to act simultaneously upon both the “crank shaft wheel” and “tappet shaft wheel” for the purpose of stopping the loom when the THE ART OF WEAVING. 1G1 shuttle is absent from both shuttle boxes at once; and also the application of a fixed or stationary break in addition to the ordinary one to those looms where a moveable break is applied to the fly wheel for the purpose of stopping the loom. In witness whereof, I, the said James Bullough, have hereunto set my hand and seal, this Thirty-first day of May, One thousand eight hundred and forty-seven. JAMES (l.s.) BULLOUGH. And be it remembered, that on the same Thirty- first day of May, in the year above mentioned, the aforesaid James Bullough came before our Lady the Queen in Her Chancery, and acknowledged the Speci¬ fication aforesaid, and all and every thing therein contained, in form above written. And also the Specification aforesaid was stamped according to the tenor of the Statute in that case made and provided. Enrolled the First day of June, in the year above written.” There has been many modifications of the Fly Reed, but the plan that is in general use is the one that allows the reed to go back from the bottom. It will be seen from the drawing of Mr. James Bullough’s loom, that the reed flies back from the top; and it is u 162 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF very probable that some one may bring out a loom, the reed of which will go back both top and bottom, which may be easier on the rims of the reed. The novel arrangement of mechanism, which the patentee claims for the letting off the yarn or warp, although it is his first claim in the specification, has not yet come into much use, and is not likely to do, as better plans than his have been patented and tried before, and did not succeed. But those failures need not keep others from trying to get some novel ar¬ rangement of mechanism, whereby the present mode of pacing the beam may be done away with to advan¬ tage, for it is decidedly a defect in the power loom, the pacing apparatus as it is in general applied at the present time. Neither has the second claim in this patent come into general use, but the third and fourth are almost in general use, and they were great improvements to the powerdoom. Mr. Bullough gets great credit in the trade for his invention, and he well deserves it, for he has brought out some of the very best things in connection with power-loom weaving. TODDS’ PATENT LOOM. About fourteen years ago, a loom for Plain Cloth was brought out, which was known by the name of Todds’ Patent Loom- and although a great many of its move- THE ART OF WEAVING. 1G3 inents were not new, yet it was a happy combination of working parts as a whole, and was then considered the best in the trade for light work. The picking, in this loom, is accomplished by the picking stick coming up through the lay, and by this arrangement no spindles or shuttle cords are required, the end of the picking stick acting direct on the shuttle driver. The picking stick gets its motion from a small upright shaft fixed to the sword of the lay, and on the end of this upright shaft is a small projection like a finger, which comes in contact with another finger as the lay moves back; it is by this arrangement the shuttles are driven. The heddles are fixed to a roller below, in the same manner as they are fixed to the one above, and by moving one of these rollers, the sheds are formed. The following is Messrs. Todds’ own description:— TODDS’ DESCRIPTION. Our improvements relate, first, to that part of power- looms known as the tappet shaft, and used for actuat¬ ing the tappets, which give motion to the heddles, and consists in a novel method of driving such shaft, which is accomplished by means of a second shaft, to which a rocking or reciprocating motion is imparted, and at each end of which shaft is a small pulley or drum, to which is attached an endless band or strap ot metal, leather, or other suitable material; the strap also passes 164 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP round and is attached to a loose pulley upon the tappet shaft; this pulley has upon the interior surface of its rim a spring pressing upon a pawl or catch, which acts against a plate secured upon the tappet shaft, and having two or more ratchets or teeth formed on its periphery. By this arrangement, when a rocking motion is given to the pulleys at the end of the rock¬ ing shaft it will be imparted to the loose pulley, which will cause the pawl to force round the ratchet, and give an intermittent motion to the tappet shaft as re¬ quired. This arrangement is applied at each end of the loom, and both driven in the same direction by the straps, being one open and the other crossed, as the pawls are required to force the ratchets alternately on each side of the loom. The motion given to the “yarn bearer” for ensuring the equal tension of yarn is also actuated from the rocking shaft by means of an eccentric in connection with and through the medium of a suitable arrangement of levers. The second part of this invention relates to the rocking or oscillating shaft above mentioned, and con¬ sists in imparting to the said shaft an uniform recipro¬ cating motion, through the medium of which a positive dwell is given to the lieddles. This motion is affected by means of a lever or arm, indirectly connected with the crank shaft (from which it receives motion) by an arrangement of levers. One end of this lever is secured to the framing, the other being enlarged to the required THE ART OF WEAVING. 165 size, so as to form a segment of a circle. About the centre of this segment is situated the required number of teeth, leaving the two sides of the segment a plain surface; gearing into these teeth are the corresponding teeth of a disc fixed upon the rocking shaft, the re¬ maining portion of such disc having a plain surface like the segment. Supposing motion to be given to the arm, the teeth thereupon would turn the toothed disc until the plain surfaces came into contact, which would cause a dwell; if, now, the arm moves back as the crank revolves, a plate secured upon the said arm will fit into a corresponding recess in the toothed pinion and bring the teeth again into gear, and so on, at every upward and downward throw of the crank, thus causing the required oscillation or reciprocating motion of the shaft, and positive dwell of the lieddles while open. Lastly, these improvements apply to the part called the 44 weft stopping motion,” usually in connection with the “swell” of the shuttle box, and consists in the addition and application of a suitable formed spring, situated beneath one of the cranked levers, one of which presses against the swell of the shuttle box, the second being employed to strike the “frog; this spring is placed under the third, in order to assist in forcing the second on to the “frog,” and, by being suitably curved, to release the “swell,” and conse¬ quently the shuttle from pressure, as it is expelled 166 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF from the box. A similar effect may also be gained by curving the third lever upwards, so as to come in¬ to contact with a stud upon the crank arm, and so fitted, that as the arm moves, the lever may touch the stud, and thus release the swell from pressure, and raise the second finger from the “frog” if the shuttle completes its course from box to box; but should any occurrence interfere to cause the absence of the shuttle, then the first lever would press the swell in, and allow the third one to be raised and struck by the advancing stud, and consequently force the second lever on to the “frog,” and stop the loom. It will be seen from the description given by the patentees, that the positive dwell of the lieddles, when the shed is open, is one of the things they claim; but the same thing can be done, and is done, by the common wypers better than what it is in this loom. But their last claim for the contrivance that takes the pressure off the shuttle before it is picked, is a very good thing, although it has been applied to power- looms before. SCOB OR FLOAT PREVENTER. When the weft passes over a portion of the warp without being interwoven with it, the defect is that the yarn hangs loose at that part, and it is called a Scob, Float, or Flow; and to have a contrivance that THE ART OF WEAVING. 167 would really prevent floats without any other draw¬ back, would be a very good thing indeed for the power-loom; but all the plans hitherto tried has not as yet proved successful. When a warp thread breaks, and the end of it gets entangled with the other warp threads, it prevents that part of the web from forming a shed, by holding both halfs of the warp together in front of the reed ; the shuttle must pass either above or below this part; if it passes below it will work a float, if it passes above it will do the same, but it is in general thrown out of the loom when it passes above. By putting the tips of the shuttle a little nearer the under side of the shuttle than the top of it, it will always pass under the part of the shed that is obstructed, and in doing so will receive a certain pressure on the top. After this explanation, the following plans for preventing scobs will be understood without much study. The first plan was to have the shuttle made with its tips as described, and a small nob like part of a circle projecting a little above the top surface of the shuttle, and this was connected to a lever of the first kind which was placed in the inside of the shuttle, being in the same direction as the skewer. The end of this lever pressed upon a small pin that was placed between the tip and the eye of the shuttle in front, and this pin and lever was so shaped that when that part of the warp which would make a scob, pressed upon the nob, 168 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF it caused the pin to project from the fore side of the shuttle, and thus prevented the shuttle from getting into the box, and the loom was stopped by the common protection. Another plan (but this one requires to be put on a loom that lias the weft motion on it) is to have the shuttle made in the same form as in the other plan, with a cutter that will cut the weft shot at or near the shuttle eye, and when this is done, the loom will be stopped by the action of the weft motion, in the same manner as if the loom was working without weft It will be obvious to those who know what a shuttle is, and its use, that in applying this apparatus to it, it must be in as compact a form as possible, and all to be inside of the shuttle except the small curved part of the nob that the yarn is to press upon, and to be so placed as not to weaken or destroy any other part of it; also, so arranged as not to be a drawback to the weaver when changing and filling the shuttle. Some years ago a description was given of a shuttle in the following words:—“The said invention relates to shuttles, and consists in the addition of an im¬ proved apparatus for the twofold purpose of prevent¬ ing the occurence of what is technical^ termed ‘float,’ and of retaining the cop on the spindle and prevent¬ ing its being shaken off by the vibration in the shuttle caused by the blows of the picker. The defect termed ‘float’ is caused by imperfect shedding, and in order 1G9 THE ART OF WEAVING. to prevent it, we cause the twist or threads of the warp which obstruct the shuttle race from being insufficiently raised or depressed in the shedding, to press down a small hook or cutter near the eye of the shuttle; and this being done, the loom is stopped by the action of the weft motion, in the same manner as in an ordinary case of broken or exhausted weft. It is proper to mention here, that hooks or cutters of this kind have before been applied, or attempted to be applied for this purpose; and therefore, we wish it to be understood that this part of our invention does not consist in the use merely of such hooks or cutters, but in the mode of applying and fixing them to the shuttle hereinafter described, the peculiarities of which are, the compact form of the apparatus and its capability of being affixed on the solid part of the shuttle, so as not to weaken the sides there¬ of—the entire absence of every part of the apparatus from the body of the shuttle, so that it is no longer liable to be interfered with or damaged by the weaver in the act of removing or replacing the cops, and the incor¬ poration with it of the transverse plate hereinafter described, for the double purpose of retaining the cop on the spindle and masking the hook or cutter so that it may not catch the yarn in its passage from the skewer, except when depressed for that purpose, &c., &c.” But no more need be said about it, for it is clear that the party who wrote the description was not a practi¬ cal weaver, and the principle is already described. x 170 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF THE SHUTTLE CHANGER. A few words in this place will suffice for a descrip¬ tion of this contrivance, but we may have occasion to say more about it in another place. It is an apparatus for changing the shuttle when the weft cop is run done, or the weft thread broken in the working shuttle without the assistance of the weaver. The loom that this apparatus is applied to must have the weft stopper motion, and the brake and the weft stopper fork should be on the side of the loom opposite to the driving pulley; it is also necessary it should have a crank shaft with fly-wheels upon it; the brake acts on the fly-wheel next the driving pulley. When the weft motion stops the loom, and the swell that is placed on the rim of the fly is so set that it allows the shuttle to be thrown to the driving pulley side of the loom, before it is entirely stopped, for although the weft motion pulls off the handle of the loom when the shuttle is at the opposite side of the lay, the loom has acquired as much force with its fly-wheels as carry the shuttle to the other side where the changing ap¬ paratus is placed. It will be obvious that the loom will stop always at the very same place, in consequence of the swell on the fly-wheel. Suppose the loom is stopped when the lay is about one inch from the fell of the cloth, and the shuttle with the cop in it is placed on a level with the race of the lay, two inches THE ART OF WEAVING. 171 in front of the shuttle box; and suppose the front or fore box side moves down until the top of it is level with the race of the lay, then a pair of fingers from the back box side pushes the empty shuttle over the top of the front box side, and it falls into a keeper placed below the sole of the lay, to lie there till the weavei removes it. The shelf that holds the full shuttle now moves towards the lay, and at the instant it touches the front of it, the shuttle is pushed on to the lay, and the front box side rises up to its original position ; when this is done, a small lever takes hold of the shuttle and puts it as far back into the box as the driver will allow, in the same way as it is done with the weaver’s hand when changing the shuttle. The shuttle is now changed, and the loom ready to be put again in motion by pushing the handle into its pioper position. This is done by a lever for the purpose, which is explained further on. It is already explained how the loom is stopped when the lay is within an inch of the cloth. The instant that the weft motion disengages the handle of the loom, it throws the belt on to the loose pulley, and at the same time puts into gear the shifting apparatus which is driven with the loose pulley. On the eye of the loose pulley is a pinion in the proportion of one to three of the wheel that it drives; the wheel is a solid one without arms, and has on its side cams or grooves for working the different levers, which are all compactly fitted into 172 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF a framing that is bolted to the side of the loom right below the driving pulley. The reader will observe from the foregoing descrip¬ tion, that the first movement is the front box side, and one lever takes it down and puts it up; this first lever, as it is named, also pushes the shuttle over the edge of the lay into the keeper; the second lever moves the shelf with the full shuttle towards the lay, and a third lever puts the shuttle into the box and shifts it as far back in the box as the driver will allow. The fourth lever pushes the handle of the loom on, and throws the shifting apparatus out of gear, to stand until the next time the weft shot breaks. From the time that the loom stops when the weft shot is broken, to the time it is put on again with the full shuttle, is three shots, but it might be managed by the loss of only two shots, and then the pinion on the loose pulley would require to have only one tooth for two that is in the apparatus wheel. ARTICLES ABOUT A LOOM. It will be of advantage to the beginner to know the names of the principal things that compose a loom, as it will enable him to understand the various descrip¬ tions given in this work; and before proceeding further, a short explanation of some of them will be given. THE ART OP WEAVING. 173 DRIVING PULLEYS Are the pulleys that are fixed on the top shaft for giving motion to the loom; the loose pulley is the one the belt runs on when the loom is standing. CRANK SHAFT, Sometimes called the top shaft, or driving shaft, is the main one in the loom, and has the pulleys on the one end, and a pinion on the other. It is from this shaft that the lay receives its motion by means of the connection rods. CONNECTION RODS. The crank shaft has two Connection Rods which are attached to the lay or swords of the lay. In some looms a small rod for working the uptaking motion is known by this name. WYPER SHAFT Is the shaft that works the shedding and picking motion, and is driven by the crank shaft with a pinion gearing with a wheel on the end of the wyper shaft; this shaft makes only one revolution for two of the crank one. 174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF YARN BEAM. That cylindrical piece of wood or iron which is used for holding the warp yarn: on it is placed two flanges, which are set at a distance from each other to corre¬ spond with the breadth of the web. There is also on it an iron pulley at each end, which are called pace pulleys, because a rope or cord is passed round them for pacing the web. The end of the pace cord is tied to a lever which is called the pace lever, and the weight that is put on this lever is the pace weight. N The iron pivots that the beam turns upon are called the gudgeons. CLOTH BEAM Is the beam on the opposite side of the loom from the warp beam for winding up the cloth as it is woven; on the end of this beam is a spur wheel which is called the cloth beam wheel; in some looms this beam is covered with emery or card sheets, and then it is named the card or emery beam. When this is the case, a wood roll is used besides, and is called the cloth roll, because it receives the cloth as it is delivered from the card beam. In hand-looms the card beam is not used, and very seldom does the hand-loom weaver use flanges for their yarn beam, as they build the THE ART OF WEAVING. 175 selvages of the web like a cone, by holding the ravel in an oblique position at an angle from the yarn beam, making the yarn build narrower as the beam increases in diameter. SWORDS, LAY, AND ROCKING SHAFT. • * # Swords are these parts of the loom that the lay is fixed to; for power-looms, they are made of cast-iron, and are fixed on the rocking shaft which stretches from one end of the loom to the other, near the floor. The lay is bolted on to the upper ends of the swords, and the connection rods are either fixed to them or the lay. The sole of the lay is that part of wood or iron where the race is fixed on, and the shuttle runs upon the race. The top shell is that part of the lay which holds the reed by the top rim, and the under rim of the reed is placed in the under shell, sometimes named {lighter. The protecting rod is that round piece of iron, which is placed along the lay, either below it or at the back. The box sides are these parts, made either of wood or iron, that keeps the shuttles in their proper places at the end of the lay, after they have passed through the shed. The spindle heads are those pieces of iron that hold the ends of the spindles that are next to the web. 176 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF BREAST BEAM Is the rail in front of the loom that the cloth passes over as it is woven to the cloth beam. It is on this rail the self-acting temples are fixed; by hand-loom weavers it is sometimes called the slab-stock. PICKING ARM, PULLEY, AND CONE. The picking arms are those levers that are keyed on the wyper shaft, with a slit in them for the purpose of receiving the studs that carry the picking pulleys; and the picking pulley strikes against the treadle, lever, or some other moveable article that gives motion to the shuttles. Sometimes a bracket of a particular curve ► strikes against a cone or small pulley called a truck, which is made to pick the shuttle. CAMS OR WYPERS. Wypers are those pieces of cast iron of an eccentric shape that are fixed on the under shaft for moving the treadles that shed the web, and the small castings, with the pulleys in them, that are on the treadles, are named the shedding trucks; the curved plates used for moving' the tweeling treadles are called wypers or cams. Sometimes the picking arms are named cams. WAT SONS PATENT. fZ AFE 7. ' L/rHOGrf/tp/sf# sy Gpopg£ IMrso/Y Printed & Published by George Watson, Glasgow, THE AET OF WEAVING. 177 PICKING STICK Is the piece of wood that has the shuttle cords attached to it for pulling the picker that throws the shuttle; they are made of various lengths and thickness, some of them round and others flat. UPTAKING MOTION Is a term given to that piece of mechanism which winds up the cloth on the cloth beam when the loom is in the act of weaving; one kind is called the bell crank motion ? which does not take up the cloth legu- lar, the quantity of shots being regulated by the weight of the pace or friction put upon the warp yarn; the other takes up the cloth uniform, and the number of shots or picks is regulated by a pinion named the change pinion. This motion commonly consists of a connection rod attached to the end of a le\er of the first kind, and at the other end of the lever is a catch for driving the ratchet wheel; and on the eye of this wheel is put the change pinion which drives the spur wheel on the end of the cloth beam. T here is another catch that falls into the teeth of the ratchet wheel, which holds it from turning back. Y 178 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF GEARING. When speaking of Gearing in connection with a power-loom factory, it is understood to consist of, first, the main gearing, and second, the small gearing. The main gearing are the shafts, wheels, brackets, bushes, and belts that are between the engine and the shafts in the flat or shed with the drums on them for driving the looms. And the shafts with the drums, grounds, hangers, bushes, and bolts, are what is called the small gearing, although the shafts may be both large and long. THE ART OF WEAVING. 179 CHAPTER V. CHECK AND DAMASK POWER-LOOM. This is a loom which requires a considerable quan¬ tity of machinery and extra mounting, more than what is required in a common power-loom, as will be seen from the drawings given. It is the most com¬ plete loom that has yet been brought out for fancy work, when it is mounted for pressure harness, and for six or ten shuttles; as the reader will observe from the description, and drawings, that any number of shuttles can be used as far as the space in the loom will admit of. It is so planned that any shuttle can be taken that is required for the pattern, and the pattern is only limited by the number of cards the manufac¬ turer chooses to use; and if the reader will pay at¬ tention to the descriptions which will be given with reference to the drawings, it will be easily understood. A patent was obtained for this loom at the time vhen it was brought out, so we shall first give the desciip- tion as given by the patentee, and then explain its 180 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF different parts in a manner that will enable the work¬ man to mount the loom and work it. The following is the specification, with a description of the drawings:— WATSON’S SPECIFICATION. u To all whom these presents shall come, I, John Watson, of Glasgow, manager to Messieurs Gilmour and Kerr, power-loom cloth manufacturers, send greeting: Whereas, Her present most Excellent Majesty Queen Victoria, by Her Royal Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, bearing date at Westminster, the twenty-first day of December, One thousand eight hundred and forty-six, in the tenth year of Her reign, did, for Her¬ self, Her heirs and successors, give and grant unto me, the said John Watson, my exors, admors, and assigns, Her especial license, full power, sole privilege and authority, that I, the said John Watson, my exors, admors, and assigns, or such others as I, the said John Watson, my exors, admors, or assigns, should at any time agree with, and no others, from time to time and at all times during the term of years therein expressed, should and lawfully might make, use, exercise, and vend, within England and Wales, and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, my Invention of “ Improve¬ ments in Weaving by Jacquard Looms by Power,” WATSON'S PATENT. FIG. 5 /OJ=7e/. rd PLATE 2. UTHOeRAPHOf be gbobge MESON. PB//V7BD £ Pl/BL/S77£D Br G£OE?G£ HEJTSOU, GLASGOW. THE ART OP WEAVING. 181 in which said Letters Patent is contained a proviso, that I, the said John Watson, shall cause a particular description of the nature of my said Invention, and in what manner the same is to be performed, by an instrument in writing under my hand and seal, to be enrolled in Her said Majesty’s High Court of Chancery, Avithin six calendar months next, and immediately after the date of the said in part recited Letters Patent, as in and by the same, reference being there¬ unto had, will more fully and at large appear. Now know ye, that in compliance with the said proviso, I, the said John Watson, do hereby declare that the nature of my said Invention, and the manner in Avhich the same is to be performed, are fully de¬ scribed and ascertained in and by the following state¬ ments thereof, reference being had to the Drawings hereunto annexed, and to the figures and letters marked thereon, that is to say:— My Invention consists of improvements in the mounting of power-looms and in the application of additional apparatus thereto, whereby certain varieties of pattern fabrics not hitherto produced in looms of that kind may be economically made; and in order that these improvements may be fully understood and really carried into effect, I will proceed to describe them in reference to the Drawings hereunto annexed, in the various figures of which the same letters are used to indicate the same parts wherever they occur. 182 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS. “Plate I. In this Plate, Figure 1 is a front view of the loom, showing its connection with the Jacquard machine, also a front view of the apparatus for dis¬ engaging the connection of that machine when re¬ quired, together with the cam barrel and levers for working the heddles in connection with the harness. Figure 2 shows an end view of the loom with the cam and lever for working the Jacquard machine, the supports for the “ stenting rollers,” and other parts. Plate II. In this Plate, Figure 3 is a ground plan of the entire loom, of which Figure 4 is a general section. Figure 5 is a side and end view of the dis¬ engaging apparatus detached. Plate III. In this Plate, Figure 6 is a front view of the loom, in which are shown the shuttle box of the lay, and the details of the apparatus for working it. Figure 7 is an end elevation of the same. Plate IV. Figure 8 in this Plate represents an elevation of the loom, as seen from the back. Figure 9 is a general section showing the internal arrange¬ ment of the levers for working the shuttle box, &c. Figure 10 is a ground plan. Figure 11 is a vertical section through the shuttle box, showing the gearing by which it is shifted. Figure 12 exhibits the details of the weft protector detached. The main frame of the loom marked A is similar to THE ART OF WEAVING. 183 that of other power-looms in common use. The motive power is communicated to the working parts in the usual manner by a band from a drum on one of the leading shafts of the factory passing to the pulleys B, B, one of which is fast and the other loose upon their common axis (a) as in other power-looms. The reciprocating motion of the lay is derived from two cranks on the pulley shaft (a) by means of two con¬ necting rods C, 0, attached by pin joints to the lay swords D, D. On one extremity of the shaft (a) is fixed a wheel E, which is in gear with the wheel F, on the corresponding extremity of the second shaft (6.) The ratio of the wheels E and F is as 1 to 2, so that the shaft ( b ) makes exactly one revolution for every two picks or shots thrown. On the same shaft (b) is fixed the cam or wyper G which works the Jacquard treadle H of the loom when employed in producing fabrics requiring the use of that apparatus. The motion of the cam G is transferred to the Jacquard lever I, which communicates with the treadle H by means of the small rod (c), and is sup¬ ported by a stud on a bracket J, attached in any convenient manner over the loom. The action of these last-mentioned parts are as follows:—When the cam G revolves, it depresses the treadle H, and conse¬ quently the end of the lever I to which it is attached by the rod (c). This action necessarily raises the opposite end of the lever I in connection with the 184 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF Jacquard machine, but immediately on the treadle II being depressed by the cam it is brought under the control of the “disengaging apparatus” to be hereafter described, and which keeps it down, and consequently causes the Jacquard lever to maintain its elevated position, until the required number of picks or shots pertaining to the card of the machine at the time being passed is thrown, when the treadle rises, and the cam G comes again into action. The treadle H is made to project in front of the loom to enable the weaver to turn back the cards of the Jacquard machine when any derangement takes place, and it is required to open out any number of picks. By this arrange¬ ment the weaver avoids the inconvenience of working the loom empty, that is, without weft, for the purpose of bringing the proper card into position. The con¬ ditions necessary to be observed in forming the cam G are as follows:—First, the part of the periphery which comes first into contact with the treadle H ought to have a curvature of large radius so as to cause the Jacquard lever I to commence its rise slowly, and gradually accelerate its motion until it has attained half the required elevation, when its motion ought gradually to decrease until it has risen to the highest point of elevation necessary. By thus regulating the motion of the lever, any undue vibration of the leads of the harness is avoided during their rise, and the cards are less liable to be deranged on the barrel of WATSONS PATENT. THE ART OE WEAVING. 185 the Jacquard machine. When the lever has remained up during the time requisite, it is again slowly lowered by the action of the cam becoming gradually less, until it finally ceases to act upon the treadle H, in con¬ sequence of the hollow portion of its periphery being brought opposite to the point of contact with the treadle. The succeeding lift is regulated in the same manner as above described. To regulate the number of shots or picks on the cards of the Jacquard machine, the following arrangement is adopted:—A small pinion (a) on the shaft (6) gives motion to the wheel (e), formed with a hollow projecting boss on which is fixed a change pinion (/), gearing with the wheel (g), carrying one, two, three, or more small studs, as the pattern may require. On these studs are carried the small friction pulleys (A, h . . .) which coming round on the under side act on the lever ( i ), causing one extremity of it to descend. In this extremity is a hoie through which a cord is made fast, and which com¬ municates with the bell crank lever (j). The purpose of this is to keep the treadle II depressed when the cam G has acted upon it ; and again, when the lever (i) is pressed down, it necessarily pulls the coid attached to the bell crank lever, and takes this out oi contact with the treadle H, at the instant the cam G begins to act upon it, thereby letting down the needles of the Jacquard machine with the same kind of gradual motion as they were raised. Wnen the 186 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF machine is ready to take another lift, the small spring (Jc) by contracting pulls the bell crank lever (j) into contact with the treadle H, and the action proceeds as before described. The mode of working the heddles may be understood from the following description in reference to the Drawings:—A shaft carrying a series of cam plates (marked L) is driven from the shaft ( b ) by a bevil pinion (!) gearing with the bevil wheel (m). The ratio of this pair of wheels is properly adjusted to the tweel which is required to be put upon the cloth at the time worked. The cams are so formed and set in relation to each other, that the heddle leaves all stand steadily in one position, except the two leaves in action at the particular time. The projection marked 1 on the cams is for sinking the heddle leaves, and that marked 2 is for raising them, while the circular parts marked 3 are for keeping those leaves steady which are out of action. These cams are so pitched or set as to work in unison with each other, and with the Jacquard machine and the lay D 1 while the loom is in action. When the point 1 comes round to the part of the treadle at 4, it causes the treadle ( u ) to descend at the point, and the cord marked 5 being attached to the extremity of the treadle («), and also to the heddles (marked o), it makes the shed downwards; and the treadle (w 1 ) being acted upon simultaneously with the treadle (u), and the cords marked G being THE ART OF WEAVING-. 187 attached to the contiguous extremities of the upper levers (p), these extremities are depressed by the action of the cords when pulled; but the levers being suspended on an axis at or near the middle of their length, the depression at one end is necessarily accom¬ panied by the corresponding elevation of the contrary end, which being attached by cords to the heddle leaves, the effect is to cause those acted upon to shed upwards, and the other heddles being connected in the same manner, the cams to which they are respec¬ tively related retain them in a middle position, neithei up nor down, until by the motion of the common axis of the cam barrel L they are brought into action, and those previously engaged thrown idle. Ihis ar¬ rangement of parts, and the motions above desciibed, are principally adapted to working two, tlnee, four, five, or six thread harness more or less, as may be required, and can be applied to work four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten heddle leaves, and the ad¬ vantage of it is that the cams keep the idle leaves steady when the others are shedding. The tweeling cams may be formed of simple plates cut to the required shape, or they may be formed with loose marginal pieces made to fit upon permanent centres. They may also be formed with rollers at the projections marked 1 and 2. The stenting rollers (q), shown in Figures 2, 3, and 4, are carried in bearings acted upon by springs, to allow the yarn to yield, yet remain 188 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP tight when the hecldles or harness is acting, without subjecting it to unnecessary strain, which it would be were no such provision made for its stretch when the heddles are shedding. There is one of these rollers for every leaf in the set of heddles employed, and the springs marked (r) are so adjusted in tension as to keep the yarn at the degree of tightness required for putting on the requisite number of shots or picks on a given length of the warp yarn. In the Figures referred to above, the arrangement of parts is adapted to a five-leaved set of heddles, but may be extended to any number, more or less, as may be required for the particular kind of fabric to be woven; the yarn passing through the eyes of the heddles of any partic¬ ular leaf passes over one of the rollers, and that particular roller yields to the yarn when the leaf of heddles through which it passes is forming a shed, producing a similar effect as if the yarn were elastic in itself. The brackets (s) carrying the rollers and springs are fixed on the two side frames of the loom in any convenient manner. The yarn beam M, the pace pulleys (t), the pace weights N, the picking treadle 0, the picking stick P, are similar and similarly applied as in other power-looms. I will now describe the selvage protector, the use of which is to prevent the warp yarn from being broken by the weft shot drawing it too tightly. The small pins (u) at each side of the web, work up and down WATSON’S PATENT. [ fa L -L FI G.lO. Printed & Published by George Watson, Glasgow. THE ART OF WEAVING. 