FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY PHILADELPHIA Class 6 (0 £)i Bookt^l.5.2.... Accession „4..l 4 S comprising suen worxs as, irom meir rainy or vaiuc, buuuiu wa uc icm out, all unbound periodicals, and such text books as ought to be found in a library of reference, except when required by Committees of the Institute, or by Members or holders of second class stock, who have obtained the sanction of the Committee. The second class shall include those books intended for circulation. Article VI. — The Secretary shall have authority to loan to Members and to holders of second, class stock, any worjs belonging to the second class, subject to the following regulations : Section 1. — No individual shall be permitted to have more than two books out at one time, without a written permission, signed by at least two mem- bers of the Library Committee ; nor shall a book be kept out more than two weeks ; but if no one has applied for it, the former borrower may renew the loan. Should any person have applied for it, the latter shall have the preference. Section 2. — A fine of ten cents per week shall be exacted for the detention of a book beyond the limited time ; and if a book be not returned within three months, it shall be deemed lost, and the borrower shall, in addition to his fines, forfeit its value. Section 3. — Snould any book be returned injured, the borrower shall pay for the injury, or replace the book, as the Library Committee may direct; and if one or more books, belonging to a set or sets, be lost, the borrower shall replace them or make full restitution. Article vT 1 . — Any person removing from the Hall, without permission from the proper truth cities, any book, newspaper, or other property : n charge of the Library Committee, shall he reported to the Committee, who may inflict any fine not exceeding twenty- rive dollars. Article VIII.- — No Member or holder of second class stock, whose annual contribution for the current year shall be unpaid, or who is in arrears for fines, shall be entitled ho the privileges of the Library or Read- ing Room. Article IX. — If any Member or holder >f second class stock, shall refuse or neglect to comply with the foregoing rales, it shall be the duty of the Secretary to report him to the Committee on the Library. Article X. — Any Member or hol ler of second class stock, detected in mutilating the newspapers, pamphlets or books belonging to the Institute, shall be deprived of his right of membership, and the name of the offender shall be made public. . , NEW AND IMPROVED PRACTICAL BUILDER. THE FIVE ORDERS ARCHITECTURE; CONTAINING THE MOST PLAIN AND SIMPLE RULES FOR DRAWING AND EXECUTING THEM IN THE PUREST STYLE; itee of Workmen; EXHIBITING the most approved modes of applying each in practice, SUITABLY TO THE CLIMATE OF GREAT BRITAIN. INCLUDING AN HISTORICAL DESCRIPTION Of G O T R tXAi&'&cna i.&fi cM u ; r : ’e, ILLUSTRATED WITH SPECIMENS SELECTED FROM^ tell M»SC CELCBRJWJIJ •SlJtUCj'fcilfS ilJOW*. EXISTING, AND NUMEROUS PLANS, ELEVATIONS, SECTIONS, AND DETAILS OP VJ$?lt>CS; BUltjftN&S J EXECUTED BY JJPRfHI'jECTS OF GREAT EMINENCE. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, TREATISES ON PROJECTION, PERSPECTIVE, FRACTIONS, DECIMAL ARITHMETIC, &c. IN ORDER TO ASSIST THE STUDENT IN DRAWING ARCHITECTURAL OBJECTS, CONCLUDING WITH AN INDEX AND GLOSSARY OF THE TERMS OF ART, $-c. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS BY ARTISTS OF THE FIRST TALENT. VOL. III. LONDON THOMAS KELLY, No. 17, PATERNOSTER ROW. Co MS TH !*Hh /VS3 /&H V, 3 London: J. Rider, Printer, 14, Bartholomew Cloae. PREFACE. THE very favourable reception and extensive sale of the two preceding Volumes of the “New Practical Builder,” — the first on “Practical Carpentry, Joinery, and Cabinet- Making;” and the second, on “Masonry, Bricklaying, Ornamental Plastering,” &c., demands our most grateful acknowledgments, and has induced the proprietor to engage the same individuals, with the aid of other eminent professional gentlemen, to arrange and prepare the third and concluding Volume on Practical Architecture ; and which, together, will form the most complete and comprehensive Treatise on Practical Building, in all its various branches, ever presented to the Public. The present volume contains an extensive and valuable Treatise on the Five Orders of Architecture, upon which the Decorative part of the science so much depends. The peculiar features and character of each Order are separately treated and critically compared ; and the most approved modes of applying them in practice fully explained and clearly elucidated. The description of the Five Orders is followed by a series of practical rules and duections applicable to Building in general, in which the fitness , proportion , and charactei , of the vanous component parts of Architectural Structures are carefully investigated and compared ; consisting of Halls, Rooms, Walls, Ceilings, Stories or Suites of Apartments, Roofs, Door-ways, Floors, Passages, Staircases, Fire-places, Recesses, Chimneys, Niches, &c. 8tc., including rules and directions for determining the proportions of Apartments ; and also the most approved application of Ornamental Decoration, with Critical Remarks on the symmetry and beauty of Buildings, the proper choice of Situations and Soils for Country Residences, &c. To which is added, an historical description of Gothic Architecture, showing its Origin, and also a Comparison ,of the Gothic Architecture of England, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy ; together with the first, second, and third periods of the Pointed Arch or Gothic style, and which is fully explained and illustrated by numerous examples and details, drawn from the best Authorities. And in order to assist the Student in drawing architectural objects with ease and accuracy, as well as in estimating the value or contents of Materials used in the construction ot Buildings, compendious Treatises are given on Projection, Perspective, and Decimal Fractions, &c. The Illustrations and Examples given in this Work have been carefully selected from the most approved Specimens, both ancient and modern, and include Plans, Elevations, and Sections of various well-known and admired Structures, consisting of Cathedrals, Churches, Chapels, Halls, Mansions, Villas, Asylums , Mausoleums, Prisons, fyc. most of which have been executed by Architects of great skill and eminence in their profession, amongst whom we make honourable mention of Wyatville, Smirke, Soane, Rennie, Telford, Perron et, Clarke, Shaw, Inwood, Elsam, Johnstone, and Nicholson. The whole concluded by an Index and Glossaiy of the Terms of Art, &c. &c. vol. hi. TABLE OF CONTENTS BOOK I. THE FIVE ORDERS, &C. &C. Introduction. — Origin, Character, and Variety of the Five Orders Page 1 CHAP. I. Proportions of the Orders 6 Definitions applicable to the Orders 12 CHAP. II. Mouldings, Ornaments, Details, &c. explained • • • • 14 Construction in Architecture; the deficiency of the Ancients in this Art compared with the Modems - • 22 References to the Plates on the preceding Theory of the Five Orders 23 CHAP. III. Practice of the Tuscan Order; the Opinions of the most eminent Architects upon the Proportions of that Order References to the Plate on the Practice of the Tus- can Order 24 28 CHAP. IV. Practice of the Doric Order 28 Monument on Fish Street Hill and its Historical Pedestal considered ; the application of a Base to the Column of this Order 29 Proportions and Ornaments of the Doric Order, and the Difficulties in the use of Trigliphs 30 References to the several Plates of the Doric Order • 33 CHAP. V. Practice of the Ionic Order 34 Difference of the Grecian and Roman Ionic Orders* 34 Application of the Grecian and Roman Volutes 34 On the Difficulties experienced in applying the Ionic Capital in certain cases 35 The Attic Base of the Romans recommended 36 References to the Plates appertaining to the Ionic Order, which include the Roman and Grecian Examples 37 CHAP. VI. Practice of the Composite Order 38 Considered to be a compound of the Ionic and Co- rinthian * 38 Various Examples of this Order 39 Ornamental Parts and Details 40 Extensively used by the Romans 41 Reference to the Plate on the Practice of the Com- posite Order 42 CHAP. VII. Practice of the Corinthian Order 42 On its application by the Ancients 42 Remains of this beautiful Order referred to 43 Proportions of this Order 44 References to the several Plates on the Practice of the Corinthian Order 45 CHAP. VIII. The Practice of Pilasters and the Greek Antas 47 On the general character and application of Pilasters 47 The diminishing Pilasters 48 Cases where Pilasters have been well applied 49 Reference to Plates containing various Grecian and Roman Ornaments, peculiarly applicable to enrich the various Orders of Architecture 50 BOOK II. OF BUILDING IN GENERAL. Introduction 52 On the various Parts of Buildings 52 CHAP. I. Proportions of the Apertures of Doors and Windows* 61 CHAP. II. Proportions of Apartments 62 CHAP. III. Proportions of Mouldings 70 CHAP. IV. Situations for Country Residences 71 BOOK III. Gothic Architecture and its probable origin ........ Difficulties in fixing the precise Age of Ancient Edi- fices, with Observations on the Pointed Arch Comparison of certain Egyptian, Grecian, and Rj- man Works Architecture and the Fine Arts during the erection of many of the most celebrated Structures of Antiquity York Cathedral The Churches of Germany, England, France, and Italy Alterations in the Style of the Twelfth and Thir- teenth Century High Northern Roof introduced * Plan of a Gothic Cathedral and its various parts • ■ • Description of a Tower, a Spire, and the Lantern ; Buttresses, Parapet, Battlements, Arches, being semi-circular, segmental, or liorse-shoe formed; pointed Arches, of various kinds, including mixed Arches, &c. Spandrels, Mullions, Tracery, Transoms, Feather- ings, Trefoils, Quatrefoils, and Cinquefoils ; Ta- blets, Canopies, Bands, Niches, Corbels, Pinnacles, Crokcts, Finials, Crypts, See. Norman Doors and Windows; Norman Arches, Piers, Buttresses, Tablets, Niches, Ornaments, Steeples, Roofs, Fronts, and Porches Early English Doors, Windows, Piers, Buttresses, Tablets, Niches, Ornaments, Steeples, Battlements, Roofs, Fronts, and Porches Decorated English Doors and Windows, Arches, Piers, Buttresses, Tablets, Niches, Ornaments’ Steeples, Battlements, Roofs, Fronts, and Porches Perpendicular English Doors and Windows, Arches, Piers, Buttresses, Tablets, Niches, Ornaments, Steeples, Battlements, Roofs, Fronts, and con- cluding Observations 70 73 78 81 81 82 84 85 86 87 89 92 95 101 7 08 PERSPECTIVE. Definitions and various Axioms, Theorems, Pro- blems, and Examples, with References to the re- spective Plates and Diagrams 117 PROJECTION. Introduction, and various Definitions, Corollaries, Problems, with References to the respective Plates 129 SHADOWS. Definitions and various Examples and References to the respective Plates 133 Decimal Arithmetic, &c. 133 Description and Arrangement of the Plates * * • 146 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE FIVE ORDERS, fyc. fyc. BOOK I. INTRODUCTION, EMBRACING THE OPINIONS OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHED PROFESSORS IN THE ART OF BUILDING, AS PRESENTED, AT DIFFERENT PERIODS, TO THE SCIENTIFIC WORLD, BY SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS, AND OTHER EMINENT ARCHITECTS, ANCIENT AND MODERN ; FROM WHICH THE STUDENT, AS WELL AS THE AMATEUR, MAY COLLECT EVERY INFORMATION REQUISITE TO PROPORTION; AND BE ENABLED TO DRAW AND EXECUTE ALL THE VARIOUS PARTS OF THE SEVERAL ORDERS, WITH ACCURACY AND TASTE, IN THE PUREST STYLE. The ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE constitute the basis upon which, chiefly, the deco- rative part of the science is founded, and towards which, the attention of the architect must ever be cherished, even where the Orders are not introduced: for, in them originate most of the forms used m decoration ; they generally regulate the proportions ; and to their combination, multiplied, vaiied, and arranged, in a thousand different ways, architecture is indebted for its most splendid productions. These Orders aie, in reality, different modes of building, supposed to have been originally imitated from the primitive huts ; being composed of such parts as were essential in their con- stiuction ; and, afterwards, adopted in the temples of antiquity, which, though at first simple and rude, were, in the course of time, and by the ingenuity of succeeding architects, wrought up and improved to such a pitch of perfection, on different models, that each was, by way of eminence, denominated an Order. Of these there are Five : three, said to be of Grecian origin, and are called Grecian Orders ; being distinguished by the names of Doric , Ionic , and Corinthian; they exhibit three distinct characters of composition, supposed to have been suggested by the diversity of character in the INTRODUCTION TO 2 human frame. The remaining two, being of Italian origin, are called Latin or Roman Orders ; they are distinguished by the names of Tuscan and Roman, and were probably invented with a view of extending the characteristic bounds, on one side towards strength and simplicity, as on the other, towards elegance and profusion of enrichments. At what periods the Orders were invented, or by whom their improvement was advanced, we can now only conjecture from the structures and fragments of antiquity, built in different ages, and still remaining to be seen in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Of their origin, little is known but from the relation of Vitruvius, the veracity of which has been much questioned, and it is probably not altogether to be depended upon. Of the two Latin Orders, the Tuscan is said to have been invented by the inhabitants of Tuscany, before the Romans had intercourse with the Greeks, or were acquainted with their arts and sciences. Probably, however, these people, originally a colony of Greeks, only imitated, in the best manner they could, what they remembered of the state of building, as it existed in their own country, simplifying the Doric, either to expedite their work ; or, perhaps to adapt it to the abilities of their workmen. The second Latin Order, though of Roman production, is but of modern adoption; the ancients never having considered it as a distinct Order. It is a mixture of the Ionic and Corin thian, and is now distinguished by the names of Roman or Composite. The ingenuity of man has, hitherto, not been able to produce a Sixth Order, though large premiums have been offered, and numerous attempts have been made, by means of first-rate talents to accomplish it. Such is the fettered state of human imagination, such the scanty store of its ideas, that Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, have ever been uppermost ; and all that has yet been produced amounts to nothing more than different arrangements and combinations of their parts, with some trifling deviations scarcely deserving notice ; the whole generally tending more to diminish than to increase the beauties of the ancient orders. The suppression of parts of the ancient orders, with a view to produce novelty, has, of late years, been much practised among us, but with very little success. And, though it is not wished to restrain sallies of imagination, nor to discourage genius from attempting invention ; yet it is apprehended that attempts to alter the primary forms invented by the ancients, and established by the concurring approbation of many ages, must ever be attended w ith injurious consequences, always difficult, and seldom or never successful. It is like coining words, which, whatever may be their value, are at first but ill received, and must have the sanction of time to secure them a current reception. An Order is composed of two principal members, the Column and the Entablature ; each of which is divided into three principal parts. Those of the Column are the Base, the Shaft, and the Capital; those of the Entablature, are the Architrave, the Frieze, and the Cornice ; all these again are sub-divided into many smaller parts, the disposition, number, forms, and dimen- sions, of which characterize each order, and express the degree of strength or delicacy, richness THE FIVE ORDERS. 3 or simplicity, peculiar to it. Columns of the Five Orders, with their respective names, are represented in Plates II. and III. The simplest and most solid of these orders is the Tuscan Order. It is composed of few and large parts, devoid of ornaments, and is of a construction so massive, that it seems capable of supporting the heaviest burdens; whence it is, by Sir Henry Wotton, compared to a sturdy labourer dressed in homely apparel.* The Doric Order, next in strength to the Tuscan, and of a grave, robust, or masculine, aspect, is by Scamozzi called the Herculean. Being the most antient of all the orders, it retains more of the primitive hut style in its form than any of the rest, having trigliphs in the frieze, to represent the ends of joists, and mutules in its cornice, to represent rafters, with inclined soffits, to express their direction in the originals, from which they were imitated. The Doric columns are often seen in antient works, executed without bases, in imitation of trees ; and, in the primitive buildings, without any plinths to raise them above the ground. Freart de Cambrai, + in speaking of this order, observes, that delicate ornaments are repugnant to its characteristic solidity, and that it succeeds best in the simple regularity of its proportions : “Nosegays and garlands of flowers,” says he, “grace not a Hercules, who always appears more becomingly with a rough club and lion’s skin ; for there are beauties of various sorts, and often so dissimilar in their natures, that those which may be highly proper on one occasion, may be quite the reverse, even ridiculously absurd, in others.” The Ionic, being the second of the Grecian orders, holds a middle station between the other two, and stands in equipoise between the grave solidity of the Doric, and the elegant delicacy of the Corinthian. Among the antiques, however, we find it in different dresses; sometimes plentifully adorned, and inclining most towards the Corinthian ; sometimes more simple, and bordering on Doric plainness; all according to the fancy of the architect, or nature of the structure where employed. It is throughout of a more slender constructure than either of the afore-described orders ; its appearance, though simple, is graceful and majestic ; its ornaments should be few, rather neat than luxuriant ; and, as there ought to be nothing exaggerated, or affectedly striking in any of its parts, it is not unaptly compared, by Sir Henry Wotton, J to a sedate matron, rather in decent than magnificent attire. “ The Corinthian Order,” says Sir Henry Wotton, “ is a column lasciviously or extrava- gantly decked, like a wanton courtezan or woman of fashion. Its proportions are elegant in the extreme ; every part of the order is divided into a great variety of members, and abundantly enriched with a diversity of ornaments.” “ The antients,” says De Cambrai, “ aiming at the representation of a feminine beauty, * Vide Sir H. Wotton’s Elements of Architecture. f Freart de Cambrai was a learned architect of the seventeenth century, who died in 1676. He was employed by Louis XIJL to collect antiquities, and engage the ablest artists to reside in France. £ Vide Sir H. Wotton’s Elements of Architdtture. 4 INTRODUCTION TO omitted nothing either calculated to embellish, or capable of perfecting, their woik ; and he observes, “ that, in the many examples left of the Order, such a profusion of different ornaments is introduced, that they seem to have exhausted imagination in the contrivance of decorations for this masterpiece of the art. Scamozzi calls it the Virginal, and it certainly has all the delicacy in its form, with all the gaiety, gaudiness, and affectation in its dress, peculiar to young women.”* The Composite Order is, properly speaking, only a different species of Corinthian, and dis- tinguished from it merely by some peculiarities in the capital, and other trifling deviations. To produce the most striking idea of their different properties, and to render the comparison between the Orders more easy, they are all represented of the same height ; hence the gradual increase of delicacy and richness is at once perceivable, as will be likewise the relations between the intercolumniations of the different orders, when proportioned to their respective pedestals, imposts, archivolts, and other parts, with which they are, on various occasions, accompanied. The proportions of the Orders were, by the antients, formed on those of the human body ; and, consequently, it could not be the intention to make a Corinthian column, which, as Vitiuvius observes, t is to represent the delicacy of a young girl, as thick and much taller than a Doric one, which is designed to represent the bulk and vigour of a muscular full-grown man. Columns so formed could not be applied to accompany each other, without violating the laws both of real and apparent solidity ; as, in such case, the Doric dwarf must be crushed under the superior Ionic, or the gigantic Corinthian proudly triumphant, and at once reversing the natural and necessary predominance of composition. Nevertheless, Vignola, Palladio, Scamozzi, Blondel, Perrault, and many others, if not all the great modern architects, have considered them in this light ; that is, have made the diameters of all their orders the same ; and, consequently, their heights increasing ; which, besides giving a wrong idea of the character of these different compositions, has laid a foundation foi many erroneous precepts and false reasonings, to be found in different parts of their woiks.ij: In order to exemplify what has been said, the reader is referred to Plate II. of the Five Orders, wherein they are represented of the same height ; the inspection of which, when duly considered and compared, will, we are convinced, fully satisfy the contemplative reader, that the great authorities referred to were not correct in their notions as to the comparative proportions of the Five Orders, in representing them of different heights, that is, in reference to the doctrine of Vitruvius, who, nevertheless, has scientifically drawn all his inferences as to the * Scamozzi, an architect of great talent, was born 1550, and succeeded Palladio in his chief employments at Vicenza, in Italy. Palladio was born in 1518; died in 1580, and was buried as shown in the next page. f Vitruvius, born at Formio, in Italy, was favoured by Julius Caesar, and employed by Augustus, the succeeding emperor, in constructing public buildings and machinery. His Treatise on Architecture is well known. + Vignola was born in 1507; died in 1573. He succeeded Michael Angelo as architect at St. Peter’s, in Rome. Blondel was a French architect, and an author of great eminence. Perrault was also a French architect; he was born at Paris, 1613; died 1688. He was the greatest architect France ever produced. THE FIVE ORDERS. 5 general proportions of tlie orders from the human figure, which, though not in exact accordance with any known problems, may be easily traced in the study and construction of the human frame ; wherein the most sublime definitions in the art of building are assimilated, and may thus be understood, without entering into intricate calculations, founded upon false principles of reasoning. The learned editor of the late edition of Chambers’ Civil Architecture observes, and with great truth, “That, to Palladio’s birth and existence our country is especially indebted for its progress in architecture, and for the formation of a school which has done it honour, and given it a character of the first class, in the opinion of its continental neighbours.” Among the names which that school enrols are those of Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher Wren, Colin Campbell, Nicholas Hawksmoor, Sir John Vanburgh, James Gibbs, Lord Burlington, Kent, Carr of York, Sir Robert Taylor, Sir William Chambers, James Wyatt, and a long list of others, whose works reflect a lustre on the name of Palladio, which all the new churches and Grecian profiles of this age will never eclipse. “ Palladio,” says the same learned writer, “ at the age of sixty-two years, was snatched away from this world. His funeral was attended by all the Olympic Academicians of Vicenza, and his remains deposited in the church of Santa Corona, in that city. His figure was rather small, his countenance remarkably mild and benign, and the height of his forehead reminds us of our immortal Shakspeare. Palladio’s demeanor and conduct was modest and obliging, and the esteem in which he was held, on these accounts, by all with whom he had business, is the strongest proof of the truth given of him by those who have written the history of his life, and have enumerated his various public works : and, from what has been stated, Palladio, in this country, may be considered the grand-sire of our art ; and, as long as good taste prevails, his name will ever be revered, notwithstanding the pains which have been taken, by the enthusiastic admirers of Grecian architecture, to suppress the Roman style of building, as adopted by him, and which, by men of the most profound judgment, has been considered the best calculated to illustrate the most sublime, as well as the most tasteful, compositions. The detail of Grecian architecture is beautiful, and cannot fail to be admired by the lovers of the science ; but, when compared in the aggregate, as regards its application to general compositions, it is inferior to the Roman style, inasmuch as its general proportions are too severe, and the parts too heavy to be amalgamated in varied compositions, upon an extended scale, where novelty is required. Let it, however, be understood, that we are great admirers of Grecian architecture ; at the same time, we feel it incumbent to direct the student to the consideration of Roman principles, and to guard him, if possible, against the prevailing effects of prejudice. c 6 PROPORTIONS OF CHAPTER I. — ♦ — PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS. In the opinion of Scamozzi, columns should not be less than seven of their diameters in height, nor more than ten ; the former being, according to him, a good proportion in the Tuscan, and the latter in the Corinthian, order. The practise of the antients in their best works being conformable to this precept, we have, as authorised by the doctrine of Vitruvius, made the Tuscan seven diameters, and the Doric eight; the Ionic nine , as Palladio and Vignola have done ; and the Corinthian and Composite ten ; which last is a mean between the proportions observed in the Pantheon, at Rome, and at the three columns in the Campo Vaccino, both which are esteemed most excellent models of the Corinthian order. The height of the entablatures, in all the orders, are made one quarter of the height of the Column; which was the common practice of the antients, who, in all sorts of entablatures, seldom exceeded or fell short of that measure. Nevertheless, Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, Barbaro, Cataneo, Delorme, and otheis of the modern architects,* have made their entablatures much lower in the Ionic, Composite, and Corinthian, orders, than in the Tuscan or Doric. This, on some occasions, may not only be excusable, but highly proper ; particularly where the intercolumniations are wide, as in a second or third order, in private houses, or inside decorations, where lightness should be preferred to dignity ; and where expense, with every impediment to the conveniency of the fabric, are carefully to be avoided ; but to set aside a proportion which seems to have had the general approbation of the antient architects, is surely presuming too far. The reason alleged in favour of this practice is the weakness of the columns in the delicate orders, which renders them unfit for supporting heavy burdens ; and where the intervals are fixed, as in a second order ; or, in other places, where wide intercolumniations are either neces- sary, or not to be avoided, the reason is certainly sufficient ; but, if the architect be at liberty to dispose his columns at pleasure, the simplest and the most natural way of conquering the difficulty is, to employ more columns, by placing them nearer to each other, as was the custom of the antients. And it must be remembered that, though the height of the entablature in a delicate order is made the same as in a massive one, yet it will not, either in reality or in appearance, be * Leoni Baptisla Alberti was an Italian architect, of great eminence, who died in 1485. Barbaro, born in 1513, and died in 1570, was an architect of much learning; he was ambassador from Venice to Eugland, and left in 1551. Cataneo was an Italian architect ; he wrote a Commentary on Vitruvius. Delorme was a Frencn architect, born at Lyons, in the sixteenth century ; he was the restorer of architecture in France. THE ORDERS. 