189 alternately, each being clown for the shot, on that side from which the shuttle is thrown. The two cams ( v ) on the shaft (6), (see Figures 8, 9, and 10), are formed with recesses to allow the levers {w) to fall. These last are fixed in brackets at the back rail of the loom, and the small pulleys marked 6 in the levers (w) lift the levers (x) which are suspended on axes at (^), so that when the recesses in the cams successively come round, they allow the pins (u) to fall into position at the selvage, taking hold of the selvage threads, and the weft of the successive picks turns upon them, thus preventing all unnecessary strain on the selvage yarn. The cams are so made and set in relation to the ✓ movements of the loom, that whenever the shuttle is in the box of the lay at the contrary side, the pins ( u ) rise out of contact with the yarn, and move slightly back to allow the lay to drive up the weft shot to the fell of the cloth without touching the pins. I will now describe the apparatus for working the shuttle box Q, when three or more shuttles are em¬ ployed for the purpose of putting in different kinds of weft into the web. The Drawings marked Plates III. and IV. show an arrangement for six shuttles, and the mechanism is so constructed and adapted that any number of shots of one kind of weft from two upwards, may be thrown in any order whatever of the shuttles answering to the particular pattern to be woven. When the box Q is to be shifted to change the shuttle, 190 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF one of the cords marked 7 attached to a spring marked 8 is pulled up by the Jacquard machine, and this cord being attached to one of the bell crank levers (z) pro¬ vided with a toothed segment at one extremity, makes the small tumbler (a 1 ) to rise in its place in the lever or treadle R, and this tumbler (a 1 ) being moveable on a centre in the treadle, when the cam S on the shaft ( b) comes round, and depresses the treadle, the two chains at its extremity are so adjusted as to act upon the pulleys (b 1 ) to which they are attached on the rod T. On this rod are also two wheels (c 1 , c 1 ), gearing with the racks (d 1 , d l ), see Figure ll,*Which cause the box to shift to the position required. Im¬ mediately on this being effected, the cam S passes over the tumbler (Yd), and touching the bell crank (z), throws it back, thereby causing the tumbler to fall into its place in the lever R, and so on for every sub¬ sequent shift of the shuttle box. Every shuttle has its own lever, tumbler, and pulley; and the cam S making one revolution for every two shots thrown, it is always ready to shift the box Q to whatever position the Jacquard machine shall indicate. To this end the pattern must previously be all completely arranged upon the cards of the Jacquard machine. The shaft T is supported in bearing, attached to the swords of the lay, and therefore partakes of their reciprocating motion. I wish it also to be observed that the treadles or levers being each attached by two chains, one on each THE ART OP WEAVING. 191 side of the pulley (6 1 ) of that treadle, they can every one act independently of the others. That the box Q may shift freely, the cam U on the shaft (b) is so pitched as to allow the small pulleys marked 9 to come out of the notches in the racks (d 1 , d l ). When the box has been shifted to its proper position, the cam U turns its full side to the pulley and the lever W, and pulling the connecting rod (< e l ), which is flexibly attached to the small horizontal lever (f 1 ) at the bottom of the lay sword, it causes the upright lever (g l ) } centred on or near the middle of its length, to act upon the spiral spring (z^ 1 ), which, pulling the frame carrying the small pulleys marked 9 into the notches of the racks (d\ d 1 ), holds the box firmly in its proper place until the instant for shifting again arrives. The reason for having all the levers working at the rocking-tree shaft X is, that at that point there is the least motion of the lay. The weight of the shuttle box is counterpoised by the weight Y, to render it more easily shifted. The weight is suspended by a cord or chain from the top of the box passing over the pulley Z ; and to prevent the motion of the lay from communicating to it a swinging motion, it is controlled by a small guide rod attached to the contiguous sword of the lay. The protecting rod (i l ), shown at the back of the lay in Figure 8, is similar to that in other power-looms. I will now describe the mode of stopping the loom, 192 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF when it happens from any cause during its working, that the shuttle driver is not taken back to its proper position, it being understood that the driver or picker ([Id ) ought always to be back when the box is shifted, to touch the small curved lever (j l ) shown in front of the shuttle box Q, and send that end of it back also. The effect of this is to raise the other end of the lever, and consequently the lifter ( l) clear of the frog; but when any derangement occurs to prevent the driver from getting back, the lifter is not raised, but striking on the frog or moveable catch (m 1 ), this last is brought into action upon the upright lever (V) and pushing it forward transfers the motion along the rod A 1 in front of the loom to the opposite end; at which is the lever (o l ) connected with the handle B 1 for stopping the loom. To secure the correct shifting of the shuttle box, before picking the first shot of the shuttle shifted to, an appar¬ atus called the protector is provided, the character and action of which may be understood from the following description with reference to the Drawings. The small pulleys marked 9 on the brackets V, enter the notches of the racks (d 1 , d l ), when the box Q is in its proper position, and the bracket V pressing on one end of the lever (p l ), at the back of the shuttle box, causes the other end to press on the rod descending from the back tongue of the protector, and lifts it over the notch of the frog (m 1 ) (see Figure 7); but if not lifted, the tongue (/ u ) strikes the frog when the lay is going back, l/rHOCH*rtf££? £r GSOSIGS yy^rsou. Printed & Published by George Watson, Glasgow. THE ART OE WEAVING. 193 and a pin in the frog pushes the lever (y l ) back, and this being in connection with the lever (w 1 ) and the rod or shaft A 1 , pulls the handle B 1 , and stops the loom. The weft protector, which I now proceed to describe, is similar to that in common use on the side of the loom contiguous to the driving pulleys B, B; but it is also applied at the side of this loom where the shifting shuttle box is situated, to allow the loom being stopped whenever any of the weft shots fail. To accomplish this, I employ an apparatus of the kind depicted in the Drawings, and which may be understood from the following description:—A frame (r 1 ) is fixed to the sword of the lay on that side at which the protector is to be applied, and in this frame is a lever (V) carry¬ ing a small fork at its extremity for lifting the weft of the idle shuttles out of the way of the weft stopper forks (i! 1 ). The lever S 1 is lifted by a wyper or cam C 1 , on the shaft (b), and allows the shuttle to pass below it from the single side of the lay. After it has passed into the box Q, the wyper E 1 acts upon the hanging lever (V), which pulls the lever (V) hung upon the frame (V 1 ) or sword of the lay. This lever is provided with a friction pulley, and being pulled back disengages the small wires holding up the threads of weft, and allows them to fall to the race of the lay, when the wyper C 1 acting upon the lever (r 1 ) allows the lever S 1 to fall to the bottom of the slit provided for it in the race of the lay. This done, the wyper A 1 194 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF E 1 allows the spring or weight (a? 1 ) to pull the lever (V) with its fork under the weft shots, when the shuttle has passed to the single side of the lay, and thus lifts all the weft shots by the wyper C 1 acting on the lever (w l ), as before described. When the weft of any shuttle is run out or breaks, the fork (f) is not lifted, and the arm F 1 on the shaft (b ) acts in conse¬ quence upon the lever (y l ), and thereby communicates motion to the hauling catch (V), which pulling the lever G 1 pushes forward the upright lever (n 1 ), and this acting upon the handle of the loom stops it, in the same manner as the other protectors before described. Having thus described the nature of my Invention, and the means employed by me for carrying the same into effect, I would have it understood that I do not confine myself to the details shown and described, so long as the peculiar character of any part or parts of my Invention is retained. But what I claim is,— Firstly, the particular shape or form of the cam or wyper G on the shaft ( b ) for working the Jacquard machine. Secondly, the form and position of the treadle H, whereby it is made to project in front of the loom, for the purpose of enabling the weaver to work the Jacquard machine independently of the loom. Thirdly, the peculiar apparatus for disengaging the Jacquard machine. the art of weaving. 195 Fourthly, the application of a series of cams or other like mechanism for steadying the idle heddle leaves when the other leaves are working or in action. Fifthly, the application of what I have called stenting rollers for keeping the yarn at proper tension, at the same time that it is allowed to yield to the working heddle leaves. Sixthly, the apparatus depicted and described under the name of selvage protector. Seventhly, the mode of working the shuttle box when three or more shuttles are employed. Eighthly, the mode of applying apparatus to stop the loom from the double box side of the lay when the weft fails. Ninthly, the mode of stopping the loom when the shuttle driver is not taken sufficiently back. And, Tenthly, the mode of stopping the loom when the shuttle box is not properly shifted. In witness whereof, I, the said John Watson, have hereunto set my hand and seal, this Seventeenth day of June, One thousand eight hundred £ind forty-seven. JOHN WATSON. “And be it remembered, that on the Seventeenth day of June, in the year of our Lord One thousand 196 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP eight hundred and forty-seven, the aforesaid John Watson came before our said Lady the Queen in Her Chancery, and acknowledged the Specification afore¬ said, and all and every thing therein contained and specified, in form above written. And also the Specification aforesaid was stamped according to the tenor of the statute made for that purpose. Enrolled the Twenty-first day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty-seven.' 5 TO MOUNT A HARNESS LOOM. The first thing that should be learned about Damask Weaving, is designing the Patterns; indeed, this is required for all kinds of figured weaving, and a great deal depends .upon the selection of the patterns, but more will be said about this under another head: the remarks here will be confined to what is required for the mounting and starting of a Harness Loom. The figure to be woven is first painted on design paper (see design paper), which must be of the proper proportion for the warp and weft, and the card-cutter cuts the cards from this painting; also the weaver or harness tyer, finds the number of tail cords that will be required for the pattern from this paper. After the quantity of tails are found that will make the harness, the workman will require the following articles before lie proceeds to mount it. THE AET OF WEAVING. 197 MAILS Are in general made out of sheet copper of an oblong shape, with three holes in them, and they answer the same purpose as the eyes of heddles, the warp of the web being drawn through the centre hole. They are made in a variety of shapes and sizes to suit the kind of work they are used for. LEADS Are from seven to twelve inches long, and may be made by casting small rods, and then drawing them in the same manner as iron wire, through holes of different diameters, until the proper size is got; they are used as weights in the harness, and are connected with twine to the mails. The weight of the leads to be employed will depend upon the weight of the work they have to do; for a full harness and light work, they may be made as light as to have about one hundred of them in the pound, but the weight of them must be increased in proportion to the weight of cloth. For a split or four thread (if not a pressure one) har¬ ness, about thirty in the pound will do, but if it be a four or five thread pressure harness, such as is used for table-covers, &c., &c., then they will require to be as heavy as to have only ten to sixteen in the pound. The leads in the centre of a web may be lighter than 198 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF those at the border, as their action is more direct, and with gathered ties, the leads can always be used lighter than in those that are not gathered. HARNESS TWINE. This Twine is used for tying the leads to the mails, and forming what is called the sleepers and neck of the harness. It should be made from some substance that has little or no elasticity in it, at the same time flexible; it is generally made from flax yarn, with as many threads twisted together as will make the twine up to the strength that will be required for the kind of work that is to be woven. For full harnesses with light work there is no use in putting in twine heavier than six ply of eighteens, as it would be adding expense to the mounting for no purpose; but when the harness is a pressure one, with four or five threads in the mail, and with leads, that each one will weigh two ounces, then the twine requires to be very strong, and this strength can only be got by putting in more plies of yarn. At the sides of broad webs,, the harness twine undergoes a great deal more friction than in the centre, and it might be profitable to use two sizes of twine, putting the lightest in the centre. However, much of this must be left to the discretion of the manager or workman. THE ART OF WEAVING. 199 SLABSTOCK. The Slabstock is a piece of wood about six inches longer than the loom is broad; it is five or six inches broad, and one inch thick, with a groove made on the edge of it, for the purpose of holding the ends of the mails, when the harness is being tied. The use of the slabstock will appear in the -explanation given for mounting the loom. HARNESS OR HOLE BOARD. The Hole Board is made of plane-tree wood, or some other hard, smooth material, and is made as long as the loom is broad. For a full harness, the hole board must have at least as many holes in it as there are threads in the web that is to be woven, but they are scarcely ever made so as just to be the same set as the reed, because each part in the harness should begin with a full row in the board. Suppose the tye to be 360, and the board bored with eight holes m the row, this tye would fill exactly 45 rows, and the reed and hole board might be the same set; but if the tye was 350 it would fill forty-three rows and six holes; this would leave two holes empty in each part; conse¬ quently it would require the hole board to be finer than the reed. In fancy work there is always many changes, and manufacturers find it better to have the hole boards 200 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF made fine in the set, and when a coarser set is required than what the hole board is, they order so many holes to be left empty in the same manner as heddles are set when they are finer than the reed. The rows of holes run in oblique lines across the board, and that obliqueness depends upon the fineness of the set; in fine boards each row of holes embosom each other, to keep them from being too much crowded, and that the mails may stand as near as possible opposite to their respective intervals of the reed. In a full harness where two threads are put in one split of the reed, the two mails should just take the same space as one split, and when four threads are in one mail, it should take up the space of two splits, and so on, in proportion to the quantity of threads in one mail. Hole boards used to be made by dividing them off with a pair of compasses, and was a matter of taste as to the number of holes in the rows across the board, but now they are made by machinery, and in general have eight holes in the row, and can be divided to have holes to suit any reed, as the apparatus for dividing the board is almost the same as what is used by the reed makers for regulating the set of the reed. STANDERS Are articles which are required for holding the Slabstock in its proper place in the loom, when the THE ART OE WEAVING. 201 harness is being tied up. They are either made of iron or wood, about three or four inches broad, with a slit in the side of them, as wide as to allow the slabstock to get in. TO PREPARE THE HARNESS. The first thing is Stringing the Leads (the name given to this operation), and it is in general done by children. The flax yarn used for this purpose is cut into pieces called hangers, in lengths about twelve or fourteen inches long, and laid on a small bench or table opposite the operator; the mails and leads are also put on this bench. The person takes one lead with the left hand, and with the right hand puts the hanger through the hole in the end of it, and then through the under hole in the mail; the two ends of o the twine are then tied together, and hung on a rod with the mail uppermost; this operation is repeated until there is a sutficient quantity of leads and mails strung to make the harness. They are now taken oft the rods in handfuls, by slipping the hand between the legs of the hangers, and allowing the leads to hang down, and are in this position put on the slabstock, and spread along it. The next thing that is required is a piece of flat wire, a little longer than the harness is broad, which may be got from any reed maker, and on which the B 2 202 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF mails are placed one by one; the mails will now be all right above the groove in the slabstock, with their top eyes above the flat wire. The slabstock with the leads and mails are now put into a frame like the letter H 7 which is made of wood, the ends of it going into slits that are made in the sides of the frame for that purpose. The slabstock is moved up towards the cross bar in the frame, and when it and the cross bar are about fourteen inches apart, and parallel with each other, it is fixed in that place, for the harness to be what some weavers denominate “cast,” which is, connecting the mails to the sleepers. Sleepers are made from the same kind of yarn as the hangers, in the following manner:—The yarn is first wound on bobbins, and one of these bobbins with the yarn on it is placed at the side of the frame upon a wire or spindle. The boy or girl, or whoever is to cast the harness, takes the end of the yarn that is on the bobbin and puts it through the eye of a common needle, and goes to the opposite end of the frame where the casting should begin; the needle is now put through the top eyes of fifty or sixty of the mails and the twine drawn along with it. After this is done, the end of the twine is taken out of the needle, and fixed to a nail or wire that is in the cross bar of the frame. These nails should be arranged along the cross bar, not more than four or five inches from each other, to prevent unnecessary loss of twine. THE ART OF WEAVING. 203 The caster now takes a piece of small wire, or draw- point, and inserts it in between the end mail and the one next it, below the harness twine, and lifts the har¬ ness twine up to the nail in the cross bar. The draw- point is next inserted in between the second and third mail, and the twine put upon the nail as before, and so on with the remainder ot the mails that the sleeper twine has been put through, till finished. The fore¬ going operation is continued until the harness is all cast. It will be evident that in winding the yarn on the bobbins, it will not do to have any knots on the twine, as they would not pass through the eyes of the mails. The next thing is to take the sleepers off the wires, and cut them in the exact place where the wires were in. Now that the harness is cast, the next process is to draw the sleepers through the holes in the harness board; and for illustration, we will suppose the tye to be a 400, the web to be put in a 12 00 reed, and the yarn to fill as near as possible 38 inches of the reed. As will be seen from the table of splits in a web, that there is 1232*43 splits in a 12 00 08 inch, which will make, with 2 threads in the split, 2464 ends (keeping out the fraction) in the warp of the web; take off 16 ends for selvages, and the number will be 2428, which is divided by the tye, namely,— 400)2428(6 times over. 2400 28 204 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP This six times over means that the tye in this web is repeated 6 times, and there is 28 ends over, which must be left out, unless the pattern be very small, but in this instance, the whole 400 is required to complete the pattern; therefore, the 28 ends are left out, which will make the web about three-eighths of an inch narrower. This quantity, 2400, represents the num¬ ber of sleepers that are to be taken through the harness board, and the holes in the board must be divided off, so as the harness will occupy exactly 37f inches, the space that will be filled in the reed by the warp of the web. After the holes in the board have been marked that are to be filled, it is hung up a little above the slabstock. If the person who is to draw the sleepers into the board be standing in front, the drawing must begin at the left hand side, with the back hole in the board; there being 8 holes in each cross row of the board, the tye will fill 50 rows, and it being 6 times repeated, as stated before, the harness will fill 300 rows exactly; but if the tye had not divided by the number of holes in a row (viz. 8), but left a few holes in the last row of the repeat, these holes must remain empty, as every repeat of the tye must begin with a full row. The harness board, with slabstock, mails, leads, and sleepers, are now taken to the loom, and placed in the position as seen at (c), in Plate III, Figure 7, which is an end view of a power-loom, with a full harness; THE ART OP WEAVING. 205 (figure 6 being the front view of the same), as will be observed, it is very near the front of the loom; indeed, a common full harness should be as near to the back of the lay as just to be clear of it, when it is full back. If the harness is to be put up in a loom that has got no arrangements in it for allowing the harness board and Jacquard machine to be shifted after the harness is tied, the harness board in this case must be firmly fixed in its place, not to be shifted, after the harness is tied, in any direction whatever. And although there are arrangements made in power-looms for shift¬ ing the Jacquard machine and harness board to any position that may be required, still it is better to have them as near as possible fixed in their place where they are to remain when the loom is at work. To find the proper height for the mails, the lay is placed half way back, and a small straight edge put across the race, with the end of it projecting as far back as to reach the slabstock; the under edge ol the straight edge where it crosses the top of the slabstock is the piopei height for the mails, the slabstock being fixed in brackets which are bolted to the sides of the loom; the mails can be brought to their position by shifting these brackets up or down. After the slabstock is secured in its proper place, the hole board is next fixed in its place, which is about seven inches above the top edge of the slabstock, thus allowing the sleepers to be about eight inches above the hole board, and 206 THEORY* AND PRACTICE OF about seven below. The harness tyer now takes pieces of cord and ties them round the slabstock, at a distance of three or four inches from each other, for the pur¬ pose of keeping the flat wire with the mails on it close down to the slabstock during the time that the harness is being tied. When this is done, the sleepers are gathered into bunches, with four hundred in each bunch, and a piece of string put round them to keep each four hundred distinct. The Jacquard machine is now set in its proper position, which is right above the centre of the harness board. The usual method for placing the Jacquard machine is, to take one of the leads and attach a piece of harness twine to it, and hang it to one of the cords in the centre of the machine, which is then shifted till once the lead is exactly above the centre of the harness board. The harness is now ready for beating and tying up, and the most expeditious way to do it is to have two or three persons to beat the harness, and one to tie it, which is done in the following; manner: —Having; ascertained the length of the neck twine (which is the twine that connects the sleeper to the tail cords in the Jacquard machine), and supposing them to be five feet long, a piece of wood, such as a heddle shaft, is taken, and two pins put into it, two-and-a-half feet apart, and the twine is reeled on to the pins for the neck, which will give the length required, by cutting it in the centre. Each person who is to beat the harness, gets a quantity THE ART OF WEAVING. 207 of this twine and knots it to the sleepers, beginning with the back hole in the row on each part; and suppose there are only two beaters, each will hand up three ends to the harness tyer, who will tie them to the cord that is next the Jacquard machine barrel in front of the machine; this is what is called the first cord, and attention must be paid to the design to see that the flower is drawn to answer this; the tail cord next to this one in the cross row of the machine is the second, which the harness tyer takes next, and so on with all the four hundred tail cords, taking them in regular rotation. The knot used here is a matter of choice; if the snitch knot is employed at all, it should be between the neck twines and the sleepers, for the purpose of adjusting any of the mails that may be too high or too low, but the harness tyer should be very careful to have all the neck twines equally tight, and the knots on the tail cords all the same distance from the Jacquard machine, for if the knots be not oil in the same horizontal line, the heck for guiding the neck twines cannot be properly set. When the harness is brought forward to this stage, the workman proceeds to take away the brackets that are bolted on to the sides of the loom for holding the slabstock, and for the purpose of keeping a lease in the harness, he ties a cord to the end of the slabstock, which is drawn through the legs of the sleepers when the slabstock is pulled out. This lease is to preserve the 208 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF order of the harness, so that the person who is to draw the warp into the mails may get them in regular suc¬ cession. The slabstock and brackets having been removed, a boy commences with the first lead at the side of the harness and brings the knot on the hanger down to the eye of it, proceeding from one to another until he goes over the whole of the hangers. The brackets for holding the harness board are now put on, in the same place where the brackets were that held the slabstock, and the harness board fixed in its place. The harness is now ready for dressing; that is, put¬ ting a sort of varnish on to the hangers and sleepers, and that part of the neck twine that will rub on the heck when the harness is working, but care must be taken that the varnish is thoroughly dry before the drawing of the warp into the mails commences. The drawing of the warp into the mails of a full harness is the same as drawing a plain web, which is explained at page 91. The web being now in the loom, and the harness board fixed in its proper place, the tenter’s next duty is to see that the yarn is in its proper position, which is just to be touching the race when the lay is half way back ; if it be too high or too low, he moves the Jacquard machine up or down, as the case may be, till once the mails of the harness are at their proper place. The rod ( c), as shown in Plate III., Figure 7, also in Plate IV., Figure 9, is now to be connected to the THE ART OF WEAVING. 209 lever I, which works the Jacquard machine, and in doing so, care must be taken not to have the shed too large. It will be seen from the drawing that there are a number of holes on the lever for the purpose of regulating the size of the sheds. After this is done, he puts his foot upon the treadle Id, and depresses it, and by doing so, the brander of the Jacquard machine, along with the whole harness and warp of the web, is raised, and it is kept in this position until the work¬ man puts four cards on the barrel, which cards have been previously cut for making plain cloth. The brander and harness are now lowered, and the plain cards coming in contact with the needles of the Jacquard machine, one half of them will be pressed back, and the next time the brander is raised a plain shed will be formed, when the first lease rod may be put into it. The next tread will make the other plain shed, when the second lease rod can be put in, then the loom will be ready for making plain cloth; and to make good plain cloth with the Jacquard machine, the different articles about it require to be nicely adjusted, which will now be explained. JACQUARD MACHINE. The position that the Jacquard machine occupies in regard to the loom, will be seen in Plate III., which is right above the loom, and it should be as 210 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP near to the ceiling as it can be got, for the purpose of giving the harness twine as little angle as possible. If the machine is properly made, the upright needles should stand perpendicular when the brander is down, if they are not pressed back by the cross ones. The hooks on the upper end of the upright needles should be f of an inch above the blades of the brander. If the needles press too much on the blades of the brander, the trap board is shifted a little towards the front or barrel side of the machine, if they are not near enough to the blades, the trap board is shifted back. As very much depends on the setting of the trap board to have a good going machine, the workman should be very particular to have it right done. The box at the back of the machine which contains the small spiral brass springs, should be so set, as not to press too hard on the cross needles; this can be adjusted by putting a small slip of wood, or paste-board between the spring box and the standers of the machine, for if they are allowed to press too much, the points of the needles will have a great tendency to pierce holes in the cards. To get the barrel properly set also requires great care, and in doing this, the workman takes a card which has been previously cut, and places it on one of the sides of the barrel, when he will see if the pegs will suit to keep the card in its proper place; if the holes in the card are all opposite the holes in the barrel, it is right, but if not, he shifts the pegs till once THE ART OF WEAVING. 211 the card is brought to the position required. After he has examined all the four sides of the barrel, and made them right, the cards for working plain cloth are again tied on the barrel, and put into the machine, when the brander is allowed to come down. He next sets the bracket that moves the lay of the Jacquard machine, so as it will bring the barrel as close on the needles as to make all the upright ones stand clear of the brander blades, except those that are to be lifted. It does not do to have the barrel coming too close to the machine, because it puts unnecessary strain on the cards, and that must be avoided. The rod (c) that connects the lever I (that lifts the brander) to the treadle H, should have a screw upon it, for the purpose of making it short or long at pleasure; by this screw the tenter adjusts the fall of the brander. If the brander be allowed to come down and rest on the machine every shot, when the loom is in full motion, it will have the same effect as if it was struck with a hammer, which makes a disagreeable noise, and has a very bad effect upon the hole of the harness, such as turning and bending the needles, causing the leads to have a swinging motion, and destroying the regularity of the shedding; and to avoid this, the rod (c) is screwed up to that extent, that the weight of the brander will always hang upon the cams G, as shown at Figure 9, Plate IV. 212 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MAKING CLOTH. When all the little parts about the Jacquard machine are properly adjusted, and the harness brought for¬ ward, as has been explained, the loom is ready for weaving; and as plain cloth will show the working of the harness better than any other, a few inches of it should be woven before the flowering cards are put on. In Plate III., Figure 6, the cards are shown at K, and it will be observed that they are hung on two curved iron rods, the curves of them being made so as they will be suitable to hold either a small or large set of cards. After having woven a few inches of plain cloth, the set of cards that is to work the pattern wanted is hung upon these curved rods, the cards having been all previously laced and arranged on wires for supporting them on the rods. The four plain cards are now taken otf the barrel, and the flowering cards put on, which completes the mounting of a full harness power- loom. The method for regulating the quantity of shots to be put on the cloth has been explained in Chapter III. When the weaver is obliged to turn back the cards to find the suitable one, from any cause that may hap¬ pen, such as taking out a quantity of shots, that cord which is attached to the upper catch for turning the barrel, which will be seen in Figure 6, Plate III., is THE ATLT OB' WEAVING-. 213 taken hold of, and pulled downward; and as both catches are connected at their points, it is evident that when the top one is taken out of gear, the under one will he raised, and come into contact with the barrel, which will turn the barrel backwards along with the cards, when the weaver depresses the treadle H. The treadle IT is depressed by the weaver’s foot, and to prevent the harness from being lifted too high, a guide is placed on the under edge of the treadle for that purpose, which enables the weaver*to work the Jacquard machine with the greatest ease. To keep the wooden frame that guides the upright needles steady, there are four small spiral springs used; two of them are shown in Plate III. (right above the word, Figure 6, and below the Jacquard machine), the other two are placed at the opposite end ol the machine, and not shown in the drawings. These springs are in general made of brass wire, or some other material that will not be effected by dampness. PRESSURE HARNESS LOOM. Those Harnesses that work in conjunction with the heddle leaves, which leaves force the warp of the web into a shed, are denominated Pressure Harnesses. In a pressure harness the warp threads in each mail vary from two to seven, and sometimes more; but for many 214 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF kinds of cloth, it is not necessary to have an equal quantity of threads in each mail, although it is better to have them as nearly equal as possible, as it makes the turnings in the figure more regular. This mode of weaving has been applied to the mak¬ ing of many different kinds of goods, such as shawls, ladies’ dresses, table-cloths and covers, napkins, bed- mats, &c.; and to make the principle of this plan of weaving understood, the reader is requested to look at Plate II., Figure 4, where an end view of a loom, with a pressure harness mounting, will be seen. Tt will be observed that the warp threads cross each other between the heddles and the harness. For illustration, suppose the warp of the web to be white, and the weft red, and that none of the warp is lifted by the harness, the heddle leaves in this case would make tweeled cloth, according to the quantity of leaves employed, which in this loom are five; and as there is never more than two leaves working at the one time in a pressure harness, the consequence will be, that only a fifth-part of the warp is lifted each shot, and the upper side of the cloth will be red, and the under side white, or nearly so. If the loom be allowed to work two inches of cloth in this way, and then work two inches with the whole harness lifted, only a fifth-part of the warp will be sunk, and the colours will be reversed. It will be obvious that if the loom was to work for some time in this manner, a red and white stripe would be THE AET OF WEAVING. 215 woven, each stripe two inches broad; but suppose that cards cut for plain cloth were to be put on the machine barrel, every alternate mail would be raised, and along with them half the warp; and if the heddles were allowed to stand idle for a short time, and the machine to work every shot, this would make plain cloth the same as a full harness, if each mail had only one thread of warp in it; but in this harness each mail has four warp threads in it, so the shuttle will pass above and below four threads alternately. Suppose now that the harness is kept up for four shots at a time, and the heddles put in motion, and the loom allowed to work for a little, the cloth produced will have the appearance of a four-and-four red and white check; because the heddles will press up and down a fifth-part of the warp threads from each half of the harness, every shot. The reader will understand from the foregoing ex¬ planation, how any flower or figure that is within the compass of the tye can he woven. As already stated, the number of threads in each mail will vary, a harness with six threads in each mail will make a figure double the size of one with only three, if both harnesses have the same tye; also half the quantity of cards will do, for in general the same number of shots are woven for each shift of the card, as there are threads in the mail. For example,—A three thread harness will have three shots for each lift of the 21G TIIEORY AND PRACTICE OF harness, a four thread, four shots, and so on for every thread in the mail, one shot more for each card. A description of how a harness should be prepared is given under the head, “Full Harness,” so it need not be repeated here, the only difference being, that the mails and leads are larger, and the twine stronger than what is required for a full harness. The mounting now to be described, was for working linen damask table-cloths, and was applied to the loom from which the drawings were taken that are given in Plates I. and II. For these table-cloths a gathered t} 7 e of 612 was employed, and the space occupied in the harness board was nearly 76 inches. What is meant by a gathered tye is, in tyeing the harness, the operator takes two ends, one from each half-part, and tyes them to the tail cord, and whatever the figure is on the one half, it is the same on the other, reversed. In some figures it is necessary to take only one end from the centre of each part for the first tail cord; this is to make the centre of the figure neater, by having only one mail for the figure to turn on. But all the other tail cords, as stated before, must have two ends, one from each half-part. However, the tye for this table¬ cloth had only one whole part on it, which will be apparent as we proceed with the description. The harness, being prepared and ready for the loom, the slabstock with it is fixed in its proper position, which is shown at the words, “Harness Leads,” Plate THE AET OF WEAVING. 217 II., Figure 4. In this loom the distance between the harness and fell of the cloth was 22 inches, but this may be different in other looms. The proper distance for the mails to be from the fell of the cloth, in a pressure harness, can be found from the traverse of the lay. Let the heddles be kept as close to the lay as just to allow them to work clear of it; and suppose the distance from the fell of the cloth to the centre leaf to be about ten inches, then from the centre leaf to the centre mail in the harness should be ten inches also. The Jacquard machine having been fixed right above the centre of the slabstock, the harness tyer begins his operations by taking the two ends, forming tlie neck twines of the two mails that are in the centre of the harness, and the first tail cord in the machine, and tyes them together. He goes on tying two of the neck twines to each of the tail cords in regular rota¬ tion, until the whole 612 are tyecl. Of course the last tail cord will have tyed to it the two outside mails, one from each selvage. It will now appear that this tye can work any figure that will come within the range of 1225 mails, or 612x2 = 1224, the number of mails in the harness; but the figure must be so drawn, that when the two halves are put together they will join without any defect, and make one complete figure. Suppose the harness is now ready for the warp of the web to be drawn into it, divide the whole number 218 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF of ends in the web by the mails in the harness, and this will give the number of ends or threads for each mail. The web being a 12 00 , with 4920 ends in it, (which makes it nearly 76 inches wide,) the threads in each mail will be four, as will be seen from the example, after allowing 12 ends for each selvage. EXAMPLE. 1224)4920(4 Threads in Mail. 4896 24 for Selvages. When the web is to be drawn through the harness, it must at the same time be drawn through the heddles, and the heddles are placed in the loom, in front of the harness. The drawer begins by taking the first end through the mail and heddle next the selvage; the second end is taken through the same mail, and through the second heddle ; the third and fourth ends are taken through the same first mail, and through the third and fourth heddles, and so on with all the rest, four ends in each mail, taking the heddles in regular succession, until all the web is drawn. This will take all the warp in the web, except 24 ends, which are allowed for the selvages and two or three mails are hung at each side of the harness board, for the selvage ends that are not lifted by the harness. If all the 12 ends for the selvage are put in one mail, a lead sufficiently heavy must THE ART OF WEAVING. 219 be hung to the hanger, to keep them, down, so that the pressure of the heddles will not be able to lift the lead. After the web is drawn into the harness and heddles, it is knotted up in the same manner as a common web, but the mounting of the heddles is rather different. The eyes of common heddles are about § of an inch long, but for a pressure harness the eyes must be at least three inches long, to allow the yarn in the harness to form a shed independent of the heddles; as three of the leaves out of the five will be at all times in a mid position, neither up nor down, while the other two are forcing the tweel shed, one of the two will take down the fifth part of the warp that is lifted by the harness, and the other will raise a fifth part of the warp that is not lifted. So when tying up the heddles the under end of the eyes aie to be brought nearly on a level with the race of the lay; and when this is done, a piece of wood is put on the top of the jacks at P.P.P., Figure 1, Plate I, and firmly tied down upon them, to keep them parallel with the heddle shafts, for the time being, when the workman is connecting the heddle shafts to the jacks and treadles with cords, which cords are represented at 5 and 6, Figure 1, Plate I. When the heddles are mounted, the piece of wood is taken off the jacks, and two or three inches of cloth is woven with the heddles, the harness being allowed 220 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF to stand idle. By doing this, the workman will see if the sheds are properly formed, better than if both the harness and heddles were working. If the Jacquard machine and harness board have been adjusted, according to the direction given under cc full harness,” the loom will be ready for the flowering cards; and if the web is to be woven with the same quantity of weft as warp, then the set of cards will contain 1224 flowering cards, and six blank or uncut ones, making in all 1230; but to this should be added other ten tweeling or blank cards, to allow room for a hem on each end of the table-cloth. It will be seen from the position of the heddles in the loom that the harness requires to make a shed double the size of what is made by the heddles, (see dotted lines, Figure 4 ? Plate II.), so as to have the sheds that are made by the harness and heddles both the same size in front of the reed where the shuttle runs. The shed made by the harness is regulated in this loom in the same man¬ ner as in the full harness one. In the same Plate, at Figure 5, will be seen a draw¬ ing of the disengaging apparatus, which apparatus is for regulating the quantity of shots the loom works for every change of card. It is common in the trade to say so many shots on the card, as four shots on the card, five shots on the card, &c,, which means that the loom works that number of shots for each card, and for this table-cloth THE ART OF WEAVING. 221 there was four shots on the card, and as the set con¬ tains in all 1240, including the blank and tweeling ones, that number multiplied by four will give 4960 shots for one table-cloth. The reader will understand from this that any figure or pattern can be woven up to that quantity of shots. To save expense in cards, manufacturers in design¬ ing for table-cloths, very often makes the pattern of the one end of the cloth the same as the other ; when this way is adopted, half the cards will do, by working them back for the second half of the cloth. Suppose that it is wanted to have 15 shots on the cloth, instead of 12, and to keep the table-cloth the same length, and to have no more cards in the set, the disengaging apparatus is made to put five shots on the card, instead of four; because if four gives twelve, five will give fifteen. This is accomplished by chang¬ ing the pinion S on the boss of the wheel, c, c, at Figure 5. If the wheels and pinions in this apparatus are properly proportionated, any degree of wefting can be put upon the cloth with far more accuracy than with the hand-loom weaver, because it will not forget, as a weaver might do, the number of shots for each card. For example, if the weft that is wanted on the cloth be equal to 4§ shots on the card, then three cards would require to have five shots, and one four, which will make 19 shots for one revolution of the stud wheel in the disengaging apparatus. It will be observed 222 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF that there are four studs in the wheel shown in the figure, but they are set to work only four shots on each card, and four times four being 16, a pinion will be required to be put on, so as the wheel will make one turn for 19 shots. Suppose again, that the cloth wanted is to be equal to 3-J shots on the card, this example will show how any nicety can be attained by this apparatus. To find the pinion required for the different shifts, first find how many shots will be re¬ quired for one revolution of the stud-wheel, and it will be found by multiplying the number of shots on the card by the denominator of the fraction. EXAMPLE. 3^ Shots on Card. 8 25 Shots for one turn of the Wheel. It will be evident that the wheel will require to have eight studs in it for the 3J shots on the card, which will be equal to seven cards with three shots on each, making 21, and one card with four shots, which makes up the 25. After this explanation, with the descrip¬ tion given at page 185, it will be easily understood how the apparatus should act. STENTING ROLLERS. At page 187 there is given a short description of the use of these rollers, and it will be as well for the reader THE ART OF WEAVINGk 223 to look at the drawings again, and the description there given. The little or no elasticity in linen yarn has always been a drawback to the weaving of it in a pressure harness, because the heddles have to force the yarn from the harness shed to form the tweeling sheds; therefore that part of the warp which is pressed sus¬ tains the whole strain or weight of the pace, and the consequence is, that the rest of the warp in the harness does not form a proper shed, by it becoming slack. When experimenting with the pressure harness in the power-loom, the greatest difficulty we had to contend with was to keep the warp yarn at its proper tension, and this led to the introduction of these rollers, which are represented in Plate II., Figure 4. The dotted lines at q, q , q, show the position of the different portions of the warp yarn for each respective leaf; that portion of the warp which passes over the roller nearest the yarn beam, is taken through the back leaf of the heddles, the yarn passing over the next roller, through the next leaf, and so on with the others in regular rotation. When any of the leaves begin to force the shed, the spiral springs of the roller yield to the strain put upon them, and by this means the warp yarn in the harness that is not pressed is kept at a proper tightness, by the pace on the yarn beam not yielding to the pressure of the heddles. To keep the different parts of the warp distinct, it is necessary to have each roll placed a little 224 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF below the one immediately behind it, as shown in the drawing; which also shows, that the whole of the warp yam is brought to the same level with the common warp roll, which is placed behind the harness. By using these rollers, the following advantages are obtained:—The web can be woven with a lighter pace, and consequently will be easier on the yarn; the cloth is made more perfect, by being free from what is called skipped warp, caused by the warp yarn being slack; the weaver’s time is economised by being able to work with larger shuttles and pirns; and there is a saving of power in driving the loom, because the warp yarn does not press so much upon the shuttle, being enabled to work with larger sheds, which allows the shuttle to be driven with a lighter pick. It is essential to have the rollers strong, at the same time light, and small in diameter. They must have as much strength as not to bend in the centre, when the pressure of the yarn comes upon them, for that would destroy the regularity of the shed; they must be small in diameter, so as to take up as little room as possible; and they must be light, so as the springs will not be too much burdened with their weight. To have these three requisites, the rollers should be made of sheet-iron tinned, similar to a cylinder of a throstle frame, but on a much smaller scale. THE ART OF WEAVING-. 225 SHEDDING. It has been explained how a common web is shedded, and a few words will show the difference for the shed¬ ding in this loom. As will have been noticed, the eyes of the heddles for a pressure harness is at least three inches long; and as the heddles must move the length of the eye besides the depth of the shed, it will be necessary to take this into calculation in making the patterns for the tweeling barrel and treadles; for if the shed wanted be three inches deep, and the eye of the heddle be three inches, then the traverse of the points of the tweeling treadles must be six inches, to make up for the length of the eye. But the shed must not be so large as the eye of the heddle, or the warp yarn will press upon the eyes of those that are not in the act of shedding, and put unnecessary strain on the web. CHECK POWER-LOOM, WITH SIX SHUTTLES. Checked Cloth is made by having stripes in the warp and weft; and these stripes may be formed by putting in so much coarse, and so much fine yarn, alternately, in the warp of the web, and the same way with the weft, which will make a check. But checks are mostly made, by having the warp and weft striped with different colours, which stripes form the checks, according to their arrangement. 226 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF It is an easy matter to have the warp striped with as many colours as may be chosen, the warping of which has been explained at pages 74, 75, and 76. But it is a very different matter with the striping to be made in the wefting, which will be apparent from the description given at page 189, about the working of the shuttle boxes. We may also state here, how patterns are got up at first. A pattern drawer may paint on paper, from his own imagination, or from the suggestion of the manu¬ facturer, as many as will make a pattern web; and if the checks are small, there may be ten or twelve of them put in it. The use of the pattern web is, to show the effect the different colours have when woven into cloth; for very often the patterns that look best on paper have very little appearance on cloth. Suppose that a web is warped four or five yards long, with ten of these patterns in it, the weaver works over each pattern with wefting the same as the warp, which will give each pattern in the warp nine different weftings, besides its own. And when all the ten patterns are woven over, there will be ten of them regular, and ninety irregular, or what is called chance patterns. All the 100 patterns are cut separate, and put in some convenient place to be examined; those that are con¬ sidered fair, are put aside for a second examination, the others are thrown into the waste basket: on the second examination, if any one is found good, it is THE ART OF WEAVING. 227 given to the warper. The pattern web being still in the loom, any little alteration can be made in the dif¬ ferent patterns that may be suggested, until the whole length of the web be consumed in trials. Having fixed upon a pattern that requires six dif¬ ferent colours in the wefting, it will require a lay with a six shuttle box to make it; and our object here is, to explain how these can be made to work in the power-loom, and to make the description more readily comprehended; also, for the benefit of those who wish to try their inventive faculties at making a complete power-loom for check work, the following hints are given. The number of plans that have been tried in connection with check-looms are astonishing; and by far the largest number of them did not succeed; so the remarks given here may be of use to the inventor and loom-maker. When the hand-loom weaver requires to use more shuttles than five, he in general works with a single shuttle lay, and has the number of shuttles lying on a board, at the side of the loom, which he picks up with his hand, as they are required to be changed, accord¬ ing to the pattern; but in the power-loom, this has all to be done by machinery. To have a complete power-loom for making the various kinds of checks used in tartans and fancy dresses, the apparatus used, as an index for the pat¬ tern, must have an extensive range, such as what may 228 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF be obtained by using the Jacquard machine for that purpose. It should have a weft stopper motion that will stop the loom the first shot, and this will cause the use of a fork at each side of the web, or some other thing that will act upon the loom whenever the weft is away, not allowing it to run one shot afterwards, as is the case with the common weft motion. The mechanism for shifting the shuttle-box should be so made, that any shuttle can be brought into play so as to make any pattern that can be imagined. A contrivance for stopping the loom when the shuttle driver is not properly taken back at the double-box side of the lay; for if the driver happens to be in the box at the time it should be shifted, either the box or the driver will be broken, perhaps both. If the box is not brought to its proper position when shifted, there should be a protector to stop the loom, to prevent damage being done to the picking or shuttle-box. As mistakes sometimes occur by putting in the wrong colour, and thus spoiling the pattern, some mechanism should be applied that will prevent the loom from working, if the proper coloured pirn be not in the shuttle; and as it would be difficult to make the loom distinguish colours, the pirns that the weft is wound upon could be made with different shaped heads, each colour having its own kind of pirn; and THE ART OE WEAVING-. 229 if the shuttle is filled with a wrong pirn, the loom will not work, because the proper pirn is not in the right shuttle. As stated at page 189, the drawings marked Plates III. and IV., show an arrangement for six shuttles, which will answer for the pattern fixed upon; and the pattern given at page 76 will do for an example in the arrangement of shuttles, supposing the slate colour is understood to be wefted with white. It will be seen at page 76 that the first of the pat¬ tern is 60 of Brown; and suppose, for the sake of reference, that the shuttles are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, No. 1 being the shuttle in the top box, the others to be in regular rotation to No. 6 (the shuttle in the bottom box). To work this pattern, the box will require to be shifted as under:— 60 of Brown, 1st Shuttle. 2 “ Bed, 2nd U 2 “ Orange, 3rd U 2 “ Yellow, 4th a 8 “ Green, 5 th u 2 “ Brown, 1st u 20 “ White, 6th u 2 “ Brown, 1st u 8 “ Green, 5 th u 2 “ Yellow, 4th Ct 2 “ Orange, 3rd u 2 “ Red, 2nd u 10 “ White, ... 6 th a 10 “ Brown, 1st u 10 “ White, 6 th u 4 “ Red, 2nd u 230 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 14 of White, 6tli Shuttle. 14 “ Brown, 1st iC 4 “ Green, 5th U 2 “ Orange, 3rd u 20 “ Brown, 1st u 20 “ White, ... 6 th C( On examination of this pattern, it will be observed, that the shuttles cannot be taken in regular succes¬ sion, by working the box up or down, without missing some of the shuttles; and to obtain this, each shuttle must be at the control of the index for the pattern, which in this case is the set of cards working on the Jacquard machine. But other things may be applied to the same loom for an index instead of the Jacquard machine, such as the Dobie machine for working the heddle leaves, or a single barrel with cards for the purpose of working the shuttle box, some¬ thing the same as what is used on Mr. Whitesmith’s check loom. Or it may be done by a barrel without the use of cards. However, we will go on with our explanation as done by the Jacquard machine. What is called a 400 Jacquard machine has, in general, 51 rows of needles, with eight in each, row, which in all makes 408; and the tye of the u full harness” which has been described, is 400, which leaves eight needles not required for the harness; six of these eight are taken for regulating the movements of the shuttle box; as the w r efting was one shot above, even with the warp, the set of cards were 440, for the THE ART OF WEAVING. 231 complete pattern of the flowering; the checking pattern, being just half the size, it is twice repeated on the set of cards, as it only required 220 shots to complete the check pattern. The ends of the cards right opposite the needles, set aside for the checking, are not cut, except when the shuttle box is to be shifted, and then one hole is punched in the card, to correspond with the shuttle, which is to be brought into play. It will be seen from this pattern, that only 22 cards will require to be cut for one repeat of the checking, the remainder being all left blank at their ends. After the pattern is arranged on the cards, the work¬ man will require to adjust each shuttle box to its respective lever, or treadle; and this is done by turn¬ ing the cam S, Figure 9, round, until the full part of it presses upon the tumbler, then screwing up the chains at X, to have both of them the same tightness, when the shuttle box belonging to that lever is in its proper place. After this has been repeated upon all the six levers, the six needles in the Jacquard machine are connected with cords to the bell cranks that work the tumblers in the levers; and care must be taken to have the proper needle attached to the lever that is to work the shuttle corresponding to the pattern. It will be observed in Plate III., Figure 7, that there is a spiral spring (marked 8) for each of the six cards, but only one is shown in the drawing; and as the Jacquard machine may be lifted higher at one time 232 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF than another, these springs yield to the over-lift, which saves the cords from being broken, and the needles from receiving any undue strain. It will- also be observed at the back of the rack (d 1 d l ) Figure 11, that there is a projecting casting, with six hollow curves, one for each shuttle box; these curves are used for keeping the shuttle box steady, at the instant the shuttles are being picked. As the cam S makes one revolution for every two shots, the shuttle box is relieved every second shot from the strain put upon the rack, so that the box can be shifted every second shot if required. Another thing that these curves are used for is, that if the chains do not bring the sole of the box exactly level with the race of the lay, the small pulley ( g ) being pressed into the curve, by the cam S, makes them exactly level. But if one of the chains breaks, and the box stops when the small pulley (y) is opposite one of the projections, then the protector for stopping the loom, when the shuttle box is not properly shifted, takes effect and stops the loom. The shuttle cord at that side of the loom where the shifting box is placed, must be so adjusted as to allow the driver, when taken back, to touch the lever, J J, shown at Figure 6, Plate III., or the loom will not work, because this lever acts upon the apparatus for stopping the loom when the driver is not taken back to its proper position. When the weft stoppers and THE ART OF WEAVING-. 233 other parts about the loom are all properly set, the loom will be ready for making cloth. And although this check-loom that we have been describing has also a harness, the description given will answer for any kind of checked work; for if the harness be not required for the kind of work to be woven, a small machine, made on the principle of the Jacquard machine, will do for an index for the pattern. But if the manufacturer has already got Jacquard machines, he can use them for that purpose with an old set of cards that may have the number in it for the pattern, which will save the expense of getting new ones. 234 THEORY AHD PRACTICE OF CHAPTER VI. WOOL WEAVING. As the making of cloth from woollen yarns is a very important branch in the Weaving Trade, and one to which many of our manufacturers exclusively confine themselves, we will devote this chapter to the explan¬ ation of its peculiarities. What is meant by the word wool, as used here, is the yarn which is spun from the fleece of the sheep, and some other animals, and the quality and variety of these yarns depend upon the selection of the fleece and how it is spun. Like all other yarns it must have its standard of measurement, and that measurement is found in different ways, but the principle is the same in all kinds of yarns, namely, a certain given weight for a certain given length. To a casual observer, the fineness of yarn would be found by its smallness in diameter compared with other yarns, and so it is in one sense but not in an¬ other. The yarns that are smallest in diameter would be the finest, if the substances they were spun from were all of the same specific gravity, but they are not of the same weight, or specific gravity. For example, THE ART OP WEAVING. 235 ten thousand yards of linen yarn, the weight of which is one pound avoirdupois, and ten thousand yards of woollen yarn, the weight of it also one pound avoirdu¬ pois, although they are both the same length and the same weight, their diameters are very different, the linen yarn being very much smaller, so that each class of yarns is compared with its own class, when they are measured (or what is called sized). The most common standard for wool yarn is as follows:—The reel upon which it is wound is fifty-four inches in circumference, and eighty rounds of the reel is one skein, which is one hundred and twenty yards, and seven of these skeins make one hank or number, which is eight hundred and forty yards, and eighteen of these hanks make one spyndle, which is fifteen thousand one hundred and twenty yards, which will stand thus:— 120 yards 1 skein. 840 “7 “1 hank. 15,120 “ 126 “18 “ 1 spyndle. It will be observed that this is the same length as the cotton spyndle, but it is found one third heavier than cotton. For example, one pound of 18’s wool yarn has only 12 hanks in it (840 yards long), and one pound of 18’s cotton has 18 hanks in it. Some of the heavier yarns are differently designated; such as, two pound yarn, three, four, or five pound yarn, which means that there is that number of pounds in one spyndle. 236 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP When the yarn comes from the spinning machine it contains a large per centage of extraneous matter, principally oil, which it loses after it is properly washed and cleansed, which washing and cleansing goes by the name of scouring. After it is scoured it is much lighter, and allowance must be made for this in sizing cleansed yarn. If more oil and dirt is spun up with the yarn than what is necessary, it may appear to the buyer that it is just so much profit to the spinner; but that is not the case, because it is soon found out by the buyer, and a lower price is given for it, so that any deception of that kind is no profit to the spinner, whatever it may be to others whose hands it may pass through before it comes to the weaver; and the weaver can find out to a nicety what amount of real wool he gets for each pound weight he pays for, by weighing the yarn after it has been properly cleansed. WINDING AND WARPING. After the warp yarn is got in from the dyer or scourer, it is wound on bobbins either by hand with a common wheel, or by a bobbin winding machine driven by power. The best kind are those where the bobbin is driven by a small drum or pulley. The bobbin lies in a horizontal position on the drum, and is driven by the friction of its own weight on the THE AET OF WEAVING. 237 drum. But wool yarn, being very soft, it builds slack on the bobbins; so to get a greater quantity of yarn on them, small weights or springs can be applied to the ends of the arbor, that goes through the bobbins, to put a greater pressure on the drum, consequently a greater pressure on the yarn, and this pressure can be regulated to suit the kind of yam that is being wound. It will be evident that the reels (or swifts) will always run at the same speed when the bobbins are driven in this way. But when they are driven from the arbor (like many of the machines) the reels increase in speed as the bobbins increase in diameter when in the act of tilling, and this is an objection, because the winding must be either far too slow when the bobbins are nearly empty, or far too quick when they are nearly full. The winder should be very particular, in winding the warp yarn, to have all the knots properly tied, and not to leave long ends at the knots, and that no double ends be allowed to go on the bobbins when in the act of winding; and before the yarn is put on the reels, it should be shaken to take off any dust or other loose substance that may be adhering to it. And attention should also be paid to the quantity that is put on the bobbins, so that they may all have an equal length of yarn. This is more essential when only a short web is wanted. The number of the winder should be put on each bobbin, so that the warper may know, when 238 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF any fault is in the winding, to whom it belongs, and have the fault pointed out to the person who gives out the yarn for winding. WARPING. The bobbins after they are wound are given to the warper, with the number of splits that is to be in the web, and as the warping of a wool web is in many respects the same as other kinds of webs, the reader is referred to that part of the first chapter of this work, under the head “ Calculations of Warps," also under the head ‘‘Warp in a Web,” where it is explained how to find the proper quantity of warp for a web ; and in the second chapter, under the head “Warping," it is explained how the warping should proceed. An explanation is also given there of a number of different kinds of warping machines; but there is one machine used for warping wool which is not taken notice of in that place, which I shall now do. It goes by the name HORIZONTAL MILL. This machine is very much liked by some manufac¬ turers for warping woollen yarn, and in some respects it is superior to the common four or five ell mill. It is in general made twenty-seven feet, or nine yards in circumference, and nine or ten feet broad, with spokes THE ART OF WEAVING. 239 similar to the common warping mill. The advantage to be gained by using this machine we will now ex¬ plain. The common way of warping is to run a given number of ends in a spiral form up and down the mill, until the requisite number of splits are warped to make the cloth the breadth wanted. By doing this, it is obvious that each layer of yarn will go on the top of the one that was warped before it, and the consequence is, that the last layer will be wound on a larger diameter than the first, and that that part of the web will be longer than the first layers, and that when the web comes to the weaver, one part of the yarn will be tight, and another part slack; but in the horizontal mill this is obviated in a great measure by it being so much larger in circumference and broader, and by the method of warping. The horizontal mill is very like a large reel, and can be driven either by the steam engine or by the hand. The bank for holding the bobbins is placed at a con¬ venient distance from the reel, and as many bobbins put into it as make the pattern. If the pattern be small, it is repeated with the bobbins in the bank, until there is as many runners (or ends) as may be desirable to work with. The ends are then taken through a reed, for guiding them on to the reel, and as much warped as make the length of the web, (not the width of the web as with the common mill.) The next space is then warped, and so on until there is as 240 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF many splits warped as make up the number that is wanted for the breadth of the cloth. By this mode of warping, all the different parts of the web are the same length, and will be equal in tightness when in the loom, if it is properly measured. It has another advantage over the common warping mill, as it is not necessary to take the web off the mill in a chain, because it can be put on to a beam direct from the reel by the beaming machine; and if the yarn is not to be dressed (and it beamed on the weaver’s beam), it is ready for the twister. If it is to be dressed or sized, it is better to warp the web so as it will be suitable to be beamed on two or four beams for the dressing machine. If large quantities of one pattern are to be woven, (such as two or three thousand yards and upwards,) and the warps require to be dressed in the dressing machine, then it is better to warp the yarn on to two or four beams with the warping machine, which is already explained in the second chapter. In the same chapter, under the head u To Warp Striped Work,’’ it will be seen how any pattern can be made with the beam warping machine. In our remarks in that place it is stated, that it is a common practice for the warper to take out the bobbins before they have run nearly empty, and that sometimes a considerable quantity of yarn is left on them. To avoid this as much as possible, the barrel of the bobbin should be THE ART OF WEAVING-. 