7 equally heavy ; for the quantity of matter in the Corinthian cornice A, is considerably less than ia the Tuscan cornice B, # and the increased number of parts composing the former will, of course, make it appear far lighter than the latter. With regard to the parts of the entablature, we have followed the method of Serlio,+ in his Ionic and Corinthian orders ; and of Perrault, who, in all his orders, except the Doric, divides the whole height of the entablature into ten equal parts, three of* which he gives to the archi- trave, three to the frieze, and four to the cornice ; and in the Doric order , he divides the whole height of the entablature into eight parts, of which two are given to the architrave, three to the frieze, and three to the cornice. These measures deviate very little from those observed in the greatest number of antiques now extant at Rome, where they have stood the test of many ages, and their simplicity renders them singularly useful in composition, as they are easily remembered and easily applied. Of two modes, used by antient and modern architects, to determine the dimensions of the mouldings, and the lesser parts that compose an order, we have chosen the simplest, readiest, and most accurate ; which is, by the Module, or semi-diameter of the column, taken at the bottom of the shaft, and divided into thirty minutes. There are, indeed, many who prefer the method of measuring by equal parts, imagining beautv to depend on the simplicity and accuracy of the relations existing between the whole body and its members, and alleging that dimensions, which have evident affinities, are better remembered than those whose relations are too complicated to be immediately apprehended. With regard to the former of these suppositions, it is evidently false; for the real relations subsisting between dissimilar figures, have not any connexion with the apparent ones ; and, with regal d. to the latter, it may or may not be the case, according to the degree of accuracy with which the partition is made : for instance, in dividing the attic base, which may be numbered among the simplest compositions in architecture, according to the different methods, it appears as easy to recollect the numbers 10, 74, 1, 4f, 1, 5|, as to remember that the entire height of the base is to be divided into three equal parts ; that two of these three are to be divided into four ; that three of the four are to be divided into two ; and that one of the two is to be divided into six, of which one is to be divided into three. But, admitting that it were easier to remember the one than the other, it does not seem neces- sary, nor even advisable, in a science where a vast diversity of knowledge is required, to burden the memory with a thousand trifling dimensions. If the general proportions be known, it is all that is requisite in composing ; and, when a design is to be executed, it is easy to have recourse to figured drawings, or to prints. The use of the module is universal, throughout the orders and all their appurtenances ; it marks their relation to each other ; and being susceptible of the * See the plate, No. 2, of Orders, all shewn of the same height. f Serlio was a Bolognese, a disciple of Perriozzi, and was the first architect who measured and published the remains Roman architecture : he died in the service of Francis I, 1552. 8 PROPORTIONS OF minutest divisions, the dimensions may be speedily determined with the utmost accuracy ; while the trouble, confusion, uncertainty, and loss of time, in measuring by equal parts, are very con- siderable, seeing it is necessary to form almost as many different scales as there are different parts to be divided. Columns, in imitation of trees, from which they derive their origin, are tapered in the shafts. In the specimens of antiquity, the diminution is variously performed : sometimes beginning from the foot of the shaft, at others from one-quarter, or one-third, of its height ; the lower part being left perfectly cylindrical. The former of these methods was most in use amongst the antients, and being the most natural, seems to claim the preference, though the latter has been almost universally practised by modern architects, from a supposition, perhaps, of its being more graceful, as it is more marked and strikingly perceptible. “ The first architects,” says Monsieur Auzott, “ probably made their columns in straight lines, in imitation of trees, so that their shaft was the frustum of the cone ; but, finding this form abrupt and disagreeable, they made use of some curve, which, springing from the extremities of the superior and inferior diameters of the column swelled beyond the sides of the cone, and thus gave the most pleasing figure to the outline. Vitruvius, in the second chapter of his third book, mentions this practice ; but in so obscure and cursory a manner, that his meaning has not been clearly understood ; and several of the modern architects, intending to conform themselves to his doctrine, have made the diameters of their columns greater in the middle than at the foot of the shaft. Leoni Baptista Alberti,* with several of the Florentine and Roman architects, carried this practice to a very absurd excess, for which they have been justly blamed, it being neither natural, reasonable, nor beautiful.” Sir Henry Wotton, in his Elements of Architecture, says, in his usual quaint style, “ And here I must take leave to blame a practice growne (I know not how) in certaine places too familiar of making pillars swell in the middle, as if they were siclce of some tympany or dropsie, without any authentique pattern or rule to my knowledge, and unseemly to the very judgement and sight.” And Monsieur Auzott further observes, “ that a column, supposing its shaft to be the frustum of a cone, may have an additional thickness in the middle without being swelled in that part, beyond the bulk of its inferior parts, and supposes the addition, mentioned by Vitruvius, to sig- nify not any thing more than the increase towards the middle of the column, occasioned by changing the straight line, which at first was in use, into a curve, and, by dexterous means, to ‘ snatch a grace beyond the reach of art.’ ” The supposition of Auzott is extremely just, and founded on what is observable in the works of antiquity, where there is not any single instance of a column thicker in the middle than at the * “ This classical author, Alberti, divides the height of the column into seven parts, and places the greatest swelling at the height of the third division of these parts from the base ; so that he assumes the doctrine of Vitruvius by the strict letter, con ceivmg his meaning to be that the swelling is very near the middle ot the height of the column.” THE ORDERS. 9 bottom, though all, or most of them, have the swelling hinted at by Vitruvius, all of them being terminated by curves ; some few granite columns excepted, which are bounded by straight lines * a proof, perhaps, of their antiquity, or of their having been wrought in the quarries of Egypt by unskilful workmen. Blondel, an eminent French architect already noticed, in a work written by him, and entitled “ Resolution des quatre principaux Problems d' Architecture? teaches various modes of dimi- nishing columns ; the best and simplest of which is by means of the instrument invented by Nicomedes, to describe the first conchoid : for this, being applied to the bottom of the shaft, performs, at one sweep, both the swelling and the diminution ; giving such a graceful form to the column, that it is universally allowed to be the most perfect practice hitherto discovered. The columns in the Pantheon, at Rome, accounted the most beautiful among the antiques, are traced in this manner, as appears by the exact measures of one of them, to be found m Desgotez’s Antiquities of Rome.* To give a clear idea of the operation, it will be necessary first to describe Vignola’s diminu- tion, on which it is grounded. “As to this second method,” says Vignola, “it is a discovery of my own ; and, although it is less known than the former, it will be easily comprehended by the figure.”+ Having, therefore, determined the measure of your column, pi. I. Jig. 1, (that is to say, the height of the shaft, and its inferior and superior diameters,) draw a line, indefinitely, from C through D, perpendicular to the axis of the column : this done, set off the distance CD, which is the inferior semi-diameter from A, the extreme point of the superior semi-diameter, to B, a point in the axis. Then, from A, through B, draw the line ABE, which will cut the inde- finite line CD in E ; and from this point of intersection, E, draw, through the axis of the -column, any number of rays, as E ba, on each of which, from the axis towards the circumference, setting off the interval CD, you may form any number of points a, a, a, through which, if a curve be drawn, it will describe the swelling and diminution of the column, and produce the most graceful contour. This method has been considered sufficiently accurate for practice, and especially if a consi- derable number of points be found ; yet, strictly speaking, it is defective ; as the curve must either be drawn by hand, or by applying a flexible rule to all the points ; both of which are liable to variations. Blondel, therefore, to obviate this objection, (after having proved the curve, pass- ing from A to C, through the points a a, to be of the same nature with the first conchoid of the antients,) employed the instrument of Nicomedes to describe it, the construction of which is as follows : — Having determined, as above, the length of the shaft, with the inferior and superior diameters * Desgolez was a French architect of considerable research, and his works are highly esteemed. The student is cautioned against Marshall’s translation : the latter was published in London, 1771, the original in Paris, in 1682. Yide Plate I, of Orders, in which the instrument invented by Nicomedes is fully described : and likewise the manner of drawing the several legitimate mouldings adverted to, as appertaining to the Theory and Practice of the Five Orders. D 10 PROPORTIONS OF of the column ; and having, likewise, found the length of the line CDE, take three rules, either of wood or metal, as FG, ID, and AH ; of which let FG and ID be fastened together at right angles, in G. Cut a dovetail groove in the middle of FG, from top to bottom ; and at the point E, on the rule ID, (whose distance from the middle of the groove in FG is the same as that of the point of intersection from the axis of the column,) fix a pin ; then, in the rule AH, set off the distance AB equal to CD, the inferior semi-diameter of the column : and, at the point B, fix a button, whose head must be exactly fitted to the grove made in FG, in which it is to slide ; and, at the other extremity of the rule AH, cut a slit or channel, HEK, whose length must not be less than the difference of length between EB and ED, and whose breadth must be sufficient to admit the pin fixed at E, which must pass through the slit, that the rule may slide thereon. The instrument being thus completed, if the middle groove in the rule FG be placed exactly ever the axis of the column, it is evident that the rule AH, in moving along the groove, will, with its extremity A, describe A, a, ci, C ; w'hich curve is the same as that produced by Vignola’s method of diminution, supposing it done with the utmost accuracy ; for the interval AB, ab, is always the same, and the point E is the origin of an infinity of lines, of which the points BA, ba, ba , extending from the axis to the circumference, are equal to each other and to DC. And, if the rules be of an indefinite size, and the pins at E and B be made to move along their respective rules, so that the intervals, AB and DE, may be augmented or diminished at pleasure ; it is likewise evident that the same instrument may be thus applied to columns of any size. In the remains of antiquity, the quantity of diminution at the upper diameter of columns is various ; but seldom less than one-eighth of the inferior diameter of the column, nor more than one-sixth of it. The last of these is, by Vitruvius, esteemed the most perfect, and Vignola has employed it in four of his orders, as we have in all of them ; there being no reason for diminish- ing the Tuscan column more, in proportion to its diameter, than any of the rest ; though it be the doctrine of Vitruvius, and the practice of Palladio, Vignola, Scamozzi, and almost all the modern architects. On the contrary, as Monsieur Perrault justly observes, its diminution ought to be rather less than more ; as it actually is in the Trajan column, at Rome, being there only one- ninth of the diameter. For, even where the same proportion is observed through all the orders, the absolute quantity of the diminution in the Tuscan Order, supposing the columns of the same height, exceeds that in the Corinthian in the ratio of ten to seven ; and if, according to the common practice, the Tuscan Column be less by one quarter at the top than at its foot, the difference between the diminution in the Tuscan and in the Corinthian columns will be as fifteen to seven ; and in the Tuscan and Doric nearly as fifteen to nine : so that, notwith- standing there is a considerable difference between the lower diameters of a Tuscan and of a Doric column, both being of the same height, yet their diameters at the top will be nearly equal; and, consequently, the Tuscan will not, in reality, be any stronger than the Doric one; which is contrary to the character of the order. THE ORDERS. il ' Vitruvius, in his third book, chapter the third, allots different degrees of diminution to co- lumns of various heights ; giving to those of fifteen feet one-sixth of their diameter ; to such as are from twenty to thirty feet, one-seventh ; and when they are from forty to fifty feet high, one-eighth only: observing that, as the eye is easily deceived in viewing distant objects, which always appear less than they really are, it is necessary to remedy the deception by an increase of the dimensions ; otherwise the work will appear ill-constructed and disagreeable to the eye. Most of the modern architects have taught the same doctrine : but Perrault, in his notes, both on this passage, and on the second chapter of the sixth book, endeavours to prove the absurdity thereof. In fact, it is, on most occasions, if not on all, an evident error ; which Vitruvius and nis followers have probably been led into, through neglect of combining circumstances. For, if the validity of Perrault’s arguments be not assented to, and it is required to judge according to the rigour of optical laws, it must be remembered, that the proper point of view for a column of fifty feet high, is not the same as for one of fifteen : but, on the contrary, more distant, in the same proportion as the column is higher : and that, consequently, the apparent relation between the lower and upper diameters of the column will be the same, whatever be its size. For if we suppose ( pi. I. Jig. 2) A to be a point of view, whose respective distance from each of the co- lumns, fg, FG, is equal to the respective heights of each, the triangles f A g, FAG, will be simi- lar ; and A f, or A h , which is the same, will be to A g, as AF, or its equal AH, is to AG : there- fore if de be in reality to be, as DE is to BC, it will likewise be apparently so; for the angle dA.c will then be to the angle b Ac, as the angle DAE is to the angle BAC ; and if the real re- lations differ, the apparent ones will also differ. The eye of the spectator is supposed to be in a line perpendicular to the foot of the shaft ; hut if the columns be proportionately raised to any height above the eye, the argument will remain in force, as the point in view must of course be proportionately more distant ; and even when columns are placed immediately on the ground, which seldom or ever is the case, the alteration occasioned by that situation is too trifling to deserve notice. When, therefore, a certain degree of diminution, which, by experience, is found pleasing, has been fixed upon, there will not be any necessity for changing it, whatever be the height of the column, provided the point of view is not limited ; but, in those places where the spectator is not at liberty to choose a proper distance for his point of sight, which must be almost invariably the case in viewing the public buildings of the metropolis, the architect, if he inclines to be scrupu- lously accurate, may take the liberty to vary the diminutions according to the situation. But, in reality, it is not a matter of any great importance ; as, in all probability, the nearness of the object will render the image thereof indistinct ; and, consequently, any small alteration im- perceptible. Scammozzi, who esteems it an essential property of the delicate order to exceed the massy ones in height, has applied the above cited precept of Vitruvius to the different orders : having diminished the Tuscan column one quarter of its diameter ; the Doric one-fifth ; the Ionic one- 12 DEFINITIONS, &C. sixth ; the Homan or Composite one-seventh ; and, the Corinthian one-eighth. In the preceding part of these definitions upon the subject, the fallacy of Vitruvius’ ideas has been shown upon principles which cannot be set aside, that is, with respect to the heights of his orders, and where the error of reducing the Tuscan column more than any of the others has been proved, and which diminution is illustrated by the foregoing arguments : so that it is needless to say any thing further on the subject now ; for, as the case is similar, the same reasoning may be employed in continuation. The intention being to give an exact idea of the orders of the antients, they are represented under such figures and proportions as appear to have been most in use in the esteemed works of the Romans and Grecians, w r ho, in the opinions of the most eminent writers, carried architecture to the highest degree of perfection. It must, not, however, be imagined that the same general pro- portions will, on all occasions, succeed. Those which we prefer have been collected chiefly from the temples and other public structures of antiquity, and may be employed in churches, palaces, and other buildings of magnificence, where majesty and grandeur of manner should be extended to their utmost limits. Where the whole composition is generally large, the parts require an ex- traordinary degree of boldness, to make them distinctly perceptible from the proper general points of view : but, in less considerable edifices, and under various circumstances, of which de- tails will hereafter be given, more suitable, and perhaps more elegant, proportions may often be designed by the ingenuity of man. An Order of Architecture, as before observed, consists of two grand parts, the Column and the Entablature. The Column comprises the Ease, Shaft, and Capital ; and the Enta- blature, the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice ; each of which parts must be divided, subdivided, and arranged, as hereinafter described, by the several figured engravings, which will teach the reader not only how to draw but to construct the several orders upon the most correct principles. DEFINITIONS, &c. If a circular column has no base, it is called a frustum column; but, if it has one, the shaft, base, and capital, altogether, form the Column , and the mass supported by the column, is deno- minated the Entablature. The beam, which is presumed to rest upon the column, and forms the lowest part of the enta- bl ture, is called the Architrave, or Epistylium. The space comprehended between the upper side of the architrave or epistylium, and the under side of the presumed beam over the joists, is called the Frieze or Frize, or Zophorus. The profile, or edge of the presumed inclined roof, upheld by the joists, or cross beams, pro- jecting beyond the face of the frieze or zophorus. is called the Cornice. OF THE ORDERS. 13 The thickest or lowest part of the column is called the lower diameter ; and the slenderest or uppermost part of the column is called the upper diameter. Half the lower diameter is called a Module, which, being divided into thirty equal parts, these are called Minutes ; by this scale every part appertaining to the order is regulated, both as re- gards the altitude and projection of the several component parts, each of which are minutely represented in the particular engravings of the Five Orders hereafter. The depth of the column, from the lowest part of the architrave to the upper diameter, or slenderest part of the column, is called the Capital. The space comprehended between the upper diameter, or slenderest part of the column, and the lower diameter, or thickest part of the same, is called the Shaft : and the space, if any, between the pedestal, or step, is called the Base ; but if without any, of course the column must then rest upon the step, as in the Grecian, Doric, &c. The smallest spaces between the lower diameters of columns, standing in the same range, are called Intercolumniations. When intercolumniations are one diameter and a half of the lower diameters of columns, they are called pycnostyle , or columns set thickly. When the intercolumniations are two diameters of the lower diameters, they are called systyle. When the intercolumniations are two and one quarter of the lower diameters, they are called eustyle. When the intercolumniations are three diameters of the lower diameters, they are called dccastyle. When the intercolumniations are four diameters of the lower diameters of columns, they are called oeosy style, or columns set thinly ; in which case they may be coupled, in the manner of the portico in the west front of St. Paul’s, London, and many other grand edifices. When porticos consist of four columns, with three intercolumniations, they are called tetrastyle ; with six columns, hexastyle ; with eight columns, octastyle : and, in like manner, according to the number of columns, they are identified by Latin terms, which may be created ad infinitum. Porticos to public buildings, with six, eight, or ten, columns, are the most esteemed ; yet, among the antient buildings, beautiful examples, with four columns only, are frequent ; as, for instance, the much admired Doric portico at Athens, and the Ionic specimen on the river Ilissus, and many others executed under the direction of Grecian and Roman architects ; the details of which cannot fail to be duly appreciated. E 14 MOULDINGS, ORNAMENTS, &C. CHAPTER II. — 4 . — MOULDINGS, ORNAMENTS, DETAILS, &c. A little digression here may be useful to the practical student; to whom we earnestly recom- mend a second perusal of the observations and directions contained in the preceding chapter ; and, subsequently, to copy the engravings, making his drawings, double, treble, or quadruple, the sizes of the originals, by which means he will presently acquire a thorough acquaintance with the different parts of the orders ; and, by degrees, will be able to compose, design, and execute, architectural subjects, with ease and comfort to himself, and satisfaction to his employers. Having explained the more general, we shall now proceed to illustrate all the detailed, parts of the different orders, with their properties, application and enrichments, as regards the theory of MOULDINGS. As in all other arts, so in architecture, there are certain elementary forms, which, though simple in their nature, and few in number, are the principal constituent objects of every composition ; however complicated or extensive it may be. Of these there are, in this science, two distinct sorts ; the first consisting of such parts as represent those that were essentially necessary in the construction of the primitive huts, as the shaft of the column, w’ith the plinth of its base, and the abacus of its capital ; representing upright trees, with the stones used to raise and to cover them, likewise the architrave and trigliph, representing the beams and joists ; the mutules, modillions, and dentils, either represent- ing the rafters, or some other pieces of timber employed to support the covering : and the corona, representing the beds of materials which composed the covering itself. All these are properly distinguished by the appellation of essential 'parts, and form the first class. The subser- vient members, contrived for the use and ornament of these, and intended either to support, to shelter, oUto unite them gracefully together, which are usually called Mouldings, constitute the second class. The essential parts were, most probably, the only ones employed, even in the first stone build- ings ; as may be collected from some ancient specimens yet remaining: for the architects of those early times, had certainly very imperfect ideas of beauty in the productions of art, and therefore contented themselves with barely imitating the rude model before them : but at length comparing the works of their own hands with animal and vegetable productions, each species of which is composed of a great diversity of forms, affording an inexhaustible fund of amusement to the mind, they could not but conceive a disgust at the frequent repetition of square figures in their buildings, and therefore thought of introducing certain intermediate parts, which might seem to OF THE FIVE ORDERS. 