241 at least one inch ancl a quarter in diameter, for if these be less in diameter, the bobbin will not run till it is empty without the risk of the yarn breaking frequently. Now, although this is the common prac¬ tice in warping cotton and linen yarns, it should, for various reasons, never be allowed to be done with wool, and one reason is, that wool yarn is more apt to spoil by keeping; another is, that there should be as few knots on the warp as possible: so the barrel of the bobbins ought to be made sufficiently large so as to allow them to run empty without the risk of breaking the yarn. After the number of beams have been warped, they are then ready for dressing or sizing. DRESSING OR SIZING. Having explained sizing and dressing, and the different ways in which they are done, also the differ¬ ent kinds of machines used for that purpose, it only remains for us, in this place, to point out what is applicable to woollen yarns. When it does not deteriorate the quality of the cloth to have the fibres laid in the warp yarn, the best machine to be used is the crank or cylinder machine; but if the fibres are not to be laid, it is better to use the tape-leg dressing machine. But whatever machine is used, the size, glue, or other substance, should be used hot. The 242 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF substances that have been taken for the purpose of dressing wool yarn are the following:—Wheat flour, sago, Irish moss, common size, common glue, Russian glue, and scraps of leather and buffalo are sometimes boiled, and the gummy substance used. The Russian glue is considered about the best thing to use, if the price is not too high. If the manufacturer is going to use common or Russian glue for dressing the yarns, the glue requires to be melted in warm water before it is put into the dressing box, and warm water added until it is reduced to the proper strength that is required for the kind of work. If the webs are to be dressed in the crank machine (which is the best for wool) the box for holding the glue will require to be made larger than what is used for dressing cotton yarn with cold dress¬ ing, but it need not be any larger than just to admit of a small roll to submerge the yarn into the boiling liquid, before it goes through between the other two rollers that are used for pressing out the superfluous starch or glue. The pressure of these rollers can be regulated by weights and levers, to any degree of nicety that may be required, for putting on the yarn the proper quantity of starch or glue. Some yarn will require more brushing than others, and this can be done by altering the speed of the brushes, which is taken notice of under the head “ Dressing,” in the second chapter, page 85, and as THE AET OF WEAVING. 243 the working of the crank dressing machine is explained there, no further notice need be taken of it here. As wool yarns are of a soft spongy nature, they are apt to build soft on the weaver’s beam. To prevent this, and to make the yarn firm on the beam, a pressure roll should be used. The pressure roll is so made that it can answer any width of beam. The roll should have its journals on the ends of levers, to enable the workman to lift with ease the roll of the weaver’s beam at any time it may be required; such as changing the weaver’s beam, when full, to replace it with an empty one. After the web has been dressed, or beamed without being dressed, it is ready for being drawn or twisted, that is putting the warp yarn into the heddles and reed. The manner in which it is done is explained in another place, but it may be observed here, that for woollen warps the heddles and reeds are made different from what they are for cotton yarns. For the common kind of wool work, such as wool shirting, the heddles and reeds are made a little deeper, and the splits of the reeds are rather thinner, to allow more room for the warp than what is allowed in the common reed. But the thinness of the splits depends upon the opinion of the manufacturer. Some make the splits lighter than what others do. But I would recommend that the splits of a reed for wool weaving, should be about twenty-five per cent. 244 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF lighter than the splits used in reeds for weaving cotton yarns, and about one inch deeper, and the heddles about two inches deeper, and made of worsted yarn. In weaving the heavy kinds of woollen goods, such as tweeds and blankets, the heddles are made very much deeper, some of them being sixteen and eighteen inches deep, and in general are varnished at the eyes, which makes them last longer. They are made of yarn to correspond to the weight of the web. The reeds for this class of work are made specially for the purpose, both deep and strong; but in drawing the web, three or four threads are put in the split. Of course, if four threads are put in the split, the reed is made just double coarser than when there is only to be two threads in the split. By putting four threads in the split, the sheds are more easily formed, as the threads of the warp are enabled to pass each other better, there being less friction on the warp. LOOMING THE WEB. Looming the web is a term used by hand-loom weavers; it signifies the putting the web into the loom, and connecting the heddles to the jacks (or coupers) above, and to the marches and treadles below, and otherwise adjusting the different things about the loom for the purpose of making cloth. As the prin¬ ciple is the same both in hand and power-looms, we THE ART OF WEAVING-. 245 refer the reader to the third chapter, where a full explanation is given of how to start the looms, and also how to mount the webs. I shall only notice in this place what is peculiar to the weaving of woollen webs. "W hen the weft is coarse, it is advantageous to have larger shuttles, so as to be able to work with larger copes or pirns, than what is commonly used for finer wefts. The large shuttle will require a deeper shed. To accomplish this, the wypers must be made to give a greater traverse to the treadles, and in some cases the lay will require a longer traverse, so as to give the shuttle sufficient room to work. The shuttle being: larger, the protector for stopping the loom, when the shuttle stops in the shed, will require to act sooner than with a smaller shuttle. The fibres of wool yarn stand more out from the body of the thread than either linen or cotton, and this makes it more difficult to g;et a clear shed. The consequence is, that the loom has to be driven slower, to allow time for the threads of the warp to pass each other. Some weavers, instead of putting the lease rods into the shed, for the weaver’s lease, put one rod below the warp and an¬ other above, for the weaver’s guidance. These rods are tied together, about seven or eight inches back from the heddles. The principal objection to this way of working with the rods is, that when a number of threads is broken in one place, the weaver has more difficulty in finding 246 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF the proper place for the respective ends or threads. The advantage gained is, that the yarn is not so much chaffed in passing the rods in the act of weaving. We have given in another place an explanation of both plain and fancy tweels, which may be used in weaving fabrics made of woollen yarn; but before pointing out those that are more applicable to this kind of work, we will give some remarks about design¬ ing and colours, which are very essential things in making such goods as carpets, table covers, and many other kinds of goods made of woollen yarns. REMARKS ON DESIGNING. It has been frequently said that the British are far behind both in drawing, designing, and also in the arrangement of colours. But as I do not pretend to be a judge in this matter, I will merely state the opinions that have been given by others, in as few words as possible, not to abridge them too much. The following is an abridgment of evidence given in the House of Commons in connection with our manufactures. One of the witnesses, after giving a long statement about the Jacquard machine and the draw loom, says—“The rest of the process is mechani¬ cal, consisting of punching holes in the cards, accord¬ ing to the number required, and applying the cards to the machine. I have seen 200 boys employed in THE AET OP WEAVING. 247 weaving the richest figures in the loom. To so simple a process is the principle of weaving now reduced, that even boys of sixteen years of age are set to weave the figures of so complicated a nature, as formerly would have required men of thirty years experience. “In some departments of this process, the manu¬ facture is superior in England , in others in France . Plain silks, if manufactured with the same materials, the production will be equal in England as in France,* figured silks are equal, as respects the mere manufac¬ ture; and there are two points of inferiority, the de¬ signing and the mise en carte (that is putting on rule paper). One particular reason for inferiority in England, which has much struck me, is the exhor- bitant price of cards. In the woollen manufacture, the cards which have been used for woollen goods have been returned to the Excise. A return of duty has been obtained. I think that, if the same thing were done with the Jacquard cards, it would have a tendency to diminish the price. Though, generally speaking, the price is about equal in the two countries, yet in the reading the designs there is this enormous difference: the average price in France is three francs, or half-a-crown sterling; in England the price was a long time fifteen shillings; and I now charge eight shillings per hundred. I attribute that to two causes, the presence of silk manufacturers, which has created a greater competition and a greater necessity for 248 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF activity. The consequence of this competition has been also the introduction of a great many French designers to settle here. The French designer under¬ stands the mise en carte better than the English designer ; and the French metteur en carte understands design better than the English metteur en carte. The reason that occasions this great difference between the metteur en cartes and designers of England and France is, that the designers themselves are obliged to put it on the rule-paper, send previous to that go through every branch of the business (including the weaving) and this is un¬ doubtedly the cause that they are more perfect. I do not mean to say that they design better in France than here; but there is a much greater number of designers of the same capabilities in France than here. In consequence of the encouragement the French designers receive, they are both more numerous and more talented, although there are individuals in England equally as clever, and with a profound knowledge of their art. The artist who draws the designs at Lyons is the artist generally employed to transfer them to the rule-paper. This person, whom I consider the metteur en carte , is only employed in that; he is inferior here. In Lyons, in a great number of in¬ stances, there is never a design drawn at all; but the first production of the design is on the rule-paper. The metteur en carte is himself an artist. It is in the connection between the arts and the manufactures THE ART OF WEAVING-. 249 that we are inferior. In France a manufacturer em¬ ploys from three to four artists, and in England one artist supplies from eight to ten manufacturers. An indifferent artist employed in painting the patterns on the ruled paper may be obtained for fifty pounds per year, but there are men whose services are worth four hundred pounds per year, or even a share of the manu¬ facture. The sale of the fancy trade entirely depends upon the taste and abilities of the designer. In France there are often only one or two artists who are paid, and who get from one hundred and eighty to two hundred pounds a year, but there are several who give their services for the instruction they receive. The metieur en carte should be well instructed in de¬ signing. He should also be acquainted with manu¬ factures in theory and in principle. They are so at Lyons, but they are not so in Great Britain.” After some further remarks about the Jacquard machine, the witness says,—“When France possessed the monopoly of the Jacquard machine, it gave her great advantage in other countries. France has only by great exertions produced better and cheaper than they. There is a school of design at Lyons. The young artists have, since the discovery of M. Jacquard, particularly turned their attention to the raise en carte. There has been a great augmentation of such young artists; indeed, there were no such artists before; for it was found requisite to set up Jacquard machines in HI 250 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF the school of design. This lasted two or three years only; they now obtain the required knowledge of the loom out of the school. The discovery of the Jacquard loom infinitely multiplied the number of young artists, who devoted themselves to the mise en carte. The great advantage of Jacquard machinery is this: that it enables that to be done in a few weeks., which be- ) fore occupied months; and that the change of a pattern formerly was a long, laborious, and costly affair, and now it is a very simple one, and may be be done in a few minutes, after the completion of the reading and the stamping or cutting of the cards. The English copy the good French patterns, and the French copy the good English patterns. The best English designs are those on cotton goods; but the English do not un¬ derstand the mise en carte. We sometimes make good copies from English patterns for the Spitalfields looms from the English printed muslins, but it requires taste and knowledge to arrange them. The French manu¬ facturer can come with patterns every year to England, bringing with him samples of them on the cloth, whilst the English manufacturer only brings it on the paper. The cause of that is, the French manufacturer employs weavers who are solely engaged in the production of patterns, and as the pattern on the cloth shows more distinctly the effect than the drawing on paper, it gives them an advantage in the market. There are individuals who are engaged, and who collect at Paris THE AKT OE WEAVING. 251 the patterns in vogue there, which they bring and dispose of in England, and they also carry to the Con¬ tinent such patterns as they can collect here for the purpose of sale. These only serve as mere ideas; in the execution of the working drawings the French improve upon us. If there were a school of design established in London, its effects in three years would be so to equalize the manufactures of the two countries, that the country in which they were pro¬ duced would not be recognizable. ‘‘With respect to colours, I think, in a great many cases, where there is an apparently greater beauty in the French dyes, they are much less permanent than those of England; and I have seen many examples where, after a few weeks wearing, the French colours have wholly faded.” The witness adds,—“I take the liberty of making the following remarks about designing and mise en carte ; for, as this is the very head part of all that belongs to the weaving department, and, at the same time, is the very least cultivated in this country, it is before anything else the most worthy of your attention and consideration. For, as long as this branch of the business is not highly improved, and proper schools for design and mise en carte erected, and children, who already have acquired the practical and theoretical part of weaving, are engaged and trained up in this art, France will always have to boast over England of 252 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF the honour of sending more fancy patterns, and finer and more beautiful workmanship , and, in fact, brought to the highest state of perfection?' Another witness states—“We have not been able to find persons in this country who are capable of giving proper designs; the principal difficulty arises from the circumstance of men not having been brought up in this country to design for silk : it is very different to designing for printers , from the circumstance that it is necessary a man should be conversant with the principle of weaving, before he can make a proper design for silk. If we could only get designs in this country, we should be able to find parties that could put them on ruled paper for weaving. There is nothing but what we could make, provided we had a proper designer for the purpose of drawing patterns for weaving; and I think the principal difficulty arises from the circum¬ stance of not having any school of arts in this country, where young men would be enabled to pursue their studies, for the purpose of perfecting themselves in drawing for that particular branch of the manufacture. There is no want of talent in the country, because there are a great many persons engaged exclusively in the production of designs for printed cottons, challies, and bandannas; we have in the trade individuals who can draw patterns, but are not conversant with the principle of weaving, and therefore we have been unable to put those patterns to ivork. We have now THE AET OP WEAVING-. 253 many patterns by us which are perfectly useless, because the drawing is not adapted to weaving. We would willingly, at the 'present time , engage a man at a handsome salary , conversant with the principle of weaving as a designer , and also able to put the pattern upon paper. Foreigners are not superior to us in their colours; there is a brightness in their colours we certainly do not possess, but I think our colours are more perma¬ nent. The dyeing of colours has certainly improved within the last few years, and in many cases, the per¬ manency of colours decidedly is more than the French. It has occurred to me, if we had a school of arts established in this country, that a great many young men would be willing to make themselves conversant with the principle of weaving, for the purpose of pro¬ curing that particular study, and ultimately to become designers and drawers upon ruled paper for the silk trade. It would be a lucrative profession.” Another witness, who was a merchant in London, on being examined, gives the manner of choosing their patterns, and afterwards states,— U I never found a good designer in England ; a pattern-drawer is a different thing altogether; he is the man who puts the thing comparatively to work, as an architect designs the building of a house. Neither have I found a good pattern-drawer ; the designer gives us a small pattern, and the pattern-drawer is the person who prepares the work: as an architect gives a 254 THEOEY AND PEACTICE OF drawing to the builder, so does the designer to the pattern-drawer. I think that there are not so many persons capable of doing it in this country as in France; the pattern-drawer is the medium between the designer and the weaver. The importation of raw silk from France, by reason of its superior quality, has beneficially acted upon the English manufacture. I found their silks better, the moment I had an oppor¬ tunity to go and see them; but I have found them declining every day since. Every time I go to France, I find the French silks are not so good as they used to be in point of material and workman¬ ship; they appear to be desirous of a large trade rather than a small good trade. The English manu¬ facture has improved in a greater ratio perhaps since then. France is superior to us in design, but it is confined to very few houses; there is only one house at Lyons we can deal with largely, because their taste is always superior. I am speaking of design. We keep all our patterns; patterns fifty years old are very useful to us at this present moment. The French pay great attention to pattern shawls, they will give three or four hundred pounds for a Cashmere shawl or India shawl, for the sake of the pattern. The shawls that were exhibited at the Exposition in France were superior to the India shawls; the patterns more per¬ fect. Their patterns are superior in the manufacture, as well as combination of colours and design. It is THE AET OF WEAVING. 255 all superior. I believe they have a superiority of machinery in the manufacture, and execution as well.” A silk manufacturer in Spitalfielcls, after telling the class of patterns used, states— u We are almost destitute of original taste in that particular department. The French patterns are generally given to the pattern makers by the manufacturers, and they either copy precisely, or make variations as the manufacturers or their own taste may suggest. I am not acquainted with any drawer of patterns who is an educated artist. I think that the two difficulties under which we labour at present are, first, that we have no protection for patterns, so that if I make an outlay of from £20 to £100 upon a pattern, it may be pirated to-morrow by my neigh¬ bour, and I should have no compensation for it; and the second difficulty is, that we have no national taste in this department of art ,— that » we have no originality in design of drawing of patterns,— that we are compelled to make copies from French patterns in order to supply the demands of our customers. If the general taste of the nation was improved , it would be beneficial to our manufactures; and I would add that ours is a manufacture which is capable of such extreme variety in shades of colour, in the blending of shades, and in producing various forms of pattern, that there is hardly any one to which the exhibition of all works of art, in which colours are concerned, would be more beneficial. A protection for patterns should be for not 256 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF less than twelve months. I can give a reason why a season or six months would not be a sufficient time. I was manufacturing a pattern in silk during the spring, to the order of a large house of business in London. I received orders from them to continue the manufacture of the same pattern in autumn colours; but in the last month this pattern was taken to Man¬ chester and manufactured there. The order which I had received for the winter article was immediately countermanded, because it was produced at Manchester at a less price. A heavy fine should be inflicted for piracy. Sometimes there are more than 100 pieces of the same pattern. It more often happens that there are less than 100—more often than not. According to the average returns from the Chamber of Commerce at Lyons, the number of pieces made of fancy goods of particular patterns does not exceed 20 from the loom; what is the average production of England, of the same manufacture, I have no precise knowledge of, but I should say double, at least 40 pieces. In French silks, in some cases, a very large profit is paid to manufacturers, on condition that they shall produce a small number, and then destroy the design. A pattern should be protected by registering the actual pattern. With regard to printed goods, the custom is for the parties to print on the end ‘engaged for three months,’ and after that period it may be copied by any body; that would be a sufficient pro tec- THE AET OF WEAVING. 257 tion if it was extended, as I said before, to twelve months , whatever registration took place should be a public and authentic one. The registration and loca¬ tion of patterns, representing the state of perfection in the particular trade, would be in itself a great means of advancing and improving the manufacture.” The following statements were given by the Secre¬ tary to the Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of Manufactures in Scotland; also Secretary to the Royal Institution for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts in Scotland. After explaining how the Institutions were founded and supported, he states—“The principal means which the Board have followed for extending the knowledge of the arts among the people of Scotland, has now been in oper¬ ation for about seventy years. About seventy years ago they established a school for drawing, being aware of the advantages which foreigners possessed over this country as teachers of design at that period. They got a person of the name of De La Croix, a Frenchman of considerable skill, who set that institution agoing: it was for the accommodation of forty pupils taught by one master, and the pupils are admitted gratis. They offer specimens of their capacity, and certificates as to character, to the Board of Trustees, and the judge of those who are to be admitted, giving the preference to those who seem the most deserving of it. It is an establishment which very soon rose into great repute 11 258 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF in the country, and has continued exceedingly suc¬ cessful ever since. The number of pupils has re¬ mained stationary, with only one master. It has been managed since its first establishment by a series of very eminent teachers. The person who now holds it, Mr. William Allen, is the first artist in Scotland. The Board contemplates extending it, and they are at present taking measures for that purpose. Hitherto it remains on the same footing, only forty pupils; but so great is the demand of the public for the extension of it, and so high it stands in their estimation, that although there are about four or five elections in the course of the year, there generally are at least ten candidates for every single vacancy that occurs, and it comes to be a matter of very disagreeable administra¬ tion to the Board to reject so many young men from having instruction in the art of design, when they seem desirous to obtain it. The pupils are principally engravers and statuaries, also artists, coach painters, house painters, and manufacturers; persons of that kind. Mr. Wilkie (Sir David) was educated there, Mr. Barnet, Mr. Wilson, Mr. Allen himself. I believe there is not an eminent name in the history of art connected with Scotland where the individual has not been educated at that academy. It has produced the most eminent men, either as artists, engravers, or as connected with any of the corresponding professions; in fact, it has done a world of good to the country. The THE ART OF WEAVING. 259 candidates produce specimens of their talents for drawing; they produce certificates of their good char¬ acter, the Board is very particular upon that subject: also if they are apprentices, they produce certificates from their masters that they will give them the means of attending, and then all these are examined by the Board of Trustees; and that young man whose name perhaps they are ignorant of, but that young man whose qualifications seem best, is the person elected. The only preference they seem disposed to give is to the younger classes of them in preference to older ones. The Board of Trustees also established a branch school for the express purpose of teaching the pattern drawing for table-cloths , diaper, and matters of that description, at the town of Dunfermline ; it was upon a particular system, and the Board engaged to give £50 a year to a master, provided the manufacturers of Dunfermline would contribute an equal sum. They did so, and that school was in operation for a good many years,—I do not exactly recollect the number of years, but for a good many years,—and was exceedingly beneficial, and, in fact, was one of the great causes, in conjunction with the encouragement of premiums for the best articles of manufacture given annually by the Board, of raising the establishment of linen manufactures in the town of Dunfermline.” The manufacturers of Dunfermline declined to contribute their portion, and that school has fallen. 260 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF “One of the great defects in the mode of instruction in this country is, that the first branch of art, namely, the fundamental one, is that which is neglected, that is, what is called drawing from the round; it is, in fact, the rudiments of design, the most indispensable , al¬ though the most neglected . Except the Royal Academy and that Academy of the Board of Trustees, I am not aware any other teacher of drawing does really adhere to that system, which I know in French academies to be the only system that is taught, because they conceive; and it has been the opinion, I believe, of artists for many generations, as well as the old masters, that this is the only species of study which is requisite to form an artist. If he has once acquired a knowledge of drawing from the round, or drawing from objects of beautiful outline, and contain¬ ing means of light and shade, that he is enabled then to turn his talent to any of the branches that he may require without any further instruction. In this country we seem to take a secondary part of it; to take instruction in a more advanced part, and neglect ✓ the rudimental part. In correctness of drawing the human figure, and in the knowledge of proportions, we are very deficient; and on that account I would make it a rule of that establishment, that the first class should be that one in which instruction is given in chalk drawing on a large scale from the round, having a series of second classes where the different branches THE ART OF WEAVING. 261 connected with the useful arts were taught, which covers very many ; architecture and all other branches connected with the useful arts, ornamenting, decorative, house-painters, and so on. I would not only make the fundamental principle (correctness of design) the object, but also what may be termed the perspective in botany, and those parts which are con¬ nected with certain sciences which may be called positive parts of art. It appears to me, a very little instruction, perhaps a few lectures, on this, as far as it is applicable to the useful arts, would be sufficient,— that is on anatomy, chemistry, optics, with reference to colours and botany. It appears to me there is a very great defect in general in our patterns, in botanical accuracy, where flowers are introduced ; the foreign pattern - drawers are uniformly correct’, our pattern-drawers very seldom so. I would have a third class for the higher branches, and for the purpose of artists, but that confined alone to men whose object in life was to be artists. I would have a certain sub¬ division of instruction, so that pupils coming there, and wishing to devote themselves to the study of cast¬ ing in bronze or in iron, or studying modelling silver, or turning themselves towards pattern-drawing on cotton or on silk fabrics, might have the means, after a certain time, of devoting their undivided attention to any particular branch of that kind, comprehending the requisite acquaintance with the manufacture itself; 262 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF so that they might go out from the institution, having chosen that division of the subject most suited to their capabilities: they might go out as manufacturing artists, to accomplish the particular object which they felt themselves most particularly qualified for. And the purpose I should have in dividing it into classes, would be this : to, in fact, repress an error which those academies are exceedingly liable to fall into, and which the academy of the Board of Trustees in Scot¬ land has already fallen into, that is, of neglecting those parts of the study which apply to the use fid arts , and dedicating their attention alone to the higher branches; in fact, making all the pupils study as artists, and not as men to pursue useful branches of occupation. It is an exceedingly dangerous thing to pursue, in such institutions, those portions of art which may be said to be connected with individual taste or individual genius, since the tendency of so pursuing them must he to neglect those portions of art which are positive and true , and founded upon invariable principles of art. I consider that the division into classes might prevent this tendency; because, if the first class is imperative that no pupil could enter the academy without going through a course of the first class, then he would be enabled to turn his talent to any branch of design he might choose; he may then quit the academy. If he chooses to follow out the pursuit to the highest branches by the recommendation of the master, he may THE ART OF WEAVING-. 263 be permitted to do so; but it has been experienced in those academies in Scotland, that many pupils who come there with a view towards the useful arts, have quited it and become artists themselves. The Board established prizes for pattern-drawing in their academy, and a good many very creditable specimens have been, within two or three years, produced; but there is one deficiency there, which shows the necessity of teaching for that matter, which is this: that many of those 'patterns which were exceedingly beautiful , were not altogether adapted to the operative part of the manufac¬ ture; the persons were not conversant with looms, not conversant with manufactures in fact, and therefore they require the means to be provided of having recourse to a master, who can instruct them in the working of the fabric, whatever it may be, to which their pattern has been employed. In France , :he workman is more an artist than in this country. The system in France is very different, because there the artists of the first eminence employ themselves, and make it the most profitable part of their time in pattern-drawing, and they are paid a very high price by the manufacturers.” He recommends protection for patterns and designs, and then says,—“ It appears to me that one thing in which the British manufacturer is most deficient, is that of a knowledge of colours. At present, as far as my acquaintance with manufacturers goes, I believe 264 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF they copy entirely their patterns from France: in doing so, if they introduce any alteration into them, they often spoil them ; and it is a matter which is not a very difficult one to obtain a knowledge of, the theory of colour, but it is one which appears to me a very singular circumstance that it is not sufficiently attended to, because we know quite well that any deviation from the regular established and fixed rules of harmony of colours, produces the same effect to the eye as any deviation in music from the harmony of notes. It produces an equally bad effect; and in placing our manufactures or fancy goods along with French fancy goods, it has often struck me as a re¬ markable circumstance, to see how very little those rules, which are exceedingly simple, are attended to in the English copies. That was my reason for sug¬ gesting a lecture on that part of the subject, on optics, in fact, on colours, at those schools; for the rules are simple, but quite necessary to be known to any per¬ son who has occasion to place colours in juxtaposition. I think the improvement in matters of taste in general, has been very remarkable in Scotland within a few years, and in dyes there has been a very great improvement; since the Board of Trustees have given premiums for that special purpose, there has been a very conspicuous improvement. In patterns the im¬ provement has also been obvious, but not so very great as yet, because there is no instruction given in THE ART OE WEAVING. 265 it; the young men who present these specimens of drawing are left to themselves, and they frequently go wrong in many particulars; it appears to me there is a great deficiency in the want of instruction. The Board of Trustees give £24 a-year to be divided into prizes for the young men. There are six prizes for ornamental drawings, and six prizes for drawings from the round. The young men produce the first and the last of their performances during the season, in order that the Board may be able to compare their progress; and these are kept in the possession of the Board, not returned to the young men. They are also exhibited to the public. The prizes given by the Board of Trustees for improving manufacturers’ pat¬ terns, are very numerous, and vary from year to year, according as the state of manufactures and the state of the demand for manufactures seem to require, also according as it appears to the Board that there are particular branches of manufacture which might be conveniently and advantageously introduced into this country; therefore the premiums which they have offered have varied from year to year. Their prin¬ ciple is, that they shall not continue to give premiums for a longer period for the same purpose than what is quite sufficient to introduce it; when once it is intro¬ duced they suspend the premium, because they consider that if it cannot maintain itself after that ) it is not worth encouraging. Formerly there were a great many 266 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF premiums given for the purpose of the linen manufac¬ ture; these have now been suspended. There are many premiums given for the woollen manufacture; for all the branches of that manufacture. Within these two or three years the Board have particularly turned their attention to matters connected with woollen manufactures, to the branch of carpet manufacture; and they have been the means of very much extending that branch in Scotland by the introduction of three or four new descriptions in the branches of manufac¬ ture which never were known in the country before, never practised in Scotland at least, and which have been most successfully introduced, and are now rising into great reputation. Exhibitions of works of art, such as ingenious patterns and manufactures, or ingenious specimens of weaving, were, at one time, contemplated, but never put in practice. I understand that there exists an indisposition on the part of persons who have made inventions or improvements to exhibit them, from the circumstance that they are aware that they have no protection: that their invention and the property of their improvement is not protected. The Trustees, for the encouragement of the manufactures of Scotland, offer annually a series of premiums for improvements in different manufactures, also for in¬ ventions, should any take place. Those are annually exhibited to the public, and judges are appointed THE ART OE WEAVING. 267 from among the manufacturers, who examine the goods and award the premiums. The circumstance that induces the manufacturers to attend very much to that is, that by obtaining the premium for their manufacture, they may obtain the means of publishing, very much to their own advantage, the species of trade that they carry on; otherwise the premium is a very small one, and scarcely worth the while of manufacturers to work for it. The French Exposition is highly advantageous. Where it enjoys a very great advantage over any attempt in this country, is, that the improvements of the year, and the inventions of the year, are by the French manufacturers expressly reserved for that exhibition, because they know that they are safe in producing their new design, whatever it may be.” It will be seen from these statements, how very important it is for the manufacturer to be able to get proper patterns for the cloth he intends to make, and we consider that a few hints on that subject are re¬ quisite in this place. DRAWING AND DESIGNING. Design paper is the paper for putting the figures upon that are to be woven upon the cloth. It is ruled with lines crossing each other at right angles, 268 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF and may be bought from the stationer ready for use. The lines on the design paper represent the warp and weft of the cloth, and these lines are made so as to be in proportion to the threads of the warp and weft. It does not matter as to the set of the reed, for the same design paper will answer for either a coarse or fine reed; the principal thing requiring attention is the proportion of the wefting to the warp. To put the figures that are to be woven on this paper is the work of the designer, and the designer takes it from the sketch or drawing. It very often happens that the sketches, the drawing, and the design, are all done by the same person; and that person, to be good at it, must have a knowledge of weaving and colours, besides drawing, and a general idea of the style of patterns fashionable at the time; although the manufacturer should be the best judge of what style will sell best. If proficiency in these things be desired they must be studied, and the first thing with which to begin is sketching. We quote the following, as it may be of use to the beginner:— “ To the uninitiated I therefore address myself, and let them not be dissuaded from beginning by having no predilection for the study—the more they persevere, the more they will love it. “In the first place, your attempts ought to be of the most simple nature, and on as large a scale as you THE ART OF WEAVING. 269 can conveniently adopt: therefore begin by procuring a black painted board or slate, of from two to three feet square, and with white chalk practise the drawing of squares, circles, and ovals, without any guide to your hand. You may make yourself copies of these figures by the ordinary rules. When you are toler¬ ably perfect at these, upon the proper combination of which depends all linear harmony, you may practise in the same way triangles, hexagons, octagons, and such other figures as arise from the various combin¬ ations of the straight line. Next, by your circular and oval lines you may form crescents, circular and flattened volutes, regular undulations, and other figures, which arise out of their various combinations, first making an accurate copy to yourself of each figure by measurement, and continuing to practise until you can form it by the eye with perfect ease. Avoid forming your figures by little bits at a time • do each line as much as possible by one sweep of the hand. When you find yourself pretty perfect in this kind of practice, I would recommend you at once to draw from nature. You may take for your first subject a cabbage leaf, the larger the better, and persevere in copying it, full size, until you can repre¬ sent it accurately in outline, with its principal fibres. You may then vary your practice by other simple subjects of a similar kind, until you find you can do them all with ease. 270 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF u Before endeavouring to draw more than one leaf at a time, you must know a little of perspective. The most simple mode by which you will attain such knowledge of this art as will be most useful for your present purpose, is to hang a circular object, such as a hoop, between you and the window; set it amoving gently round, recede a little from it, and you will find that, as one side of it retires and the other comes for¬ ward, the circle which it describes becomes narrower and narrower, until it disappears altogether, and leaves nothing but a dark line, as if a stick instead of a hoop were hanging before you. I recommend you to do this between you and the window, because the hoop will appear like a dark line, and you will thereby be better able to mark the change that takes place in the shape of the circle. Fix it in various positions and draw from it, and observe that it is a different figure from an oval. You may now hang up your cabbage leaf, or that of any other large and well- developed vegetable, and you will observe the same change in its figure as it turns round. Make an out¬ line of its shape while its front is half-turned from you, then bring it from between you and the light, and place it where the light will fall upon it, with its face half turned from you, as when it hung before the window. Take your outline, and within it draw the principal fibres as you see them. To do this properly will require a great deal of practice, but it will pave THE ART OF WEAVING}. 271 the way to your being able to draw the most complete groups of flowers and foliage that can be placed before you. You may now hang before you a small branch of any tree or plant, with two or more leaves upon it —the larger the leaves are the better—and endeavour to make outlines of them, varying their shape accord¬ ing to their perspective, as already described; be particular on this point, for a great deal depends upon it. “When a considerable advance has been made in the elementary department of drawing, it will be proper to go on to the higher stages.” It will be requisite to provide a drawing board, about thirty inches long, and about the same broad. The drawing paper is damped, and fixed upon the board with a little gum or glue round its edges. It will also be requisite to have a set of mathematical drawing instruments, with pencils, brushes, India- rubber, and other things required in drawing. The colours used, and how to make them, is given in another place. (See index.) SELECTING PATTERNS. The selection of proper patterns is one of the most difficult things in connection with weaving, and one that requires peculiar taste to be able to fix upon successful ones. A writer on the subject of taste 272 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF says,—“ Nothing that belongs to human nature is more general than the relish of beauty of one kind or other, of what is orderly, proportioned, grand, har¬ monious, new, or sprightly.” “But although none be wholly devoid of this faculty, yet the degrees in which it is possessed are widely different. In some men only the feeble glimmerings of taste appear, the beauties which they relish are of the coarsest kind, and of these they have but a weak and confused im¬ pression ; while in others, taste rises to an acute discernment, and a lively enjoyment of the most refined beauties. In general we may observe, that in the powers and pleasures of taste, there is more remarkable inequality among men than is usually found in point of common sense, reason, and judgment. “ The characters of taste when brought to its most improved state, are all reduceable to two—delicacy and correctness.” “ Delicacy of taste respects principally the perfection of that natural sensibility on which taste is founded. It implies those finer organs or powers which enable us to discover beauties that lie hid from a vulgar eye. One may have a strong sensibility, and yet be deficient in delicate taste. He may be deeply impressed by such beauties as he perceives; but he perceives only what is in some degree coarse, what is bold and palpable, while chaster and simpler ornaments escape his notice. In this state, taste generally exists among THE ART OF WEAVING-. 273 rude and unrefined nations. But a person of delicate taste both feels strongly and accurately. He sees distinctions and differences where others see none; the most latent beauty does not escape him, and he is sensible of the smallest blemish. Delicacy of taste is judged of by the same marks that we use in judging of the delicacy of an external sense. As the goodness of the palate is not tried by strong flavours, but by a mixture of the ingredients, where, notwith¬ standing the confusion, we remain sensible of each; in like manner, delicacy of taste appears, by a quick and lively sensibility, to its finest, most compounded, or most latent objects.” (< Correctness of taste respects chiefly the improve¬ ment which that faculty receives through its connexion with the understanding. A man of correct taste is one who is never imposed on by counterfeit beauties; who carries always in his mind, that standard of good sense, which he employs in judging of every thing. He estimates with propriety the comparative merit of the several beauties which he meets with in any work of genius; refers them to their proper classes; assigns the principles, as far as they can be traced, whence their power of pleasing flows, and is pleased himself precisely in that degree in which he ought, and no more.” “It is true that these two qualities of taste, delicacy and correctness, mutually imply each other. No 274 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF taste can be exquisitely delicate without being correct, nor can be thoroughly correct without being delicate. But still, a predominancy of one or other quality in the mixture is often visible. The power of delicacy is chiefly seen in discerning the true merit of a work; the power of correctness in rejecting false pretensions to merit. Delicacy leans more to feeling; correctness more to reason and judgment. The former, is more the gift of nature; the latter, more the product of culture and art.” The pattern that should be selected for drawing, for the purpose of being afterwards woven, should be distinct, and of a flowing nature; so as it will not appear in the cloth to be cramped, unless it be spots, sprigs, or distinct small patterns. After the pattern is decided upon, it will require to be drawn to answer the tye, or the tye will require to be made to suit the pattern. It is the most economical way to draw the pattern to suit the tye, and the tyes are in general made to take the full advantage of the Jacquard machines, with which the manufacturer is working. By making the pattern to suit the tyes, the manufac¬ turer has it in his power to change the different sets of cards, from one loom to another. For example: if he has four different flowers, and he wishes so many pieces from each flower in four different kinds of cloth, such as six-fourth, seven-fourth, eight-fourth, and nine-fourth, (or it may be four different qualities of THE AHT OE WEAVING. 275 cloth), by changing the cards from one loom to another, he gets all the four different kinds from the one set of cards, and consequently saves the expense of twelve sets of cards by this arrangement. For illustration, we will suppose that the cloth intended to be woven is for ladies’ dresses, and the Jacquard machine is one with six hundred and twelve needles, or cords, as the case may be (this machine would be called a six hundred machine), and suppose it to be a full harness (that is a harness where no heddle leaves are used for the tweeling), the harness being made to work both the figuring and the tweeling, or plain cloth, or all three if desired, it will be evident that the largest tye that can be got for an all-over is six hundred, setting aside the twelve needles to work the selvages; and although the full advantage is taken of the machine for the largest flower that can be got, it does not necessitate the drawing of the flower that size if it is not wanted; because any smaller size of figure may be drawn that comes within the compass of the number by which six hundred will divide;—namely, three hundred, two hundred, one hundred and fifty, one hundred and twenty, one hundred, seventy-five, sixty and fifty; so that in designing the pattern it must first be fixed what number of cords, or needles, the tye is to occupy. If the tye fixed upon be one hundred and fifty, the person that cuts the cards repeats the same 276 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF pattern in cutting, four times over, so as to make up the whole six hundred on the cards. The designer, in putting the pattern on design paper, will require to be very particular that each part will join with its neigh¬ bouring parts, without causing any discord in the look of the cloth, (or what weavers call barred). To prevent this, it is better to divide the object that is to be drawn into two; it does not matter although it is not divided into two equal parts, so be it that it is divided, and the one part of it put on the right hand side, at the extreme edge of the design paper, and the other part on the left hand side; so that when the two sides are brought together the figures will be complete. The same must be done at the beginning of the design and at the end of it, that is at top or bottom; any part of the figure that comes in the centre is drawn in full. The tye being one hundred and fifty, and the flower requir¬ ing the full quantity of both warp and weft, namely, one hundred and fifty threads of warp and weft, then the design will require to be as long as give one hundred and fifty shots of weft. Another thing to be considered is the tweel that is to be used on the cloth, where no part of the flowers covers. If it is a five-leaf tweel then one hundred and fifty will divide by five, and one hundred and fifty ends will do; but if it is an eight-leaf tweel that is to be used, one hundred and fifty will not divide by eight, and the designer THE ART OF WEAVING. 277 will require to make tlie drawing to suit some number that will divide by eight, so that the number of cards must either be one hundred and fifty-two, or one hundred and forty-four; because it spoils the appear¬ ance of the cloth to have broken tweels in it, which would be if the tyes and the cards were not made to answer some number that will divide by the number of the tweel. It frequently happens (such as in dresses) that the flower is wanted to be well brought out on the cloth, and this is done by giving that part of the cloth which forms the flower a much heavier tweel than what is used for the ground of the cloth. The ground of the cloth may be a five leaf tweel, and the flower may be a ten, twelve, or sixteen leaf tweel; or the ground may be plain cloth, and the flower a large tweel; or some part of the flower may be more flushed than another part, and not forming any regular tweel; but this can only be done with the full harness. The foregoing description gives an idea of how any all-over flower may be put on the design paper, such as are generally used for dress goods, carpets, and other kinds of cloth that do not require a border; but when a border or centre is required, it is different. In weaving woollen table-covers, that are to have different kinds of figures for the border and centre, the first thing to do is to fix upon the number of ends that are to be put in the border, and also the number 278 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF for the centre. (We are still supposing it is a full harness), suppose we take a six hundred machine, and that we take three hundred for the body, and the other three hundred for the border, and the border to be a gathered tye, the border then will have six hundred ends in it, with the two borders twelve hundred ends of the web will be taken up; and if the cover is a 10 00 with ten shots, seventy-two inches broad in the reed and the same length to make it square, the whole warp in the web will be, say 3890 ends, and by taking the twelve hundred off for the borders, will leave 2690 for the body, which, divided by 300 (the other half of the machine) will give eight repeats and two hundred and ninety over for a broken part. EXAMPLE. When the fraction is so near making another repeat, more ends can be added to make up another repeat, so by putting 3920 ends in the whole web, it will stand thus:— 3920 ends for the whole warp. 1200 “ “ “ two borders. 2720 20 “ “ “ two selvages. 2700 “ “ “ body. This will make nine repeats in the body, without any broken part. The designer will first require to draw the cross border and the corner part. The corner THE ART OF WEAVING. 279 part will require to be confined to the three hundred needles that are to make the running border, and the cross border confined to the three hundred needles that are to work the body of the table-cover. The running border being gathered, the cross border pat¬ tern must be made to correspond with it in the kind of figure and in the size; consequently it will require six hundred cards to work the cross border. In draw¬ ing the body part, the running border is drawn along with it, and although the designer must keep to the three hundred needles for each, it is not necessary for him to confine himself to three hundred cards in the length of the figure; but whatever number he adopts, he will require to bear in mind (as stated before) to have a number, so as there will be no broken tweels at the joinings. The foregoing explains how the designer puts upon the paper any figures that are repeated upon the cloth; but if the table-cover is to have a large centre, and a figure for itself, the drawer will have a larger scope, and can introduce more variety. To weave a proper table-cover, with a border all round in a full harness, three six hundred Jacquard machines can be employed; and by making it a gathered tye, both for the body and the border, you can easily take in all the 3920 ends of warp, and have some needles over that can be taken advantage of to increase the size of the border, if that is considered necessary. The designer for a cover of this kind will 280 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF require to draw half the pattern, and to design it so that when the two halfs are joined together, they will make a complete whole. For table-covers it is com¬ mon just to draw one-fourth of the pattern, and the card cutter cuts two cards for each line on the design paper, and the cards when being laced are placed in their proper place. For the hand loom only one card is cut for each line on the design paper; but when the weaver has woven once over the cards, he works them backwards, and this makes the other half of the pattern. But suppose the centre piece is a vase, with flowers, then the pattern has to be drawn for the whole length of the table-cover, because the first half is different from the second. It will be evident that any kind of figures can be drawn from the one end of the cover to the other, but in the breadth the designer is confined to one half. Another kind of designing for table-covers, or any kind of cloth requiring large figures, with little ex¬ pense for harness and cards, is, to work the ground of the cloth with heddle leaves, and only use harness for the flowering. This harness is designated a split harness—a three, a four, a five, or a six thread harness. The tweeling being done by the heddles, the designer does not require to trouble himself about that part. In putting the figures on the design paper, all he requires to do, is to draw the figures on the design paper in the same manner as he would draw THE ART OE WEAVING. 281 them on common paper, with fiat colour; and no shading is used except the breaking up of the figures to show their parts. Suppose it is a six thread harness with which the web is to be woven, then every small square in the design paper will represent six threads in the warp, so that the designer requires to make the turns in the figures as neat as possible. It will be obvious that a harness of this kind with a four hundred Jacquard machine will be equal to one (for extent of flower) with six four-hundred machines, making a great saving in machines and cording; and as it is common to put six shots of weft on the cloth for each card with a six thread harness, there is a great saving in cards also, but the neatness in the curves and small objects are not so good as in the full or one thread harness. Designs drawn for a harness, when heddle leaves are used for the ground of the cloth, will answer either for a split harness or any other number of threads that may be put into the mail; and if the looms have all the same tye, it will answer for either broad or narrow cloth, the narrow cloth having fewer ends in each mail. It also suits for any set of reed, as the number of ends in the mails can be regulated according to the number of ends in the web. For further explanation, read the article ft Pressure Harness,” which will he found in the fifth chapter. But before leaving the subject of designing, we will 282 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF make a few simple remarks upon it. Many people think it is only some kind of figures, or flowers, that can he woven into cloth, but this is a mistake, for any thing that can be painted on paper can be woven. No matter how many the colours, or extent of the patterns; it is just a matter of expense (or money). When the painting is once on paper, then the warp threads are to be imagined running up and down the paper, and the weft threads running across it. These imaginary lines are put on paper with all the different colours, and this paper is what is called the design. The painting or figure on the paper may be exactly the same size as wdiat it is on the cloth, or it may be smaller, or it may be larger, that will depend on circumstances. When designing is understood (that is transferring the painting to the ruled paper) it becomes very simple, and does not require much talent; the talent is required in making the original drawing (not copying). The many different kinds of woollen goods that are made with all the different shades of colour in them, require that the person whose duty it is to get up the patterns should have a knowledge of the harmonious arrangement of colours, which will be treated of in another place. Goods with prominent stripes in the weft can be made by weaving tweel and plain cloth alternately, and the larger the tweel is, the stripe will be the THE ART OF WEAVING. 283 brighter. When not more than six leaves are used for these stripes, a very simple motion can be applied to the check power looms for working the tweel and plain cloth, which may be explained here. The barrel, or cards, or whatever the apparatus is that regulates the shifting of the shuttle boxes, can be taken advantage of for regulating the working of the tweel and plain. It is done in the following manner:— For illustration, take a pattern that has eighty shots of plain cloth and twenty four of tweel, and suppose the tweel is three leaves down and one up, which makes four leaves in all, and suppose the plain cloth has at the rate of fifty-four shots per inch, and the tweeled at the rate of one hundred and eight shots per inch, which gives for the tweel double the quantity of shots for the same space. In setting the pattern on the barrel for the change of the shuttles, it is set at the same time for the tweel. From each leaf there is a small rod of iron, with a projection on it, near the end, for taking hold of the shedding treadles; only the common wypers and two treadles are required, and as the two treadles go up and down alternately to make the shed, the heddle leaves are sunk or raised according to the arrangement of the barrel, which is for the plain cloth two up and two down, and for the tweel three down and one up. But it will be evident that some provision will require to be made on the uptaking motion, so as to put on the double 284 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF quantity of shots on the tweeled part. This is done by the barrel also, by lifting the hauling catch each alternate shot, and allowing it to miss a teeth every second shot. Those who understand the working of the Dobie machine will also understand this simple mode of tweel and plain, for the principle is just the same, the common treadles being used instead of the blades of the Dobie, and the barrel or other index for regulating the shifting of the shuttle boxes, is instead of the cards employed on the Dobie machine; so that it will be obvious that its advantage is chiefly confined to check looms. In calculating the quantity of weft required for a piece of cloth of the foregoing description, it will be necessary to ascertain the number of shots in a given quantity of inches. This can be done by multiplying the number of stripes by the shots in the stripe, in the given number of inches. For example, take nine inches, the pattern being repeated four times in the nine inches of cloth, and each repeat having 164 shots, then, . 164 by 4 4 9)656(72f shots. 63 26 18 8 or nearly 73 shots per inch. 9 THE ART OF WEAVING. 285 So that by looking at the weft table, under 73 shots per inch, the quantity of weft required will be found. The clan patterns, and the many different kinds of tartans made for dresses, and also the different pat¬ terns for wool shirtings which are made of woollen yarn, need not be further treated upon here, as they are taken notice of in another place. But we may refer the reader to page 74, where it is explained how the most difficult patterns can be warped with the beam warping machine. 286 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP CHAPTER VII. LAPPET AND GAUZE WEAVING, > i§ i !4| THE ART OP WEAVING. 381 Suppose No. 60 to be treaded according to how it is shown at the figures, 1, 2, 3, and 4, until the loom has woven 108 shots, and 10 shots of weft (Scotch glass) put on, on each side of the cover, this will give one inch of cloth for each side, without putting any coarse weft between the two warps. When the leaves C and D are treaded, coarse weft is put in; and when the leaves A and B are treaded, fine weft is put in. The treads 5 and 6 join the two fabrics; and it is done by putting in fine weft. Then the treads, Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, are repeated for the same number of shots as the figures, 1, 2, 3, and 4, which will make another inch of cloth, and the treads 11 and 12 are those that join the fabrics. If this treading was continued, a stripe one inch broad would be produced without putting anything between the two warps; but if coarse weft is to be put in between the two warps for filling, then the heddles are treaded for that purpose, in the same manner as shown by the numbers 13 and 14. To make this very simple pattern in the power-loom, it will require at least 218 cards, or two different barrels (or shedding gear), which can be brought into, or put out of motion, by an index whereon the pattern is arranged; but the cards with the small Jacquard machine is the most simple way of doing it. In the hand-loom it can be woven with a few treadles and marches. There are many small patterns that can be woven on bed and toilet covers, with heddle leaves, by 382 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF employing as many as 16, and varying the draught; but when a fine flowery figure is wanted for the centre, and a border all round the cover, a harness must be used to produce the patterns; and, by taking advan¬ tage of the harness and heddle leaves, any figure can be woven to the extent of the cover, and how that can be done is fully explained in Chapter V., page 179. The only alteration that requires to be made, is in the tweeling barrel that works the heddles, and a double box put at each side of the lay. Like any other figured work, the first thing to be done, is to put the figures on design paper, and con¬ sider what kind of tweel is for the under side of the cloth, and what is for the upper. The harness being employed to form the figure, and to fix the two fabrics together; and the heddle leaves for weaving the grounds, which can be either plain or tweeled, or the one plain and the other tweeled. It will be plain to those who have studied what has already been written, that any kind of figured bed-cover can be woven, by using this kind of mounting, by whatever name they may go under; such as diamond quilt, waved quilt, Marseilles quilts, and fancy quilts, with any colour that may be thought proper to be put in, either in the warp or weft. With all those opportunities, some very beautiful things may be woven on bed and toilet covers. THE AET OF WEAVING. 383 WEAVING BROAD CLOTH IN A NARROW LOOM CRUMB-CLOTHS. Crumb-cloths are, in general, either made of linen or worsted yarn, and are used for putting on the top of carpets for the purpose of keeping them clean. They are considered better to have no seam in them, and suppose one is wanted six yards wide, it would require a loom with at least 19 feet of reed space to weave it, which comes to be very expensive; to obviate the expense of such a large loom they can be woven in a loom two yards wide, on the double-cloth principle, in the following manner :— Let the fabric be equal to a 10 00 , and the shrinkage be one in twenty, then the space that will require to be tilled in the reed will be 222 inches, if woven in the common way; but in an eight-fourth loom with six threads in the split, the space required will be only 74 inches; and all the warp that is required will be put on the beam, so as to answer this space (viz., 74 inches), the quantity of which is 12,000 ends for the warp in the web. For the purpose of making our explanation better understood, we will suppose the ground for the crumb-cloth to be a four-leaf tweel, and to accomplish this, twelve leaves will be required, as there is in reality three webs on the one beam, and each web requires four leaves. 384 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF The web that is to be uppermost can be drawn on the four leaves that are next the lay, the centre web drawn into the four centre leaves, and the under web into the four back leaves. The first shot that is thrown is for the top web, the second for the centre web, and the third for the under web. If the first shot be thrown from the right hand, the top web will be joined to the centre one at the left hand, as the second shot must be thrown from the left, and the third shot being thrown from the right, the centre web and the under one will be joined at the right hand; the fourth shot is put through the under web from the left hand, which forms the selvage for that side of the crumb-cloth; the fifth shot is put through the centre web from the right, and the sixth shot through the top web from the left, and back again through the top web, which forms the other selvage of the crumb-cloth; and this is repeated for the whole length of the web. . Examples are already given how a four-leaf tweel is drawn and treaded, and the main thing to be attended to in drawing this web, is to draw each set the same as any other four-leaf tweel, taking one thread on each set alternately. It will be apparent, that a barrel with 24 treads will be required to work this cloth, as it takes six shots to make one repeat of the wefting, and four shots to make one repeat of the tweel; so that six mul¬ tiplied by four is 24, the number of treads required. THE ART OF WEAVING. 385 The explanations given here will only do for a cloth with a plain or four-leaf ground, but if ngures are required, a harness, or larger mounting, for working the sheds, will be necessary, which can easily he applied even to this kind of work. When the cloth is woven, and taken off the loom, it will measure tlnee times the breadth that it stands in it, whatever that breadth may be. CARPETS. Many of the carpets that are sold at the present time are woven upon the double-cloth principle, and are called two-ply and three-ply carpets. If the warps are to form the flowers, they may be woven with one shuttle, and the heddles (or harness) are made to lift that portion of the warp which is requisite to form the flower. The colours that are introduced into the flowers, will depend upon the arrangement of them in the warps. Suppose it is a three-ply carpet, and each warp to be all one colour, one red, one blue, and one orange; the designer will have only these three colours to work upon in drawing the patterns. They may be drawn so as one flower may have all the three colours in it, or just the one, that will depend entirely upon what is wanted; the scope for variety with one shuttle, when there is three warps employed, is greatly increased over the two-ply carpets, as one set 386 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF of flowers may be all red, one set all blue, another set all orange, another set red and blue, another set red and orange, another set orange and blue, and another set red, blue, and orange, besides all the imaginable arrangements of the colours that may be introduced into the different warps in the shape of stripes. When only one shuttle is employed, and that shuttle to throw in blue weft, the figure will be brightest where the blue weft crosses the blue warp ; but, so as the colours may all be as bright as possible with the one wefting, the warp of the web is made much coarser than the weft. Another way of making two and three-ply carpets, which makes a superior article, is to have as many colours in the weft as there is in the warp. This may cause the use of a great number of shuttles, but it brings up fine bright flowers where the same colour of weft and warp are made to cross each other; this is done by observing what card is made to lift the har¬ ness for the different colours, and putting in a shuttle with the same colour of weft as the warp which it is to cross, to form the flower. In designing patterns for this kind of work, particular care must be taken to have the design painted, so as the card cutter will know what parts are to be cut, and what are to be left blank on each card. For, in reality, there will be three different sets of cards required for a three-ply carpet, although they are all laced together as one set for the weaver. THE ART OE WEAVING. 387 For some of the more simple kinds of carpets, with small figures woven on them, instead of using the Jacquard machine for working the harness, a barrel is placed above the loom, whereon the pattern is arranged. It is something similar to the barrel ol an organ, and the small pieces of wires that are fixed in it to play the tune, are made to move that part of the harness which is to be lifted to form ihe figiue, the particulars of which need not be explained heie, as the movements are similar to those described under tweeling mountings, the wires being arranged in the same manner as the tapets are in the tweeling 01 diaper barrels. Mr. Morton, of Kilmarnock, at one time made these barrels, to a considerable extent, for weaving carpets; but the cards for the Jacquard machine can be made much cheaper now, which, to a certain extent, supei- sedes the use of Mr. Morton s barrel, even for small patterns. This barrel does for other kinds of figured work as well as for carpets; and it may be observed that it requires to be divided into as many divisions as there are lifts of the harness in one repeat of the pattern, and that the wires or pegs are put in accord¬ ing to the figure on the design paper. We have given in this chapter an explanation of mountings for working the different kinds of tweels, from a three to a sixteen-leaf. In that explanation, the wyper, the pulley, the scroll, and the star kinds 388 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF have been taken notice of for sinking the heddle leaves, also different plans for lifting the heddles, such as weights, springs, and the Jacquard machine. We will finish this chapter by briefly noticing a few other plans for working the heddle leaves; for to make remarks on all would take up too much space. Mr. Patrick Robertson, of Rutherglen Weaving Mill, took out a patent some years ago, the principle of which was to control the movements of heddle leaves for certain kinds of work, and his plan was con¬ sidered a very good one; however, our remarks, under the following head, will not be entirely confined to this patent, but will embrace different ways how the same kind of work can be woven. PLAIN AND TWEEL, WITH WEFT CORDS. It is shown at page 347, how four shots of plain and four shots of tweel cloth, alternately, can be woven. When the patterns are small (for any that will be completed under 37 shots), the tweeling barrel is the simplest mounting that can be used; but if a pattern, the same as the one given under No. 61, requires to be woven, then it cannot be made with the barrel. THE ART OF WEAVING. 