15 be of some use, and, at the same time, be so formed, as to give a more varied and pleasing appearance to the whole composition ; and this, in all probability, was the origin of mouldings. Of regular mouldings there are but eight ; the names of which are, the Ovolo, the Talon, the Cyma , the Cavetto , the Torus , the Astragal, the Scotia, and the Fillet, which are shown by various figures in Plate I. The names of these are allusive to their forms ; and their forms are adapted to the uses which they are intended to serve. The Ovolo and Talon, being strong at their extremities, are fit for supports. The Cyma and Cavetto, though improper for that purpose, as they are weak in the extreme parts, and terminate in a point, are well contrived for coverings to shelter other mem- bers : the tendency of their outline being very opposite to the direction of falling water, which, for that reason, cannot glide along their surface, but must necessarily drop from it. The Torus and Astragal, shaped like ropes, are intended to bind and strengthen the parts on which they are employed ; and the use of the Fillet and Scotia is only to separate, contrast, and strengthen, the effect of other mouldings ; to give a graceful turn to the profile, and to prevent that confusion which would be occasioned by joining several convex members together. That the inventors of these forms meant to express something by these different figures, will scarcely be denied ; and that the above-mentioned were their destinations, may be deduced not only from their figures, but from the practice of the ancients in their most esteemed works ; for, if we examine the Pantheon, the three columns of Campo Vaccino, the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, the fragments of the Frontispiece of Nero, the Basilica of Antonius, the Forum of Nerva, the Arches of Titus and Septimus Severus, the Theatre of Marcellus, and almost every ancient building, either at Rome, or in other parts of Italy, France, or elsewhere, it will be found, that, in all their profiles, the Cyma and the Cavetto are constantly used as finishings, and never applied where strength is required : that the Ovolo and Talon are always employed as sup- porters to the essential members of the composition, such as the modillions, dentils, and coronas. The chief use of the Torus and Astragal is, to fortify the tops and bottoms of columns, and sometimes of pedestals, where they are frequently cut in the form of ropes : as in the Trajan column, in the Temple of Concord, and in several fragments which are to be seen at Rome, and in other ancient edifices, at places where architecture has been most encouraged. The Scotia is employed only to separate the members of bases, for which purpose the Fillet is likewise used, not only in bases, but in all kinds of profiles.* Mr. Gwilt, a modern author, very justly observes, although it is not mentioned in Chambers, that the Ovolo should be used only above the level of the eye of the spectator ; that the Cavetto ought not to be seen in bases or capitals ; that the Cyma-recta ought to be* used only in crowning members ; the Scotia below the eye ; and the Fillet when required to separate the curved parts. The same author furthermore appositely remarks that, in these days, all sense in the # For the History of Mouldings, and their origin, vide Evelyn’s Account of Architects aud Architecture. 16 MOULDINGS, ORNAMENTS, &C. application of appropriate forms in mouldings seems extinct, and Palladio set at defiance. In addition, he states that, the artist or artisan who can now produce the newest and most extraor- dinary moulding in projecting an order, is considered as the greatest genius. These observa- tions are founded in truth Without paying any attention to the whims of the day, it may be safely infered, as Chambers remarks, that there is something positive and natural in the 'primary forms of architecture ; and consequently, in the subordinate parts : and that Palladio erred in employing the Cavetto under the Corona, in three of his orders, and in making such frequent use, through all his profiles, of the Cyma, as a supporting member. Nor has Vignola been more judicious in finishing his Tus- can cornice with an Ovolo ; a moulding extremely improper for that purpose, and productive of a very disagreeable effect : for it gives a mutilated air to the entire of the profile, so much the more striking as it resembles exactly that half of the Ionic cornice, which is under the Corona. Other architects have been guilty of similar improprieties, and are therefore equally blameable. Various are the modes of describing the contour or outline of Roman mouldings ; the simplest, however, and the best, is to form them of quadrants of circles, as shown in the first plate of Orders , by which means the different depressions and swellings will be more strongly marked ; the transitions should be made without any angles, and the projections be agreeable to the doctrines of Vitruvius and the practice of the ancients ; those of the Ovolo, Talon, Cyma, and Cavetto, being each equal to their height ; that of the Scotia to one-third, and those of the curved parts of the Torus or Astragal to one-half of their heights. On particular occasions, however, it may sometimes be necessary to increase, and at other times to diminish, these projections, according to the situation or other circumstances attending the profile ; and where it so happens, the Ovolo, Talon, Cyma, and Cavetto, may be either described from the summits of equilateral triangles, or be composed of the quadrants of the ellipses, in the Grecian manner ; of which the latter should be preferred, as it produces a stronger contrast of light and shade, and therefore marks the forms more distinctly. The Scotia may be likewise framed of elliptical portions, or quadrants, of the circle, varying more or less from each other; by which mean, its projection may be either increased or dimi- nished: but the curved part of the Torus or Astragal should be .semi-circular, in imitation of the Roman manner, and the increase in the projection be made by straight lines : butw'hen in imita- tion of the superior Grecian style of moulding, the upper part of the Torus should be flatter than tlie lower, and be regulated according to the altitude of the mouldings from the ground : the pleasing effects of this method of profiling is observable in the contour of all the Torus mould- ings in the Bank of England, where the ingenious architect has very judiciously introduced, as the prevailing order of the exterior, one of the best specimens of Roman art, of the Corinthian order, in the adoption of the beautiful example taken from the Temple of Vesta, at Tivoli; in which instance, the mouldings, meaning those of the Bank, altogether participate in the Grecian character, and we have been induced particularly to notice that magnificent building as a striking OF THE FIVE ORDERS. 17 Droof of the good taste of the Professor of Architecture at the Royal Academy, whose classic feeling for the association of Roman and Grecian architecture is every where manifested in the well-arranged building adverted to ; that is, where the original style of the architecture has been metamorphosed. The Ovolo, adopted by the Grecian architects, differs widely from the Roman specimen ; its contour, in most cases, is a part of the ellipsis ; in some instances it is hyperbolic ; and, in some examples, it approximates to a straight line. In Grecian architecture, the Elliptical Ovolo, or Echinus, is introduced into cornices, archi- traves, and also into the capitals of the Ionic and Doric orders ; in the latter of which it forms a very conspicuous feature. The Ovolo, or Echinus, in the capitals of the Doric portico at Athens, the temple of Corinth, and those of Passtum in Italy, are each of them elliptical ; the hyper- bolic form is also prevalent, and frequently to be met with in Athenian buildings, particularly in the Temples of Minerva and Theseus, and likewise in the capitals of the columns of the Propij - lea , the magnificent entrance to the citadel of Athens. The buildings last adverted to were erected during the administration of Pericles, 44*4 to 429 B.C. In the capitals of the columns, in the portico of Philip, king of Macedon, the echinus is a straight line, as well as in other ancient buildings ; examples and profiles of which are given throughout this work for the instruction of the practical builder. In the Roman architecture, the Ovolo, or echinus, is invariably some portion of a circle ; sel- dom or ever exceeding the quantity of degrees contained in the quadrant, but very frequently less. The hollow or Cavetto moulding is very frequently met with in Roman buildings, but it is not a favorite moulding, nor do we find many specimens of it in the remains of Grecian architecture. In the latter, w'e find the Doric Cymatium under the fillet of a finishing or crown moulding; but in Roman specimens, few, if any, examples can be produced. The Cyma-recta, in Grecian and Roman architecture, is very nearly of the same shape and character, and is likewise applied for similar purposes. The Cyma-reversa, in Grecian ana Roman architecture, likewise approximate each other in degrees of similitude, and in one of the best specimens of Roman buildings it is applied under the fillets of the crown mouldings of cor- nices ; but, in Grecian buildings, we do not remember any example, except in the portico of Philip, king of Macedon, to which the reader is referred, in the series of engraved Grecian pro- files, to be seen in various architectural works. The quirk, or bending inwards, of the uppermost edge of the Grecian ovolo or echinus, pro duces, when the sun shines on its surface, the most beautiful variety of light and shade ; this relieves it considerably from the adjoining plain surface ; and, if entirely obscured in shadow, it will borrow a reflected light, and the quirking or turning inward at the top will also occasion a large portion of shade, which likewise, under peculiar circumstances, is calculated to produce the most pleasing effect. In the Roman echinus or ovolo, there is not any quirk at the top ; and the consequence is, F 18 MOULDINGS, ORNAMENTS, &C. when the sun shines on its surface, it does not appear so interesting on its upper edge, as the Grecian echinus ; nor will it produce such a beautiful line of distinction in connection with mould- ings which are combined, that is, when under shadow or lighted by reflection. In the Grecian Cyma-reversa, the quirk, or turning in of its upper edge, and the turning out or bending of the under edge, will be most advantageously seen when the sun shines remarkably bright on those edges ; which will, in a great measure, relieve it from the surrounding perpen- dicular surfaces, when adjoining to or combined together ; and when under shadow, and lighted by reflection, the inclination of the superior and inferior edges will likewise produce the strongest line of distinction on each of the edges ; that is, between it and the other mouldings. Now let us examine the difference in effect between the Grecian example and the Roman, and it will be presently seen how much superior the Grecian style of moulding is over that of the Roman. The superior and inferior edges of the Roman Cyma-reversa, being perpendicular to the horizon, the place lightest on the surface will not be a single degree lighter, nor will it be, in the remotest manner, better relieved under shadow than perpendi- cular surfaces exhibited under the same circumstances. By a comparative view, therefore, of the most scientific principle of composing mouldings, it is manifest that the Grecian Archi- tects were better skilled in designing the minutiae and detail of architecture than those of the Roman school ; the practical student will therefore act wisely by studying the beautiful con- tour of the Grecian mouldings, as well as the ornaments adapted to them ; taking care to avoid, where it is consistent, the stringy or liney effect of the ornaments peculiar to the Grecian speci- mens. The Romani, in designing their foliage, as by reference to the best examples may be seen, exceeded the former in luxuriance of fancy and richness of style ; but, in purity and cor- rectness of taste, they were inferior in the composition of ornaments suited to the various mouldings which constitute the component parts of the most ancient orders. Taking, therefore, into consideration the beauties of Grecian and Roman ornaments, we are of opinion that the student should carefully copy, draw, and examine, the ornaments of each style ; and thus he will, if industrious, be able in the course of time to discriminate, and to extract, with truth, taste, and judgment, the beauties of Roman and Grecian ornaments; and, conse- quently, form a style peculiar to himself. The man who condescends to be a slavish copyist, on all occasions, is unworthy of the honourable appellation of an architect. It has been stated that Michael Angelo, the greatest architect, painter, and sculptor, of his time, once observed, that he who followed another was sure to be behind. Let every student, therefore, soar as high as his competitor ; and, by degrees, he will arrive at excellence, and obtain the meed due to his labour : the wreath of honest fame which cannot be purchased by the riches of Mexico or Peru. An assemblage of essential parts and mouldings, is termed a profile ; and on the choice, disposition, and proportions, of these depend the beauty or deformity of the composition. The most perfect profiles are such as consist of few mouldings : varied, both in form and size ; fitly OP THE FIVE ORDERS. 19 applied, with regard to their uses ; and so distributed that the straight and curved ones succeed each other alternately. In every profile there should be a predominant member, to which all the others ought to appear subservient, and made either to support or to fortify it, or to shelter it from injuries of weather : and, wherever the profile is considerable, or much complicated, the predominant member should always be accompanied with one or more other principal members, in form and dimension calculated to attract the eye, create momentary pauses, and assist the per- ception of the beholder. These predominant and principal members ought always to be of the essential class, and generally rectangular. Thus, in a cornice, the corona predominates ; the modillions and dentils are principals in the composition ; the cyma and cavetto cover them ; the ovolo and talon support them. When ornaments are employed to decorate profiles, some of the mouldings should always be left plain, in order to form a proper repose : for when all are enriched, the figure of the profile is lost in confusion. In the cornices of the entablatures, the corona should not be ornamented, nor the modillion-bands, nor the other different fascias of the architraves : neither should the plinths of columns, fillets, nor scarcely any square member, be carved. For, generally speaking, they are either principal in compositions, or applied as boundaries to other parts ; in each of which instances their figures should be simple, distinct, and unembarrassed. The dentil-bands should remain uncut> where the ovolo and talon immediately above and below it are enriched ; as in the Corinthian cornice of the Pantheon, at Rome ; and also in our magnificent Cathedral of Saint Paul, in the City of London. For where the dentils are marked, especially if they are minute, as in Palladio s Corinthian design, the three members are confounded together ; and, being surcharged with ornaments, they become by far too rich for the residue of the composition, which are defects at all times studiously to be avoided ; as a distinct outline, and an equal distribution of enrich- ments, must, on every occasion, strictly be attended to. Scamozzi, who succeeded Palladio in all his chief employments at Vicenza, observes, with great truth, that ornaments should neither be too frugally employed, nor distributed with too much profusion; their value will increase in proportion to the judgment and discretion shown in their application. For, in effect, says he, the ornaments of sculpture, used in architec- ture, are like diamonds in a female dress, with which it would be absurd to cover the face or other principal parts, either in themselves beautiful, or appearing with greater propriety in their natural state. Variety in ornaments ought not to be carried to an excess. In architecture they are only accessaries, and therefore they should not be too striking, nor capable of long detaining the attention from the main object. Those of the mouldings, in particular, should be simple, uniform, nor ever composed of more than two different representations upon each moulding : these ought to be cut equally deep, be formed of the same number of parts, and all nearly of the same dimensions, in order to produce an even, calm, and uninterrupted, effect throughout : so that the eye may not be more strongly attracted by any particular part than by the entire composition. 20 MOULDINGS, ORNAMENTS, &C. When mouldings are of the same form and size in a profile, they should fie enriched with ornaments of one kind ; hence the figure of the profile will be better comprehended, and the archi- tect will avoid the imputation of childish minuteness, neither much to his own credit, nor of any advantage to his works. It must be remarked, that, all manner of ornaments appertaining to mouldings should be evenly and regularly disposed, corresponding perpendicularly above each other, as at the three columns in the Campo Vaccino, where the middles of the modillions, dentils, oves, or eggs, and othei ornaments, are all in one perpendicular line. For nothing can be more careless, confused, and unsightly than to divide them without any order, as they are in many examples of the ancients, and in many buildings in London, where the middle of an ove, or egg, answers, in some instances, to the edge of the dentil, and in some to its middle, and in others to the interval. All the rest of the ornaments in the cornices of entablatures should be governed by the modillions, or mutules ; and the distribution of these must depend on the intervals of the columns : and be so disposed that one of them may come directly over the centre of each of the columns. It is further to be remarked, that the ornaments should partake of the character of the order they enrich. Those applied to the Doric and Ionic order should be of the simplest forms, and of larger sizes, than those employed in the Corinthian and Composite. When friezes or other large compartments are required to be enriched, the ornaments should be appropriate and significant, and serve to indicate the use for which the building is intended, the rank, qualities, profession, as well as the achievements, of the proprietor : but it is a very silly practice to crowd almost every part with heraldic arms, crests, cyphers, and mottos: insignificant figures of such things are for the most part not only contemptible, but, generally speaking, very bad, or extremely vulgar ; and their introduction betrays an unbecoming vanity in the proprietor of the fabric. Hogarth, says Chambers, pleasantly ridiculed this practice by decorating a noble- man’s crutch with a coronet. In sacred places, all manner of obscene, grotesque, and heathenish, representations ought to be avoided : for indecent fables, extravagant conceits, or instruments and symbols of Pagan worship, are ornaments grossly improper in structures consecrated to Christian devotion. With regard to the execution of ornaments, it is to be remembered that, as in sculpture, dra- pery is not esteemed, unless its folds are contrived to grace and indicate the parts and gesticula- tions of the body it covers: so in architecture, the most delicate and classical ornaments lose all their value if they load, alter, or confuse, the forms they are intended to enrich and adorn. All manner of ornaments, therefore, which appertain to mouldings, except such as are cast, should be cut into the solid, and never applied on the surfuce, as Davilier, a late architect, has most erroneously taught; because the latter method not only alters, but disfigures, the forms and proportions of the mouldings. The profiles, therefore, should be first finished plain, and after- wards enriched ; the most prominent parts of the ornaments being made equal with the surfaces of the mouldings they adorn : and great care should be taken, in all such cases, that the angles* OF THE FIVE ORDERS. 21 or breaks, are kept perfect and untouched with sculpture ; and from this reason it is usual, at the angles of all manner of enriched mouldings, to place water-leaves or other plain leaves, the centre filaments of which form the angles, and keep the outlines entire. One of the most delightful examples in verification of the before-mentioned principle, says Mr. Gwilt, is the capital of the order, used in the circular temple at Tivoli, in which the leaves, instead of being aplique to the bell of the capital, are absolutely cut out of it : the effect of which, says the same author, " is wonderful as well as pleasing.'* We have been favoured with an exact copy of the capital adverted to, as measured by an artist upon the spot, and have great plea^ suie in piesenting it to our readers, who may rely upon it as a correct representation, it being copied from an original, which has been subsequently introduced in the exterior elevation of the Bank of England, by the classical architect of that national and splendid structure. The method of the ancient sculptors, in the execution of architectonic ornaments, was to aim at a perfect representation of the object they chose to imitate; so that the chestnuts, acorns, and oves, or eggs, with which the ovolo is commonly enriched, are in the ancient as well as in modern examples, cut round and almost entirely detached; as are, likewise, the berries, or beads, on the astragal, which are generally as much hollowed into the solid of the bodies as the mouldings which project beyond them ; but the leaves, shells, and flowers, which are usually in- troduced to decorate the cavetto, cyma, talon, and torus, are kept flat, in imitation of the things which they represent. The ancients, in the application of their ornaments, were very choice in the selection of such as required considerable relief. On mouldings, that in themselves are clumsy, such as the ovolo and astragal, they made deep incisions to produce their enrichments, by which they acquired an extraordinary lightness : but, on more elegant parts, such as the cavetto and cyma, they employed the representation of xery thin bodies, such as leaves, which could be represented with- out entering too far into the solid. The ornaments in the cornices of the ancients were boldly marked, that they might be distinguished from afar ; but those of the bases of columns, or of pedestals, being nearer the eye, were more slightly expressed ; as well on that account, as because it would have been very improper to weaken those parts, and utterly impossible to keep them clean, had there been any deep cavities in them to harbour dust and filth. When objects are very near, and liable to close inspection, every part of the ornaments, both great and small, should be forcibly expressed and well finished : but, when they are much elevated, the minutiae or detail may be slightly touched only, or entirely neglected ; for it is quite sufficient if the general form be distinct, and the principal or more prominent masses strongly marked. A few rough strokes, from the hand of a skilful master, are much more effectual than the most elaborate finishings of a cold and artless imitator, which seldom consists of more than smoothing and neatly rounding-ofF the parts, and are more calculated to destroy, than to produce, effect. Nature is the supreme and true model of the imitative arts; from a contemplation of her beau- 22 MOULDINGS, ORNAMENTS, &C. ties every great artist must form his idea of the profession in which he means, and is determined, to excel : the works of the ancients are, to the architect, what nature is to the painter or sculptor ; the source from which his chief knowledge must be collected ; the models by which his taste must be formed. But, even in nature, few things are faultless, and it must not be imagined that every ancient production in architecture, though Grecian or Roman, is perfect and fit for imitation. On the contrary, the remains of the ancients are so extremely unequal, that it requires the greatest discrimination, circumspection, and effort of judgment to make a proper choice. The Grecian and Roman arts, like those of other nations, have had their rise, their aera of perfec- tion, their decline. At Athens, at Rome, as in London and Paris, and elsewhere, there have been but very few great architects, but many very indifferent ones ; and the Romans and Grecians had their connoisseurs, as we have ours, who would sometimes dictate to the architect and cramp the fortunate sallies of his genius ; force upon him, and upon the world, their own whimsical productions; promote ignorant flatterers; discourage, and even oppress, honest merit. Vitruvius, who lived in the Augustan age, complains loudly of this hardship : and there is a remarkable instance of the vindictive spirit of an ancient connoisseur in Adrian, who put to death the celebrated Apollodorus, for having ventured a sarcastic remark upon a temple designed by that emperor, and built under his direction. In the constructive part of architecture, the ancients do not seem to have been great pro- ficients ; and we are inclined to believe, with the most learned authors, that many of the defor- mities observable in the Grecian buildings must be ascribed to their deficiency in the art of con- struction. Neither does it appear that the Romans were much more skilful : the precepts by Vitruvius are very imperfect and ambiguous upon the subject, and sometimes extremely erroneous; and it is highly probable that the strength or duration of their structures is more owing to the quantity and goodness of their materials, than to any scientific principle of putting them together : we must not, therefore, expect from any of the ancient works much information on the executive branch of the art. Michael Angelo, who, skilled as he was in mathematical knowledge, could have no very high opinion of the ancient mode of construction, boasted that he would suspend the largest temple of antiquity, meaning the Pantheon, in the air; this he afterwards verified in the cupola of Saint Peter’s, at Rome : and Sir Christopher Wren, with not less ability, conducted all the parts of Saint Paul’s, and many other of his numerous and admirable works, with so much ingenuity and art, that they are, and ever will be, studied and admired by all intelligent observers. To him, and several eminent artists and artificers since his time, we owe many great improvements in the art of building, which has been, in late years, still further improved by the labours of Mr. Peter Nicholson, and other ingenious and practical men, upon whose scientific principles the British nation has established, and carried to the highest perfection, every thing which is interesting, instructive, and useful, in the arts of carpentry and joinery, masonry, bricklaying, ornamental plastering, &c. ; and which the gentlemen engaged in the execution of this volume, and the two OF THE FIVE ORDERS. 23 preceding ones, have endeavoured to display and illustrate, in the hope of rendering a benefit, not only to the young architect in particular, but to the public in general. Some of the French architects have also evinced considerable science in the constructive art; in. the mason’s particularly, which has been considerably improved by that nation; and we are likewise indebted to the French, to the Italians, and to a few of our own countrymen, for many valuable books, in which the manner of conducting great works is copiously explained. From such works, composed on a principle similar to that now under perusal, the architect may collect the rudiments of construction ; but, it is to be remembered that practice, experi- ence, and attentive observation, are essentially requisite to render him properly skilled in this important branch of his profession. REFERENCES TO THE PLATES ON THE PRECEDING THEORY OF THE FIVE ORDERS. Orders, Plate I. — Fig. 1 represents two methods, in a joint diagram, of producing graceful or pleasing contours to the shafts of columns, by Vignola and Nicomedes, which are fully de- scribed in reference to this plate in the body of the work. Fig. 2 elucidates also, by an optical diagram, the theory on the diminution of columns, likewise adverted to, subsequent to the former, in the letter-press. Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, represent the different Roman mouldings, used in the combi- nation of bases, capitals, and entablatures, with the method of drawing them, and the names at- tached to each. Fig. 1 1 represents the outline of the Doric order, with lettered references to the respective mouldings, so that the student may. refer to the names of each, and thus become familiar with the science. Fig. 12 exhibits the entablature and capital of the Grecian Doric order, as built in the Temple of Theseus, at Athens, showing the trigliphs at the angles, and the architrave overhanging the upper diameter of the column. Orders, Plate II. represents the five ancient orders of Roman architecture ; elucidating, at one view, their general proportions, with their names, and graduated according to their rank, as they should be carried into effect, that is, in proportion to their bulk, and in reference also to the preceding theory and subsequent principles on practice. Orders, Plate III.— This plate represents the three Grecian orders, known by the names of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, which are introduced for the purpose of elucidating the difference in the style of the Roman and Grecian architects, in the carrying these orders into effect. We now proceed to the Practice of the Five Orders, commencing with the Tuscan. 24 PRACTICE OF CHAPTER III. PRACTICE OF THE TUSCAN ORDER. Among the remains of antiquity, there are not any of a regular Tuscan Order, but a most admirable specimen of a Tuscan column exists in the Trajan pillar, at Rome. The doctrine of Vitruvius upon the subject of the Tuscan order is extremely obscure, and the profiles of Palladio’s disciples are all more or less imperfect. In the design here introduced, ( Plate IV.) Vignola has been imitated. Even Inigo Jones, who was so close an adherer to Palladio, has employed Vignola’s profile in York Stairs, London, and in other designs of public and private edifices. But as the cornice adopted by Inigo Jones ap- pears to have been, in the opinion of the best writers, inferior to the rest of his Tuscan composi- tions, it has been rejected, and the profile of Scamozzi, introduced, with such alterations as have been considered necessary to render it perfect, and conformable to the doctrine of Vitruvius, as well as to the general practice of the moderns. The height given to the column is fourteen modules, or seven diameters ; and to that of the entire entablature, three and a half modules ; which being divided into ten equal parts, three of them are given to the height of the architrave, three to the frieze, and the re- maining four to the cornice. The capital is in height one module; the base, including the lower • cincture of the shaft, is also one module; and the shaft, with its upper cincture, twelve modules. These are the general measures of the Tuscan order, and may be easily remembered. With regard to the particular dimensions of the minuter parts, they may be collected from the engi’aving, Orders, Plate IV, whereon the heights and projections of each member are minutely figured, the latter of these being counted from perpendiculars raised at the extremities of the inferior and superior diameters of the shaft : a method which has been deemed universally pre- ferable to that of Desgotez, and others, who count from the centre of the column, because the relations between the heights and projections of the parts are more readily discoverable ; and, wherever a cornice or entablature is to be executed without a column, which very frequently hap- pens, it does not require any additional time or labour, as the trouble of deducting, from each dimension, the semi-diameter of the column, is saved. Scamozzi, that his bases might be of the same height in all the orders, has given to the Tuscan, exclusive of the cincture, half a diameter : but, in the example here introduced from Chambers. Vignola and Palladio have been imitated. The latter, in this order, have deviated from the gene- ral rule ; for, as the Tuscan base is composed of two members only, instead of six, which consti- THE TUSCAN ORDER. 25 tute the other bases, it becomes much too clumsy when the same general proportion is scrupu- lously followed. The Tuscan order will not admit of ornaments of any kind ; on the contrary, it is sometimes customary to represent, in the shaft of its column, rustic cinctures, as at the Luxembourg, in Paris ; at York-Stairs and Somerset-House, in London ; and in many other buildings of considerable note. This practice, though frequent, and to be found in many of the works of distinguished architects, is not always excusable, and should be indulged with great caution, as it helps to hide the robust characteristic and truly rustic but manly figure of the column, it alters the propor- tions, and at once affects the simplicity of the entire composition. Few examples are to be found of these bandages in the remains of antiquity ; and, in general, it will be adviseable to avoid them in all large designs ; reserving the rustic work for the intercolumniations, where it may be em- ployed with great propriety so as to produce a contrast, which will help to render the aspect of the entire composition perfect, distinct, and striking. But in smaller works, where the parts are few, and easily comprehended, rustic cinctures may be sometimes introduced and sanctioned, and oftentimes recommended ; as they serve to diver- sify the forms, produce strong and impressive contrasts, and contribute most essentially to the mas- culine, bold, and imposing, effect of the composition. The most eminent of the ancient, as well as modern, architects have recommended the Tuscan order to be introduced in the exterior gateways to citadels, arsenals, and prisons, of which the entrances should be terrific ; and the order is also fit for designs of gates to gardens or parks, and for grottos, fountains, and baths, where elegance of form and delicacy of workmanship would be inconsistent and out of character. Delorme, the French architect, was extremely fond of cinctures, which are square blocks, introduced at intervals in the heights of the shafts of columns, and he .employed them in several parts of the Thuilleries, covered with arms, cyphers, and other enrichments : but this seems very absurd, for they never can be considered in any other light than as parts, which, to avoid expense and trouble, were left unfinished. In different parts of the Louvre, wormy or vermiculated rustics are to be found, of which the tracts represent flowers de luce, and other regular figures and devices ; this is a practice far more unnatural than the pre- ceding, though Monsieur Davalier states that it may be done with great propriety, and signify a relation to the owner of the structure ; that is, says he, the figures should represent the arms, the crest, motto, cypher, and all the rest ; as if worms were draughtsmen, and understood whatever appertained to heraldry.* The most beautiful specimen of the Tuscan order, in London, is the portico of St. Paul s Church, Covent-Garden ; the effect of which is truly sublime : it was designed by, and executed * Davalier was bom in 1653 ; died in 1700. He was a native of Paris, was elected by the French Academy one of their travelling students at an early age, and took his departure from Marseilles with Desgotez and the celebrated Vaillant. The ship in which they sailed was captured by the Corsairs, and carried into Algiers. His captivity lasted seventeen months, during which time he designed and executed a mosque, at Tunis, for the Barbarians. Besides the work above-mentioned, he translated Scumozzi. H 26 PRACTICE OF under the inspection of, Inigo Jones,* who frankly told the parishioners, previous to the com- mencement of the undertaking, that their funds were not equal to the expenses of building a mag- nificent parish church, but that he would design and execute, for the same purpose, the hand- somest barn in his Majesty’s dominions, which was presently verified ; and perhaps, in the metro- polis, we have not a more harmoniously proportioned room, nor one better calculated for divine service: that is, with regard to hearing and seeing the officiating minister; and with respect to the exterior effect, it cannot be equalled for its simplicity and grandeur. The various designs, for gates, doors, and windows, which have been published by the most distinguished architects, afford numerous figures of rustic columns, and other sorts of rustic work ; most of which have been collected from buildings of considerable note in different parts of Europe ; but for the manner of executing them, as it cannot well be described, the student is referred to various parts of the new buildings at Somerset-House, in the Strand, to the Horse- Guards, the Treasury, the gate of Burlington-House in Piccadilly, the fronts of Newgate and Giltspur Street Prisons, the Excise-Office in Broad Street, and to numerous other buildings in and near the metropolis. Sir William Chambers says, that De Cambrai, in the introduction to his “ Parallels of Ancient and Modern Architecture, “ treats the Tuscan order with great contempt, and banishes it to the country, as unfit and unworthy to have a place, either in temples or palaces ; but, in the second part of the same work, he is more kind and indulgent; for, though he rejects the entablature, the * This justly celebrated English architect was the son of Ignatius Jones, cloth-worker, and was born in the vicinity of Saint Paul s, about 1572. lie is said to have been apprenticed to a carpenter and joiner, but that he remained long in such fetters is not probable, from the circumstance of his early skill in landscape painting, of which a specimen is, we believe, still to be seen in Chiswick-House. • Under the patronage either of the Earl of Arundel or the Earl of Pembroke, he visited Italy, and spent much of his time in Venice. From Venice he passed into Denmark, on the invitation of Christian IV. In 1606 he returned to his native country, in the suite of the King of Denmark, whose sister James the First had married. Mr. Seward observes, that the first of his works in England was the interior of the church of Saint Catherine Cree, in Leadenhall Street. Soon after his arrival he was appointed architect to the queen, and was also in the service of prince Henry : to these he gave so much satisfac- tion, that the king granted him the reversion of surveyor-general. On the death of Prince Henry, in 1612, Jones visited Italy a second time, where he remained until the office just mentioned fell to him. His liberality and disinterestedness on this occa- sion deserve to be recorded. Finding the office greatly in debt, he not only served without pay till the embarrassments were removed, but prevailed upon his fellow officers to do the like, by which expedient the debt was soon cleared. He wrote by the desire of the king, an account of Stonehenge, in 1620, in which year he was appointed one of the commissioners for repairing old St. Paul’s Cathedral, in London. On the death of James, he was continued in his situation by Charles I., for whom he executed the banqueting house, barely the fiftieth part of the then proposed palace at Whitehall, the designs for which had been made in the previous reign. In June, 1633, the order was issued for the reparation of St. Paul’s, on which Jones was immedi- ately afterwards employed. During the reign of Charles I, he gave many proofs of his genius and fancy, in the machinery and designs for scenic representations, &c. He died in 1652, and was interred in the chancel of St. Bennet’s, Paul’s Wharf, London. His works are too well known to require an enumeration. It is here sufficient to say that he was the father of pure archi- tecture in Great Britain. Representations of many of his buildings may be seen in Campbell’s “ Vitruvius Britannicus.” His principal designs were published by Kent, folio, 1727 ; some of his lesser designs, folio, 1744 ; and others were also published by Mr. Ware. The Water-front of Old Somerset-House has lately been copied in the erection of a very conspicuous Fire-Office, near the Quadrant, in the new street of the metropolis ; the adoption of which is a strong proof of the architect’s good sense and discrimination. Inigo Jones left a copy of Palladio, the Venice edition of 1601, with notes on the margin, in his own hand- writ- ing : he seems to have carried this copy about with him on his travels, from the notes being dated. The book, says Mr. Gwilt, which has been badly preserved, is in the library of Worcester College, Oxford, where it may still be seen. THE TUSCAN ORDER. 27 column is taken into favour, “ and compared to a queen seated on a throne, surrounded with all the treasures of fame, and distributing honours to her minions, while other columns seem only to be servants and slaves of the buildings they support.” The residue of the passage is too long to be inserted, but it is calculated to degrade, and to- tally to exclude, the Tuscan order : yet, by a different mode of employing and dressing the column , to exalt its consequence, and increase its majesty and beauty, so as to stand an advantageous comparison with any of the rest ; he, therefore, wishes, in imitation of ancient architects, to con- secrate the Tuscan column to the commemoration of great men and their glorious actions; noticing, as we have done, the Trajan column, one of the proudest monuments of Roman splendour, and consisting of the base, shaft, and capital, of the Tuscan order. This column was erected by the senate and people of Rome, in ackowledgment of the services of Trajan, and has contributed more to immortalize that emperor than the united efforts of all historians. De Cambrai also notices the Antonine column, erected at Rome, on a similar occasion, in honour of Antonius Pius; and another, of the same sort, at Constantinople, raised to the emperor Theodosius, after his victory over the Scythians : both which prove, by their resemblance to the Trajan column, that this sort of appropriation, recommended by him, had passed into a rule among the ancient masters of the art. We shall not here dispute the accuracy, justness, or fitness, of De Cambrai’s observations ; but may venture to affirm that, not only the Tuscan column , but the entire of the order , as represented in this work, after Sir William Chambers, (which, in fact, is the production of Vignola and Sca- mozzi,) may be praised and extolled as extremely beautiful ; and, in numerous instances, may be usefully applied : besides, as an order, it is a necessary gradation in the art ; and, although not recognized by the Grecian architects, for its purposes it is not inferior to any of the ancient orders : for it conveys, not only ideas of strength and rustic simplicity, but is very proper for rural pur- poses, and may, with great propriety, be employed in farm-houses, in barns, and sheds for imple- ments of husbandry, in stables, coach-houses, dog-kennels, in green-houses, grottos, and fountains ; in gates of parks and gardens, and, generally, whenever magnificence is not required and expense is to be avoided. Serlio recommends the use of it in prisons, arsenals, public granaries, treasuries, sea-ports, and gates of fortified places; and Le Clerc observes that, although the Tuscan order is treated by Vitruvius, by Palladio, and by many others, with great contempt, as unworthy of being identified ; yet, according to the composition of Vignola, there is a beauty in its simplicity which recommends it to notice, and entitles it to a place both in private and public buildings, as in porticos and colonnades surrounding squares or markets, in granaries and storehouses ; even in royal palaces, if suitably introduced to adorn the inferior apartments, offices, stables, and other places, where strength and simplicitv are required, and where richer or more delicate orders would be extremely improper. In accordance with the theory and practice which have been explained, seven diameters, or four- teen modules, have been appropriated to the height of the Tuscan column ; a proportion extremely 28 PRACTICE OF proper for rural and military works, where the appearance of extraordinary solidity is required : but, in town-houses and other buildings, intended for civil purposes, or in reference to interior decorations, the heights of the columns may be fourteen and a half, or even fifteen, modules, as Scamozzi has made them ; which increase may be entirely in the shaft, without altering any of the measures, either of the base or capital. Nor will it be requisite to alter the entablature ; for, as it is composed of few parts, it will be sufficiently bold, although its height be somewhat less than one quarter of the height of the column. REFERENCES TO THE PLATE ON THE PRACTICE OF THE TUSCAN ORDER. Orders, Plate IV. — Fig. 1 represents the entablature and capital, on a large scale, wherein the heights and projections of the several members are proportioned, as described in the theoretical and practical references. Fig. 2 shews the base, one half of the size of the column annexed. Fig. S describes the proper impost and archivolt to this order, under the idea of their being employed in arcades or gateways, which is very frequently the case. CHAPTER IV. — » — PRACTICE OF THE DORIC ORDER. The Monument on Fish-Street Hill, erected to commemorate one of the most dire calamities that ever befel the inhabitants of this great city, is considered the proudest example of a Roman Doric column in the British dominions. It was designed and constructed by Sir Christopher Wren. The lower diameter of the column is fifteen feet, and the altitude of the shaft is in proportion : this, with the historical pedestal, and the attic at the top, emblematical of the great fire, is upwards of 200 feet in height. In order to contemplate the beautiful and philosophical proportions of the Roman Doric column, as connected with its entablature , which is a component part of the order, it will be requisite that the student should turn his attention and thoughts to those examples which have been designed and executed under the greatest masters, both ancient and modern. It has been the practice, of late years, to introduce, as a substitute for the Roman Doric and Tuscan pillars, the Grecian Doric column ; especially in monuments intended to commemorate the achievements of valorous men ; but among those which have been carried into effect, during our time, in various parts of the kingdom, it is but honest to remark, that they are as inferior, in THE DORIC ORDER. 29 point of effect, to the Doric Monument in London, as the minor churches of the metropolis are to the sublime cathedral dedicated to Saint Paul. The Grecian Doric column, elevated upon a pedestal, is entirely at variance with the practice of the Grecian architects; who, in all the Temples of antiquity, have placed their columns upon a series of lofty gradated risers, proportioned or suited to the circumstances of the case : and, where this practice has not been adopted, the Grecian Doric column, which is peculiar for its beauty, and singular in its effect, has been sacrificed for the want of judgment. The height of the Roman Doric column, including its capital and base, is sixteen modules ; and the height of the entablature four modules : the latter, being divided into eight parts, two of these parts are allowed to the architrave, three to the frieze, and the remaining three to the cornice. In most of the antiques, the Doric column is found to have been executed without a base ; this is particularly observable in examining the remains of Grecian examples. Vitruvius, likewise, makes it without one ; the base, according to that author, having been first employed in the Ionic order, to imitate the sandal or covering of a woman’s foot. Scamozzi blames this practice, and most of the moderns have been of his opinion ; the greatest part of them having employed the attic base in this order. Monsieur De Cambrai, however, whose blind attachment to the antique is, on many occasions, sufficiently evident, argues strongly against this practice, under the idea that the order is formed upon the model of a strong man, who is constantly represented barefooted ; and, accord- ing to the notions of this author, the practice of introducing a base to the Doric column is very improper ; and “ though,” says he, “ the custom of employing a base, in contempt of all ancient, authority, has by unaccountable and false notions of beauty prevailed,” yet w r e are of opinion, with Chambers, that the intelligent eye, when apprized of the error, will be easily undeceived ; and as what is merely plausible will, when examined, appear to be false, so will apparent beauties, when not founded in reason, be deemed extravagant. Le Clerc says that, in most ancient monuments of this order, the columns are without bases, for which it is difficult to assign any satisfactory reason ; but De Cambrai, in his parallel, is of the same opinion with Vitruvius, and insists that the Doric column, being composed upon the model of a naked, strong, and muscular, man, resembling Hercules, should not have any base ; thus affecting that the base to a column is the same as a shoe to a man. This doctrine may have prevailed in former times ; but, at the present, it is too inconsistent and childish to be adopted : for we cannot consider a column destitute of a base, in comparing it to a man, without being, at the same time, struck with the idea of a person without feet, rather than without shoes : hence we are in- clinable to believe, either that the architects of antiquity had not yet thought of employing bases to their columns, or that they omitted them in order to leave the pavement clear ; the angles and projections of bases being stumbling blocks to passengers, and so much the more trouble- some, as the architects of those times frequently placed their columns very near each other ; so that, had they been made with bases, the passages between them would have been extremely i 30 PRACTICE OF narrow and inconvenient. There can be no doubt that it was from this reason that Vitruvius made the plinth of his Tuscan column round ; the latter order being, according to his precepts, especially adapted to servile and commercial purposes, where convenience should always give way to beauty. But, whatever may be the opinion of the vulgar, it is presumed that men of good taste will allow that, in most cases, a well-proportioned graceful base is very handsome ; and not only so, but also of real utility, serving to keep the column firm in its place ; and that, if columns without bases are entirely set aside, it will be a mark of wisdom in architects rather than an in- dication of their being swaved bv prejudice, as some blind adorers of the ancients would insinuate. The latter are the sentiments of Sir William Chambers, who had a rooted aversion to every thing which was Grecian : nevertheless, it must be granted that he was, “ take him all in all,” a man of considerable judgment, and reasoned well upon his art. In imitation of Palladio, and all the modern architects, except Vignola, he has made use of the attic base in this order ; which base certainly is the most beautiful of any. Yet, for the sake of variety, when the Doric and Ionic orders are employed together, the base invented by Vignola should be adopted, as shewn in the Doric Order, Plate II. This base Bernini has employed in the co- lonnade of Saint Peter’s, at Rome ; and it has been also very successfully applied in many other buildings. Vitruvius gives to the height of the Doric capital one module ; and all the moderns, except Alberti, have followed his example. Nevertheless, as the capital is of the same kind with the Tuscan, they should be nearly of the same proportion, in reference to the heights of their re- spective columns ; and, under these circumstances, the Doric capital should be more than one module ; which, indeed, it is, both at the Coliseum and the Theatre of Marcellus, at Rome ; being in the first of these buildings upwards of thirty-eight minutes, and in the latter thirty-three minutes, high. In the design, Orders, Plate V, the example adverted to after Sir William Chambers, the height of the entire capital is thirty-two minutes ; and, in the form and dimensions of the several members, it seems that he deviated but little from the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome. The frieze or neck of the capital is enriched with husks and roses, as in Palladio’s design, and as it has been executed by Sangallo at the Farnese Palace.