389 No. 61. 7 shots for a cord. 24 plain cloth. 7 ? ? a cord. 49 tweeled cloth. 7 5J a cord. 24 118 plain cloth. This pattern is woven with four leaves, the warp is drawn through the heddles, in the same order as for plain work) and for making the plain cloth pait of the pattern, the common wypers are used, and for the tweel part of it a common four-leaf barrel. The four leaves of heddles are corded to the four tweeling treadles in the usual way, but the two plain treadles are corded so as the leaves are at liberty to be moved by the tweeling barrel when it comes into motion; both the plain treadles and tweeling ones are so arranged that they can be put in and out of geai at pleasure. A ratchet wheel may be employed as the regulator of the pattern, and for this one it will require 118 teeth. The first part of the pattern is a cord which is made by putting in seven shots of weft into the same shed; this is accomplished by keeping the plain shed open for seven shots, the weft being made to turn upon one single thread at each selvage; the selvage threads may be made to perform this part independent of the heddle leaves. The second part of the pattern is 24 shots for plain cloth. The third 390 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF part of the pattern is again seven shots of weft for a cord. The fourth part is 49 shots for the tweeling. The fifth part is again seven shots for a cord; and then for the sixth part 24 shots for plain. This makes one repeat of the pattern, which is all arranged on the ratchet wheel. On the one side of the wheel there is placed nobs or pins, for putting the shedding motion into gear; the pins on the other side are used for putting the shedding motion out of gear. It will be evident, from what has already been stated, that, instead of a ratchet wheel for the regu¬ lator of the pattern, the Jacquard machine, and the endless chain, used for working the heddle leaves, will answer the same purpose; however, the wheel will answer in this place for the illustration of the other parts. The regulator of the pattern should be got at, with the least possible trouble to the weaver, and easily shifted to its proper position when any derangement takes place in the pattern. This has not been attended to in any of the looms which has come under the notice of the writer, but in some plans the very re¬ verse, by putting the index or regulator of the pattern away below the loom. To any person at all acquainted with power-loom weaving, it will be apparent that the best place is to have it at the handle side of the loom, right opposite the weaver, on the upright of the heddle- bearer. Suppose it placed in that position, all that is THE ART OF WEAVING. 391 required to be in connection with the ratchet wheel is two small levers ; these levers, when acted upon, put in motion the apparatus for shifting the treadles or wypers; for the object to be attained, can be done, either by shifting the wypers from off the treadles, or by allowing the treadles to fall out of gear from the w T ypers. If the wypers are to be acted upon, they are made to slide upon their respective shafts to one side, to be out of gear with the treadles. This is accom¬ plished by having a long key made fast on the shaft, and a key seat cut in the wypers to correspond to it. The proper time for the wypers to be shifted, is when the heddle leaves are close; and when the one set goes into gear, the other must go out at the same instant. When the wypers are to be kept always in the same place upon their shafts, and the treadle to be acted upon for changing the shedding motion, a small arbor is placed for each set of treadles, right below the treadle heel pins. These arbors are fitted with an eccentric on each end, for supporting the treadle heel pin, and a slit is made in the treadle heel, for the purpose of allowing the pin to move np or down. When the arbor is turned, so as the full side of the eccentrics are up, the treadles will be in gear with the wypers, and that set of treadles will be put in motion for shedding the heddles; the reverse will take place when the full side of the eccentrics are down. The same appliance which can shift the wypefs, can be 392 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF made to turn the arbors, and that may consist of 9 either a spring or weight, or a lever brought into contact with a cam, put on the under shaft of the loom for that purpose. The arrangements just explained, place the wypers for working the plain cloth on the common wyper shaft; but, by making suitable wypers for the plain cloth, they may be fixed on the same shaft with the tweeling ones, and, in many instances, this is the pre¬ ferable way of doing it. , TAPE CHECKS, MADE WITH ONE SHUTTLE. i Tape checks are now very common; they were originally made in the hand-loom, but now mostly made by power. The ground of the cloth is similar to that of a jaconet, and they are striped in the warp and weft, by putting in coarser yarn, or a number of plies of fine, to form the stripes. They are taken notice of here, for the purpose of explaining how they are made with one shuttle; and for the guidance of those un¬ acquainted with this fabric, it may be of use to state what numbers of yarns they are made of:— For a 10 00 60s Warp, with 80s weft. „ 1200 70s „ „ 90s „ „ Uoo 80s „ „ 100s „ The sizes of yarn given here are those that are commonly used, but some tape checks are made with THE ART OP WEAVING-. 393 much finer yarns, for the purpose of making the ground of the cloth more transparent. Suppose the pattern to be two inches of fine and 12 shots of coarse weft alternately, the coarse yarn being two ply of 40s, and the fine 80s single, the usual way to make this pattern is to have one shuttle for the fine and another for the coarse weft, and change them either by hand or with a double box. To make this pattern with one shuttle, the same apparatus that has been explained for making the cord in No. 61, will do for making the tape in this pattern, by putting in four shots of No. 80s in one shed, then changing the shed and putting in other four shots, and repeating this for 12 times, which will be equal to 12 shots of coarse weft, because four ply of 80s are equal to two ply of 40s. After this, the wypers are allowed to work two inches of plain cloth to form the body of the check, and that will complete the pattern. It will be apparent that this plan of making tape checks is more suitable for small patterns than large ones. For keeping the shed open for the purpose of throwing in more shots than one, some parties do it differently from the method just explained. One of the plans is to draw the small pulley out from under the wyper, and, by doing so, it is not acted upon by the wyper to form the shed, while the other is locked down to hold the shed open. Another way, is to have 394 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF a spiral spring placed between one of the treadles and the heddles, this spring to be sufficiently strong to form the shed when the other treadle is not locked, and when it is locked to keep the shed open. The spring will yield to the action of the wyper. Another way, is to have both wypers loose on the shaft, and a clutch for each wyper, which can be made to gear with them, when their actions are required for the shedding. There is another machine for working heddle leaves, known in the trade by the name a Dobie,” which some manufacturers use in preference to those plans just described. This machine is very well got up, and is one of those which will work almost any kind of pattern that can be made with heddles. It is placed in the same position on the loom as the skeleton Jacquard machine; and as it is just another modifica¬ tion of the Jacquard machine, no further notice of it is required in this place. THE ART OF WEAVING. 395 CHAPTER IX. CALCULATIONS, TABLES, &c. COSTING GOODS. The meaning of costing is to find, by calculation, what money it will cost the manufacturer to make a given piece of cloth. It is very important that the person whose charge it is to rate the goods should have some uniform method to keep by, because, changing from one system to another, they are apt to forget some item in their calculation 5 therefore, before making any further remarks about the costing of goods, we will give a few specimens of rating. The prices affixed are nominal, as the speci¬ mens given are merely to show the principle of rating 396 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF Rating for 50 yards of a 36 inch 12 00 shirting , with 14 shots. Lbs. Rate. Pence. Length, 50 yards, - Width, 36 inches, - Splits, 1265,. Ends, 2530,. Warp No. 32’s, 165 hanks, - - - 5J £0 1 3 77| Weft No. 32’s, 192§ hanks, - - 6 0 1 2 84 Warping,. 2 Dressing, ------ 5 Weaving,.- 25 Charges,. 20 Total cost,. 214^ Discount, 5 per cent., - - - 10£ Cost per yard, 4Jd., - 225£ To sell at 4fd. per yard, 5 per cent off, It is better, when rating goods, to put down the amount in pence, as in the specimen given, and also to add, as in this case, the shrinkage and waste into the number of hanks of both warp and weft. In the above rating the whole cost, with 5 per cent, added, is 225J pence, which, when divided by 50, (the length of the piece,) shows the price to be 4£d. per yard. THE ART OF WEAVING-. 397 Rating for a 12 00 tape check with 11 shots. Length, 50 yards, Breadth, 32| inches, - Splits, 1024 for fine, 96 for coarse,: Ends, 2048, No. 70’s, 430, No. 50,: Warp No. 70’s, 130 hanks, Warp No. 50’s, 28 hanks, - Weft No. 90’s, 120 hanks, - Weft No. 40’s, 2 ply, 20 hanks, - Dressing,. Weaying, - Charges,. Total cost, - Discount, - Cost per yard, 3.12 per yard, - To sell at 14s. per piece, - Lbs. Rate. Pence. 1120, :2478, 1.85 £0 2 3 501 .56 0 1 6 10 1.33 0 2 2 34f .50 0 1 3 7^ 22 20 148 8 156 In the above fabric there is 430 ends of No. 50s warp for the tape, and 12 tapes in the breadth of the web, giving 34 ends for each tape ? and 22 ends for selvage yarn. There are eight splits occupied for each tape, with four ends in each split, except the two out¬ side splits, they having five ends in each, to form a cord or finish at the edges of the tape; this makes up the 34 ends for each tape. 398 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF Rating for a blue and white check. Lbs. Rate. Pence. Reed, 10°°,. Shots, 12, Length, 72 yards, - Breadth, 38 inches, - Splits, 1065, ----- Ends, 1062 for blue, 1068 for white,=2130, Warp 24’s for blue, 102 hanks, 4.25 £0 1 0 51 Warp 20’s for white, 102 hanks, 5.10 0 0 11 56£ Weft 20’s for blue, 123 hanks, 6.15 0 0 10 61| Weft 16’s for white, 123 hanks, 7.68 0 0 H 73£ Bleaching half of the warp and weft, - 12.78 0 0 l 13 Dyeing,. 10.40 0 0 5 52£ Winding 11| spyndles warp, at Id. 13f weft, l|d., 32 Warping,. - 5 Dressing, - - - - 9 Weaving, ----- 115 Charges, ----- 24 Total cost nett, Price per yard, 6.84, Selling price per yard, 7-.pl. 493 The above rating is made out on the supposition that the web is to be woven in the hand-loom, the web being dressed and prepared in the same manner as for the power-loom. The white warp is rather less than 56 J pence, also the white weft is less than but the manufacturer takes the benefit of the fractions. THE ART OF WEAVING. 399 FORM FOR RATING BOOK. Lbs. Date, - Keed, - Shots, - - Length, - - Breadth, - Splits, - Ends or runners, - Warp, cotton, hanks, Warp, silk, hanks, Warp, lace yarn, hanks, Weft, cotton, hanks, Weft, silk, hanks, Whip, - - Bleaching, - Dyeing, - - Winding, spyndles, - Warping, Dressing, Drawing or twisting, Weaving, Finishing, Charges, Total cost, Price per piece, Price per yard, Rate. Pence. The above is considered one of the best forms, as it will answer for most kinds of work; and the manu¬ facturer, by having the rating book ruled and printed according to this form, or any other he may think better, will save himself a considerable amount of trouble. A blank space should be left at the bottom of each page for remarks. 400 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ONCOST OR CHARGES. Before the charges can be properly ascertained for any piece of goods, it is necessary to know what may be called the rent of the loom, also the sum that is required for furnishings, &c., and this will entirely depend upon the nature of the cloth to be woven. For some power-loom factories, where common light cloth is to be woven, the whole outlay for buildings, boilers, engines, gearing, winding, warping, and dressing machines; looms, water, steam and gas pipes, along with warehouse furniture, will not be more than £21 per loom, supposing the factory to be as large as will contain 500 looms, as the smaller the factory is it will cost the more per loom. For weaving some kinds of goods, the outlay per loom is as high as £80, before cloth can be made; and the cost of a shed with about 250 looms, for weaving winceys and fancy dress goods, has been found to be from £36 to £42 per loom, the price depending upon the kind of looms put in. This in¬ cludes every thing in connection with the factory that is required before it can be started to make cloth— such as gearing, large and small, winding machines, beaming machines, twisting frames, warehouse and counting-house furniture, pirns and pirn boards, bobbins and heddle shafts. But this sum does not include reeds or heddles, for these two articles may THE AET OP WEAVING-. 401 cost a very large sum if a great many different kinds of goods are to be made in the factory. However, we will take the outlay at £30 per loom for a data, to show how the oncost expenses, or charges are found; what that £30 is made up of will be shown in an¬ other place. In a mill with 500 looms, the following sums affixed to the different articles, have been found in practice to be nearly correct, taking an average of a few years. This statement, except the first seven items, and two or three others, was given to the writer, by a manager in the power-loom trade, who has had long experience in the management of power- loom factories; but every manufacturer will require to find out the exact sum for himself, which can be easily done at the end of six or twelve months. The amounts given in this place are for one year. 402 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF STATEMENT OF EXPENSES FOR ONE YEAR. 500 looms, at the rate of £30 each, is £15,000. 1—Interest on £15,000 at 5 per cent., - £750 0 0 2—Depreciation for one year, - 750 0 0 3—Insurance on Mill and Stock, - 270 0 0 4—Feu duty, poor and police rates, &c., say - 240 0 0 5—For gas, nett, ----- - 114 8 10 6—Water for boilers, &c., - - - - 95 0 0 7—Manager’s salary,. - 180 0 0 £2399 8 10 8—Fuel, 1245 waggons, at 4s. 6d., - 280 2 6 9—Reed-maker’s account for one year, 65 10 0 10—Heddles,. - 133 0 0 11—Rods, heddles, shafts, and shuttles, 57 8 0 12—Castings, iron, and work done out, - 279 0 0 13—Ironmongery, ----- 33 0 0 14—Brushes,. 24 16 6 15—Tinsmith’s account, - - - - 19 0 0 16—Rope-spinner’s account for pace cord, &c., 22 0 0 17—Shuttle cords, - - - - - - 146 0 0 18—Oil, Tallow, and Soap, - - 280 0 0 19—Heddle paint,. 6 12 0 20—Wood,. 27 0 0 21—Shuttle drivers,. 25 10 0 22—File-cutter,. 6 5 0 23—Cooperage,. 3 8 0 24—Leather,. 56 0 0 Carried forward , £3864 0 10 THE ART OF WEAVING. Brought forward, 25— Glazier’s account, - 26— Slater’s account, - 27— Plumber’s account,- 28— Stationery,. 29— Doctor’s expenses, - 30— Incidental Expenses, To the above list must be added the following sums for wages :— 31 —l Watchman for night, 15s. per week, - £39 0 0 32_1 Gate-keeper, 10s. per week, 26 0 0 33 —2 Sweepers for cleaning, &c., 7s. 6 d., 39 0 0 34 —1 Engineman, 24s. per week, 62 8 0 35—For porterage, - 32 0 0 36—Blacksmith and Mechanics’ wages, - - 196 16 0 37 —Wages for Warehouse hands, - 199 0 0 38—Dressing-master, 30s. per week, 78 0 0 39 —Twisting-master, 20s. per week, 52 0 0 40—Cleaning Hues, boilers, &c., - 6 0 0 41—Rent for town warehouse, and taxes, 90 0 0 42—Salesman, clerk, and porter’s wages, - 270 0 0 43 —Postage stamps, and other expenses, 10 0 0 £5086 1 10 After taking off the holidays, fast-days, &c. not more than 300 working days can he calculated upon for one year; so the sum, £5086 Is. 10d., divided by 300, and the product by 500 (the number of looms), will give the charge for one loom per day. 403 £3864 0 10 11 10 0 4 7 0 3 14 0 27 15 0 5 0 0 69 11 0 £3985 17 10 404 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EXAMPLE. £5086 1 10 20 101721 12 300)1220662(4068 1200 2066 1800 2662 2400 262 Say 4069 500)4069(8^ 4000 69 8 552 This calculation shows that the expense for one loom per day to be eight pence and one-eighth, which gives four shillings and three farthings per week; and suppose that one loom will produce three pieces of cloth per week, the charges for one piece will be one shilling and fourpence farthing. To this will require to be added, any wages that are not put down specially THE AET OF WEAVING. 405 in the rating, such as the tenter’s wages, which is not shown in the form given for the rating book. The foregoing statement and observations have been made more for the guidance of new beginners than for those already in the trade, for every manufacturer who takes the trouble to look into his accounts at the end of the year soon finds out what the oncost charges are. And it will he apparent, that if the production can be increased from three pieces per week, to four or five, the charge upon one piece will be considerably less. And it may be remarked, that the desire to make a loom to produce as much as possible in a given time, has been the great stimulant for the many im¬ provements that have been made in power-looms of late. When it is taken into consideration how these improvements are taken advantage of, by people putting up new works, the reader will not be sur¬ prised at the item, No. 2, which is £750 per annum, being put down in the statement, for the fact is, that even five per cent, does not compensate, in many instances, for the depreciation that takes place in the machinery used for weaving by power; and it would be better for those in the trade, if they can manage it at all, to throw out their old machinery, and put in new whenever it is proven that the new is better, either for quantity or quality; for if they do not, they are sure to be cut out of the trade by the parties who have got the improved machinery, as they are enabled 406 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND I ' to undersell them in the market, and have a profit too. However, this will be shown more clearly in another place. MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND BEAMERS’ TABLES. The annexed tables are to show the quantity of yarn contained in any given web. The use of them will be apparent to the beamer, warper, and manufac¬ turer, as they will save time in calculation. The first column to the left hand side of each page are splits. The figures in the second column represent the porters contained in the number of splits on the same line. The first row of figures on the top of the page are ells; and the second row are yards. The body of the pages show the number of spyndles, hanks, and parts of a hank. Examples are given at the end of the tables, how they can be applied by the warper, beamer, &c. BEAMEKS’ TABLES. 407 408 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells 61 61 71 8 8f 91 Yards. 7 8 9 10 11 12 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 7 7 7 4 7 5 i 4 i 7 f 7 ♦ ? 7 10 1 2 7 1 7 7 4 ! 2 7 20 1 f 3 7 7 f f 4 7 30 1* f f 7 f f f 40 2 5 7 f 6 7 1 if H 50 2f e T 1 1 H if If 60 3 1 if If If if If 70 %2 If if If If if 2 80 4 if if J 7 If 2 2f 90 if if If 2f 2f 2f 100 5 if if 2f 2f 2f 2 f 200 10 3f 3f 4f 4f 5f 5f 300 15 5 5f 6 f 7f 7f 87 400 20 6f 7f 87 9f 104 Hf 500 25 8f 9f lOf Ilf 13 14f 600 30 10 Hf 12 f 14f 15f 17f 700 35 nf 13f 15 16f 1 2 1 7 1 2 800 40 m 15f 17f 1 1 1 2 -e 1 4-f 900 45 15 17f 1 n 1 3f 1 5f 1 7f 1000 50 16f 1 1 1 3f 1 5f 1 7} 1 104 2000 100 1 15f 2 2 f 2 6 f 2 Ilf 2 16f- 3 3f 3000 150 2 14 3 3| 3 lOf 3 17f 4 6a 4 13f 4000 200 3 12f 4 4| 4 13f 5 5f 5 14f 6 67 BEAMEES’ TABLES. 409 410 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND / Ells. 1 H 16 16f 171 181 19« Yards. 19 20 21 22 23 24 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 2. 7 4 1 7 1 7 4 1 T 5 4 2 T 4 2 T 2 7 2 T 2 r 10 1 2 3 T 3 r 3 T 4 7 4 7 4 20 l 6 7 1 1 14 14 14 30 1| 1 2 ± T A 7 14 14 14 14 40 2 If l-S. A 7 2 24 24 24 50 2 | 24 24 24 24 24 24 60 3 2f 24 3 34 34 34 70 ^2 34 34 4 34 4 80 4 3f 34 4 44 44 44 90 41 ■*2 4 44 44 44 44 54 100 5 44 5 54 54 54 200 10 9 94 10 104 11 114 300 15 13-f- 1-lf 15 154 I 64 174 400 20 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 34' 1 44 500 25 1 44 1 r:r, o T 1 1 i 84 1 94 1 104 600 30 1 1 104 1 12 1 134 1 144 1 164 700 35 1 13f 1 154 1 17 O 5 7 2 24 2 4 800 40 2 f 2 24 2 4 2 54 2 74 2 94 900 45 2 4f 2 64 2 9 2 114 2 134 2 154 1000 50 2 9? 2 114 2 14 2 I 64 3 5 T 3 34 2000 100 5 3 T 5 54 5 10 5 144 6 if 6 64 3000 150 7 94 7 164 8 6 8 134 9 24 9 9t 4000 200 10 1 10 104 11 2 11 114 12 3 12 124 BEAMERS’ TABLES. 411 Ells. Yards. 20 Splits. 2 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2000 3000 4000 Porters. i 10 l 1 2 1 n 21 41 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 100 150 200 25 20 £ 26 Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 7 2 T 4 T n If n 3 4+ 4f 5f 6 12 17f 1 5f 1 Ilf 1 17f 2 5f 2 Ilf 2 174 3 54 6 10 9 I 64 13 4f 4 T If If 213 222 2f 3i 3f 4f 5 5f 6 i 124 1 1 1 64 1 13 2 If 2 7f 2 134 3 If 3 74 6 15f 10 54 13 13f Sp. Hk. 4 T If If 2 f Sf 34 44 5f 5f 6 f 124 12. - 1 2 * 4 * 6 * * * * * * 13 7 1 TA 1 144 2 24 2 9 2 15f 3 44 3 104 7 24 10 124 14 5f 28 Sp. Hk. 23 V 29 24 30 Sp. Hk. 2 T 2 T 5 T If 2 24 34 4 4f 5f 6 6f 134 1 2 I 8 f 1 154 2 4 2 lOf 2 174 3 6 3 12f 7 74 II 2 14 14f Sp. Hk 2 T 2 . 7 f If 2 24 34 4f 4f 54 Of Of 134 1 2 f 1 94 1 16f 2 64 2 124 3 If 3 8 f 3 15 7 Hf 11 9f 15 6 f 1 3 1 T 2 f 2 f 34 4f| 5 5f| 6fi 7f l4f 1 3f 1 lOf 1 174 2 6f 2 14 3 3f 3 lOf 3 17f 7 I 64 11 l6f 15 15fj 412 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 2 n 251 261 1 27 J 28 28J Yards. 31 32 33 34 35 36 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 2 7 2 T 2 Y 2 7 2 y f 5 1 4 2 T 2 7 2 y 2 T 3 y 4 10 1 2 5 T 5 T f 6 T c y n 7 20 1 If If If If 14 15 A 7 30 1* 2-f 2f 2f 2f 24 2f 40 2 3 3 3y 3y 3f- 34 50 n 8f «f 3f 4 4f 44 60 3 4f 4f 4f 4f 5 5f 70 5-f 6f 5f 8f 54 6 80 4 «f 6f 6y 6f 64 64 90 41 6f 6f 7 72 ?4 74 100 5 7 3 * T 7f 7y 8f 84 8f 200 10 144 15|- 15f 16f I64 17f 300 15 1 4f 1 4f 1 5f 1 6f 1 7 1 74 400 20 1 104 1 12f 1 134 1 14f 1 15f 1 16| 500 25 2 T 2 2f 2 3f 2 4f 2 54 2 64 600 30 2 8f 2 9f 2 Ilf 2 12f 2 14 2 154 700 35 2 15f 2 17f 3 1 3 24 3 44 3 6 800 40 3 5 3 7 3 8f 3 104 3 124 3 144 900 45 3 I2f 3 14f 3 16f 4 6 y 4 3 4 54 1000 50 4 4 4 6f 4 9 4 114 4 134 2000 100 8 »f 8 8 y 8 I3f 8 17f 9 44 9 74 3000 150 12 6f 12 12-4 13 If 13 84 13 16 14 5f 4000 200 16 7f 16 16f 17 8f 17 17f 18 94 19 6 7 BEAMERS’ TABLES. 413 414 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 34f 35i 36 36f 37 ? 381 Yards. 43 44 45 46 47 48 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 3 7 3 T 3 T 3 y 3 7 4 7 5 1 4 3 7 3 7 3 7 3 7 4 7 t 10 1 2 1 H If If If n 20 1 2 2 2f 2f 2f 2 $ 30 1* 3 34 - 3$ 3$ 3$ 3 $ 40 2 4$ 4f 4$ 4$ 4$ 4 $ 50 2$ 5 54 - 5$ 5$ 5$ 5 $ 60 3 6+ 6$ 6$ 6$ 6$ 6$ 70 8* n 7$ 7$ 8 80 4 8$ 8f 8$ 8$ 8$ 9$ 90 4$ 9$ 9$ 9$ 10 10$ 100 5 lOf 10$ 10$ 11 Ilf 11$ 200 10 1 2f 1 2f 1 3$ 1 3$ 1 4$ 1 4$ 300 15 1 12$ 1 13$ 1 14$ 1 14$ 1 15$ 1 16$ ! 400 20 2 5 2 5$ 2 6$ 2 7$ 2 8$ 2 9| 500 25 2 15$ 2 16$ 2 17$ 3 5 T 3 1$ 3 3$ 600 30 3 7f 3 8$ 3 10$ 3 11 $ 3 13$ 3 14$ 700 35 3 17$ 4 If 4 3 4 4$ 4 6$ 4 8 800 40 4 9f 4 11$ 4 13$ 4 15$ 4 17$ 5 If 900 45 5 24- 5 4$ 5 6$ 5 8$ 5 10$ 5 12$ 1000 50 5 12$ 5 14$ 5 17$ 6 If 6 3$ 6 6$ 2000 100 11 6f 11 11$ 11 16$ 12 3 12 7$ 12 12$ 3000 150 17 1$ 17 8$ 17 15$ 18 4$ 18 11$ 19 6 7 ! 4000 200 22 13$ 23 5 23 14$ 24 6 24 16$ 25 7 BEAMERS’ TABLES. 415 416 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 44 441 45| 462 471 48 Yards. 55 56 57 58 59 60 Splits. Porters. Sp Hk. Sp Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 f f f f f f 5 1 4 f f 4 T f f f 10 1 2 n If If If If If 20 1 2 * Of 2 f Of Of Of 30 1 * 3f 4 4 4f 4f 4f 40 2 5f «f 5f 5f Of 5f 50 Of 6f Of 6f 7 7 7f 60 3 7f 8 8 f 8 f 8 f Of 70 ^2 Of 9? Of Of Of 10 80 4 lOf lOf lOf Hf Ilf 90 4f Ilf 12 12 f I2f 12 f 12 f 100 5 13 13-f 13f 13f 14 14f 200 10 1 4f 1 8f 1 Of 1 Of 1 lOf 1 lOf 800 15 2 Of 2 4 2 4f 2 5f 2 6f 2 6f 400 20 2 16|- 2 17|- 3 2 T 3 If o O Of 3 3f 500 25 3 114 3 12 f 3 134 3 15 3 16f 3 l7f 600 30 4 Of 4 8 4 Of 4 lOf 4 12f 4 13f 700 35 5 If 5 h 5 5 5 6 f 5 8 f 5 10 800 40 5 14f 5 16f 6 4 T 6 2 f 6 4f 6 6f 900 45 6 Of 6 12 6 14f 6 16 f 7 f 7 2f 1000 50 7 4f 7 7f 7 Of 7 12 7 14f 7 16f 2000 100 14 Of 14 14f 15 If 15 6 f 15 11 15 15f 3000 150 21 I4f 22 4 22 Ilf 23 o Y 23 7f 23 14f 4000 200 29 14 A 7 29 Hf 30 2 f 30 I2f 31 »f 31 13f BEAMERS’ TABLES. 417 Ells. tH *0 oo Tf< 491 501 si i 52 1 521 Yards. 61 62 63 64 65 66 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 4 1 10 1 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 T 4 T 5 5 7 6 7 £ 7 5 T 5 7 6 7 10 i If If If If If If 20 2 1 2f 3 3 3 3i 3f 30 H 4f 4f 4f 4f 4f 4f 40 2 5f 5f 6 6f 6f 6f 50 2 \ 7f 7f 7f 7f 7f 7f 60 3 8f 8f 9 9f 9f 9f 70 80 3| 4 10i Ilf lOf Ilf lOf 12 lOf 12f lOf l2f 12f 90 41 13 13f I3f 13f I3f 14i 100 5 14f 14f 15 15f 15f 1 15f 200 10 1 11 1 Ilf 1 12 1 12f 1 13 13f 300 15 2 7f 2 8f 2 9 O 9f 2 lOf 2 Ilf 400 20 3 4i 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 7f 3 8f 500 25 4 4 7 4 If 4 3 4 4f 4 5f 4 6f 600 30 4 15f 4 16f 5 0 5 If 5 2f 5 4? 700 35 5 Ilf 5 13f 5 15 5 16f 6 2 7 6 2 800 40 6 8i 6 lOf 6 12 6 I3f 6 15f 6 17f 900 45 7 4f 7 6f 7 9 7 Ilf 7 13f 7 15f 1000 50 8 If 8 3f 8 6 8 8f 8 lOf 8 131 2000 100 16 2f 16 7f 16 12 16 16f 17 3f 17 8f 3000 150 24 3f 24 lOf 25 0 25 n 25 I4f 26 3f 4000 200 32 5 32 l4f 33 6f 34 5f 34 7 34 16f F 2 418 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND BEAMERS’ TABLES. 419 Ells. 581 591 60 60* Gig 621 Yards. 73 74 75 76 77 78 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 4 5 1 10 1 5 i 5 T G f 6 T 6 T 5 T 6 7 5 7 6 7 6 7 1 5 7 1 10 20 30 2 1 If if H H If 3f 5f If 3f 5f If 8f 5f If 3f 5f If 3f 5f 40 50 60 2 2f 3 7 8* lOf n 8f lOf 7f 8f lOf 7 2. 9 lOf 7f 9f 11 Tf 9f Ilf 70 80 90 B| 4 4f I2f 13f 15f 12f 14 15f 12f 14f 16 I2f I4f 16f I2f I4f 16f 13 14f 16f 100 200 800 5 10 15 17f 1 16f 2 16| 17f 1 17 f 2 16f 17f 1 17f 2 17f 1 f 2 f 3 f 1 f 2 f 3 1 1 f 2 If 3 If 400 5^0 600 20 25 30 3 15f 4 I4f 5 14f 3 16f 4 16 5 15f 3 l7f 4 17f 5 17 f 4 f 5 f 6 f 4 If 5 If 6 2 4 2f 5 2f 6 3f 700 800 900 35 40 45 6 13f 7 13 8 12f 6 15| 7 14f 8 14f 6 17 7 16f 8 16 f- 7 f 8 f 9 f 7 2f 8 2f 9 3 7 4 8 4f 9 5f 1000 2000 3000 4000 50 100 150 200 9 Ilf 19 5f 28 17f 38 Ilf 9 14f 19 lOf 29 6f 39 2f 9 16f 19 15f 29 I3f 39 12f 10 1 20 If 30 2f 40 3f 10 3f 20 6f 30 10 40 13f 1 10 5f 20 Ilf 30 17f 41 4f 1 420 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 63^ 64 64 J 653 661 671 Yards. 79 80 81 82 83 84 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 1 0 4 1 5 7 T T 7 T 7 5 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 1 2 H If I 6 .1 7 If 1 e 2 20 1 H 3f 3f 4 4 4 30 H 5f 5f 5f 5f 6 6 40 2 7f 7f 7f 7f 7f 8 50 2+ 9f 9f 9f 9f 9f 10 60 3 11| Ilf Ilf Ilf Ilf 12 70 ^2 13-1 13f 13f 13f 13f 14 80 4 15 15f I5f 15f 15f 16 90 4+ 16f 17f I7f 17f 17f 1 O 100 5 1 6 T 1 1 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 2 200 10 2 If 2 2-i- 2 2f 2 3 2 3f 2 4 300 15 3 2 * 3 3+ 3 3f 3 4f 3 5-f 3 6 400 20 4 3f 4 4+ 4 K1 o 7 4 6 4 7 4 8 500 25 5 4 5 5f 5 6f 5 7f 5 8 ® ^10 600 30 6 4f 6 Of 6 7f 6 9+ 6 lOf 6 12 TOO 35 7 5A 7 7f 7 9 7 lOf 7 12— 7 14 800 40 8 6f 8 8f 8 lOf 8 12f 8 14+ 8 16 900 45 9 7f 9 9f 9 Ilf 9 l3f 9 15f 10 0 1000 50 10 8+ 10 lOf 10 12f 10 I5f 10 17f 11 2 2000 100 20 16+ 21 3 21 7f 21 I2f 21 17f 22 4 3000 150 31 6| 31 13f 32 04 32 9f 32 16f 33 6 4000 200 41 14f 42 5f 42 15f 13 6f 43 16f 44 8 BEAMERS’ TABLES. 421 Ells. 68 68g 691 701 7U 72 Yards. 85 86 87 88 89 90 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. j Sp. Hk. 2 4 5 1 10 1 5 £ 5 7 1 5 7 1 5 7 H e 7 If e 7 If e T H 10 i 2 2 2 2 2 2f 20 2 1 41 4f 4f 4* 4* 4* 30 1* 6 6* Of 6* 6* 6* 40 2 8 8* 8* 8* 8* 8* 50 101 10* 10* 10* 10* 10* 60 3 12* 12* 12* 12* 12* 12* 70 3* 14* 14* 14* 14* 14* 15 80 u 2 4 16* 16* 16* 16* 17 17f 90 41 ^2 1 i 7 1 3 T 1 4 7 1 6 T 1 1 1 If 100 5 1 2* 1 2* 1 2* 1 2* 1 3f 1 3* 200 10 2 4* 2 5 2 5* 2 5* 2 6* 2 6* 300 15 3 6f 3 7* 3 8* 3 8* 3 9* 3 10* 400 20 4 8* 4 9* 4 10* 4 11* 4 12* 4 13* 500 25 5 Hi 5 12* 5 13* 5 14* 5 16 5 17f 600 30 6 13* 6 14* 6 16* 6 17* 7 If 7 2* 700 35 7 15* 7 17* 8 1 8 2* 8 4* 8 6 800 900 40 45 8 10 17* 2* 9 10 If 4* 9 10 3* 6* 9 10 5* 8* 9 10 7* 10* 9 10 O'? 12* 1000 2000 3000 4000 50 100 150 200 11 22 33 44 4* 8* 13* 17 * 11 22 34 45 6* 13* 2* 9 11 23 34 46 9f 2 7 9* 4 7 11 23 34 46 11* 5* 16* 10 11 23 35 47 r t 13* 9* 5* If 11 23 35 47 16* 14* 12* Hf 422 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 1 72 % 731 74? 751 76 70? Yards. 91 92 93 94 95 96 Splits. Portei s. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 e T 4 1 5 T T 7 T 7 5 1 4 1 1 If If If If 10 1 2 2f 2+ 2f 2f 2f 2? 20 1 4f 4f 4f 4f 41 41 30 If 6f 6f 6f 6f 6f 6f 40 2 8* 8f 8f 9 9 9f 50 2J lOf 11 11 111 11 ? Ilf 60 3 13 13f 13-?- I3f 13f 13 f 70 3J 15f 15?- 15?- 15?- 15f 16 SO 4 17? 17f 17f 17f 1 1 7 1 i 90 41 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 2f 1 2f 1 2f 100 5 1 1 3f 1 4f 1 4f 1 41 1 d 200 10 2 n 2 n 2 8?- 2 8f 2 9f 2 9? 300 15 3 ii 3 nf 3 12f 3 I3f 3 13f 3 14? 400 20 4 Hf 4 IS-?- 4 16f 4 17f 5 f 5 1? 500 25 6 2 T 6 If 6 2f 6 3f 6 5f 6 6f 600 30 7 4 7 5f 7 6f 7 &f 7 9f 7 Ilf 700 35 8 7* 8 9f 8 11 8 124 8 14f 8 16 1 800 40 9 Ilf 9 13f 9 154- 9 17 10 1 10 2? 900 45 10 15 10 I7f 11 If 11 3?- 11 5f 11 7f 1000 50 12 5 T 12 3 12 12 7f 12 lOf { 12 12? 2000 100 24 1 2 24 Of 24 lOf 24 IS? 25 2f 25 7f 3000 150 36 2 36 9-f 36 lOf 37 5f 37 12f 38 If 4000 200 48 ■21 48 12f 49 3f 49 13f 50 4f 50 14? BEAMERS’ TABLES. 423 Efts 78! 80 80| 81| I Yards. 97 98 99 100 101 102 J Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 3p. Hk. 2 1 10 G 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 5 ¥ T It It It It It 10 20 30 t 1 It 2? 4* 6f 2f 4f 7 2f 4f 7 2f 4f 7t 2f 4f 7t 2f 4f 7f 40 50 60 2 2t 3 9f l3f 9f llf 14 9f Ilf 14i 9f Ilf I4f 9f 12 14f 9f 12f 14f 70 80 90 H 4 41 let i a. 1 7 1 2f 16f 1 A 1 3 16f 1 a A 7 1 3t 16f 1 1 1 3f 16f 1 H 1 3f 17 1 If 1 3f *100 200 300 5 10 15 1 5i 2 10i 3 15f 1 5f 2 lOf 3 16 1 5f 2 lit 3 16* 1 5f 2 Ilf 3 I7f 1 6 2 12 4 f 1 6f 2 12f 4 i ; 400 500 600 20 25 30 5 2f 6 7f 7 12|- 5 3f 6 8f 7 14 5 4f 6 9f 7 15f 5 5f 6 11 7 16f 5 6f 6 12f 8 f 5 7f 6 I3f 8 If 700 800 900 35 40 45 8 17f 1.0 4f 11 9f 9 n 10 6f 11 12 9 3 10 8f 11 141 9 4f 10 lOf 11 16f 9 6f 10 12f 12 f 9 8 10 14f 12 2f 1000 2000 3000 4000 50 100 150 200 12 15 25 Ilf 38 8f 51 5f 12 17* 25 I6f 38 16 51 15f 13 If 26 3* 39 5i 52 6f 13 4i 26 8* 39 12f 52 16f 13 6f 26 12f 40 If 53 7f 13 8f 26 ITf 40 8f 53 17f 424 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. GO to cnto i 83i 84 00 hP>- 853 86* Yards. 103 104 105- 106 107 108 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. HI; Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 If 5 1 4 If If If If If If 10 1 2 2f 2f 2f 2f 2f 2f 20 1 4f 4f 5 5 5 5f 30 H 7f 7f 7f 7f 7f 7f 40 2 9f 10 10 lOf lOf lOf 50 21 121 12f 12f 12f I2f I2f 60 3 14f 14f 15 15f 15f 15f 70 m 17f 17f 17f 17f 1 0 80 4 1 if 1 If 1 2 1 1 2f 1 2f 90 1 4 1 4f 1 4f 1 4f 1 4f 1 5f 100 5 1 Of 1 Of 1 7 1 7f 1 7f 1 7f 200 10 2 13 2 13f 2 14 o u 14f 2 14f 2 15f 300 15 4 If 4 2f 4 3 4 3f 4 4f 4 5f 400 20 5 8f 5 9 5 10 5 11 5 Uf 5 12f 500 25 6 14i 6 15f 6 17 7 f 7 If 7 2| 600 30 8 3f 8 4f 8 6 8 7f 8 8f 8 lOf 700 35 9 9f 9 Ilf 9 13 9 14f 9 10f 10 0 800 40 10 16i 10 18 11 2 11 3f 11 5f 11 7f 900 45 12 4f 12 Of 12 9 12 Ilf 12 13f 12 15f 1000 50 13 Ilf 13 I3f 13 16 14 f 14 2f 14 5f 2000 100 27 4f 27 9f 27 14 28 f 28 5f 28 lOf 3000 150 40 15f 41 4f 41 12 42 If 42 8f 42 12f 4000 200 54 9 55 3 7 55 10 56 If 56 11 57 24 EEAMF.RS’ TABLES. 425 426 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. - 92 92f 931 941 953 4 96 Yards. 115 116 117 118 119 120 Splits. Porteis. Sp . Hk. Sp Hk. Sp . Hk. Sp . Hk. Sp . Hk„ Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 if H If If If If 5 1 4 if If If If If If 10 1 2 n 2* 2f 2f 2f 2f 20 1 5f 5f 5f 5f 5f 30 n 8f 8f 8f 8f 8f 8f 40 2 11 11 Ilf Ilf Ilf Ilf 50 13f 134 13f 14 14 I4f 60 3 16f 16f 16f 16f 17 17f 70 3f 1 It 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 2 80 4 1 H 1 4 l 4f 1 4f 1 4f 1 4f 90 1 6f 1 6f l 7 1 7f 1 1 7f 100 5 1 9f 1 9f 1 9f 1 10 1 lOf 1 104 200 10 3 5 T 3 If 3 If 3 2f 3 2f 3 3f 300 15 4 10’- 4 10-f 4 Hf 4 12f 4 13 4 I3f 400 20 6 1 3 A 7 6 2f 6 3f 6 4f 6 5f 6 6f 500 25 7 10f 7 12 7 I3f 7 I4f 7 15f 7 16f 600 30 9 2* 9 8* 9 6f 9 6f 9 8 9 9f i 700 35 10 11* 10 13 f 10 15 10 16f- 11 2 T 11 2 800 40 12 3 12 4f 12 6f 12 8f 12 10 $ 12 124 9GO 45 13 12f 13 14f 13 16f 14 e T 14 8 14 4f ; 1000 50 15 3f 15 6f 15 8f 15 lOf 15 13f 15 17f 2000 100 30 7f 30 12f 30 17 31 3f 31 8 f 31 13f 3000 150 45 11* 46 4 T 46 7f 46 I4f 47 4 47 9f 4000 200 60 15f 61 6f 61 16f 62 •7 5 •T 62 17f 63 8 f BEAMERS’ TABLES. 427 Ells. 96| 97! 1 CIO CO c* 99| 100 loot Yards. 121 122 123 124 125 126 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 3p- Hk. 2 4 1 10 1 H 1| 14 14 14 14 5 5 1 4 13 1 7 13 14 14 I? 14 10 1 2f 24 24 3 3 3 20 2 l 5* 54 54 54 6 6 30 1J 8* 84 84 84 84 9 40 2 114 114 H4 114 H4 12 50 2i I4f 144 144 144 144 15 60 3 17 f 174 174 174 174 1 0 70 34 1 24 1 24 1 24 1 24 1 3 1 3 80 4 1 5 1 54 1 54 1 54 1 5 4 1 6 90 4J 1 n 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 9 100 5 1 10 f 1 11 1 114 1 114 1 114 1 12 200 300 10 15 3 4 3f 14? 3 4 4 154 3 4 44 154 3 4 5 I64 3 4 54 174 3 5 6 0 400 500 600 20 25 30 6 8 9 n 0 lOf 6 8 9 84 14 124 6 8 9 94 24 134 6 8 9 10 34 154 6 8 9 11 4 4 164 6 8 10 12 6 0 700 800 35 40 11 12 34 144 11 12 54 16? 11 13 7 2 7 11 13 84 24 11 13 10 ? 4 11 13 12 6 900 45 14 n 14 94 14 114 14 134 14 154 15 0 1000 50 16 0 16 2 f 16 44 16 74 16 94 16 12 2000 3000 4000 100 150 200 32 48 64 n 2 7 2 7 32 48 64 44 74 94 32 48 65 94 144 14 32 49 65 144 34 104 33 49 66 14 lOf 24 33 50 66 6 l 0 \ 12 ! 428 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 1011 1021 1031 104 104| i 1053 Yards. 127 128 129 130 131 132 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk, Sp. Hk. 2 1 1 0 4 1 1* 4 4 4 4 If 5 1 4 If 4 If If If If 10 1 2 3 3 3 3f 3? 3? 20 1 6 6f 6i 6? 6? 6? 30 11 9 9? 9f 9f 9? 9? 40 2 12 121 12? 12? 12? 12? 50 2? 15? 151 15? 15? 15? 15? 60 i 3 1 f 1 2 T 1 3 7 1 4 7 1 5 T 1 6 Y 70 H 1 3? 1 3f 1 3f 1 3? 1 3? 1 4 80 4 1 6f 1 6? 1 6f 1 6 ? 1 6 ? 1 7? 90 4? 1 9? 1 9f 1 9f 1 9? 1 10 1 10? 100 5 1 12? 1 12? 1 12? 1 13 1 13? 1 13? 200 10 3 6f 3 6f 3 7? 3 7? 3 8? 3 8 ? 300 15 5 5 T 5 If 5 2f 5 2? 5 3? 5 4? 400 20 6 13 6 13? 6 14? 6 15? 6 16? 6 17? 500 25 8 7f 8 8f 8 9f 8 10? 8 11? 8 131 600 30 10 If 10 2f 10 4? 10 5? 10 7f 10 8 ? 700 35 11 13i 11 15?- 11 17 12 6 T 12 2? 12 4 800 40 13 7? 13 9f 13 11 ? 13 13? 13 15? 13 17? 900 45 15 2 ? 15 AM 15 6? 15 8f 15 10 ? 15 12 ? 1000 50 16 14f 16 16? 17 If 17 3f 17 5? 17 8? 2000 100 33 104 33 15? 34 2? 34 7 34 11 ? 34 16? 3000 150 50 14 50 14? 51 3? 51 10? I 51 17? 52 6? 4000 200 67 8? 67 13 |68 4f 68 14? 69 5f 69 15? BEAMBRS* TABLES. 429 430 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 3115 112 112 5 • 113? 114? 1154 Yards. 139 140 141 142 143 144 Splits. Portei s. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk, Sp. Hk. 2 1 1 0 4 1 If If If If If If 5 1 4 If If If If If If 10 1 2 8 * 3f 3f 3f 3f 3f 20 1 6 * 6 f 6 f 6 f 6 f 30 9f 10 10 10} lOf lOf 40 2 13f 13f 13± 13 f 13f 13# 50 2 £ 16f I 6 f 16f 16f I 6 f 17 60 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 f 1 2 f 1 2 f 1 2 f 70 1 54 - 1 5f 1 5f 1 5f 1 5f 1 6 80 4 1 8 f 1 8 f 1 8 f 1 9 1 9f 1 9f 90 1 Ilf 1 12 1 12 f 1 12 f 1 12f 1 12f 100 5 1 15f 1 15f 1 15f 1 I5f 1 16 1 16f 200 10 3 12f 3 124 3 13 3 13f 3 14 3 l4f 300 15 5 9f 5 10 5 lOf 5 Ilf 5 12f 5 12f 400 20 7 6f 7 7f 7 8f 7 9f 7 lOf 7 1U 500 25 9 3f 9 4f 9 5f 9 7 9 8f 9 9f 600 30 11 4 7 11 2 11 3f 11 4f 11 6f 11 7f 700 35 12 15f 12 17f 13 1 13 2f 13 4f 13 6 800 40 14 124 14 144 14 16f 15 3 T 15 2f 15 4f 900 45 16 9f 16 12 16 144 16 16f 17 3 T 17 2f 1000 50 18 7 18 9-f- 18 Ilf 18 14 18 16f 19 f 2000 100 36 13f 37 4 T 37 5f 37 10 37 14f 38 If 3000 150 55 2f 55 10 55 17-4 56 6 f 56 13f 57 2f 4000 200 73 n 74 if 74 lOf 75 2 f 75 Hf 76 3f BEAMERS’ TABLES. 431 Ells. 116 116* 1171 GO rH 119* 120 Yards. 145 146 147 148 149 150 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 4 1 10 1 l# If If If If If 5 5 1 4 1 7 If 1 5. 