* The projections of the husks and flowers should not exceed the upper cincture of the column. The architrave is only one module in height, and is composed of one fascia and a fillet, as the Theatre of Marcellus. The drops in this, the Roman Doric, are conical, as they are in most of the Roman buildings ; and not pyramidal, as they are generally executed by our English artisans. They are presumed, says Chambers, to represent drops of water that have trickled from the trigliphs ; and, consequently, they should be cones, or parts of cones, and not pyramids : * Sangallo was one of the architects employed in building St. Peter's, at Rome. THE DORIC ORDER. 31, : but the Grecian architects, who were better versed in the minutiae and details of architecture^ iT thought very differently, and made these drops portions of cylinders, the plan being rather inoit^ than a semi-circle, and those in the soffits of the mutules perfectly round ; and, instead of being inserted in the solid of the mutules, they are described, in the Grecian Doric, as so many pendents ; which, in execution and in effect, is infinitely superior to the cold Roman style of finishing the same parts. The Doric frieze and cornice by Sir William Chambers, as given in this work, are, each of them, one module and a half in height, the metope is square, and enriched with a bull’s skull, decorated with garlands of beads, in imitation of those in the Temple of Jupiter Tonans. In some ancient fragments, and in a large portion of our modern edifices, the metopes between the trigliphs are alternately ornamented with ox-skulls and with patteras ; but they may, w r ith great propriety, be filled with any other ornaments of suitable forms, and frequently with such as are appropriated to the buildings they decorate. For example: in military structures, the head of Medusa, or the Furies, thunderbolts, and other symbols of horror, may be correctly introduced : also helmets, daggers, garlands of laurel or oak, and crowns of various sorts, such as those used among the Romans, and presented as rewards for various military achievements : but spears, swords, quivers, bows, cuirasses, shields, and the like, should be avoided ; because the actual dimensions of these instruments are too great to find admittance in such limited spaces as the compartments adverted to, and as diminutive representations always convey ideas of triviality, they should, consequently, be wholly avoided. In our churches, dedicated to the saints, and set apart for Christian worship, cherubs, chalices, and garlands of palm or olive, may be introduced ; likewise doves, and other symbols of moral virtues. In private houses, crests or marks of dignity conferred, may, on some occasions, be permitted ; but seldom, and indeed never, where they are of such stiff insipid forms as stars and garters, modern crowns, coronets, mitres, and similar graceless objects, the tasteless effects of which may be seen at the Treasury, in St. James’s Park, and on various other buildings in the metropolis. Among all the entablatures of the Five Orders, the Doric is the most difficult to distribute ; that is, on account of the intervals between the centres of the trigliphs, which will not admit of being increased or decreased, without materially injuring the symmetry and characteristic beauty of the composition : and hence it is that the composer must be fettered by intercolumniations, devisable by two modules and a half, or of 250 minutes from centre to centre, which entirely ex- cludes coupled columns, and produces spaces which, in general, are either too wide or too narrow for the purpose ; and, to remove these difficulties, the trigliphs have been often omitted, and the en- tablature made plain, as at the Coliseum in Rome, at the Custom-House in Dublin, and in many other magnificent buildings, not only in this country, but abroad. It is an easy expedient ; but at the same time it deprives the order of its principal and primitive characteristic, and leaves it very poor and so much impoverished, as to be very little, if at all, superior to the Tuscan order; 32 PRACTICE OP me remedy therefore seems desperate, and ought never to be adopted but in extreme cases, as the very last resource. , Chambers says, that the ancients employed the Doric order in temples dedicated to Minerva, to Mars, and to Hercules, whose grave and manly dispositions suited well with the character of the order: and Serlio says, it is proper for churches dedicated to Christ, to Saint Paul, Saint Peter, or any other saints, remarkable for their fortitude, in exposing their lives and suffering for the Christian faith ; and Le Clerc recommends the adoption of it, in all sorts of military buildings, in the entrances to cities, arsenals, gates of fortified places, guard-rooms, and in all manner of similar edifices. It may also be employed in private houses ; and, in parti- cular, in the dwelling-houses of generals or other martial men : it may likewise be introduced in mausoleums erected to their memory, or in triumphal bridges and arches built to celebrate their victories. The height of the Roman Doric Column herein referred to is sixteen modules ; which, in build- ings where majesty and grandeur is required, is a suitable proportion; but in an infinity of other instances it may be made more delicate. Vitruvius makes the Doric column in porticos loftier by half a diameter than in temples, and many of the modern architects have followed his example. In private houses, therefore, it may be 16-f-, 16{, or 16f, modules high ; and for interior decorations even 17 modules, and sometimes perhaps a little more, which increase in the height may be car- ried entirely to the shaft, as described in the Tuscan order, without altering, in the smallest de- gree, either the base or the capital. The entablature may also remain unaltered in all its parts, for what is good in the one case applies to the other. The Roman Doric Order stands second in the list of the Five Orders ; but the Grecian Doric, from which the former emanates, stands first among the three Greek orders, and is the most an- cient of those so called in architecture, being evidently derived from the Egyptians, of which little doubt can be entertained by those who have examined that great national work at the British Museum, which was published under the auspices of Buonaparte at the time he was identified as Napoleon le Grande. The Temple of Minerva, at Athens, commonly called the Parthenon , is considered, by the most learned architects and philosophers, as the boldest specimen of Grecian architecture that ever was constructed ; the style of this structure is now generally known to be what is termed the Grecian Doric : but, besides this magnificent temple, the beauties of which have been explored by Stuart and others, there are several temples and buildings of great interest, well worthy the consideration of the architectural student, connoisseur, and draughtsman; particularly the Ionic Temples of Erectheus, Minerva Polias, the small Temple on the river Illis- sus, the Temple of the Winds, the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, commonly called the * Lantern of Demosthenes, as well as the Choragic Monuments of Trysallus and others ; among some of the last-mentioned may be collected almost every thing which is great and good in Gre- cian architecture. THE DORIC ORDER. 33 The numerous examples of Roman and Grecian ornaments, mouldings, bases, capitals, and cor- nices, given in this work, have been selected as specimens of the pure style ; and are, there- fore, recommended, with some degree of confidence, to the attentive consideration of our readers The manner of reducing the Grecian Doric Order to practice, is defined in the representa- tion of the plates ; which, we hope, will facilitate the labours of those who are anxious to acquire so much practical information as will enable them to reduce the order to such proportions, as, under all circumstances, will be pleasing and agreeable. REFERENCES TO THE SEVERAL PLATES EXPLANATORY OF THE DORIC ORDER. Orders, Plate V. — Fig. 1. The entablature and capital of the Roman Doric Order, on a large scale, wherein the heights and projections of the respective members are correctly pro- portioned by a scale of modules and minutes, as explained in the Theory of the Five Orders, and which method equally applies to the lower and upper diameters of all the Orders. Fig. 2. — Elevation of half of the attic base, the most esteemed among the ancient examples. Fig. 3. — Plan of the soffit; exhibiting the various ornaments appropriate to the mutules and spaces between. Orders, Plate VI. — Fig. 1 . Grecian Doric Entablature, accompanied with an imitation of one of the capitals of the columns in the Temple of Theseus. Fig. 2. — Plan of the soffit in the last-mentioned entablature, showing the mutules with the bells, or circular drops, appertaining thereto. Fig. 3. Plan of the angular trigliphs and the forms of the residue. Orders, Plate VII. — Fig. 1. Grecian Doric Entablature, showing part of a pediment imi- tated from the Temple of Minerva, at Athens ; with one of the capitals and bases of the columns appertaining to that magnificent temple. A view of the above entablature and capital is also given, under the article of Perspective, in this work, by M. A. Nicholson. Fig. 2. — Plan of the soffit, in the above entablature, showing the mutules, with the bells or cir- cular drops. Orders, Plate VIII. — Fig. 1. Grecian Doric Entablature, showing the application of the antae at the angles of buildings. Fig. 2. — The profile of the foregoing entablature and antae. Orders, Plate IX. — Fig. 1. Grecian Entablature, with antique wreaths; showing, also, the application of the antae at the angles of buildings, and as executed in the Choragic Monument of Trysallus, at the foot of the Acropolis, or Citadel of Athens. Fig. 2. — Profiles of the entablature and antae, both of which are highly esteemed as Grecian examples, for their correct proportions, and decided effects when carried into execution. K 34 PRACTICE OF CHAPTER V. — ♦ — PRACTICE OF THE IONIC ORDER. This order is identified as the third in the list of the five ancient orders of Roman architecture, and is proportioned by Sir William Chambers, as described in Orders, Plate II. The Ionic is the second, also, in the list of the three Grecian orders, as described in Plate III. It is necessary that the distinction should be made and well known, as there is a difference in the character of the Roman and Grecian Ionic, although both are recognized under the same general name. The general proportions of the ancient Ionic order, as adopted by the Grecian and Roman architects, are nearly alike ; but the minutias and detail are very different ; which will be pre- sently discovered, by an attentive examination of the subsequent plates. Among the ancients, says Chambers, who always refers to the Roman architects, the form of the Ionic profile appears to have been more positively determined than that of any other ; for, in all the antiques, the Temple of Concord excepted, it is exactly the same, and conformable to the description given by Vitruvius. In Plate X, of Orders, is represented the design of the antique profile, collected by Sir William Chambers, from different antiquities at Rome. The height of the column is eighteen modules, and that of the entablature four and a half, or one quarter of the height of the column, as in the other orders ; which is a trifle less than in any of the ancient examples. The base is attic, as it is in most of the Roman antiques, and the shaft of the column may be either plain or fluted, with twenty-four or twenty flutings only, as at the Temple of Fortune, the plan of which flutings should be a trifle more than semi-circular, as in the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, and at the Forum of Nerva ; because, when so executed, they are then more distinctly marked. The fillets, or inter- vals between the flutes, should not be much broader than one-third of their widths, nor narrower than one-quarter. The ornaments of the capital should correspond with the flutes of the shaft, and there should be an ove, or a dart, according to the strict rules of the Romans, over the middle of each flute : but, in the Roman Ionic volute, described in Plate XI, we have made some deviations from the general rule, and have introduced the contour and proportions of a Roman Ionic volute, which is considered as an improvement upon Goldman’s and Delorme’s method of describing the principal characteristic of this order. It is, therefore, deemed unnecessary to enter into further details upon the various opinions of different authors, on a subject which will be best comprehended and felt by a comparative view of the several diagrams for describing volutes. The Roman volute is by some architects preferred ; which will be apparent to the scientific ob- THE IONIC ORDER. 36 server on a cursory view of the magnificent street, now leading from Carlton-Terrace up to Portland Place, in London. In the Ionic fagade, opposite the same terrace, the volutes of the capitals are Grecian, and are proportioned in the manner of those in the small temple on the River Ilissus, and as described in this work. This capital is justly esteemed; nor can it be sufficiently appre- ciated by those who entertain a true love for architecture. It is, therefore, surprising that the ingenious architects employed in the new street should, in any part of it, have adopted inferior specimens of the Roman Ionic capitals, as in the quadrangle, opposite the fagade before-mentioned. In passing up the street, however, towards Portland Place, it is observable that, wherever the Ionic order has been subsequently introduced, improvements have taken place in the adoption and style of the Ionic capitals, except in the finale to the street, which presents to the eye of the inquisitive spectator a circular Ionic portico, terminated by a fluted conical spire of the same form ; the metaphorical intention of which is not clearly understood, unless it is meant to convey, by a well-proportioned geometric figure, a new species of metaphysics, deducible, but which can be com- prehended only by those who are deeply versed in mathematics. The effect of this spire is stated to be sublime ; but what is not generally comprehended must be injudiciously applied ; and, there- fore, we lament that a magnificent street, so justly distinguished for its picturesque and architec- tural beauties, should be terminated by a conical finial, in no respect correspondent with the bold and intelligent metaphors usually applied by the Genius of Architecture. The three parts of the Ionic entablature, as represented in Plate X. of Orders, bear the same proportion to each other in this as in the Tuscan order • the frieze is plain, as being the most suit- able to the simplicity of the rest of the composition ; and the cornice is almost an exact copy from Vignola’s design, in which there is a purity of form, a grandeur of style, and close conformity to the most approved specimens of the ancients, not to be equalled in any of the profiles of his competitors. If it be requisite to reduce the Ionic entablature to two-ninths of the height of the column, which on most occasions is preferable to that of one quarter, especially where the eye has been accustomed to contemplate diminutive objects, it may be easily accomplished by making the module of the entablature less, by one-ninth, than the semi-diameter of the column ; afterwards dividing it as usual, and strictly observing the same dimensions as are figured in the engraved plate X. The distribution of the dentil-band will, in such case, answer very nearly in all the regular inter- columniations, and in the extreme angle there will be a dentil, as there is in the best examples of the antique. In the decorations of the interior of all apartments, where much delicacy is requisite, the height of the entablature may be reduced even to one-fifth of the column, by observing the same method, and making the module only four-fifths of the semi-diameter. The Antique Ionic Capital, not only in the Grecian but Roman style, differs from all others ; inasmuch as the front and side forms are not similar. This particularity occasions great difficulty, whenever breaks are introduced in the entablature, or where the decorations are 36 PRACTICE OF continued in flanK as well as in front : for, either all the capitals in the returns must have the ba- luster side outward, or the angular capital will have a different appearance from the rest, neither of which is admissible where good taste prevails. The architect of the Temple of Fortune, at Rome, as likewise the scientific artist who designed the small temple on the River Ilissus, have each fallen upon expedients which, in some degree, remedy the defect above-mentioned. In each of those buildings, as well as others, the corner capitals have their angular volutes in oblique positions, inclining equally to the front and side, and presenting volutes both ways ; and, says Chambers, where persons are violently attached to the antique, or furiously bent on rejecting all modern inventions, however beautiful, this is the only way to gratify them ; but, when such is not the case, the angular capital invented by Scamozzi, and lately imitated in the circular portico of Langham Chapel, may be introduced ; for it must be allowed that the distorted figure of the antique capital, as represented in Plate XVIII, of the Orders, with one straight volute and the other twisted, is very objectionable, and far from being pleasing to the eye ; yet we are of opinion that the Grecian antique volutes, as carved at the East-India House, in Leadenhall- Street, at the Saint Pancras new church, at the College of Sur- geons, in Lincoln’ s-Inn Fields, and in various other public buildings, are worthy of imitation ; and therefore we cannot better discharge our duty than by recommending the student first to draw all the specimens given in this work, and as he proceeds, if opportunities permit, to examine the buildings above-mentioned, or such as are of a similar description. As the Doric order, says Chambers, is particularly affected in churches and temples dedicated to male saints, so the Ionic is chiefly used in such as are consecrated to females of the matronal state. It may, likewise, be employed in Courts of Justice, as well as the Roman or Grecian Doric ; it may also be introduced in libraries, colleges, seminaries, and other structures having relation to arts or letters, and also in private-houses, and in palaces to adorn the ladies apartments : and, says Le Clerc, in all places dedicated to peace and tranquillity. The ancients employed it in temples sacred to Luna, to Bacchus, to Diana, or other deities, whose dispositions hold a medium between the severe and the effeminate. The Grecian Ionic specimens of capitals, cornices, friezes, and architraves, are, generally speak- ing, better profiled than those of the Romans : the judicious composer should, therefore, contem- plate the several parts appertaining to each style ; and, by alternately rejecting and adopting, he will, by degrees, improve his taste : but, as regards the bases of the Grecian Ionic order, usually employed in the antique, we cannot recommend them, although most slavishly adopted by many of our modern practitioners. The attic base of the Romans is the best, simplest, and most natu- ral ; and, wherever applied, is sure to give satisfaction: it is therefore, recommended to the seri- ous consideration of the student. THE IONIC 1 ORDER. 3? REFERENCES TO THE PLATES APPERTAINING TO THE IONIC ORDER, WHICH INCLUDE THE ROMAN AND GRECIAN EXAMPLES. Orders, Plate X. — Fig. 1 represents the entablature and capital of the Roman Ionic order, on a large scale, proportioned by modules and minutes. Fig. 2 represents the attic base to the same scale. Fig. 3 . — Plan of one quarter of the capital. Fig. 4. — Profile of the capital. Fig. 5. — Half the elevation of the barrel. Orders, Plate XL — The contour and proportion of a Roman Ionic Volute, with tne appen- dages ; from a description by Mr. R. Elsam, architect, on a large scale. Orders, Plate XII. — Fig. 1. The entablature and capital of the Grecian Ionic Order, in imi- tation of the Ionic portico to the small temple on the River Ilissus.* Fig. 2. —Half the base. Fig. 3. — Half the section of the capital. Fig. 4. — Altitudinal scale of the base. Orders, Plate XIII. — Grecian Ionic capital at large, in imitation of the last example, by Mr. R. Elsam. Orders, Plate XIV. — Grecian Ionic capital at large, in imitation of the example in the Mi- nerva Polias, at Preene, by Mr. R. Elsam. Orders, Plate XV. — Fig. 1. Plan of the Ionic capital from the Temple of Erectheus at Athens. Fig. 2. — Elevation of the last-mentioned capital. Fig. 3 . — Plan of the Ionic capital, from the Temple of Minerva Polias, at Athens. Fig. 4. — Elevation of the last-mentioned capital. Fig- 5. — Diagram, on a large scale, shewing the minutiae of finding the different centres for striking the two last described volutes ; which, by an attentive examination, will teach the in- quisitive student every thing which is requisite on the subject. Orders, Plate XVI. — Fig. 1. Flank elevation of half the Ionic capital, as executed in the Temple of Minerva Polias, at Athens. Fig. 2. Section of the same, shewing the barrel of the volute. Fig. 3. — Transverse section of the same capital. Fig. 4. — Transverse section of the Ionic capital, in the Temple of Erectheus, at Athens. Fig. 5. — Flank elevation of the same capital. Fig. 6. — Section of the same, showing the barrel of the volute. ‘ An interesting view of this capital is given hereafter, under the article of “ Perspective,” from a drawing by Mr. Michael Sngelo Nicholson. L 38 PRACTICE OF i Orders, Plate XVII. — Fig. 1. Grecian Ionic entablature, appertaining to the Temple of Minerva Polias, at Athens. Fig. 2 . — Base of the columns to the above order. Fig. 3. — Half the base of the antm to the same example. Fig. 4. — Half the capital of the antae to the same. Orders, Plate XVIII. — Fig. 1. Plan of an angular Grecian Iomc capital, in imitation of those employed in the small temple on the River Ilissus. Fig. 2 . — Flank elevation of the capital. Fig. 3 . — Section of the capital. Fig. 4. — Section, showing the barrel of the capital. Orders, Plate XIX. — Fig. 1. An antique Grecian Ionic base. Fig. 2 . — An antique Grecian Ionic capital. Fig. 3 . — An antique Grecian Ionic base. Fig. 4.— An antique Grecian Ionic capital CHAPTER VI. • — — i PRACTICE OF THE COMPOSITE ORDER. Correctly speaking, the Grecians and Romans had but three recognized orders ; the Comp as well as the general division of the lights. Another, the Tudor flower, is, in rich work, equally common, and forms a most beautiful enriched battlement, and is also some- times used on the transoms of windows in small work. Another peculiar ornament of this style, is, the angel cornices, used at Windsor and in Henry the Vllth’s chapel, but, though according with the character of those buildings, it is by no means fit for general use. These angels have been much diffused as supporters of shields, and as corbels to support roof-beams, &c. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 113 A great number of edifices of this style appear to have been executed in the reign of Henry VII., as the angels, so profusely introduced in his own works, and also his badges the rose and portcullis — and sometimes his more rare cognizances, are abundantly scattered in buildings of this style. Flowers, of various kinds, continue to ornament cornices, &c., and crokets were variously formed ; towards the end of this style, those of pinnacles were very much projected, which has a disagreeable effect : there are many of these pinnacles at Oxford, principally worked in the decline of the style. Perpendicular English Steeples. Of these there remain specimens of almost every description, from a plain short tower of a country church to the elaborate and gorgeous towers of Gloucester and Wrexham. There are various fine spires of this style, which have little distinction from those of the last, but their age may be generally known by their ornaments, or the towers supporting them. Almost every conceivable variation of buttress, battlement, and pinnacle is used, and the appearance of many of the towers combines, in a very eminent degree, extraordinary richness of execution and grandeur of design. Few counties in England are without some good examples. There are, in this style, some small churches with fine octagonal lanterns. At York, the centre tower is a most magnificent lantern : its exterior looks rather flat, from its not having pinnacles, which seem to have been intended, by the mode in which the buttresses are finished ; but its interior gives, from the flood of light it pours into the nave and tiansepts, a brilliancy of appearance, equalled by very few, if any, of the other cathedrals. Perpendicular English Battlements. Parapets still continue to be used occasionally. The trefoiled panel with serpentine line is still used, but the dividing line is oftener straight, making the divisions regular triangles. Of panelled parapets, one of the finest is that of Beauchamp Chapel, which consists of quatre- foils in squares, with shields and flowers. Of pierced battlements, there are many varieties but the early ones frequently have quatrefoils, either for the lower compart- ments, or on the top of the panels of the lower to form the higher; the later have often two heights of panels, one range for the lower, and another over them for the upper. These battlements have generally a running 2 G 114 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. cap moulding carried round, and generally following the line of battlement. There are a few late buildings which have pierced battlements, not with straight tops, but variously ornamented, with pointed upper compartments. Sometimes on the outside, and often within, the Tudor flower is used as a battlement. Of plain battlements, there are many descriptions: 1st. That are of nearly equal intervals, with a plain capping running round with the outline. 