1 7 If If If 10 1 3# \ 3# 3# 3# 3# 05 20 2 1 6# 6# 6# 7 7 7# 30 H 10# 10# 10# 10# 10# lo#: 40 2 13# 14 14# 14# 14# 14# 50 2# 17# 17# 17# 17# 17# 17# 60 3 1 05 1 2 s - 1 3 1 3# 1 3# 1 3# 70 3# 1 6# 1 6# 1 6# 1 6# 1 6f 1 7 80 u 2 4 1 9# 1 9# 1 9# 1 10# 1 10# 1 10# 90 1 13 1 13# 1 13# 1 13# 1 13# 1 14# 100 5 1 16# 1 16# 1 17 1 17# 1 m 1 17# 200 10 3 15 3 15# 3 15# 3 16# 3 16# 3 17# 300 15 5 13# 5 14# 5 15 5 15# 5 16# 5 17# 400 20 7 12 7 13 7 14 7 14# 7 15# 7 16# 500 25 9 10# 9 11# 9 12# 9 14# 9 15# 9 16# 600 30 11 9# 11 10# 11 12 11 13# 11 14# 11 16# 700 800 35 40 13 15 7# 6# 13 15 9# 8 13 15 11 9# 13 15 12# Ilf 13 15 14# 13# 13 15 16 15# 900 45 17 4 # 17 6# 17 9 17 11# 17 13# 17 1000 2000 3000 50 100 150 19 38 57 3# 6# 9# 19 38 57 5# 11# 16# 19 38 58 8 15# 6 19 39 58 10# 2# 13# 19 39 59 12# 7# 2# 19 39 59 15# 12# 9# 4000 200 76 12 f- 77 4# 77 14 78 5# 78 15 79 432 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. i O CM 1211 1221 123J 121 124 * Yards. 151 152 153 154 155 156 Splits. f Porteis. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk, Sp. Hk. 2 1 4 1 5 If If If If If If 5 1 4 If If If If If 1 5 I 7 10 1 2 Sf 3$ 3$ 3$ 3$ 3$ 20 1 71 1 7 7$ n 7$ 7f 7f 30 3 1 $ 10 $ 11 ii 11 11 11 $ 40 2 14$ 14$ 14$ 14 f- 14$ 14$ 50 2 $ l 0 1 1 7 1 1 7 1 2 7 1 3 T 1 4 T 60 3 l 3$ 1 3$ 1 3$ 1 4 1 4$ 1 4f 70 3| l 7$ 1 72 * 7 1 7f 1 7f 1 7$ 1 8 80 4 l 10 $ 1 11 1 11 $ 1 11 $ 1 11 $ 1 11 $ 90 4| l 14$ 1 14$ 1 14$ 1 15 1 15$ 1 15$ 100 5 l 17$ 2 JL 2 3 2 4 T 2 f 2 4$ 200 10 3 17$ 4 2 T 4 A 4 If 4 If 4 2 $ 300 15 5 17$ 6 4 T 6 If 6 2 6 2 f 6 3$ 400 20 7 1 7$. • i 8 5 7 8 If 8 2 $ 8 3$ 8 4$ 500 25 9 17$ 10 $ 10 2 $ 10 3f 10 4$ 10 5$ 600 30 11 17$ 12 12 . 1 7 12 2 $ 12 4 12 5f 12 6 $ 700 35 13 17$ 14 1 ^ 1 7 14 3 14 44 14 6$ 14 7$ 800 40 15 17$ 16 If 16 3f 16 5f 16 7$ 16 9$ 900 45 17 17$ 18 If 18 3$ 18 6 18 8 $ 18 11 1000 50 19 17$ 20 If 20 4$ 20 6 $ 20 9 20 11$ 2000 100 39 17 40 3$ 40 8 $ 40 13$ 41 0 41 4$ 3000 150 59 16$ 60 5$ 60 12 $ 61 2 61 9$ 61 16$ 4000 200 79 16 80 7$ 80 17$ 81 8 $ 82 $ 82 9$ BEAMERS’ TABLES. 433 Ells. 125^ 1261 127 £ 128 Yards. 157 158 159 160 Splits. Porters. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 9 1 4 10 1 13 J 7 it 14 If 5 1 4 IE 1 7 14 If If 10 1 34 34 34 3f 20 l 2 74 74 74 74 30 1 1 x 2 114 114 114 114 40 2 Ilf 15 154 154 50 24 1 5 7 1 6 7 1 6 T 1 1 60 3" 1 44 1 44 1 44 1 44 70 31 1 84 1 84 1 84 1 84 80 4 1 Ilf 1 12 1 124 1 12f 90 H - 1 15| 1 154 1 16 1 164 i 100 5 2 14 2 14 2 If 2 24 200 10 4 24 4 34 4 34 4 44 1 1 300 15 6 44 6 44 6 54 6 64 ! 400 20 8 54 64 8 64 8 74 8 84 1 500 25 10 10 8 10 94 10 104 600 30 12 84 12 94 12 114 12 324 700 35 14 94 14 114 14 13 14 144 800 40 16 11 16 124 16 144 16 I64 900 45 18 124 18 144 18 164 19 f 1000 50 20 134 20 164 21 4 7 21 3 2000 100 41 9f 41 144 42 If 42 54 3000 150 62 54 62 124 63 If 63 84 4000 200 83 14 83 104 84 24 84 H4 128$ 1 1291 161 162 Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. If If If If 34 3f 7f 74 Hf Hf 154 154 1 If 1 14 1 5 1 54 1 8f 1 124 1 I64 2 2f 4 4 f 6 7 8 n 10 114 12 14 14 I6f 17 f 19 3 21 SI- 42 lot 63 16 85 3f 1 9 1 124 1 I6f 2 24 4 5| 6 74 8 lOf 10 12f 12 15f 15 0 17 2 f 19 5| 21 74 42 154 64 54 85 124 434 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 3301 131 5 132 132* 1333 134J Yards. 163 164 165 166 167 168 Splits. Porters. Sp Ilk. Sp. Hk. Sp . Hk. Sp . Hk. Sp . Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 5 If If If If If If 5 1 4 if If If If 2 2 10 JL 3f 4 4 4 4 4 20 l 7f 7f 7f 7f 7f 8 30 1 * HI Hf Ilf Ilf Hf 12 40 2 15f 15f 15f 15f 16 16 50 2 - 1 - 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 2 60 3 1 5f- 1 5f 1 5f 1 5f 1 5f 1 6 70 31 1 91 1 9f 1 9f 1 9f 1 9f 1 10 80 4 1 13 1 13f 1 13f 1 13f 1 13f 1 14 90 4i 1 I 6 f 1 17f 1 17f 1 17f 1 I7f 2 0 100 5 2 2 f 9 3 2 3f 2 3f 2 3f 2 4 200 10 4 5f 4 6 4 Of 4 7 4 7f 4 8 300 15 6 8 f 6 9f 6 9f 6 lOf 6 Ilf 6 12 400 20 8 Ilf 8 12 f 8 13 f 8 14 f 8 15 8 16 500 25 10 14 10 15f 10 16f 10 17f 11 5 T 11 9 600 30 12 16f 13 2 7 13 If 13 3f 13 4f 13 6 700 35 15 1 £ x 7 15 3f 15 5 15 Of 15 8f 15 10 800 40 17 4f 17 Of 17 8 f 17 10 f 17 12 17 14 900 45 19 7f 19 9f 19 Ilf 19 13 f 19 15f 20 0 1000 50 21 lOf 21 Ilf 21 14f 21 17 22 If 22 4 2000 100 43 21 43 Of 43 Hf 43 16f 44 If 44 8 3000 150 64 12 f 65 If 05 8 f 65 15f 66 4f 66 12 4000 200 86 4f 86 14 87 5f 87 15 88 Of 88 16 BEAMERS’ TABLES 435 436 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND Ells. 140 140‘ 141! 142= 143; 144 Yards. 175 176 177 oo | I— 179 180 Splits. Portei s. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 1 0 If 4 1 If If If If If 5 1 4 2 2 2y 2f 2f 2f 10 1 2 4f 4y 4f 4y 4f 20 1 8?- 8 f 8f 8f 8f 84 30 12f 124 I2f 12f 12f 12f 40 2 16f 16f 16f 16S. 17 17f 50 2| 1 2f 1 2f 1 3 1 3f 1 3f 1 3f 60 3 1 7 1 7f 1 7f 1 7y 1 7f 1 n 70 31 1 114 1 Ilf 1 Ilf 1 11-4 1 Ilf 1 12 80 4 1 15f 1 15f 1 15f 1 15# 1 16 1 161 90 2 n 2 If 2 l 6 4y 2 2y 2 2f 2 2f 100 5 2 5f 2 5f 2 6f 2 6f 2 6f 2 6f 200 10 4 Ilf 4 Ilf 4 124 4 I2f 4 I3f 4 I3f 300 15 6 17 6 17f 7 3 7 7 If 7 If 7 2f 400 20 9 9 5f 9 64 9 n 9 8f 9 9f 500 25 11 lOf 11 Ilf 11 124 11 13f 11 15 11 165 600 30 13 16 13 17f 14 6 y 14 2f 14 3f 14 5f 700 35 16 3f 16 5f 16 7 16 8f 16 lOf 16 12 800 40 18 9f 18 Ilf 18 13 18 15 18 16f 19 y 900 45 20 15 20 17f 21 1? 21 3f 21 5f 21 7f 1000 50 23 2f 23 5 23 73. 1 7 23 9f 23 12f 23 144 2000 100 46 5f 46 10 46 14f 47 If 47 6f 47 11-1 3000 150 69 8 69 15f 70 4f 70 Ilf 71 f 71 7f 4000 200 92 1— * 0 93 2f 93 Ilf 94 3y 94 I2f 95 4f BEAMERS’ TABLES. 437 Ells. 144* 145| 1461 147 J 148 148| Yards. 181 182 183 184 185 186 Splits. J orters Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 4 5 i 10 l 5 1 4 14 24 14 24 14 24 14 24 14 24 14 24 10 20 30 1 2 1 1* 4? 84 12f 4f 84 13 4f 84 13 4f 84 134 4f 84 134 4f 84 13? 40 50 60 2 2| 3 17? 1 34 1 74 17? 1 3f 1 8 17? 1 34 1 84 174 1 34 1 8? 174 1 4 1 8f 174 1 44 1 84 70 80 90 3! 4 4| 1124 1 164 2 2f 1 12? 1164 2 3 1 12f 1 164 2 34 1 124 1 17 2 3| 1 12f 1 174 2 34 1 13 1 17f 2 34 100 200 300 5 10 15 2 74 4 I4f 7 3f 2 74 4 144 7 4 2 74 4 154 7 4f 2 74 4 154 7 5f 2 8 4 16 7 64 2 8? 4 I 64 7 64 400 500 600 20 25 30 9 10? 11 174 14 64 9 Ilf 12 4 14 8 9 12? 12 If 14 9? 9 134 12 3 14 10? 9 14f 12 4? 14 12? 9 154 12 5? 14 134 700 800 900 35 40 45 16 m 19 2? 21 9? 16 15? 19 4f 21 12 16 17 19 6? 21 14? 17 1 19 8? 21 16? 17 2? 19 101 22 4 17 4 19 12? t 22 24 1000 2000 3000 4000 50 100 150 200 23 16^ 47 151 71 141 95 131 24 1? f- 48 24 } 72 4 f- 96 51 24 31 t 48 71 72 11J 1 96 141 - 24 6 \ 48 12J y 73 1 } 97 6 1 24 81 l 48 161 1 73 71 ?. 97 15- } 24 lOf i 49 34 } 73 144 ? 98 7? 438 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND ■ Ells. 1491 1501 151 i 152 152 i 153| Yards. 187 188 189 190 191 192 Splits. Porters Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 *1 10 4 1 5 If If If If If 1 6 5 1 4 2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f 10 1 2 4f 4f 4f 4! 4! 4! 20 1 8 f 9 9 9 9 9! 30 H 13| 13f 13f 13! ^|t> CO 13| 40 2 17f I7f 1 0 1 T 1 2 7 1 3^ 50 2 i 1 n 1 4? 1 4f 1 4! 1 4! 1 4f 60 3 1 8 f 1 8 f 1 9 1 9^ 1 9f 1 9f 70 3| 1 13! 1 13f 1 13f 1 13! 1 13f 1 14 80 4 i m 1 17f 2 0 2 2 7 2 4 7' 2 6 ■7 90 4* 2 4 2 4f 2 4f 2 4f 2 4f 2 5! 100 5 2 8 f 2 8 f 2 9 2 9f 2 9f 2 9! 200 10 4 17 4 l7f 5 0 5 3 7 5 6 T 5 If 300 15 7 7f 7 8 f 7 9 7 9! 7 10 ! 7 li! 400 20 9 16 9 17 10 0 10 1 10 If 10 2 f 500 25 12 6 ! 12 7f 12 9 12 10 ! 12 Ilf 12 12 ! 600 30 14 151 14 16! 15 0 15 if 15 2 f 15 4? 700 35 17 5! 17 7f 17 9 17 10 f 17 12 f 17 14 800 40 19 14! 19 16 20 0 20 if 20 3f 20 5f 900 45 22 45 22 6 f 22 8 f 22 li! 22 13f 22 15 f 1000 50 24 134 24 15! 25 0 25 2 f 25 4f 25 7! 2000 100 49 8 i 49 13! 50 0 50 4f 50 9f 50 14! 3000 150 74 Q 5 74 lOf 75 0 75 7! 75 14f 76 3f 4000 200 98 16f 99 8 f 100 0 100 9! 101 1 101 10 ! BEAMERS’ TABLES. 439 Ells. 154? I55i 156 156J 157? 158? Yards. 193 194 195 196 197 198 Splits. Porters Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. 2 4 5 1 10 1 5 i If 2f If 2f If 2f If 2f If 2f 2 2f 10 20 30 1 1* 4f 9} 13f 4f 9f 13f 4f 9f 13f 4f 9f 14 4f 9f 14 4f 9f 14f 40 50 60 2 2* 3 1 a X 7 1 4f 1 9f 1 7 1 5i 1 9f 1 f 1 5i 1 9f 1 T 1 5f 1 10 1 f 1 5f 1 lOf 1 f 1 5f 1 lOf 70 80 90 3J 4 41 1 I4i 2 f 2 5f 1 14f 2 1 2 5f 1 14f 2 If 2 5f 1 14f 2 If 2 6 1 I4f 2 If 2 6i 1 15 2 If 2 6f ! ioo 200 300 5 10 15 2 10 5 If 7 Hf 2 lOf 5 2f 7 12f 2 lOf 5 2f 7 13f 2 lOf 5 3f 7 14 2 11 5 3f 7 l4f 2 Ilf 5 4f 7 15f 400 500 600 20 25 30 10 3f 12 13f 15 5f 10 4f 12 15 15 7f 10 5f 12 I6f 15 8f 10 6# 12 l7f 15 10 10 7f 13 f 15 Ilf 10 8 f 13 If 15 I2f 700 800 900 35 40 45 17 15 20 7| 22 7f 17 17^ 20 9f 23 If 18 1 t 20 Ilf > r 23 3| 18 2f 20 13f 23 6 18 4f 20 15f 23 8J 18 6 20 17f 23 lOf 1000 2000 3000 4000 50 100 150 200 25 9* 51 1 76 104 102 2-1 25 11 51 5^ 1 76 17- r 102 11 25 14f > 51 10^ i 77 6f }103 3J 25 16f 51 14f . 77 14 103 124 26 lJ 52 21 78 34 104 4- - 26 3f r 52 6f ► 78 lOf \104 13f 440 MANUFACTURES’, WARPERS’, AND t Ells. 1591 160 ICO* 1612 162= 163J Yards. 199 200 201 202 203 204 Splits. Porteis Sp. 41k. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk. Sp. Hk Sp. Hk. 2 1 10 4 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 1 4 2f 2f 2f 2f 2f 2f 10 1 2 4? 4f 4f 4f 4f 5 20 1 9f 9f 9f 9f 9f 9f 30 li I4f 14-f 14f 14f 14f 14f 40 2 1 1 1 If 1 If 1 If 1 n 1 If 50 2* 1 5f 1 5f 1 6 1 6f 1 6f 1 6f 60 3 1 lOf 1 lOf 1 lOf 1 lOf 1 11 1 Ilf 70 3| 1 15i 1 15f 1 3 5f 1 15f 1 15f 1 16f SO 4 2 If 2 2f o 2f 2 2f 2 2 2f 90 4| 2 6f 2 6f 2 7 2 7f 2 73 * T 2 7f 100 5 2 Ilf 2 Ilf o 12 o m o I2f 2 12f 200 10 5 4f 5 5f 5 5f 5 6f 5 6f 5 7f 300 15 7 16-i 7 16f u-r < m 8 2 7 8 1 8 If 400 20 10 9f 10 l'Of 10 iif 10 12f 10 13f 10 14f 500 25 13 2f 13 4f 13 ^f 13 6f 13 n 13 8f 600 30 15 I4f 15 15f 15 17f 16 4 T 16 2 16 3f 700 35 18 7f 18 9f IS Ilf 18 12 f 18 14f 18 16f 800 40 21 1 21 3 21 4f 21 6f 21 8f 21 4f 900 45 23 12f 23 14f 23 16f 24 6 T 24 3 24 1000 50 26 5f 26 8f 26 lOf 26 13 26 15 f 20 17f 2000 100 52 Ilf 52 16f 53 3f 53 7f 53 12f 53 I5f 3000 150 78 l7f 79 6f 79 13f 80 2f 80 10 80 nT 17 4000 200 105 5f- 105 14f 106 6f .106 15-« 107 107 BEAMFRS’ TABLES. 441 When the manufacturer wishes to find, from the foregoing tables, the quantity of warp in a given piece of cloth, it can be done in the following manner:— Suppose the piece 80 yards long, and containing 2000 splits, the quantity of spyndles will be found opposite 2000 splits, and under 80 yards at page 420, to be 21 spyndles, 3 hanks, or in all, 381 hanks (as shown in another table). This 381 is divided by the size of the yarn, say No. 36 to find the weight. EXAMPLE. 36)381(10 lbs. 91 oz. 36 21 16 126 21 336 324 12 . 36 This shows the weight of the warp to be 10 lbs. oz. To this weight the allowances will require to be added, which is thought proper for shrinkage, waste, &c., as these tables are all made out nett, taking the ' TO 442 MANUFACTURERS’, WARPERS’, AND hank as 480 yards, and 18 hanks to thespyndle. Our reason for not making allowance for waste, &c., in the tables, is, (as stated before) because no given amount could be fixed upon with any degree of accuracy, it altogether depending upon the quality of the yarn, and the kind of cloth to be woven, what the allow¬ ance should be. The quantity of weft can also be found from the tables. After the warp is ascertained, the weft will be the same quantity as the warp, if the number of shots seen by the glass be the same as the number of warp threads seen, or what is called in the trade, even and even. Suppose the web to be a 14 00 , with 14 shots, and the quantity of warp to be 56 spyndles, the quantity of weft will be the same. If the shots be more or less than 14, the number of spyndles will be in proportion, more or less; for instance, if there be 13 shots, then there will be one-fourteenth less, or 52 spyndles; if 15 shots, one fourteenth more, or 60 spyndles; and so on for any other number of shots. When the warper or beamer wishes to know the quantity of spyndles, or number of lbs., they can find them in the same manner as shown for the manufac¬ turer ; but in general, the number of yards put on the beams by the warpers and beamers are greater than what is given in these tables; however, it is easy to get any number that may be desired. For example, BEAMERS’ TABLES. 443 if the beam contains 2000 yards, multiply the spyndles found under the number of 200 yards by 10, or add a cipher, and that will be the quantity of spyndles for 2000 yards. It has been shown how the number of lbs. can be found when the spyndles are known; and if the weaver, who buys his yarn from the spinner in chains, wishes to ascertain if he has got the size ordered, all he has to do is to look up the length and number of splits in the table that are contained in the chain, and the spyndles will be seen. An example for this is given at page 42, under “ Yarn in Chain.” To find the number of ends or splits in any given web, a table has already been published, which shows them at a glance, and it can be had on application from the Publisher of this Work. 444 RATING TABLES. RATING TABLES. The annexed tables have been made out principally for the use of manufacturers in rating goods. They will save time, as the number of hanks can be found for any number of splits (or dents) without calculation. They have been made out for 100 yards, and no allow¬ ance is made for waste or shrinkage; for, as stated before, this allowance must altogether depend upon circumstances. If these tables had been made out to answer all the different lengths of cloth that are woven, they would have taken up far too much space, there¬ fore 100 yards have been fixed upon as the most suit¬ able number. The hanks are shown on a line with the splits. By dividing the hanks by the size of the yarn, the manufacturer will find the yarn required in lbs. Suppose we take the number 1500 splits, opposite it is 357 hanks, the quantity required for 100 yards with 1500 splits, and to find the number of spyndles in the web, divide the hanks (357) by 18. RATING TABLES. 445 Split. Hk. Sk. Split. Ilk. Sk. Split. Hk. ♦ £ Sk. 1 .83 115 27 2.66 270 64 2. 0 2 1 1.66 120 28 4. 0 275 65 3.33 2 3.33 125 . 29 5.33 280 66 4.66 Q 5. 0 130 30 6.66 285 67 6. 0 4 6.66 135 32 1. 0 290 69 0.33 5 1 1.33 140 33 2.33 295 70 1.66 6 1 3. 0 145 34 3 66 300 71 3. 0 7 1 4.66 150 35 5. 0 305 72 4.33 8 1 6.33 155 36 6.33 310 73 5.66 9 2 1. 0 160 38 .66 315 75 • • • 10 2 2.66 165 39 2. 0 320 76 1.33 15 3 4. 0 170 40 3.33 325 77 2.66 20 4 5.33 175 41 4.66 330 78 4. 0 25 5 6.66 180 42 6. 0 335 79 5.33 30 7 1. 0 185 44 .33 340 80 6.66 35 8 2.33 190 45 1.66 345 82 1. 0 40 9 3.66 195 46 3. 0 350 83 2.33 45 10 5. 0 200 47 4.33 355 84 3.66 50 11 6.33 205 48 5.66 360 85 5. 0 55 13 .66 210 50 ... 365 86 6.33 60 14 2. 0 215 51 1.33 370 88 0.66 65 15 n 09 O.OO 220 52 2.66 375 89 2. 0 70 16 4.66 225 53 4. 0 380 90 3.33 75 17 6. 0 230 54 5.33 385 91 4.66 80 19 .33 235 55 6.66 390 92 6. 0 85 20 1.66 240 57 1. 0 395 94 0.33 90 21 3. 0 245 58 2.33 400 95 1.66 95 100 105 22 23 25 4.33 5.66 250 255 260 59 60 61 3.66 5. 0 6.38 405 410 415 96 97 98 3. 0 4.33 5.66 110 26 1.33 265 63 0.66 420 100 446 RATING TABLES. Split. Hk. Sk. Split. Hk. Sk. Split. I Hk . Sk . 425 101 1.33 580 138 0.66 735 175 480 102 2.66 585 139 2 . 0 740 176 1.33 435 103 4 . 0 590 140 3.33 745 177 2.66 440 104 5.33 595 141 4.66 750 178 4 . 0 445 105 6.66 600 142 6 . 0 755 179 5.33 450 107 1 . 0 605 144 0.33 760 180 6.66 455 108 2.33 610 145 1.66 765 182 1 . 0 460 109 3.66 615 146 3 . 0 770 183 2.33 465 110 5 . 0 620 147 4.33 775 184 3.66 470 111 6.33 625 148 5.66 780 185 5 . 0 475 113 0.66 630 150 785 186 6.33 480 111 2 . 0 635 151 1.33 790 188 0.66 485 115 3.33 640 152 2.66 795 189 2 . 0 490 116 4.66 645 153 4 . 0 800 190 3.33 495 117 6 . 0 650 154 5.33 805 191 4.66 500 119 0.33 655 155 6.66 810 192 6 . 0 505 120 1.66 660 157 1 . 0 815 194 0.33 510 121 3 . 0 665 158 2.33 820 195 1.66 515 122 4.33 670 159 3.66 825 190 3 . 0 520 123 5.66 675 160 5 . 0 830 197 4.33 525 125 ... 680 161 6.33 835 198 5.66 530 126 1.33 685 163 0.66 840 200 535 127 2.66 690 164 2 . 0 845 201 1.33 540 128 4 . 0 695 165 3.33 850 202 2.66 545 129 5.33 700 166 4.66 855 203 4 . 0 550 130 6.66 705 167 6 . 0 860 204 5.33 555 132 1 . 0 710 169 0.33 865 205 6.66 560 133 2.33 715 170 1.66 870 207 1 . 0 565 134 3.66 720 171 3 . 0 875 208 2.33 570 135 5 . 0 725 172 4.33 880 209 3.66 575 136 6.33 730 173 5.66 885 210 5 . 0 EATING TABLES. 447 Split . Hk . Sk . Split . Hk . Sk . Split . Hk . Sk . 890 211 6.33 1045 248 5.66 1200 285 5 . 0 895 213 0.66 1050 250 • • • 1205 286 6.33 900 214 2 . 0 1055 251 1.33 1210 2 S 8 0.66 905 215 333 1060 252 2.66 1215 289 2 . 0 910 216 4.66 1065 253 4 . 0 1220 290 3.33 915 217 6 . 0 1070 254 5.33 1225 291 4.66 920 219 0.33 1075 255 6.66 1230 292 6 . 0 925 220 1.66 1080 257 1 . 0 1235 294 0.33 930 221 3 . 0 1085 258 2.33 1240 295 1.66 935 222 4.33 1090 259 3.66 1245 296 3 . 0 940 223 5.66 1095 260 5 . 0 1250 297 4.33 945 225 1100 261 6.33 1255 298 5.66 950 226 1.33 1105 263 0.66 1260 300 ... 955 227 2,66 1110 264 2 . 0 1265 301 1.33 960 228 4 . 0 1115 265 3.33 1270 302 2.66 965 229 5.33 1120 266 4.66 1275 303 4 . 0 970 230 6.66 1125 267 6 . 0 1280 304 5.33 975 232 1 . 0 1130 269 0.33 1285 305 6.66 980 233 2.33 1135 270 1.66 1290 307 1 . 0 985 234 3.66 1140 271 3 . 0 1295 308 2.33 990 235 5 . 0 1145 272 4.33 1300 309 3.66 995 236 6.33 1150 273 5.66 1305 310 5 . 0 | 1000 238 0.66 1155 275 ... 1310 311 6.33 1005 239 2 . 0 1160 276 1.33 1315 313 0.66 1010 240 3.33 1165 277 2.66 1320 314 2 . 0 1015 241 4.66 1170 278 4 . 0 1325 315 3.33 1020 242 6 . 0 1175 279 5.33 1330 316 4.66 1025 244 0.33 1180 280 6.66 1335 317 6 . 0 1030 245 1.66 1185 282 1 . 0 1340 319 0.33 1035 246 3 . 0 1190 283 2.33 13+5 320 1.66 1040 247 4.33 1195 284 3.66 1350 32 i 3 . 0 448 RATING TABLES." Split . Hk . Sk . Split . Hk . Sk . Split . 1 Hk . Sk . 1355 322 4.33 1510 359 3.66 1665 396 3 .0 1360 323 5.66 1515 360 5 . 0 1670 397 4.33 1365 325 ... 1520 361 6.33 1675 398 5.66 1370 326 1.33 1525 363 0.66 1680 400 1375 327 2.66 1530 364 2 . 0 1685 401 1.33 1380 328 4 . 0 1535 365 3.33 1690 402 2.66 1385 329 5.33 1540 366 4.66 1695 403 4 . 0 1390 330 6.66 1545 367 6 . 0 1700 404 5.33 1395 332 1 . 0 1550 369 0.33 1705 405 6.66 1400 333 2.33 1555 370 1.66 1710 407 1 . 0 1405 334 3.66 1560 373 3 . 0 1715 408 2.33 1410 335 5 . 0 1565 372 4.38 1720 409 3.66 1415 336 6.33 1570 373 5.66 1725 410 5 . 0 1420 338 0.66 1575 375 1730 411 6.33 1425 339 2 . 0 1580 376 1.33 1735 413 0.66 1430 340 3.33 1585 377 2 66 1740 414 2 . 0 1435 341 4.66 1590 378 4 . 0 1745 415 3.33 1440 342 6 . 0 1595 379 5.33 1750 416 4.66 1445 344 0.33 1600 380 6.66 1755 417 6 . 0 1450 345 1.66 1605 382 1 . 0 1760 419 0.33 1455 346 3 . 0 1610 3 S 3 2.33 1765 420 1.66 1460 347 4.33 1615 384 3.66 1770 421 3 . 0 1465 348 5.66 1620 385 5 . 0 1775 422 4.33 1470 350 ... 1625 386 6.33 1780 423 5.66 1475 351 1.33 1630 388 0.66 1785 425 1480 352 2.66 1635 389 2 . 0 1790 426 1.33 1485 353 4 . 0 1640 390 3.33 1795 427 2.66 1490 354 5.33 1645 391 4 66 1800 428 4 . 0 1495 355 6.66 1650 392 6 . 0 1805 429 5.33 1500 357 1 . 0 1655 394 0.33 1810 430 6.66 1505 358 2.33 1660 395 1.66 1815 432 1 . 0 RATING TABLES 449 Split . Hk. Sk. Split. Hk. Sk. Split. Hk. Sk. 1820 433 2.33 1975 470 1.68 2130 507 1. o 1825 434 3.66 1980 471 3 . 0 2135 508 2.33 1830 435 5 . 0 1985 472 4.33 2140 509 3.66 1835 436 6.33 1990 473 5.66 2145 510 5 . 0 1840 438 0.66 1995 475 • • • 2150 511 6.33 1845 439 2 . 0 2000 476 1.33 2155 513 0.66 1850 440 3.33 2005 477 2.66 2160 514 2 . 0 1855 441 4.66 2010 478 4 . 0 2165 515 3.33 1860 442 6 . 0 2015 479 5.33 2170 516 4.66 1865 444 0.33 2020 480 6.66 2175 517 6 . 0 1870 445 1.66 2025 482 1. 0 2180 519 0.33 | 1875 446 3 . 0 2030 483 2.33 2185 520 1.66 1880 447 4.33 2035 484 3.66 2190 521 3 . 0 1885 448 5 66 2040 485 5 . 0 2195 522 4.33 \ 1890 450 ... 2045 486 6.33 2200 523 5.66 jj ‘ 1895 451 1.33 2050 488 0.66 2205 525 1.33 1900 452 2.66 2055 489 2 . 0 2210 526 1905 453 4 . 0 2060 490 3.33 2215 527 2.66 1910 454 5 33 2065 491 4.66 2220 528 4 . 0 1915 455 6.66 2070 492 6 . 0 2225 529 5.33 1920 457 1. 0 2075 494 0.33 2230 530 6.66 1925 458 2.33 2080 495 1.66 2235 532 1 . 0 1930 459 3.66 2085 496 3 . 0 2240 533 2.33 1935 460 5 . 0 2090 497 4.33 2245 534 3.66 1940 461 6.33 2095 498 5.66 2250 535 5 . 0 1945 463 0.66 2100 500 • • • 2255 536 b .33 1950 464 2 . 0 2105 501 1.33 2260 538 0.66 1955 465 3.33 2110 502 2.66 2265 539 2 . 0 1960 466 4.66 2115 503 4 . 0 2270 5 -iO 3.33 1965 467 6 . 0 2120 504 5.33 2275 541 4.66 1970 469 0.33 2125 505 6.66 1 2280 1 542 i 1 6 . 0 1 450 RATING- TABLES. Split . Hk . Sk . i Split . 2285 544 0.33 2440 2290 545 1.66 2445 2295 546 3 . 0 2450 2300 547 4.33 2455 2305 548 5.66 2460 2310 550 ... 2465 2315 551 1.33 2470 2320 552 2.66 2475 2325 553 4 . 0 2480 2330 554 5.33 2485 2335 555 6.66 2490 2340 557 1 . 0 2495 2345 558 2.33 2500 2350 559 3.66 2505 2355 560 5 . 0 2510 2360 561 6.33 2515 2365 563 0.66 2520 2370 564 2 . 0 2525 2375 565 3.33 2530 2380 566 4.66 2535 2385 567 6 . 0 2540 2390 569 0.33 2545 2395 570 1.66 2550 2400 571 3 . 0 2555 2405 572 r 4.33 2560 2410 573 5.66 2565 2415 575 2570 2420 576 1.33 2575 2425 577 2.66 2580 2430 578 4 . 0 2585 2435 579 5.33 2590 Sk. Split. Hk. Sk. 6.66 2595 617 6 .0 1 . 0 2600 619 0.33 2.33 2605 620 1.66 3.66 2610 621 3 . 0 5 . 0 2615 622 4.33 6.33 2620 623 5.66 0.66 2625 625 2 . 0 2630 626 1.33 3.33 2635 627 2.66 4.66 2640 628 4 . 0 5 . 0 2645 629 5.33 0.33 2650 630 6.66 1.66 2655 632 1 . 0 3 . 0 2660 633 2.33 4.33 2665 634 3.66 5.66 2670 635 5 . 0 • • • 2675 636 6.33 1.33 2680 638 0.66 2.66 2685 639 2 . 0 4 . 0 2690 640 3.33 5.33 2695 641 4.66 6.66 2700 642 6 . 0 1 . 0 2705 644 0.33 2.33 2710 645 1.66 3.66 2715 646 3 . 0 5 . 0 2720 647 4.33 6.33 2725 648 5.66 0.66 2730 650 2 . 0 2735 651 1.33 3.33 2740 652 2.66 4.66 2745 653 4 . 0 Hk. 580 582 583 584 585 586 588 589 590 591 592 594 595 596 597 598 600 601 602 603 604 605 607 60 S 609 610 611 613 614 615 616 RATING TABLES. 451 Split. Hk. Sk. Split. Hk. Sk. Split. Hk. Sk. 2750 654 5.33 1 2905 691 4.66 3060 728 4. 0 2755 655 6.66 2910 692 6. 0 3065 729 5.33 2760 657 1 . 0 2915 694 0.33 3070 730 6.66 2765 658 2.33 2920 695 1.66 3075 732 1 . 0 2770 659 3.66 2925 696 3. 0 3080 733 2.33 2775 660 5. 0 2930 697 4.33 3085 734 3.66 j 2"80 661 6.33 2935 698 5.66 3090 735 5. 0 2785 663 0.66 2940 700 • • • 3095 786 6.33 2790 664 2. 0 2945 701 1.33 3100 738 0.66 2795 665 3.33 2950 702 2.66 3105 739 2. 0 2800 666 4.66 2955 703 4. 0 3110 740 3.33 2805 667 6. 0 2960 704 5.33 3115 741 4.66 2810 669 0.33 2965 705 6.66 3120 742 6. 0 2815 670 1.66 2970 707 1 . 0 3125 744 0.33 2820 671 3. 0 2975 708 2.33 3130 745 1.66 2825 672 4.33 2980 709 3.66 3135 746 3. 0 2830 673 566 2985 710 5. 0 3140 747 4.33 2835 675 ... 2990 711 6.33 3145 748 5.66 i 2840 676 1.33 2995 713 0.66 3150 750 . . • 1 2845 677 2.66 3000 714 2. 0 3155 751 1.33 j 2850 678 4. 0 3005 715 3.33 3160 752 2.66 2855 679 5.33 3010 716 4.66 3165 753 4. 0 2860 680 6.66 3015 717 6. 0 3170 754 5.33 2865 682 1 . 0 3020 719 0.33 3175 755 6.66 2870 683 2.33 3025 720 1.66 3180 757 1 . 0 2875 684 3.66 3030 721 3. 0 3185 758 2.33 2880 685 5. 0 3035 722 4.33 3190 759 3.66 2885 686 6.33 3040 723 5.66 3195 760 5. 0 2890 688 0.66 3045 725 . . • 3200 761 6.33 2895 689 2. 0 3050 726 1.33 8205 763 0.66 2900 690 3.33 3055 727 2.66 3210 764 2. 0 452 RATING TABLES. Split . Hk . Sb . Split . Hk . Sk . Split . Hk . I Sk . 3215 765 3.33 3370 802 2.66 3525 839 2 . 0 3220 766 4.66 3375 803 4 . 0 3530 840 3.33 3225 767 6 . 0 3380 804 5.33 3535 841 4.66 3230 769 0.33 3385 805 6.66 3540 842 6 . 0 3235 770 1.66 3390 807 1 . 0 3545 844 0.33 3240 771 3 . 0 3395 808 2.33 3550 845 1.66 3245 772 4.33 3400 809 3.66 3555 846 3 . 0 3250 773 5.66 3405 810 5 . 0 3560 847 4.33 3255 775 ... 3410 811 6.33 3565 848 5.66 3260 776 1.83 3415 813 0.66 3570 850 3265 777 2.66 3420 814 2 . 0 3575 851 1.33 3270 778 4 . 0 3425 815 3.33 3580 852 2.66 3275 779 5.33 3430 816 4.66 3585 853 4 . 0 3280 780 6.66 3435 817 6 . 0 3590 854 5.33 3285 782 1 . 0 3440 819 0.33 3595 855 6.66 3290 783 2.33 3445 820 1.66 3600 857 1 . 0 3295 784 3.66 3450 821 3 . 0 3605 858 2.33 3300 785 5 . 0 3455 822 4.33 3610 859 3.66 3305 786 6.33 3460 823 5.66 3615 860 5 . 0 3310 788 0.66 3465 S 2 T 5 3620 861 6.33 3315 789 2 . 0 3470 826 1.33 3625 863 0.60 3320 790 3.33 3475 827 2.66 3630 864 2 . 0 3325 791 4.66 3480 828 4 . 0 3635 865 3.33 3330 792 6 . 0 3485 829 5.33 3640 866 4.66 3335 794 0.33 3490 830 6.66 3645 867 6 . 0 3340 795 1.66 3495 832 1 . 0 3650 809 0.33 3345 796 3 . 0 3500 833 2.33 3655 870 1.66 3350 797 4.33 3505 834 3.66 3660 871 3 . 0 3355 798 5.66 3510 835 5 . 0 3665 872 4.33 3360 800 ... 3515 836 ' 6.33 3670 873 5.66 3365 801 1.33 3520 838 0.66 3675 875 ... POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 453 CHAPTER X. MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS CONNECTED WITH POWER-LOOM WEAVING. ERECTING A NEW FACTORY. Before commencing to build a power-loom factory it is requisite for the projector to make considerable inquiry, to obtain knowledge concerning things that are likely to contribute to the success of the under¬ taking, such as feu-duty, or ground-rent, situation as to workers; coals, water; the market where the yarn is to be bought, and the cloth sold; the form of the mill; the kind of boilers, engines, gearing, machinery, &c. There is no doubt but a populous district is the best place for workers, and would be a good situation for a factory, provided there is no other obstacle to make the quantity of workers no object, such as the ground rent, local taxes, water, coals, &c., being so high in price, as to make the work unprofitable; therefore, all the different circumstances must be taken into calculation. The carriage from and to 454 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH the market where the yarn may he bought, and the cloth sold, is not so expensive an item as it was before steam was taken advantage of for that purpose, and it often happens, that the mills erected in country villages are as profitable as those in the large cities. When the situation is fixed upon, plans of the whole should be drawn out by some party capable of doing it, under the direction of one who is thoroughly acquainted with power-loom weaving. After the plans are finished, and the quantity of looms ascer¬ tained that will be required to fill the work, the cost of the whole can be calculated. It is at once apparent, that to conduct a factory for power-loom weaving profitably, it must be a certain size; the smallest should not be less than one tenter’s charge; but even this is by far too small to do anything like a profitable business. A good size for giving an opportunity for our remarks would be a mill that could contain 720 looms, with the neces¬ sary preparation machines, &c. The most approved form of a weaving factory, is a ground flat or shed, built so as to be suitable for getting the machinery placed to the best advantage; some of the reasons given for the ground flat being preferred over the mill with four or five flats, may be stated here. The loom, when bolted down upon heavy stones, works smoother. The carriage of the beams and yarn are done with less labour. The POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 455 atmosphere is more favourable in the ground flat for weaving. The workers can be better ai ranged, and are all under the eye of the manager at the same time. The following description gives the plans of what is considered a very good mill for 720 I power-looms. The length of the shed inside is 206 feet, and the breadth 160 feet. The looms are placed across the house in eighteen rows, 40 looms in each iow , this gives five feet for each loom, and six feet extra space at the end of the flat, where the beam racks, tenter’s benches, &c., are placed. Allowing eight feet for each loom and passages, the eighteen rows will occupy 144 feet of the breadth of the flat, leaving sixteen feet at the one side, and the whole length of the flat for preparation machinery, storeage, &c. It is of the utmost importance to have the machinery and workers so arranged that no time will be lost in passing the goods from one place to another in the process of manufacturing. By attend¬ ing to this it will add much to the advantage of the workers, and the profit of the establishment; because a constant communication is always going on between the different parts of the work, and what accelerates the progress of the work by saving time, must be a benefit to all concerned. We will state here what is just now considered the best arrangement, but would advise beginners, or those intending to put up new 456 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH works, to visit a number of factories, already in operation, before deciding upon any plan. A wall is built the whole length of the shed, enclos¬ ing the looms from the other machinery, and this portion of the building is made two storeys or flats, which will be 16 feet wide and 206 feet long. A portion of the corner of the ground floor nearest the entrance to the factory is appropriated for the ware¬ house, with counting-house above, it occupying only a small portion of the second floor. Next to the counting-house is the warp-winders, then the warpers, and then the tape-leg dressers, all in the second floor. When the winders have got the bobbins filled, they are passed to the warpers; and when the warpers have got the beams filled, they are sent on to the dressers; and the dressed webs are lowered down to the under flat, at the opposite end from the warehouse, for the purpose of being drawn into the heddles, or twisted. From this place they pass into the weaving shed. A portion of the under flat, next to the warehouse, is occupied as a store for furnishings required for the factory, and next to it is the yarn store, then the mechanics’ shop, and as stated before, the drawers and twisters are at the end of this under flat. This arrangement of the different places and machinery gives the least possible distance for any of the articles to be carried, which are required in the manufacture of the cloth. The mechanic shop being at or near POWER-LOOM WEAVING-. 457 the centre of the mill, places it in the most convenient part for getting any repairs clone to the machinery that may be required; and it is an advantage to the work to get the webs out of the dressing place as soon as they are finished, for the purpose of allowing them to cool before being put into the loom. Ten or twelve feet from the mill, on this side of it, stands the engine-house and boilers. The furnaces of the boilers face the gate, through which the carts pass with the fuel. Behind the engine-house a small house is built, with two apartments, one is used for oil waste, and the other for a smithy. This completes the buildings, all except the chimney (or stalk), which should be built in some convenient place near to the boilers, and apart from the mill. STEAM BOILERS. There are so many different kinds of boilers in use for generating steam, for the purpose of driving the engine and heating the factory, that it is difficult to say which is the best. Some people approve of the vertical kind, which is composed of a series of tubes. Their advocates say they take up less room, and that they generate a given quantity of steam with less fuel than any other, and as the diameter of the tubes are comparatively small, they stand a greater pressure 458 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH than the common kind, consequently less liable to burst. Whatever kind of boilers the proprietors adopt, it is advisable to have them made so as they will stand at least a pressure of 100 lbs. to the square inch, and then they may be wrought with safety at 50 lbs. It is found to be a saving of fuel to work with high- pressed steam for driving the engine, but for heating purposes it was at first found difficult to use; how¬ ever, this is got over by reducing the pressure before it is allowed to go into the mill, and for this purpose an apparatus has been invented, and made by Mr. Auld, engineer, Glasgow, which does its work well. By using this apparatus, a considerable saving is made, and every manufacturer by power should have them, as the temperature of the dressing flat can be kept at the desired degree of heat by making it self¬ acting. It is also important that the boilers be kept clean. The number of times the boilers should be cleaned during one year’s working, will altogether depend upon the kind of water made use of; the best water is the purest, or that which contains the least amount of foreign matter, such as iron, magnesia, lime, &c., all of which are injurious to the boilers, by leaving a deposit, or incrustation upon the plates of the boilers, not only corroding and weakening them, but also pre¬ vents the perfect absorption of the caloric by the POWER-LOOM WEAVING-. 459 water. To remedy this defect, when pure water can¬ not be profitably obtained, various expedients have been resorted to, but perhaps the best method is to have a small cistern below the boiler and connected to it, with a blow-off cock, the frequent use of which will go far to keep the boilers clean ; and, if thought proper, the water blown off can be made use of again after the objectionable matter is deposited at the bot¬ tom of the cistern. ^ To prevent the radiation of heat from the boilers and the steam pipes connected to them, they ought to be well covered over with some non-conducting substance, such as hair felt. Every boiler should have a water and steam gauge; they are ornamental to the boilers, besides very useful, as the engmeman or any other person can see the state of the water and steam in the boilers at a glance. If the proprietor or manager has a desire to see the state of the steam and- water in the boiler without going to the boiler-house, • they can have the indicator in their private room, by having a small pipe led from the boiler into their room for the steam gauge, and a light chain for the water. At first thought it may appear a little difficult to have the water gauge away from the boiler, into another apartment, which may be at a higher level than the boiler itself, but it is very simple. The chain is attached to a float that is in contact with the water in the boiler (the float can be either inside the boiler, 4G0 EEMARKS CONNECTED WITH or in a tube for the purpose outside of it,) and as the float will rise and fall with the water, it will give motion to the chain which causes the indicator to rise or fall in the manager’s room. It can be so set that when the water is either too high or too low in the boiler it will cause a bell to ring; and, as the manager will have occasion to be frequently out of his room, the bell may be made to ring until he returns, if he is not absent more than five or six hours. How this is accomplished is as follows:—The chain that is con¬ nected to the float is conveyed by pulleys from the float to the apartment, and from the floor of the apartment the chain passes up to the ceiling and over a pulley, and at this end of the chain a weight is hung, sufficiently heavy to draw the chain down when the float rises at the boiler. On that part of the chain that passes from the floor to the ceiling is fixed a rod of iron at right angles to the chain. The rod is four inches long, so that it projects on each side two inches from the centre of the chain. The projections move on the face of a brass plate, which is marked on the face in inches,-corresponding to the water lines in the boiler, which will show at all times the state of the water in the boilers. If at any time the water is allowed to get too low, or too high, the iron rod that projects from the chain comes in contact with a catch, and lifts it out of gear from the wheel that drives the apparatus which rings the bell. Two bells POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 461 are required, one for low water, and one for high water ; and the manager will see, when he returns to his room, which of the bells has been acted upon. If this kind of indicator was more used, there would be less risk of the water becoming too low or too high in the boiler, because the man in charge of the boiler, knowing that he could not conceal his carelessness, would be more attentive. How to calculate for the weight to be put on the safety valve, to give a given pressure per square inch, will be seen in another place. FURNACE—SMOKE-BURNING, &c. To work engines economically, very much depends upon the construction and management of the fur¬ naces. It would take up too much space to give even a mere outline of the different modes of fur¬ naces that have been tried for the saving of fuel and the burning of smoke, and although no furnace does this to perfection, there are some that come very neat it; and before giving a description of what is considered the best furnace, we will give an opinion of an eminent engineer upon prevention of smoke, to show the difficulties that have to be contended with. He says, “ I have approached this inquiry with considerable diffidence, and after repeated attempts at 462 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH definite conclusions, have more than once been forced to abandon the investigation as inconclusive and unsatisfactory. These views do not arise from any defect in our acquaintance with the laws which govern perfect combustion, the economy of fuel, and the consumption of smoke. They chiefly arise from the constant change of temperature, the variable nature of the volatile products, the want of system, and the irregularity which attends the management of the furnace. Habits of economy and attention to a few simple and effective rules are either entirely neglected or not enforced. It must appear obvious to every observer, that much has yet to be done, and much may be accomplished, provided the necessary precautions are taken ; first to establish, and next, to carry out a comprehensive and well organized system of operations. If this were accomplished, and the management of the fur¬ nace consigned to men of intelligence, properly trained to their respective duties, all these difficulties would vanish, and the public might not only look forward with confidence to a clear atmosphere in the manufacturing towns, but the proprietors of steam engines would be more than compensated by the saving of fuel, which an improved system of manage¬ ment and a sounder principle of operation would ensure. The attainment of these objects—the pre¬ vention of smoke, and the perfect combustion of fuel, POWER-LOOM WEAVING-. 4G3 are completely within the reach of all those who choose to adopt measures calculated for the sup¬ pression of the one and the impiovement of the other.” It has been found, from a series of experiments made with the furnace about to be explained, that besides consuming the smoke (as near perfection as any yet in use), a considerable amount of saving was made in fuel; and it has proved highly successful in numerous instances where it has been applied. The peculiar arrangement of the serrated bars, together with the movement imparted theieto, effec¬ tually prevents the formation of clinkers, and at the same time introduces a large volume of air, which becomes thoroughly heated before it reaches the gaseous matters evolved from the fresh fuel, which are thus flashed into flame, and the invisible vapour only passes off from the chimney. Supposing this furnace be applied to a common boiler, the brick-work of it is arranged in the ordinary way. The furnace-mouth and dead-plate are of the usual kind; the back end of the ash pit is formed of a cast-iron plate; beneath the furnace bars on each side is a tubular shaft, which forms air passages; these shafts or air tubes are supported at the front end by curved brackets, from the dead-plate of the furnace. If found preferable, the front ends of the air-tubes may be supported on the inner side by a semi-ciicular 464 KEMAKKS CONNECTED WITH pendent bracket, cast on the under side of the dead- plate, and outside by a corresponding moveable sup¬ port bolted up to the dead-plate. The back end of each air-tube passes through and rests in the cast-iron plate, which forms the end of the furnace and back- bridge. The fire-bars are arranged across the furnace at right angles to its length, and rest upon the air- tubes. On the inner portions of the peripheries of the air-tubes are cast the laterally projecting teeth, which act as cams to raise each alternate fire-bar, when the air-tube is turned partially round. The fire-bars are cast with laterally projecting teeth or serrations, the end teeth and one in the centre being made a little longer than the others, so that when arranged on the air-tubes, the bars are placed close together, these teeth serving to give steadiness to the bars, and, at the same time, leave a sufficient space between the intervening teeth. Each tooth of one bar enters the corresponding recess of the contiguous bar, but the elongated teeth at the ends and centres are the only ones which touch the neighbouring bar. The bars next the inner end of the dead-plate, and also the back-plate, are made with shorter teeth, but the edges of these plates might be serrated to cor¬ respond with the front and back bars. The other bars are put into their places, and arranged parallel, filling up the longitudinal extent of the furnace to the POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 465 back-plate, which forms part of the hack bridge. The cams on the air-tubes are made with recesses at the central part of each, and these are arranged at such a distance asunder, that the lower part of each bar falls into one of these recesses on the one side, and at the other into the space between the cams. From this arrangement, it follows, that if the air-tubes are turned partly round, each alternate bar will be raised up at the end next the tube acted upon. When the furnace is working, the stoker, from time to time, lifts the bars, by moving the air-tubes, the result of which breaks up the fuel, allows the ash to fall through, and prevents the formation of clinkers. The raising of the bars, from time to time, has also the effect of causing a large body of air to pass into the fuel, and it is thus kept in a state of intense com¬ bustion. The arrangement of this furnace, with its double back bridge and air-valve, along with the air- tubes, provides for the effectual combustion of the inflammable portion of the gaseous matter evolved, and this prevents the emission of visible smoke from the chimney. A description of this furnace, along with drawings of it, are given in the Practiced Mechanics’ Journal , for April, 1862. With the present plan, it is next to impossible to consume the smoke entirely; but there is a way that would most effectually do away with the smoke that is made by the furnaces that are used for generating 466 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH steam for driving the engines. To explain onr plan, we will take Glasgow and suburbs for illustration. Instead of driving the engines with steam, as at present, they would be driven by compressed air. It may be stated, that driving engines with compressed air is not at all a new idea, for a number of engines are working at present, and have been working for years with compressed air instead of steam. The present steam engines require no alteration to drive them with air, for air is as elastic and compressible as steam, if not more so. What is wanted is the power to compress the air so as it will drive the engines. Where this power is to be got will now be explained. It has been calculated that a greater power can be got from the Clyde, and its tributaries above Glasgow, than all the steam-engines put together, in Glasgow and its suburbs require, and that this power could be taken advantage of to compress the air for the purpose of driving the engines. Suppose the first water¬ wheels to be erected at Bonnington fall, which is the uppermost fall above Lanark. The power to be had from these wheels to be expended on working pumps, which would force the air through pipes into iron re¬ ceivers (which may be called reservoirs), and from the Bonnington fall all the way down the banks of the Clyde, wherever any fall occurs, have other water¬ wheels and reservoirs for the same purpose. All these reservoirs would be connected with pipes, and a POWER-LOOM WEAVING-. 467 main pipe would lead the compressed air into Glasgow to drive the engines. It will be evident that the pressure would be the same in all the reservoirs and pipes by their being all connected. This pressure might be from 100 to 200 lbs. per square inch, and each engine proprietor could have a reducing-valve to reduce the pressure to suit his engine. It would depend upon the number and capacity of the reser¬ voirs what quantity of compressed air could be stored up, and that would require to be large, so as to take advantage of the water-power during the night when the engines are not working. But, as the pressure of the air may be brought up to 200 lbs. per square inch in the reservoirs, before allowing it to blow off, and the engines to be driven, not requiring more than 50 lbs. per square inch, the space required for storage would be considerably lessened. Safety- valves would require to be put on all the reservoirs, and on some parts of the. pipes, so that, whenever the pressure rose above the 200 lbs. the air would blow off, and this would prevent the vessels bursting. The above is a mere hint of particulars. How the plan could be carried out in all its details need not be entered upon here, but it may be mentioned that no new appliances would have to be invented for the carrying of it out. It is very likely that the first question that will be asked about this way of driving is, “ Will it pay?” 468 EE MARKS CONNECTED WITH There is no doubt but it would pay, and pay well, if the land on the banks of rivers could be got at a moderate price. And taking for comparison the cost of other undertakings of a similar nature, such as the Water-works for supplying the city, the outlaid capital should not be more than £1,000,000, and the income from the present engine proprietors will be, at least, £130,000 per annum; and it would be their interest to use the air instead of steam, as long as the price of fuel is not lower than v r hat it has been for the last fifteen years. The working expense would be comparatively little after it w T as all started. These remarks about paying only apply to towns that are situated like Glasgow for a water-power to com¬ press the air; for, if the power for compressing the air had to be taken from the rise and fall of the tides, the expense for putting up floating vessels to get the required power would be a great deal more. But any amount of power can be got, although expensive, from the tides. After the foregoing had been written, Mr Bramwell delivered an address at the meeting of the British Association at Brighton, upon the subject of coal, in which he alludes to how advantage might be taken of the tides for driving machinery. He says:— u Before the steam engine was so extensively used as it now is, the wind, the force of streams, and the force of the tide were all employed to give motive POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 469 power.” After making some remarks on the three forces, and how they might be employed, he gives the following:—“ Before quitting the subject of finding sources of power other than steam, the section will perhaps permit me to remind them of what has been done in the town of Schaffhausen by a public-spirited inhabitant in the way of utilising the water-power of the Rhine, and of laying it on, so to speak, to every man’s door. This has been accomplished by erecting turbines, which are worked by the river, and deliver their power to endless wire ropes carried over pulleys placed alongside the Rhine, the rope extending nearly from one end of the town to the other. This rope gives off power at the end of each street, abutting on the river bank, and that power is conveyed along those streets by a shaft in a channel under the paving. Each manufacturer can make his own communication with these principal shafts, and thus obtain the power he may require.” I think it will be evident, that the carrying of the power by ropes and shafts is not so good a plan as conveying the air through pipes, in the way it has been explained, for the purpose of driving the engines. STEAM ENGINE. When the size of the factory will admit of it, it is better to drive the machinery with two engines than 470 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH with one, as the motion will be more regular and steady. It is impossible to have a good working loom with an irregular drive. The advantage to be gained by using two engines, besides the regular motion, is, that less fuel is required to drive the machinery. The two engines are connected in such a manner, that when the one has no power the other will have its greatest power, and that the steam is made to enter the first cylinder at a high state of pressure. When the steam has done its work with the first engine, it enters the cylinder of the second; the cylinder of the second engine, having a capacit}^ four times larger than the cylinder of the first, the steam is allowed to expand, consequently, the pressure will be only as one to four; but as this engine is con¬ nected to the condenser, it receives the advantage of the vacuum. By using the steam for driving the engines, and connecting them as described above, very little of the steam is lost, and very little of the power is consumed driving a large fly-wheel, which would be requisite to regulate the motion if only one engine were employed. Also, when two or three are working together, and they are properly arranged, very little expense will be required for the water used for condensing the steam. But it has not as yet been properly tested whether the high-pressure engine by itself, or the high- POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 471 pressure and condensing engines combined, is die most economical for driving factories, that is, taking into consideration the first outlay for the extra pi ice of the engines, and the cost of the water. In some places where the cost of the water is high, it is decidedly cheaper just to have the high-pressure engine alone. A great deal might be said concern¬ ing steam-engines, but a few hints is all that is requisite for our purpose. All the working parts in connection with the engine should be regularly cleaned and oiled. The large journals should have self-acting oil-cups, which will save both time and oil. A steam-gauge, also a vacuum one, should be fixed in some conspicuous place in the engine-house, to show the working state of the engine. To give the manager or proprietor an opportunity of seeing the number of strokes the engines make in one hour, day, or week, an indicator, for that pur¬ pose, should be connected to the engines. This indi¬ cator should be one of those kinds that will show what day, and the hour of that day, the engines have been below or above their regular speed. If any accident happens which allows the engines to run far beyond their regular speed, there is a danger of something being broken, and, to prevent this, the governor should be so constructed that it will shut off the steam entirely. Few engines have this kind 472 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH of governor, but it is better to prevent breakages than repair them, therefore, it is advisable for every engine proprietor to take the advantage of it. GEARING. Supposing the speed of the looms to be one hun¬ dred and fifty picks per minute, the shafts for driving them should make nearly that number of revolutions per minute, so that there may be very little difference between the diameter of the loom pulley and the drum that drives it; and it is advantageous to have the speed of the shafts brought up to the number of revolutions required, as near the engine as possible, if it is not convenient to have it done at the engine. By having the shafts running at a high speed, shaft¬ ing of a much lighter description will answer the same purpose, which will be a saving in the first cost when erecting a new mill. Before giving the calcu¬ lations for common gearing, we will give a description of driving looms without belting. DRIVING LOOMS WITHOUT BELTING. The outlay for gearing and belts amounts to a considerable sum for a new work, and the expense in keeping up the belts after the mill is started, has caused experiments to be made to ascertain how to POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 473 do away with the present mode of driving looms. The most likely plan is to drive them with frictional gear, on the following system:—Suppose the flat or shed to have twenty looms in one row, and six rows in the breadth of the flat, this will require three shafts (which we will name long shafts) the whole length of the mill, these shafts being driven by a cross shaft at the end of the flat. Each of the long shafts will drive forty looms. The looms are set in the usual way, all in a straight line. These long shafts are supported with brackets, which are bolted to the ends of the looms, so that the long shaft will be on a level with the top shafts of the looms. For each pair of looms there is a bevel pulley on the long shaft, made in all respects the same as a bevel wheel with¬ out teeth. On the end of the top shaft of each loom, • there is a bevel pulley, made to correspond to the one on the long shaft. This pulley on the loom shaft is made, so as it can be shifted in or out of gear with the pulley on the long shaft. The handle of the loom is of the common kind, and the lever that is made to shift the belt in the usual way of driving, is made to act upon the back of the pulley on the loom shaft. When the loom is to be put in motion, the handle is pulled into the notch in the same manner as for a loom driven with a belt, and a sufficient strength of spring is given to the handle, so as to press the pulley into contact with the other pulley, to 474 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH drive the loom. It will be obvious, that the pulley on the loom shaft will require to be shifted a very small space, for the purpose of putting it in gear with the other, therefore, a very small movement of the lever, at the pulley, is required, which makes the loom driven in this way easier put on than when driven with a belt. This plan of driving looms will necessitate the long shafts to be boxed in where they cross the passes. This is no objection, but rather an advantage to the weavers, if it is properly done, as they will have a place for holding their weft boxes and cloth. Another very important advantage in this mode of driving looms is, that all danger of being caught with the belts is most effectually got quit of; in fact, it is at first cheaper, it is kept up with less expense, it is cleaner, because there is no teethed gear to throw out dirty grease, and it looks much neater. There are some trifling things connected with putting the pulley in and out of gear, which have not been explained, but which will be apparent to any practical mechanic. CALCULATION OF SPEEDS. We propose to show briefly the method of calculat¬ ing the speed of the different shafts and machines connected with a power-loom factory. POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 475 The first thing to be done is to find the speed of the engine, which is got by counting the number of strokes it makes during one minute. Each stroke of the engine is equal to one revolution of the first shaft; and it may be remarked, that most of the old engines are driven far too slow to get the full advantage out of them. Although engineers are not agreed among them¬ selves about the proper speed that an engine should be driven at, we may state what speed has been found in practice to answer very well. An engine, with a five or six feet stroke, may be driven at the rate of 350 feet per minute, without any apprehension of danger by breakages. For illustration,—suppose the crank shaft of the engine makes thirty revolutions per minute ; multiply the number of teeth which is in the wheel on the crank shaft by the number of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of teeth in the pinion which gears into this wheel for driving the first shaft, and the answer will be the speed of the first shaft. The speed of the other shafts are found in the same manner, always multiplying the teeth in the driving wheel by the number of revolutions of the driving shaft, and dividing by the teeth in the driven pinion for the speed of the driven shaft; the driven shaft sometimes also becomes a driver, but this makes no difference in the mode of calculation. If the 476 REMAKES CONNECTED WITH wheel on the crank shaft has 128 teeth, and the pinion on the first shaft 64 teeth, then the speed will be found as follows:— EXAMPLE. Number of teetli in driving wheel, 128 Speed of engine per minute, 30 strokes. The number of teeth in pinion, 64)3840(60 speed of the first shaft. 384 But, as already stated, it is better to bring up the speed of the shafts as near the engine as possible; and for this purpose, the pinion should have only 32 teeth, as in the following example:— EXAMPLE. Number of teeth in driving wheel, 128 Speed of engine per minute, 30 strokes. The number of teeth in pinion, 32)3840(120 speed of the first shaft. 32 64 64 This wheel, with the 128 teeth, is made of sufficient weight so as no other fly-wheel is required for the engines. The first shaft passes from the engine- house to the weaving shed, and drives the long shaft, which we will call the second shaft; this second shaft POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 477 being the one that drives the cross-shafts for the looms. On to the other end of the first shaft is fixed a bevel wheel with 56 teeth, which gears with one on the second shaft of 50 teeth, this will make the speed of the second shaft to be 134.4 revolutions per minute. EXAMPLE. The first shaft makes per minute, . 120 revolutions. The number of teeth in driving wheel, 56 720 600 Number of teeth in the driven wheel, 50)6720(134.4 speed of 2d shaft. 50 172 150 220 200 200 200 By putting on metre wheels on the second and cross-shafts, the speed of the cross-shafts will also be 134.4 revolutions per minute. On these cross-shafts are hung the drums for driving the looms, and if the looms are to be driven at 150 picks per minute, and the driving pulleys of the looms be 11 inches in 478 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH diameter, the diameter of the drum will be found by multiplying the speed of the loom by the diameter of the loom pulley, and dividing by the speed of the shaft. EXAMPLE. Speed of the loom per minute, 150 picks. Diameter of loom pulley, 11 inches. Speed of the shaft, 134.4)1650.0(12.27 1344 3060 2688 3720 2688 10320 9408 912 This shows the diameter of the drum to be 12.27 inches, to give the loom 150 picks per minute; but, supposing the drum to be 14 inches in diameter, and the speed of the loom is required with a pulley 10 inches in diameter, multiply the speed of the shaft by the diameter of the drum in inches, and divide the product by the diameter of the loom pulley. POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 479 EXAMPLE. Speed of shaft per minute, 134.4 Diameter of drum in inches, 14 5376 1344 Diameter of loom pulley, 10)18816(188.1 speed of loom. 10 88 80 81 80 16 10 6 We do not require to give examples how to find the speed of the shafts for driving the winding, warp¬ ing, and dressing machine, as the same principle of calculating speeds apply to all. But the young inquirer may wish to know the speed that these different machines should be driven at. This very much depends upon the kind of work these machines have got to perform, and the quality and fineness of yarn that is used in the factory. Therefore, we would advise those who have not got practical experience, to get the opinion of some party who is thoroughly acquainted with weaving. 480 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH SAFETY VALVES Are those valves that are placed upon the top of the steam boilers, or upon the steam chest, or dome, in connection with the boilers. For security, there should be more than one, as they are liable to get out of order; but our object is to give a simple rule how to find the weight that should be put upon the lever, to produce a given pressure upon a square inch. Suppose the surface of the valve, where the steam acts upon, to be six inches in diameter, multiply the dia¬ meter of the valve, which is six inches, by six, and the product by 7854, and, after taking off the four figures to the right hand, the remainder is the number of square inches contained in the valve, 6 x 6 is 36. EXAMPLE. .7854 36 47124 23562 28.2744 This shows 28 square inches to be in the valve after throwing off the fraction; and suppose that 30 lbs. to the square inch is required, then 28 x 30 is equal to 840 lbs., the weight required for a valve of six inches in diameter. When it can be conveniently done, it is safer not to use a lever; but if a lever is to be used it must be taken into calculation. POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 481 QUADRANT. . A Quadrant, as used by weavers, is an instrument for weighing yarn to find its size; they are made for 1 hank, 8 hanks, or 16 hanks. It is divided into a certain number of parts, and each part is numbered to show the size of the yarn. Every manufacturer should have one of them, or a small beam and scale, with proper weights, which are by some considered preferable. COLOURS. Some pattern drawers prefer to make up their own Colours, and for those who wish to do so, we give the following statements, which are copied from an article on Drawing :— REDS. Vermillion. —This is a bright scarlet pigment, formed of common sulphur and quicksilver. When found in its natural state it is called native cinnabar, but factitious cinnabar when produced by a chemical process. Red Lead is merely lead calcined to a higher degree than orange lead, by exposing it with a larger surface to the fire. Scarlet Ochre is the ochrous earth, or rather iron, which is the basis of green vitriol, separated 482 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH from the acid of the vitriol by calcination. It is cf a broken scarlet colour, and stands well. Common Indian Red is of a hue verging on scarlet, but the true Indian red is greatly inclining to purple. Venetian Red is a native red ochre, rather inclin¬ ing to scarlet. Carmine affords the brightest and most perfect crimson, and is the most beautiful of all reds. It is produced from the tinging substance of cochineal, brightened with aquafortis, by a process similar to that used for dyeing scarlet in grain. It produces a variety of fine tints, from the deepest crimson to the highest pink. It is mixed with the spirits of harts¬ horn, and reduced to the requisite shades with water. ORANGE. This colour is usually a compound of some of the red and yellow pigments. Orange lead, which is ceruse calcined to a higher degree than masticot, is a fine bright orange, works very freely on design paper, and is commonly employed in designing patterns of only one colour. BLUES. Ultramarine is a preparation of calcined lapis lazuli. It is an extreme bright blue colour, but it is both high priced, and often adulterated. Prussian Blue is the fixed sulphur of animal or POWER-LOOM WEAVING. 483 vegetable coal, combined with the earth of alum. It is a very useful pigment, both in sketching and designing. Verditer is a fine light blue, formed by a mixture of chalk and precipitated copper. It is without transparency, and is much employed both in sketches and designs. Indigo is a tinging matter extracted from certain plants, by means of putrefaction, and a coagulation by the air. Bice is smalt, which is glass-coloured with zaffer, reduced to a fine powder by levigation. Litmus is a blue pigment brought from abroad, and formed from archil, a species of moss brought from the Canary and Cape de Verd Islands. GREENS. Green is a compound colour, commonly made by mixing some of the yellow and blue pigments. The following, however, are simple greens Verdigris is a rust or corrosion of copper, formed by the action of some vegetable acid. It is dissolved in vinegar. Distilled Verdigris is the salt produced by the solution of copper, or common verdigris m vinegar. It makes a fine light green, both for sketching and designing. Sap Green is the concrete juice of the buckthorn berries expressed from them. 484 REMARKS CONNECTED WITH YELLOWS. Gamboge is a gum brought from the East Indies. It requires no preparation, but dissolves immediately on rubbing it, with the addition of water. It is a fine transparent yellow. King’s Yellow is orpiment, or arsenic, coloured with sulphur. It is poison, and ought to be used with caution. It is a good body colour, and, when mixed with blue pigments, makes a good green. Yellow Ochre is a mineral earth, which is found in different degrees of purity. It is a good standing colour. Masticot or Massicot is ceruse or flake white calcined by a moderate fire, but it acquires a lighter or deeper tint according to the degree of calcination. Chrome Yellow is a preparation of mercury by calcining it together with oil of vitriol. It is a good bright body colour. Mixed with Prussian blue it makes a fine green. Good yellows are also procured from French berries, saffron, and turmeric, by dis¬ solving either of them in water; but, in order to preserve the bright tincture of the turmeric, it must be dissolved in spirits of wine. BLACK. Lamp Black is the soot of rosin received in sheep¬ skins, or pieces of coarse linen fixed at the top of a chimney, where it is burnt for that purpose. To pre- POWEE-LOOM WEAVING-. 485 pare it for use, put a small quantity on an iron shovel, or in the bowl of a tobacco pipe, and set it over the fire, when it will begin to smoke. When the smoking ceases, the black will be freed from the oily substance with which it was originally combined, and when mixed with gum will be fit for use. Ivoey Black is ivory burned between two crucibles, and requires to be well ground with water, before it is used in fine painting. Spanish Black is burnt cork. Cheeky and Peach Stones, and other vegetable substances, when charred in a covered crucible, make likewise excellent black pigments. NEW BEAMING MACHINE. It was after the greater part of this edition was printed, that this new machine was brought out, or it would have been taken notice of in the second chapter, under the head “Beaming.” It is very simple in its construction, and is easily managed Joy the workman. It takes less power to drive it, and can be made for less money than the old kind of machine for beaming. One great advantage it has over the old kind is, that the yarn can be kept at the same speed from the beginning of the chain (or web) to the end of it. INDEX Air engines - Air pump pick Allowance for waste Arrangement of looms Art of weaving Articles about a loom Articles used in drawing - Average size of yarn Bags weaving, for rice and sugar, Barrel, double Beam, yarn on Beam, yarn Beam, cloth - Beamers’ tables Beaming Beaming from warping mill Beaming machine, new - Bed covers - Bed tick - Belt, length of Blanket, tweel Blue and white cross-over Board, hole - Breast beam - Bullough’s specification - Bundle - Calculation of speeds Page 165 142 54 120 39 172 271 44 377 334 41 174 174 406 79 240 485 378 97 121 104 58 199 176 152 41 Page 58 50-53 291 395 ■ 176 ■ 385 - 42 - 400 :7 4 Calculation of wefts Calculation of warps Calculations for whip Calculations, tables, &c. Cams or wypers Carpets - Chain - Charges - Check and damask power looms - Check loom for six shuttles Check tape Circumference of reel Clear shed - Cloth beam Cloth, double - Cloth, plain - Cloth, three-ply Colours - Common power-loom Connection rod s Cepe - Cords, weft - Costing goods - Co st per loom for dress goods 400 Cotton, price of - - 31 Covers, table - _ - - 277 Covers, bed and toilet - 3 < 8 Crank shaft - - - 173 1 Cross-over 68 179 225 392 40 245 174 368 93 383 481 148 173 43 388 395 488 INDEX. Page Crumb-cloths - - - 383 Cylinder machine •• - 88 Cylinder, expanding - 79 Damask power-loom - 179 Damask tweels - - 104 Dents 48 Description, Todd’s - 163 Designing paper - - 267 Diaper, three leaf - - 107 Diaper, four, five, and six leaf - 108, 111, 356 Diaper, seven and eight leaf - - 113, 359 Diaper, ten leaf - 116, 360 Diapers, mounting for - 327 Diaper and plain cloth - 348 Diced work - - - 366 Double barrel - - - 334 Double cloth mounting - 368 Double loom - - - 137 Draughts and treading - 93 Drawing - - - - 91 Drawing from the round - 260 Drawing and Designing - 267 Dressing - - 82, 85, 241 Driving pulleys - - 173 Eight leaf diapers - 113,114 Eight leaf tweel - - 102 Embroidering machines - 287 England and France com¬ pared regarding designs 247 Engine, steam - - 456 Entering or drawing - 91 Expanding cylinder - - 79 Expenses for one year - 402 Expenses, how to find the 403 Five leaf diaper - - 108 Five leaf tweel - - 100' Five leaf tweel for table covers - - - 104 Float or scob preventer - 166 Fly reed - - - 150 Fly roll - - - - 151 Page Four leaf diaper - . - 108 Four leaf tweel - 98 Frames, sewing - - 321 Friction, dressers - - 86 Gauze and plain cloth - 312 Gauze stripes - - - 311 Gearing - - - - 178 Goods, costing - - 395 Grist of yarn 39 Hanks - - - - 40 Hanks, short method to find the - - - 54 Harness board - - 199 Harness, pressure - - 213 Harness, to mount a - 196 Harness, to prepare the - 201 Harness twine - - 198 Heddles - - - - 244 Heddles, three set of - 368 Herring-bone tweel - 97 Hindoo mode of weaving 15 Holland, window - - 57 Horizontal mill - - 238 How to make thick and thin cloth alternately, 283 Improvement in winding 66 Indicator, water - - 459 Inkle loom - - - 375 Introductory remarks, - 39 Jaconet 12 00 - - - 58 Jacquard machine - - 209 Jacquard machine with¬ out cards - - 364 Jane stripes - - 96 Lappet loom - - - 297 Lappet weaving - - 286 Lappet wheel - - - 297 Lay - - - - 17 5 Lay, lappet - - - 301 Leads - - - 197 Linen yarn 44 INDEX 489 Loom, Bullough’s - Loom, check for six shuttle Loom, double - Loom, common power Looming the web - Loom, power - Loom, the first power Loom, Todd’s - Loom', vertical Machine, cylinder - Machine, tape-leg dressing Mails Manufacturers’ rating tables Manufacturers’ tables Motion, uptaking - Mounting a harness loom Mounting for diapers Mounting for ten and twelve leaf tweel Mountings for tweels, diapers, &c. Needles, lappet New beaming machine Nine leaf tweel Page 148 225 137 148 244 118 11 162 137 88 89 197 444 406 177 196 356 349 327 Old power-loom Oncost or charges - Original power-loom Pick, air-pump Picking arm - Picking stick Pinion, to find the proper Pins for lappets Pirn winding - Pitch, to, the loom - Plain and diaper cloth - Plain and tweel, four shots of - Plain and tweel stripes - Plain and tweel, with weft eords Plain cloth 301 485 103 131 400 11 Porters - Power-looms - Pressure harness loom Price of cotton Progress of weaving Prospect of the cotton trade Protector Quadrant Quantity of cloth woven Eating tables for manu¬ facturers - for a blue and white check for a 12 00 tape check - _ - Eating for a shirting Eating, form of rate for Eeed, English Eeed, fly Eeed, Scotch - Eeeds for wool ] iteel - Eice bags Eoeking shaft. Eods, connection Eollers, stenting Page - 49 118-131 - 213 Eating- Eating 142 176 177 128 301 68 123 348 347 348 388 93 31 29 34 125 481 33 444 398 397 . 396 . 399 47, 48 - 150 - 47 - 243 - 39 - 377 - 175 - 173 - 222 Safety valves - Scale of reed - Scob preventer . School for weaving - Scotch ell Selecting patterns - Set of reed Sewing frames for looms - Shedding Shirting Shuttle changer - Sixteen leaf mounting Sizing - Sizing wool yarn - Skein - Sketching, 480 47 166 249 48 271 48 321 225 57 170 354 82 241 40 268 490 INDEX. Page Slabstock - - 199 Speeds, calculation of - 474 Split harness - - - 279 Syndle - - - 40-45 Standees - - - 200 Starching - - 83 Starting power-looms - 118 Statement of expenses - 402 Swords - - - - 175 Tables, manufacturers’, warpers’, and beamers’, 406 Tape checks made with one shuttle - - 392 Tape-leg dressing machine 89 Ticking - - 96 Toilet covers - - - 378 Top mounting for large tweels - - - 352 Treading - - - 93 Treadles - - - 340 Tube weaving - - 371 Tweeling - - - 95 T weel an cl plain alternately 347 Tweel, blanket - - 104 Tweels, damask, ten and twelve leaf, - 104, 105 Tweel, sixteen leaf - 106 Tweels, mounting for - 327 Tweel, three leaf - - 96 Tweel, herring-bone - 97 Tweels, seven, eight, and nine leaf 102, 103, 344 Twine, harness - 198 Twist, proper - 43 Twisting Page - 92 Two webs in one loom 137,138 Up talcing motion - 133-177 Vertical loom - 137 Warping, - 71 Warp in a web - 53 Warping striped work - 74 Warpers’ tables - 406 Water indicator - 459 Weaving broad cloth in a narrow loom - - 383 Weaving by compressed air, - 144 Weaving, tube - 371 Web glass - 48 Web, starting the - - 308 Wefts, calculation of - 58 Weight of bundle - - 43 Winding - 64 Window, Holland - - 57 Wool weaving •• 234 Wool yarn - 46 Worsted yarn - 47 Wyper shaft - - 173 Wypers or cams - 176 Yarn beam - - 174 Yarn in chain - 42 Yarn on beam - 41 Yarns in a spyndle - 45 Yarns, to dress dyed - 90 PRINTED BY GEORGE WATSON, INGRAM STREET, GLASGOW. APPENDIX. SIX-SHUTTLE CHECK LOOM, BY THE ANDERSTON FOUNDRY COMPANY, Glasgow. This loom would have been taken notice of in the fifth chapter had I been as conversant with the de¬ tails of it as I now am. In that chapter it is explained how the loom is stopped when the shuttle box is not properly shifted; also, how the loom is stopped when the driver is not sufficiently taken back at the shifting box side of the loom. It is also described how any shuttle can be brought into action to suit the pattern required; and in the same chapter some instructions are given regarding check fabrics, beginning at page 225, under the heading