2d. The castellated battlement, with nearly equal intervals, and sometimes with large battlements and small intervals, with the cap moulding running only horizontally, and with the sides cut plain. 3d. A battlement, like the additions of a moulding, which runs round the outline, and has the horizontal capping set upon it. 4th. The most common late battlement, with the cap moulding broad, of several mouldings, and running round the outline, and thus often narrowing the intervals and enlarging the battlement. To one or other of these varieties, most battlements may be reduced, but they are never to be depended on alone in determining the age of a building, from the very frequent alterations they are liable to. Perpendicular English Roofs. These may be divided into three kinds: first, those open to the roof framing; second, those ceiled flat or nearly so ; and, thirdly, the regular groined roof. Of the first kind, those mag- nificent timber roofs, of which Westminster Hall is one of the finest specimens. The beams, technically called principals, are here made into a sort of trefoil arch, and the interstices of the framing filled with pierced panellings ; there are, also, arches from one principal to another. The second is in common churches, and is the perpendicular ordinary style of ceiling, rich, though easily constructed : a rib crossed above the pier, with a small flat arch, and this was crossed by another in the centre of the nave, and the spaces thus formed were again divided by cross ribs, till reduced to a square of two or three feet, and at each intersection a flower, shield, or other ornament was placed. This roof was sometimes in the aisles made sloping, and occasionally coved. In a few instances, the squares were filled with fans, &c. of small tracery. A variety of this roof, which are very seldom met with, is a real flat ceiling of the present day. The third, or groined roof, is of several kinds. Of this, it may be well to notice, that the ribs in this style are frequently of fewer mouldings than before, often only a fillet and two hollows, like a plain mullion. We see, in the groined roofs of this style, almost every variety of disposition of the ribs, and in the upper part of the arch they are, in many instances, feathered ; and these ribs are increased, in the later roofs, till the whole is one series of net-work, of which the roof of the choir at Gloucester is one of the most com- plicated specimens. The late monumental chapels and statuary niches, mostly present, in their roofs, very complicated tracery. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 115 We now come to a new and most delicate description of roof, that of fan tracery, of which probably the earliest, and certainly one of the most elegant, is that of the cloisters at Gloucester. In these roofs, from the top of the shaft, springs a small fan of ribs, which, doubling out from the points of the panels, ramify on the roof, and a quarter or half-circular rib forms the fan; and the lozenge interval is formed by some of the ribs of the fan running through it, and dividing it into portions, which are filled with ornaments. 1 o some of these roofs are attached pendants, which, in Henry the VII.’s Chapel, and the Divinity School, at Oxford, come down as low as the springing line of the fans, dhe roof of the nave and choir of St. George’s, Windsor, is very singular, and perhaps unique. The ordinary proportions of the arches and piers is half the breadth of the nave, this makes the roof compartments two squares ; but at Windsor the breadth of the nave is nearly thiee times that of the aisles, and this makes the figure about three squares. The two exterior parts are such as, if joined, would make a very rich ribbed roof, and the central compartment, which runs as a flat arch, is filled with tracery panels of various shapes, ornamented with quatrefoils, and forming two halves of a star, in the choir ; the centre of the star is a pendant. This roof is certainly the most singular, and perhaps the richest in effect of any we have ; it is profusely adorned with bosses, shields, &c. There still remains one more description of roof, which is used in small chapels, but not common in large buildings : this is the arch roof. In a few instances, it is found plain, with a simple ornament at the spring and the point, and this is generally a moulding, with flowers, &c. but it is mostly panelled. Of this roof, the nave of the Abbey-church at Bath is a most beautiful specimen. The arch is very flat, and is composed of a series of small rich panels, with a few large ones at the centre of the compartments, formed by the piers. The roofs of the small chapels on the north side of Beauchamp Chapel, at Warwick, are also good examples ; and another beautiful roof, of this kind, is the porch to Henry the VII.’s Chapel, but this is so hidden, from the want of light, as to be seldom noticed. The ribbed roofs are often formed of timber and plaster, but are generally coloured to represent stone-work. Perpendicular English Fronts. The first to be noticed of these, and by far the finest west front, is that of Beverly Minster, a building much less known than its great value merits it should be. Like York Minster, it consists of a very large west window to the nave, and two towers for the end of the aisle. This window is of nine lights, and the tower windows three lights. The windows in the tower cor- respond, in range, nearly with those of the aisles and clerestory windows of the nave ; the upper windows of the tower are belfry windows. Each tower has four large and eight small pinnacles, and a very beautiful battlement. The whole front is panelled, and the buttresses, which have a very bold projection, are ornamented with various tiers of niche-work of excellent com- 116 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. position and most delicate execution. The doors are uncommonly rich, and have the hanging feathered ornament ; the canopy of the great centre door runs up above the sill of the window, and stands free in the centre light with a very fine effect. The gable has a real tympanum, which is filled with fine tracery. The east front is fine, but mixed with early English. / Perpendicular English Porches. Of these there are so many, that it is no easy matter to choose examples, but three may be noticed : first, that attached to the south-west tower of Canterbury Cathedral, which is covered with fine niches ; secondly, the south porch at Gloucester, which has more variety of outline, and is nearly as rich in niches ; the third is the north porch at Beverly, and this is, as a panelled front, perhaps, unequalled. The door has a double canopy, the inner an ogee, and the outer a triangle, with beautiful crokets and tracery, and is flanked by fine buttresses breaking into niches, and the space above the canopy to the cornice is panelled ; the battlement is composed of rich niches, and the buttresses crowned by a group of four pinnacles. The small porches of this style, are many of them very fine, but few equal those of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. The appearance of perpendicular buildings is very various, so much depends on the length to which panelling, the great source of ornament, is carried. The triforium is almost entirely lost, the clerestory windows resting often on a string which bounds the ornaments in the spandrels of the arches ; but there is, not unfrequently, under these windows, in large buildings, a band of sunk or pierced panelling, of great richness. Of small churches, there are many excellent models for imitation, so that, in this style, with some care and examination, scarcely any thing need be executed but from absolute authority. The antient architecture of Great Britain being at this period in high estimation ; and, by recent efforts, conducted according to the most scientific and improved principles of archi- tecture, the face of our country, it must be admitted by all, is continually acquiring new beauty. Taste, without use and solidity, is, indeed, of little permanent value ; but, when in combination with truth, it deserves and commands universal applause. These remarks are verified in the present age, by the numerous beautiful edifices rising in all parts of the country, either for the purposes of religion, benevolence, learning, or the enjoyment and convenience of mankind ; and thus we may justly congratulate our country, that the improved art in building is at length discovered and practised, by uniting elegance with convenience, and rendering ornament con ducive to accommodation and comfort. PERSPECTIVE 117 PERSPECTIVE. — ♦ — , DEFINITIONS. Def. lv — Linear Perspective is the art of representing an object on a plane surface in such a manner, that if the eye, the plane, and the object, be duly posited with respect to each other, a straight line drawn from any point of that object to the eye will meet the picture in the corresponding point of the representation. Def. 2. — The plane surface on which the repi’esentation is made, is called the plane of the picture. Def. 3. — The point wherein the eye of the spectator is placed is called the point of sight. Def. 4. — The point where a perpendicular, from the point of sight to the plane of the picture, meets that plane, is called the centre of the picture. Def. 5. — If a plane be supposed to pass through the point of sight, parallel to the plane of the picture, that plane is called the directing plane. Def. 6. — An original point, line, or plane, is a point, line, or plane, referred to the object itself. Def. 7. — The point where a line from the object, produced, if necessary, meets the picture, is called the intersecting point of that line. Def. 8. — The line in which any original plane meets the picture, is called the intersecting line of that plane. Def. 9. — The point where any original line meets the directing plane, is called the directing point of that. line. Def. 10. — A line joining the point of sight and the directing point of an original line, is called the di- rector of that original line. Def. 11. — The line where an original plane, or its prolongation, meets the directing plane, is called the directing line of that original plane. Def. 12. — A line drawn through the point of sight, parallel to any original line, is called the radial of that original line. Def. 13. — A plane passing through the point of sight, parallel to any original plane, is called the radial of that original plane. Def. 14. — The point wherein the radial of any original line meets the picture, is called the vanishing point of that original line. Def. 15. — The line where the radial of any original plane meets the picture, is called the vanishing line of that original plane. Def. 16. — The point where a perpendicular, from the point of sight to a vanishing line, meets that line, is called the centre of that vanishing line. Def. 17. — The representation of any object is called the projection of that object. In order to comprehend more clearly the meaning of these definitions, imagine the plane, ABC, to represent the plane of the picture ( Def 2), 0 the point of sight {Def. 3), the plane ODE the directing plane {Def. 5) : F and G original points, FG an ori- ginal line, and FGH an original plane {Def. 6) : Let the original line, GF, meet the picture in BI, and the directing plane in DE ; BI is the intersecting line {Def 8), B is the intersecting point, and D the directing point {Def. 9). Again, let OAC be a plane parallel to the original plane, FGH, meeting the picture in the line AC, AC is the vanishing line of the plane, FGH, {Def. 15). If the line OV he parallel to the original line FG, and meet the 2 H 118 PERSPECTIVE. picture in V, V is the vanishing point of the line FG ( Def. 14). Let FG produced meet the picture in B, and the directing plane in D, B is the intersecting point of the line FG {Def. 7), D the directing point of the same line {Def. 9), and OD the director {Def. 10.) If OS be perpendicular to AC, meeting AC in S, S is the cen- tre of the vanishing line AC {Def. 16). AXIOMS Axiom 1. — The common intersection of two planes is a straight line. Axiom 2. — If two straight lines meet in a point, or are parallel to each other, a plane may pass through them both. Axiom 3. — The three sides of a plane triangle are in the same state. Axiom 4. — If two straight lines be each intersected by a third, the three lines are in one plane. Axiom 5. — Every point in a straight line is in the same plane with that straight line. LEMMA l. If the plane BSO, (see the diagram to theorem I.) meet the plane AEBD, in the line AB, and if from anj point O, in the plane BSO, OS be drawn perpendicular to AB, meeting AB in S, if OC be drawn perpendicu- larly to the plane AEBD and CS joined, CS is perpendicular to AB. THEOREM I. A line drawn from the centre of the picture to the centre of the vanishing line is perpendicular to that va- nishing line. For, imagine AEBD to he the plane of the picture, 0 the point of the sight, and OSB a plane passing through the vanishing line AB, let S be the centre of the vanishing line, and C the centre of the picture. Then, Since OS is drawn perpendicular to AB, and OC to the plane AEBD, meeting A in C, therefore {Lemma 1) OS is perpendicular to AB. Q.E.D. Corollary. — The distance OS, of any vanishing line AB. is the hvpothe- nuse of a right-angled triangle, one leg of which is the distance of the picture OC, and the other the distance, CS, between the centre of the picture and the centre of the vanishing line. THEOREM II. The representation of a straight line is a straight line For straight lines drawn from any number of points in a straight line, to a point given in position, are all in one plane ; and, if this plane he cut by another, the common section of these planes is a straight line. Therefore, straight lines passing from every point in an original line, to the point of sight, will cut the picture in a straight line. theorem III. The indefinite representation of a straight line, not parallel tc the picture, passes through both its intersecting and vanishing points. For the intersecting point is the representation of a point in the original line, and the vanishing point the representation of another point in the same line, but the representation of a straight line is a straight line. {Theorem II.) Therefore, the line joining the intersecting and vanishing points is a straight line. Cor. 1. — The representations of all original lines, which are parallel to one another, pass through the same vanishing point, for only one line can be drawn through the point of sight which will he parallel to them all, and that line can generate only one vanishing point. Cor. 2. — The centre of the picture is the vanishing point of all lines perpendicular to the picture. theorem IV. The representation of a line parallel to the picture, is parallel to its original. For, because the line is parallel to the picture, a plane, which is also parallel to the picture, can be drawn PERSPECTIVE. 119 through that line : let it he done ; and, suppose lines to he drawn from all the points of the original line to the point 'of sioht, these lines will form a plane, which is intersected hy two parallel planes; hut, when a plane cuts two parallel planes, their common sections are parallel lines; therefore the representation is parallel to the original. „ , . . . Cor L— The representations of any number of lines parallel to the picture are parallel to one another. Cor. 2. The representation of any plane figure, parallel to the picture, is similar to the original ; for rays that issue "from the original to the eye form a pyramid, of which the picture is a section parallel to the base ; but a section of a pyramid, parallel to its base, is similar to the base : therefore, the representation of any plane figure, parallel to the picture, is similar to the original. THEOREM V. The representation of a straight line is parallel to its director For the plane that passes through the original line and the eye, will intersect both the plane of the picture and the directing plane ; but the plane of the picture and the directing plane are parallel to each other. Now, the representation of the original line is the intersection of the plane passing through the original line and the eye with the plane of the picture ; therefore, the representation of the original line is parallel to its CoR 1 The representation of all lines that have the same director are parallel to each other. CoR ‘ 2 When the original line is parallel to the picture, the director is parallel to the orginal line. Cor. 3. If the director be perpendicular to the directing line, the representations of all original lines, which terminate in the directing point, will be perpendicular to the intersecting line _ Cor 4.— If the director be perpendicular to the directing line, and the plane of the picture perpendicular it tbe original plane, then the representations of lines perpendicular to and in the original plane, drawn from the point where the perpendicular meets it, will be in one straight line, perpendicular to the intersecting line. THEOREM VI. The vanishing, intersecting, and directing, lines are parallel to each other. For the directing and intersecting lines, being the sections of parallel planes, are parallel to each other ; and for the same reason, because the vanishing and intersecting lines are the intersections of parallel planes, they are parallel to each other. Therefore, the directing and vanishing lines are both parallel to the intersecting line ; but lines, which are parallel to the same line, are parallel to one another: hence the truth of the propo- sition is manifest. THEOREM VII. The vanishing points of all the lines in any original plane are in the vanishing line of that plane. For, since all th » original lines are in the same plane, their radials, which pass through the point of sight, wi . also be in a parallel plane ; but this parallel plane, passing through the point of sight, produces the vanishing line ; wherefore all the vanishing points are in the vanishing line. Co r. 1 . —Original parallel planes have the same vanishing line. _ _ . Cor. 2.—' The vanishing point of the common intersection of two original planes, is the intersection of tieir vanishing lines. . . . CoR . 3. The vanishing line of a plane, perpendicular to the picture, passes tiirough the centre of tbe picture. THEOREM VIII. The intersecting points of all lines, in the same original plane, are in the intersecting line of that plane. This is so obvious as to require no demonstration. ... Cor. 1.— The intersecting point of the line of common section of two original planes, is the intersecting pom of a straight line common to, or in, each plane. 120 PERSPECTIVE Cor. 2. — Planes which have their common section parallel to the picture, have their intersecting and va- nishing lines parallel to each other. Given the centre and distance of the picture, with the seat of a point, on the plane of the picture, and the dis- For if the triangle OS b, and, consequently, A 6 S, had been a right-angle ; by turning the triangles SOa point of sight, and A the original point. AO would be the visual ray, intersecting the picture in a, which would be the representation of the point A (by Theorem II) ; but the point a is the same, whatever be the species of the angle OSb; because the triangles O S a and A b a are similar. Hence S a : ab :: SO : b A; which pro- portionality is not affected by any change of magnitude that may take place in the angle OS 6; therefore, in all cases, the point a, thus found, is the representation required. Cor. 1. — Hence OS + b A : S a + a b : : A b : b a Cor. 2. — By this proposition the representation of any line may be found; for having found the repre- sentations of any two points in that line, we have only to draw a line through the representations thus found. Given the seat of a line, its intersecting point, the angle it makes with its seat, and the centre and distance vanishing point [Def. 14), and, consequently, DV is the indefinite representation. Q. E.D. Cor. — Conceive DC to be the original line laid on the picture, by turning the plane CDE round the line ED. The representation of any part of it, as AC, may be found, by drawing AO and CO as visual rays, inter- secting D V in the points a c ; as the points a c depend only on the parallelism and proportionality of the lines For aV : aD :: VO : DA, and cV : cD :: VO : DC. These analogies arising from the similarity of the triangles a VO, aD A ; as also cVO and cD C. problem 1. tance of the point from its seat : to find the representation of that point. o 8 Let S be the centre of the picture, and b the seat of the point ; draw SO at pleasure equal to the distance of the picture, and let bA be drawn parallel to SO, and equal to the distance of the point from its seat. Join b S and AO ; and the point a of intersection is the representation required. DEMONSTRATION. and bAa round the line S b, as an axis, till SO and b A become perpendicular to the picture, 0 would be the PROBLEM <2. of the picture ; to find the vanishing point and the representation of that line. o Let DE be the seat of the line, D its intersecting point, and S the centre of the picture. Draw DC, making with DE an angle, equal to that which the original line makes with its seat. Draw SV parallel to DE, and SO perpendicular to SV, making SO equal to the distance of the picture. Draw OV parallel to DC, meeting SV in V, then will V be the vanishing point, OV its distance from the point of sight, and DV the representation of the line proposed. _^v OV and DC. PROBLEM 3. Given the representation of a line and its vanishing point, to find the representation of a point, whose original divides the original line in a given ratio. PERSPECTIVE. J21 Let AB be the representation of the line whose division is required, and V its vanishing point. Draw, at pleasure, VO, and ba parallel to VO. Through any point, 0, in the line VO, draw OA and OB, intersecting ba in a and b. Di- vide a b in c, in the given ratio, and draw O c, intersecting AB in C ; then will C be the representation required : the original of BC being to the original of CA as be to c a. DEMONSTRATION, OV being parallel to ba, ba mav be considered as the original line, and OV as its parallel ; and, conse- quently, O as the point of sight, and aO, b 0, cO, as visual rays, generating the points ABC. PROBLEM 4. Given the representation and vanishing point of a line, together with a point in that representation, to find another point in the representation, which, with the one given, shall intercept a line, whose original shall have a given ratio to the original of the given representation. Let AB be the given representation, V its vanishing point, and C the point given, which, with another point to be found, intercepts the required portion of AV. Draw VO, at pleasure, and let ad be drawn parallel thereto. From any point, 0 in VO, draw OA, OB, OC, meeting ad in the points a, b, and c. Make cd to a b, as the part represented by AB is to the required intercept, and draw 0 d, cutting AV in D ; then will D be the required point. For the original of CD is to the original of AB as c d is to a b. demonstration If OV be conceived as the vanishing line of a plane, passing through the original of AV, ad, being parallel to it, may be considered as the representation of a line parallel to the picture (Cor. 2, Theor. V.) ; an , t ere- fore, its parts, a 6 and cd, will have the same ratio as their originals. (Theor. IV.) But, because of the vanishing point, 0, the originals of On, 06, Oc, and Od, are parallel (by Cor. 1, Theo. III.); wherefore, the original of CD is to the original of AB as c d to a b. Q. E. D. problem 5. Given the centre and distance of the picture, the intersection and angle of inclination of a plane, to find the vanishing line of that plane, with the centre and distance of the vanishing line. Let C be the centre of the picture, and AB the intersecting line of the given plane. Draw CO parallel to AB, and equal to the picture’s distance. Through C draw AS perpendicular to AB, and make the angle 0 SC equal to the inclination of the plane and picture. Draw SD parallel to AB, then will SD be the vanishing line required, S its centre, and OS its distance. demonstration. Imagine the triangle OCS to be turned on CS as an axis, so that OS may be P er P* n *™' aI ' “ then 0 will he the point of sight ; and SD being parallel to AB, a plane passtng along SD and Ow.ll he parallel to the original plane, passing along the line AB, and inclined to t e picture m e aa 0 ' d SD is the vanishing line required. OS, in that supposition being perpendicular to SD, S is the centre, and SO the distance of the vanishing line. Q. E. D. PROBLEM 6. Given the intersecting and vanishing lines ; the centre and distance of the vanishing hue, with a figure in the original plane. To find the representation of that figure. 2 I 122 PERSPECTIVE. Method the first. — Let ED be the given intersecting line, GH the vanishing line, and S its centre. Draw SO perpendicular to GH, and make SO equal to the distance of the vanishing line GH. Suppose the space X, the original plane, to be turned on the line ED, as an axis behind the picture, and the plane Y to be turned on the line GH, as an axis before the picture, so as to be parallel to the plane X. Suppose, now, that AB is an original line in the plane X, of which the representation is required. Produce AB to meet the intersecting line ED in D, and draw OG parallel to AB, meeting the vanishing line in G. Join DG, and DG will be the indefinite representation of AB. Through A and B draw, at pleasure, AC and BC, and, as before, find their indefinite projections, FL and EH intersecting DG in the points a and h • then will ab h* the definite representation of AB. DEMONSTRATION. Imagine the planes X and Y to be turned round the lines ED and GH, as axes, till they become parallel to each other. Then, whatever may be the angle which the plane of the picture makes with the original plane, OG will always be parallel to AB ; and, consequently, D will be the intersecting point of the line AB, G the vanishing point, and DG its indefinite representation. ( Theor . III.) Also, the point a, found by the inter- section of FL with DG, is the representation of the point A. Method the second. — Suppose AB to be an original line given. Having found its indefinite representation DG, as before, draw OA and OB, intersecting DG in a and b : then will a and b be the representations of A and B, the extremities of the original line AB, and the figure may be completed, as before. Method the third, by Directors. — Let EF be the given in- tersecting line, HG the directing line, the distance between EF and HG being equal to the distance of the given vanish- ing line. Let 0 be the point of sight in the directing plane, HOG, which, at present, for the operation, is supposed to be turned on HG, till it fall on the original plane. Again, let AB be a line in the original plane, which is also supposed to turn on the intersecting line, EF, till its plane fall on the original plane. Then, to find the representation of AB. Produce AB, to meet the intersecting line, EF, in F, and the directing line, HG, in G. Join GO, and draw F a paral- lel to GO ; then F a will be the indefinite representation of AB, as required. If, from the point A, we draw any straight line, AE and find the indefinite representation, E a, in the same manner as Fa was found, then the intersection, a, of these indefinite representations will be the representation of the original point A ; and, in the same manner, the representation, b, of the original point, B, may be found, and the figure completed, as before. DEMONSTRATION. Suppose the plane of the picture aEF to revolve on the line EF, and the plane HOG on the line HG, as axes, so as to be parallel to each other, and both elevated above the original plane, which is comprehended between the directing and intersecting lines HG and EF. Then O will be the point of sight, F the intersecting point of the original line AB, and G its directing point ; but, whatever be the angles which the plane of the picture and the directing plane make with the original plane, they will always be parallel. Therefore, F a will be the indefinite representation of AB, {Theor. V,) andEa the indefinite representation EA ; and conse- quently, the point a, is the representation of the point A. A PERSPECTIVE. 123 PROBLEM 7. rjTL* came data being given, as in Problem 6, to find the representation of any figure m the original plane Example i. — Let it be required to find the representation of the pentagon KLMNP. Draw OG, OH, 01, and OV parallel to KL, LM, MN, and KP, meeting HG in the points G, H, I, and V, which are the vanishing points of the lines KL, LM, MN, and KP. Produce KL, LM, MN, to their intersecting points, Q, R, and T. Draw QG, RH, and TI, intersecting each other in the points l, m, which are the representations of the points LM. Join OK, ON, in- tersecting the indefinite representations QG, TI, in the points k and n. Draw k V, which is the indefinite representation of KP. Lastly, draw OP, intersecting k V, in p ; and p is the representation of P. The representations of curve-lined figures, are obtained by finding the representations of a sufficient number of points, and joining them neatly by the hand. Example 2, by a Vanishing Point - Let FV be the vanishing line, GE the in- tersecting line, O the point of sight, and the original figure, ABC, a circle. Then the representation a of any point. A, may be found thus. Through A draw AD, at pleasure, meeting GE in D ; and draw OV parallel to AD, meeting FV in V. Join DV and AO, intersecting each other in a ; then a is the representation of the point A. In finding the representations of the other points in the circle, much labour may be saved by drawing lines through all the points parallel to AD, for then one vanishing point will serve for ascertaining the representations of as many points in the original figure as are necessary Or, by a Directing Point, thus Let VF be the directing line, 0 the point of sight, and DG the intersecting line, AEB the original plane. Draw AV, at pleasure, meeting DG in D, and VF in V. Join OV, and draw Da parallel to VO, and let OA intersect D a in a. Then a is the representation of A. And as many points as may be thought necessary may be found in the same manner; but much labour will be saved by employing the same vanishing point for all the points in the circumference. In this case, the indefinite representations will be parallel to D a. PROBLEM 8. To find the representation of any figure in a plane parallel to the picture. The representation being similar to its original, (by Cor. 2, Theor. IV,) we have only to find the representation of one line of the original figure, and on that line, as a side, construct a figure whose homologous sides shall have the same ratio aa those of the original figure 124 PERSPECTIVE. PROBLEM 9. Given the intersecting and vanishing lines, the centre and distance of the vanishing line, with the representa- tion of a figure. To find the original of that figure, whose representation is given. Let it be proposed to find the original of the pentagon klmnp, 0 Produce the sides till they meet the intersecting line, in the points Q, R, T, and the vanishing line in the points G, H, I ; and produce kp to its vanishing point, V. Draw OG, OH, 01, OV, and QK, RM, IN, parallel to the first three respectively, meeting in L and M, which will be the originals of l and m. Draw Ok and On, which will meet QL and TM in the original points, K and N. Then draw KP parallel to OV ; and let Op be also drawn, meeting KP in P, which is the original of p. Lastly, draw NP, and we shall have KLMNP the original of klmnp. This problem being the reverse of Problem 7, the truth of the con. struction is manifest. H C V/s \l \ / / /JR. \ J'rSs MX/ BT J PROBLEM 10. The same data being given, to find the original of one representation only. Produce I, 1 1, to its vanishing point V ; and draw VO. In the vanishing line V take V 3 equal to VO. Join 31 , 311 , which produce to the intersecting points, 1, 2. Then will 1, 2 be the length required of the original I, II. PROBLEM 11. Given the vanishing line, its centre, and distance, with the representation of a line. To find the representation of another line, so that the originals of the two lines shall contain a given angle. Let G1 be the vanishing line, 0 the point of sight, and ab the representation given. Produce aft to its vanishing point, G. Join GO, and make the angle GOl equal to the given angle, and draw lea, which will be the line required. DEMONSTRATION. This is evident from Def. 14, and from Theor. Ill ; for the radials of two original lines which form an angle, make an angle equal to that of the originals. Then bac is the representation of that angle. PROBLEM 12. Given the vanishing line, its centre and distance, with the repre- sentation of one side of a triangle, whose species is given. To find the representation of the whole triangle. Let a ft be the given representation, which produce to its vanishing point, at G. Join GO, and make the angle GOI equal to the angle, which the side of the original triangle, whose representation is given, makes with the other side, terminating in the same point Draw OH to make an angle equal to the obtuse angle of the triangle. Join H ft, which produce to c ; then will a ft c be the representation required. o PERSPECTIVE. 125 PROBLEM 13. Given the vanishing line, its centre, and distance, with the representation of one side of any figure To find the representation of the whole figure. Resolve the figure into as many triangles as it has sides, by diagonals drawn from the nearest angle to all the other angles ; then find the representations of these triangles one after another. This may be done otherwise, by the application of the preceding problems. problem 14. Given the centre and distance of the picture, with the vanishing line of a plane, to find the vanishing point of lines perpendicular to that plane. Let AB be the given vanishing line, and C the centre of the picture. Through C draw AD, perpendicular, and CO parallel, to AB. Make CO equal to the distance of the picture. Join AO ; and draw OD perpendicular to AO. Then D is the vanishing point of the lines required. DEMONSTRATION. Suppose the triangle AOD to be turned round AD, as an axis, until its plane becomes perpendicular to the plane of the picftire. This done, the plane, passing through the point of sight 0, and the vanish- ing line AB, will be parallel to the original plane ; and the line OD will be perpendicular to this plane, passing through the point of sight, and, consequently, will be parallel to lines which are perpendicular to the original plane. Therefore D is the vanishing point of these lines. Cor. — The original plane is perpendicular to the picture, when the vanishing line AB passes through its centre. In this case, the vanishing point D will be infinitely distant, and the representations sought, per pendicular to AB. PROBLEM 15. Given the centre and distance of the picture, with the vanishing point of parallel lines. To find the vanishing line of a plane, whose original is perpendicular to the original parallel lines. Let C be the centre of the picture, and D the vanishing points of parallel lines. Through C draw DA, and let CO be perpendicular to DA. Make CO equal to the dis- tance of the picture. Join DO ; draw OA perpendicular to DO ; and, through A, draw AB parallel to CO. Then AB will be the vanishing line required, A its centre, and OA its distance. This construction necessarily follows from the preceding problem. PROBLEM 16. Given the centre and distance of the picture, with the vanishing line of parallel planes. To draw through a given point another vanishing line of a plane which is perpendicular to that plane, whose vanishing line is given ; 'and to find the centre and distance of the vanishing line thus drawn. Let AB be the given vanishing line, C the centre of the picture, and E the given point. Find (by Prob. 14.) the vanishing point D, of lines perpendicular to the original plane, whose vanishing line is AB. Join DE, which is the vanishing line required. Draw CF perpendicular to DE, meet- ing it in F, and F is the centre of the vanishing line DE (by Theor. I). With CF, as a base, and the distance of the picture as a perpendicular, draw a right-an- gled triangle ; then the hypothenuse is the distance of the vanishing line required. 2 K A B PERSPECTIVE. 7 2 6 DEMONSTRATION. Because the plane, whose vanishing line is required, is perpendicular to the other, whose vanishing line is given, its vanishing line must pass through the point D. Q. E. D. PROBLEM 17. Given the centre and distance of the picture, the vanishing line of the common intersection of two planes, inclined at a given angle, and the vanishing line of one of them, to find the vanishing line of the other. Let C be the centre of the picture, BG the given vanishing line of one of the planes, B the vanishing point of their common intersection, and H the angle of their inclination. Find the vanishing line, GD, of planes perpendicular to the lines whose vanishing point is B, (by Prob. 15,) and let that vanishing line cut the vanishing line given in G. In GD find the point E of lines, making a given angle, H, with the lines whose vanishing point is G, (by Prob. 11,) that is, in BCF, which is perpendicular to GFD ; make FP equal to the distance of the vanishing line, GD ; and draw PG and PE, making the angle EPG equal to H ; and draw BE, which is the vanishing line required. DEMONSTRATION. Draw CA perpendicular to BF, and equal to the distance of the picture, and join AF and AB , then will AF be equal to FP. Imagine the triangle, BAF, to bet urned on BF, until its plane be perpendicular to the picture. Imagine, also, the triangle, GPE, to be turned round GE, until FP coincide with FA ; and the planes BPG, DPB, will be parallel planes of the originals, whose vanishing lines are BG, GD, DB. Q E.D. EXAMPLES. In the application of Perspective to figures in the original plane, to save repetition in describing the dia- grams VL is the vanishing line, IN the intersecting line, C the centre of the picture, in the vanishing line VL. CP is drawn perpendicular to VL, and equal to the distance of the picture. ( Fig . 1, Plate LXX.) The space below the intersecting line, IN, is supposed to be the original plane. The space above the va- nishing line, VL, may either be considered as a continuation of the picture upwards, or the plane which passes through the eye parallel to the original plane. Ex. 1. — To find the representation of a point A. {Fig. 2, Plate LXX.) In CP make PD equal to the height of the eye. Draw Ay towards D, meeting IN iny. Through A draw any line, AI ; and draw Pa parallel thereto, meeting the vanishing line in a ; and join la. Draw a per- pendicular to IN, from f, to meet I a ; and the point of intersection will be the representation of the original point A. * . . , Here the point D is used as a directing point ; and where it appears in the subsequent diagrams, it is used for the same purpose. Ex. 2. — To find the vanishing point of an original line, AB. {Fig. 2.) Draw Pa parallel to AB, meeting the vanishing line in a ; then a is the vanishing point required. Ex. 3. — To find the intersecting point of a given line, AB. {Fig. 2.) Produce BA to meet the internetting line in I ; then I is the point required. Ex. 4. — To find the indefinite representation of the line, AB. {Fig. 2.) Find the vanishing point a, (as m Example 2,) and the intersecting point d, (as in Example 3.) Join ad, and ad will be the representation required. PERSPECTIVE. 127 Ex 5._An original line, AB, {Fig. 2,) a point in that line, and the indefinite representation, a d, being given ; to find the representation of the point. Draw A/ towards D, meeting the intersecting line in/, and draw/a perpendicular to IN, meeting the inde- finite representation ad in a; then a is the representation of the point A, as required. Hence we may find the representation of a line, AB, limited at both ends. Ex. 6. — To find the representation of any plane figure. Find the indefinite representation of all the sides, and the space enclosed by these representations will be the representation of the figure. Figure 3 shows the representation of a triangle : Jig. 4 the representation of a square ; and Jig. 5 the repre- sentation of a hexagon. Ex . 7. — To find the representation of a circle. {Fig. 6.) Find the representation, abed, of a square, circumscribing the circle ; draw the diagonal of the trapezium which represents the square ; find the representation of two lines, touching the circle in E and F : and the representations, e and /, of these points, with the intersection of the two diagonals of the trapezium, is in the representation of the circle. Draw a line to each vanishing point of the square, through the representation of the centre, to cut or meet each line of the representation of the sides. Through the four points of the trapezium, and the two points e and/, describe an ellipse, which will De ills representation required. Ex. 8 ,Jig 7, shows the representation of a circle, by drawing parallel lines through the figure, and finding the indefinite representation of these lines, with the representations of the points where the parallels cut the origi- nal circle. An ellipse being described through the points thus found, will be the representation of the circle. Ex. 9.— Fig. 1, pi. LXXI, exhibits the representation of a rectangular block, as it would appear if placed on the ground, and also as it would appear if placed above the level of the eye. The heights are set off on the perpendicular, f e, from the intersecting point, e. Ex. 10. — To find the representation of a square pyramid. Let ABCD, {fig. 2,) be the plan. Produce DA to its intersecting point e, and draw g "oarallel to DA. Find the representations of the sides AD and AB by the preceding examples. From the centre of the plan, g, draw a line to the directing point D : and from the point where this line cuts the intersecting line, IN, raise an indefinite perpendicular; also, draw hf perpendicular to IN, and equal to the height of the pyramid. From h, draw a line to the. vanishing point V, cutting the indefinite perpendicular in g ; then g is the vertex of the pyramid ; and join gd,ga, and g b, which will complete the representation. Ex. 11. — To find the representation of a frustum of a square pyramid, fig. 3. Find the representation of the entire pyramid, as in the last example ; and let ejgh be a plan of the top ot the frustum. Draw e/to its intersecting point m, and make mn perpendicular to IN, and equal to the height of the frustum. From n, draw a line to the vanishing point V, which will give ef, the edge of the frustum ; and from /draw, to the other vanishing point, L, the line fg, which completes the frustum. Ex. 12. — To find the representation of a con e,fg. 4. Find the representation of the base, as in the example {fig. 6, pi. LXX.) ; and the representation of the vertex (as in Example 10). Then join om and on, which complete the picture of the cone. Ex. 13. — Fig. 5, plate LXXI, is a representation of a wall, with a semi-octagon tower projecting from it. Towers of this kind are very common in Gothic buildings. Ex. 14. — Fig. 6 shows an example of a round tower joining a. straight wall These two examples may be considered as exercises of the application of the rules ahead}' giien. Ex. 15. — To find the representation of a flight of returning steps. {Fig. I, plate LXXII.) Produce the lines that fonn the boundary, and the lines that divide the steps on the plan to their intei secting points, e,f,g, and find the vanishing points of these lines. From the points e,f,g, chaw perpen- diculars to the intersecting lines. On each of these perpendiculars set the respective heights ol the steps, one. draw lines from the extremities of each to the vanishing point. 128 PERSPECTIVE. Find the termination of each face by the perpendicular lines, as seen in -ae figure, and also the vanish- ing point of the other side. Draw lines to this point from the comers of the faces, which lines will repre- sent the heights. Find the terminations of these faces ; then the returning lines being drawn to each va- nishing point, will complete the representation of the steps as required. p x 16 , pig. 2 is the representation of a flight of steps, with kirbs at the tuds. The perspective heights are found, by finding a section of the steps on the plane of the picture, and the lengths are found by the direct- ing point D. p Xt 17 —Fig. 3 is the representation of a square tower. The first thing to be done is to find a section of the face, as shown by a dark line. Set the heights of the door and windows upon this line, and draw lines from the points of the section to the vanishing points of that side of the plan. By this mean, all the projecting parts, as cornice and plinth, will be found. Then, having found the perspective breadth of the front, the ter- minations of the cornice, and breadth of the windows, the front will he finished. The return end will be found in a similar manner to the last two examples. E X . 18. — To find the representation of a tower and spire. Our first object is to find the representation of the rectangular part, and on this draw the perpendicular lines that represent the angles of the octagon. Produce DA, {fig. 4,) on the plan, to L, its intersecting point. Draw LU perpendicular to IN. Set off the height of the tower and pediment on LU. Draw lines from these heights to the vanishing point V. As the vertex of the pyramid is not in the same plane with the front, draw YP & through the centre of the plan, parallel to the front line AD, meeting IN in P. Draw PR perpendicular to IN. Set the height of the spire from the ground on PR, and draw RV. Draw a line from Y to D, meeting IN ; and, from the point of meeting, draw a perpendicular to the intersecting line, and the point where it meets RV is the vertex of the pyramid. The sides of the spire are found by drawing lines from points in the lines, ad, ad, which represent the angles on the plan. Fx. 19. Fig 5 represents an arcade, or range of arches. The pillars are drawn, like as many square towers, of a certain height. The arches are found by circumscribing a rectangle on each, drawing the diagonals, and making the heights of the points, r,q,m,l, double the heights of the arches ; then drawing lines to each of these points, from the chord line of each arch, to cut the diagonals. The elliptic heads will pass through these points, and through the points where the perpendiculars meet the top side of the representation of the rectangle. The circular heads of the inner face are drawn in the same way. The cornice and plinth are drawn as in the square tower, figure 3. p x 20.— Fig. 6 exhibits the representation of a square tower, consisting of different stages. Of this nothing can be said more than what has already been explained, and what will be understood by the lines in the drawing. p x 21. Plate LXXIII. shows the representation of a denticulated cornice. The profiles of the mouldings, in the representation, are found by means of the section, in dark lines, and the terminations, or lengths, are found as in the preceding examples. In this example the plan is above the representation ; an arrangement which shows the relations of the lines in a more evident manner, and which, in some cases, is more convenient than placing it below. Ex. 22 .— Plate LXXIV. exhibits the representation of e house, with a cantiliver cornice. The heights of the mouldings and pediment are found Irom the line of heights, which is the intersection of a plane passing through the ridge of the roof: the heights of the steps may also be found from the same. The vertical lines which terminate the fronts, the breadth of the windows, and the chimney shaft, may be found from the plan, which is placed above the perspective drawing for the convenience of drawing the perpen- diculars, from the intersecting line, AD, to the several terminations of the representation. Through the oblique lines of the pediment may be drawn the two ends of each inclined cornice. They will, however, be more elegantly found by means of Problem 14. Fx. 23 .— Plate LXXV, Perspective, Grecian Doric. This plate is a representation of the Grecian Doric PROJECTION. I ’29 and entablature in perspective, with a geometrical outline of the mouldings. It illustrates the use of per- spective, in showing the manner of finishing the parts of this chaste and simple order, in a case where it is dif- ficult to render it intelligible by geometrical drawings alone. A good perspective representation has nearly the same advantages as a model in such cases. Ex. 24. — Plate LXXVI, Ionic Capital in Perspective. This is another example of the use of perspective in elucidating the disposition of parts, which are often not clearly understood by those who have not an oppor- tunity of examining good specimens of the orders. Ex. 25. — Plate LXXVII, Corinthian Order. It is evident from the principles of Perspective, that there is only one point from whence a picture can be seen in its true form, and that point is the point of sight. {Def. 3.) If the point of sight be made too near to the plane of the picture, the eye cannot take in all its parts at once ; and, consequently, the picture cannot produce an agreeable effect as a whole. The representation is also dis- torted and unnatural, from the parts diminishing too rapidly. The distance of the point of sight, from the plane of the picture, which is best suited to the power of the eye, is between two and three times the breadth of the picture. The distance most commonly adopted by artists of taste, is about two and a half times the breadth. PROJECTION. — — The most useful kinds of architectural drawing depend upon the Theory of Projection, and, consequently, its principles ought to form a part of that stock of knowledge which is essential to a student in architecture. Some of the principles of projection are so easily comprehended, that they are acted upon without previous study ; others are so difficult, that few are competent to apply them. For example, the plan of a building is a projection of it on a horizontal plane ; and an elevation of a building is its projection on a vertical plane. In these simple operations no difficulties occur ; but there are many cases which arise in carpentry, joinery, and masonry, where a profound experience in projection is required. To a workman, skill in projection is a great acquisition ; it enables him to form a clear conception of intri- cate forms, and to foresee how different parts will join or connect with each other. It enables him to understand drawings and designs with readiness, and to work to them with certainty and accuracy. The doctrine of shadows depends on the principles of projection, and the advantage of knowing how to shadow properly is so evident that we need not say more on the subject. But there is another application of the art of projection, which is less generally understood, that is, as a mode of representing such objects as are always caricatured in attempting to draw them in perspective. To this class of objects belong all small models, machines, pieces of furniture, and the like ; for such objects, projection is the most simple and convenient mode of representation. Maps and plans, of various kinds, are drawn by the rules of Projection ; and the use of these rules is extensive in many arts and sciences. We shall, however, confine ourselves to its principles and application to architectural subjects. DEFINITIONS. 1. — If a perpendicular be let fall from a point to a plane, the place where the perpendicular meets that plane is the projection of that point. Hence, as lines, surfaces, and solids, may be conceived to be composed of points, they may be projected upon a plane. 2 i. 130 PROJECTION. 2 __a plane of projection is that plane on which the projection is to be made. It is also called the plane of representation. 3> when a projection is made on a horizontal plane, it is called the plan of the object. 4 when the projection is made on a vertical plane, it is called the elevation of the object. 5 —When the projection exhibits an object, as it would appear if cut by a vertical plane, the representation is called a section. 6 _A primitive plane is that which contains a point, a line, or a plane surface, of a given object. PROPOSITION. The projection of a straight line is a straight line. If the given straight line be parallel to the plane of projection, it is projected into an equal straight line ; but, if the given line be inclined to the plane of pro- jection, the given straight line will be to its projection, as the radius is to the co-sine of the angle of inclination. Solution.— Let a plane, perpendicular to the plane of projection, pass through the given straight line. The intersection of that plane, with the plane of projection, will be a straight line, ( Euclid , 3 prop., XI. book,) and {Def. 1,) the intersection contains the projection of the given line. From each extremity of the given line, AB, {Jig. 1, pi. LXXX,) let fall a perpendicular to the intersecting line, IL ; then, the part of that line, intercepted between the perpendiculars A a, Bft, is the projection of the given line. If the given line be parallel to the plane of projection, then, because the perpendiculars are parallel to each other, and the given line parallel to the intersecting line, the projection must be equal to the given line. If the given line be inclined to the plane of projection, and AB, {Jig. 1,) he that line, IL the intersecting line, and a b the projection intercepted between the perpendiculars A a and B b. Draw BC parallel to IL, and the angle ABC will be equal to the angle of inclination of the given line to the plane of projection. Now AB being the radias, BC, or its equal, ba, is the co-sine of the angle of inclination ; therefore AB is to aft as the radius is to the co-sine of inclination. Cor. 1 . — The projection of a straight line, perpendicular to the plane of projection, is a point. q 0 r. 2 . If several straight lines, having the same inclination to the plane of projection, be projected, each of the originals will have to its projection the same ratio- Cor. 3.— A plane angle, parallel to the plane of projection, is projected into an equal plane angle. Cor. 4 _A plane angle, inclined to the plane of projection, is projected into an angle of which the sine is reduced in the ratio of the radius to the co-sine of inclination. Cor. 5. — Lines which are parallel in the original are parallel in the projection. Cor. 6. Any plane figure, parallel to the plane of projection, is projected into an equal and similar figure. 0 ORi 7 # The area of any plane figure is to the area of its projection, as the radius is to the co-sine of its inclination to the plane of projection. Cor. 8 . The projection of a circle inclined to the plane of projection is an ellipse, of which the transverse diameter is equal to the diameter of the circle ; and the conjugate diameter is to the diameter of the circle, as the co-sine of inclination is to the radius. PROBLEMS. Problem 1. To find the projection of a point, situate in a plane inclined to the plane of projection in a given angle. Let IL {Jig. 2) be the intersecting line of the two planes, and A the given point. From A draw A a perpen- dicular to IL. Make wY a equal to the angle of inclination of the two planes, and V w equal to VA. From w draw a line parallel to IL, intersecting Aains; then a is the projection of the point A. PROJECTION. 131 Illustration. — Conceive DLIC to be the plane of projection, and LEFI the plane, containing the point A ; and that these planes turn on the line 1L as an axis. Also, let the triangle Yaw turn on the line a V, as an axis, till it be perpendicular to the plane of projection DI, and turn the plane El on IL, as an axis, till AV coin- cides with wY ; then aw? is obviously a perpendicular from the plane of projection to the given point ; and therefore a is projection of A. Remark.— It is often necessary in practice to make all the projections of an object on the same sheet of pa- per, or on the same area ; therefore, we conceive all the planes to be spread out, or laid flat in one and the same plane ; and, when we wish to consider them in their true positions, we imagine them to revolve on their intersecting lines as axes. It is for this reason that Monge, a celebrated Fiench author on this subject, very properly recommends that the intersecting lines should be drawn in a distinct manner. Problem 2.— To find the projection of a line situate in a plane, inclined to the plane of projection in a given angle. Let IL [figures 3 and 4,) he the intersecting line of the two planes, and AB the given line. From the ex- tremities of AB draw A a and B b, perpendicular to IL. Make bY tv equal to the angle formed by the planes, and find the projection of the point B, (as in Problem 1.) Then, if the line be inclined to the intersecting line, (as in hg. 3,) produce AB, till it meets the intersecting line IL, in L. Join Lb, and a b will be the projection of AB- If the given line be parallel to IL, (as in fig. 4,) from b, found as before, draw a line parallel to IL, meet- ing A a in a, and a b is the projection of AB. Problem 3. To find the projection of a plane curve, situate in a plane, which is inclined to the plane of projection in a given angle. Let IL {fig. 5) be the intersecting line of the two planes, and ABCD points in the curve, the number oi which may be increased at pleasure. Draw a line, ACL, to touch the curve at C ; and find the projection of this line, and of the points G, H, where it is crossed by lines drawn from D and B to V. Draw Dd, C c, and B b perpendicular to IL ; and from V draw hV , gY, produced to meet the perpendiculars in d and b ; then the points a,b,c,d, are the projections of the points A, B,C,D, in the curve; and a curve drawn through abed will be the projection required. Another Method.— Let IG, {fig. 2, Plate LXXXI,) be a line drawn in the same plane with the curve, and let HI be the projection of that line, found by Prob. 2. From any point. A, in the curve, draw a line parallel to IL, cutting it in k. Make kn and A a perpendicular to IL, the former meeting HI in n. From n draw a line parallel to IL ; and the point a, where it meets A a, is the projection of the point A. The projections of any other points, B, C, D, E, being found in the same manner, the curve drawn through them will be the projection of the given curve. Problem 4. To find the projection of a plane angle situate in a plane, which is inclined to the plane of projection in a given angle. Let IL { fig. 6, plate LXXX,) be the intersecting line, and ABC the given angle. Determine the pro- jections of the lines AB, AC, by Prob. 2 ; and the angle abc will be the projection of ABC. The projection of a plane triangle is found in the same manner, being completed by joining the points be as shown by dotted lines in the figure. The projection of a parallelogram is also effected in a similar manner. For let the angle ABC, {fig. 7,) be projected by the last problem ; and draw ad parallel to be, and dc parallel to ab ; then abed is the pro- jection of the parallelogram ABCD. Problem 5.— To find the projection of a pentagon, situate in a plane which is inclined to the plane of pro- jection in a given angle. Let a pentagon, ABCDE, [fig. 8,) be described, and project the side AE by Problem 2. Produce ED AD BD, and BC, to the intersecting line; and from the points of intersection to a, draw ac and ad , also’ from the points of intersection, draw db parallel to ea, ed parallel to ac, and be parallel to ad Join a b; and the figure, abede, is the projection of the pentagon ABCDE 132 PROJECTION. Problem 6. — To find the projection of a circle. Let IL {Jig. 1, plate LXXXI,) be the intersecting line, and HI the proie^tion of any line, 01. Perpen- dicular to IL draw lines, A a, D d, &c. from as many points in the circle as may be considered sufficient ; ana from the same points draw lines parallel to IL, to meet the line GI. From the points where these parallels meet GI, draw lines perpendicular to IL to meet IH ; and parallels to IL, drawn from the points of inter- section in IH, will meet the perpendiculars A a,Dd, &c. in the points a, d,b &c. in the projection, corres- ponding to the points ADB, &c. in the circle. Since the projection of a circle is an ellipse, {Cor. 8,) it will be sufficient to find the projection of the dia- meters, AC and BE ; and on these diameters describe an ellipse by any of the methods given in Practical Geometry. Problem 7. — To find the projection of a line perpendicular to a plane, of which the position is given. Let IL be the intersecting line, {Jig. 9, plate LXXX,) and A the point in the given plane, to which the line is perpendicular. Draw A b perpendicular to IL, and make aV w equal to the angle the given plane makes with the plane of projection ; also make V to equal AV. Let BD, drawn perpendicular to V w, be the given line; and from B and D draw lines parallel to IL, cutting A b in the points b and d ; then bd is the projection of the line BD. Problem 8. — To determine the projection of a line, which is inclined in a given angle, to a plane, of which the position is given. Let AB ( Jig. 10^ be the given line, and BAC its inclination to the primitive plane. Make BC perpendi- cular to AC, and AC is its projection on the primitive plane. Let c V w be the angle, which the primitive plane makes with the plane of projection, and find the projection of the line AC, by Problem 2. Make wx perpen- dicular to wV, and equal to BC ; and from x draw a line parallel to IL, meeting the perpendicular C b in b. Join ab, and it is the projection of AB. Problem 9. — To determine the projection of a triangular pyramid, ( fig. 11.) Let the pyramid stand upon a plane, which is inclined to the plane of projection, in the angle oV w, and let xy be its perpendicular height, and ABC the plan of its base. Project the plan of the base, by Problem 4, and draw D d perpendicular to IL. From x draw a line parallel to IL, cutting D d in d ; then d is the projection of the vertex of the pyramid : and join dc, da, and db, and it completes the projection of the pyramid. Problem 10. — To determine the projection of a rectangular prism, {Jigs. 3 and 4, plate LXXXI.) Figure 3 supposes the primitive plane to coincide with the upper end of the prism ; and Jig. 4 sup- poses the primitive plane to coincide with the base of the prism ; but the process is the same in both cases. Let ABCD represent the end of the prism which is given, and find its projection, abed, by Problem 4. Also, find the projection by, of the angle or arris of the prism, by Problem 7, XY being the height. From the point y, draw lines parallel to be and ba, and complete the parallelogram yxivv, in Jig. 3. Problem 11. — To determine the projection of an oblique prism, {Jig. 5.) Let EGH be the inclination of the arris of the prism to its base, and BF the projection of that arris on the primitive plane. Find the projection of the base, ABCD, by Problem 4, and the projection of the arris by Problem 8, and complete the representation, as in the last Problem. Problem 12. — To determine the projection of a right cylinder, {fig. 6.) Find the projection of the base by Problem 6, and the projection of its altitude by Problem 7, as indicated bv the figure. 133 SHADOWS. — + — The Theory of Shadows is founded on the supposition that light is propagated in straight lines. This s im- position is not strictly true ; but it does not sensibly differ from the truth in any case where we have occasion to apply it in finding shadows. As shadows from artificial lights are seldom introduced in architectural drawings, we propose to con- fine our rules to those produced by the sun ; and the sun’s rays may be considered parallel to one another in consequence of its immense distance, compared with the distances of any objects on the earth’s surface. DEFINITIONS. 1. — Those parts of a body which receive the direct rays of the sun are said to he in light. 2. — Those parts of a body which do not receive the direct rays of the sun are said to be in shade. 3. — That part of a surface which is deprived of light, by another body intercepting the sun’s rays, is said to be in shadow. The doctrine of shadows has two objects, viz. — to determine the boundary of light and shade, and to find the form of the shadow. In architectural drawings, the breadth of a shadow is usually made equal to the depth of the projection which produces it ; and an adherence to this simple rule has several advantages, besides its convenience in application ; for, when it is attended to, the real quantities of projection or recession are shown by a shadowed elevation, rendering it at once ornamental and useful. But though the shadows are equal to the projections, and the drawing is said to be shadowed at an angle of 45°, the inclination of the sun’s rays to the plane of the horizon is only 35° 16' ;* and it is the projection oi the direction of the sun’s rays against the vertical plane which make an angle of 45° with the horizon. EXAMPLES. Ex. 1. — To find the shadow of a small rod projecting at right angles, from a vertical plane. Let h {Jig. 1, plate LXXXIII, Shadows ,) be the point in the plane from which the rod projects, and a A its plan ; ZX being the base line, or intersecting line of the plan and vertical plane. From A, draw Ac in the direction of the sun’s rays, (which is 45° in these Examples,) and raise the indefi- nite perpendicular cd. From b draw bd, in the projected direction of the sun’s rays, (which is also 45° in these Examples,) intersecting cd in e? ; then bd will be the shadow of the rod. Ex. 2. — To find the shadow of a vertical plane, situate at right angles to the vertical plane on which it forms the shadow. Let AB, {Jig- 2,) be the plan of the plane, and a b its elevation. Draw Be, Ad, in the direction of the sun’s rays ; and from c and d raise vertical lines. From b draw a line in the projected direction of the rays, cutting the vertical lines in e and / ; and cefd will be the boundary of the shadow against the vertical plane. Ex. 3. — To determine the shadow which a rectangular plane will form against a wall, when the plane is inclined to the wall. Let AB, {Jig. 3,) be the plan of the plane, and aahb its elevation. Draw Ac, Be?, parallel to the direction of the sun’s rays, and raise vertical lines from c and d. From a and h draw lines parallel to the projected direction of the rays, cutting the vertical lines in e,f. Join ef, and cefd is the boundary of the shadow on the wall. Ex. 4. — To find the shadow projected, by a square pillar, against a wall. From A, B, and C, on the plan of the pillar, draw lines, parallel to the direction of the sun’s rays, to the Dase line ; and from the points thus found, in the base line, raise vertical lines. Draw lines parallel to the * For the radius is to the tangent of the sun’s inclination as tj 2 : 1. Hence, the radius being made unity, the tangent is ~7= •, and its logarithm 0-849485, which corresponds, nearly, to the tangent of 35° 16'. v 2 2 M 134 SHADOWS projected direction of the sun’s rays from the points g,h, in the elevation, meeting the vertical lines in n, m, and s. Join nm and ms, which determine the boundary of the shadow. The shadow of a triangular prism, {jig- 5,) is found by the same process, as will be obvious from the lines on the figure. Ex. 5. — To find the shadow, projected against a wall, by a square pillar, with a square abacus or cap, and also the shadow of the cap against the pillar, {jig. 6.) Draw lines, parallel to the direction of the sun’s rays, to the base line, from the points A, D, and C, in the plan of the cap * and from the points E, H, in the plan of the pillar, extending the lines which pass through the points H and E, till they meet the plan of the cap. From each of the points thus found in the base line, draw indefinite vertical lines. Draw a vertical line from the point L, and also from the one adjoining E, to meet the under edge of the cap. From these points in the under edge of the cap, and from the angles a, d, e , r, draw lines parallel to the pro- jected direction of the sun’s rays, which will meet the verticals in the points m,p,o, &c. Join these points, and the boundary of the shadow against the wall will be obtained. From the point where the projected direction of the rays, from the under edge of the cap, cuts the angle e of the pillar, draw a line parallel to the edge of the cap, then join the point where this parallel meets the angle,/, with the point where the ray, from the part of the under edge of the cap, corresponding to L on the plan, meets the angle h, and the boundary of the shadow of the cap will be determined. Figure 7 shows the lines for projecting the shadow of a horizontal cross, resting upon a square pillar ; and Jig, 8 exhibits the shadows of an entablature, supported by four square pillars. Ex. 6. — To determine the shadow which a cylindrical abacus, or cap, casts upon its column ; and also the shadow projected against a wall by the column and cap, jig. 9. Let a line, perpendicular to the direction of the sun’s rays, be drawn through the centre of the column on the plan ; then, if vertical lines be drawn from the points where this perpendicular cuts the outlines of the column and cap, such vertical lines will determine the boundaries of light and shade ; and, on the light side of these boundaries, the form of the shadow will be determined by the under edge of the cap ; and on the shade side by the upper edge of the cap. To find the shadow of any point, E, of the edge of the cap against the column, draw EG parallel to the direction of the sun’s rays, and draw a vertical line from E, to meet the under edge of the cap ; and one from G, upon the surface of the column. (This line is omitted in the figure.) Then, from where the vertical from E meets the edge of the cap, draw a line parallel to the projected direction of the rays to meet the vertical from G, in the point g, and g will be the boundary of the shadow. In the same manner, several points in the boun- dary may be determined, and the line of shadow drawn through them. Again, to find any point in the boundary of the shadow against the wall, as for example, the point C, draw C d parallel to the direction of the light ; and from d draw an indefinite vertical line. Since C is on the shade side, the shadow will be cast by the upper edge of the cap ; therefore, draw a vertical line from C, meeting the upper edge in c; and from c draw a line parallel to the projected direction of the rays of light, meeting the vertical from d in the point e ; then e is in the boundary of the shadow, and any other points may be found in the same manner. The shadow projected by a square cap upon an octagon pillar is shown by jig. 10 ; also the shadow formed on a wall by the pillar and its cap. Figure 1 1 exhibits the shadow cast by a square abacus on a column, and the shadow they form on a wall. In both these figures the shadows are determined, as in the preceding examples. Ex. 7. — Figure 1, plate LXXXII, represents the shadow projected against a wall by a balcony, with its cantalivers. ABCD is the plan, and ab the elevation of the balcony, and IL the case line. From the points A, K, E, and F, draw lines parallel to the direction of the rays of light to intersect the base line, and raise indefinite perpendiculars from each of the points of intersection. Also, from the points a,k,e,j\g , and h , in the eleva- tion, draw lines parallel to the projected direction of the rays of light, meeting the indefinite perpendiculars in SHADOWS. 135 the points m,n,o,p. Draw «. and op parallel to the base line ; and when the shadow g r ot the other canta- liver is found, by the same method as the one which is described, the boundary of the shadow on the wall will The shadow against the end of the cantaliver is found by drawing FG parallel to the rays of light ; and the ray, from the corresponding point g, in the elevation, meets the arris, /, of the cantaliver, m the boundary of tbe shadow, which is parallel to the edge kh of the balcony. , , . Ex . 8 — Fig. 2 shows the shadows projected by a pedestal upon a flight of steps, both in plan and elevation. A is the elevation, and B the plan of the flight of steps. From the points C on the plan, and c in the e e- vation, draw lines parallel to the direction of the rays of light, intersecting the lines of the steps in f,e,d, and E, D. The vertical dotted lines from these points determine the boundary of shadow on the plan, and on t it elevation, as will be evident from the figure. TT . ,, r - f1 Ex 9. — Fiqure . 3 represents the shadow projected by a pediment against a wall. IL is the base hue, with the plan of the pediment below it, and the elevation above it. It will be obvious that the shadows of the arrises of the pediment, which meet in the point h, are bounded by lines parallel to those arrises meeting in „ : but when the projection of the upper members of the cornice is such that the arris ho is in shadow, the shadow of the under edge of the fillet g must be found, which is mr in this example. The otliei pans of this example being similar to the preceding ones, it is unnecessary to repeat the construction. Ex 10.— To find the shadow of a rectangular niche, with a semi-circular head. ABCD (fig. «,) is a plan of the niche, and ad. its elevation. Find the shadow m of the point e. the centre of the arch ; and from m, as a centre, describe the arc op, with the same radius as the arch. The rest of the process is evident from the figure. _ . Ex 1 1 —In a portion of a pilaster, to find the shadow of the flutes in plan and elevation. From the centre 0, (fig. 4,) draw OG perpendicular to the direction of the rays of light then OG is the line of light and shade, and the vertical Gy gives the point g, from whence the shadow in the elevation com- mences ; and the shadows of the points, a,d,e,f, may be found in this manner, taking the point c for examp e Draw Ei and ek parallel to the direction of the rays ; and from i draw the vertical t k, meeting eh in , then k is the shadow of the point e. . The shadow of the arris ah, is a portion of an ellipse cm ; for the section through AC, in the plane of the arris, is a circle, and its projection is an ellipse, of which ch is the conjugate, and AC the transverse dtameter ; and if the ellipse be described on its conjugate ch, the line hm, parallel to the direction of the light, will cut the ellipse in the point where the shadow quits it. If on be drawn perpendicular to the direction of the rays, » is the termination of the shadow ; and it may be shown that the shadow of the arc hn is also a portion of an ellipse ; but a more general method is somewhat easier in practice, besides being app ica e to any spe Let the shadow of any point, be required; q being the corresponding point on the plan. Draw qi parallel to the rays of light ; and let tsr be a section through tq ; which, in this example, is an arc o a cue e. Of which «, is the centre. From r, draw r., to make an angle of 35° 16' with qt; then a perpendicular from the point stoat, gives the point a?, through which the shadow passes on the plan ; and if a line be drawn from v, parallel to the direction of the rays of light, the point where a vertical line from * meets that line, wi oe in the boundary of the shadow in the elevation. Ex 12 —Figure 6 represents the shadow thrown against the back of the circular niche by its arns. ABC is the plan, and acb the elevation of the niche, and d the centre. Draw d6 perpendicular- to tne direction of the rays of light, then the point 6 is the termination of the shadow. From each of t re points, , 1. 2 and 3, on the plan, draw lines to the back of the niche, in a direction parallel to the rays of light , perpendiculars from the points where they meet the back, will. meet the directions of the rays from the corres- «, 1,2,3 in the elevation, in the boundary of the shadow. To find the shadow of any other point, as 5, let fo be drawn parallel to the direction of the light, and fr perpendicular to fo, passing iroug the centre D ; and 5m parallel to fr. From the point/ describe the arc om ; and make mn inclined o of In an angle of 38° 16'. Draw np parallel to fr, and the vertical, from the point p, will meet the dnection DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. 136 ;# v • *"•* ' 4 i the light, from the point 5 in the elevation, in the boundary of the shadow. Any other points in its boundary be found in the same manner. The shadows on the sections of domes, groins, and the like, are easily found by the same methods. Figure 7 shows the shadow on the section of a circular room, with a level ceiling. Having shown the methods of finding the shadows produced by the direct rays of the sun, the management of shadows, cast by reflected light on the parts of bodies in shade, will easily be obtained. The light must be considered to proceed from the reflecting surface, and the depth of shadow should be in proportion to the quantity of light it reflects. The direction of the reflected light may be determined from the well-known optical principle, that whatever angle the sun’s rays make with the reflecting plane, they will be reflected in an equal angle from the plane in the opposite direction. Hence the shadows, from reflected light, are usually the reverse of the shadows produced by the direct rays of the sun ; that is, if the one be cast downward the other will be cast upward. We shall close this part of our subject with recommending the student to study from nature. His know- ledge of the geometrical description of shadows will aid him in his researches, and nature will offer him new examples to exercise his skill in geometry. DECIMAL ARITHMETIC, &c. + DECIMAL FRACTIONS. At what time, or by whose ingenuity. Decimal Arithmetic was first introduced, is a subject quite unknown ; but the perfection which it has now attained is, doubtless, owing to modern times. In Decimal Fractions, the integer or unit, (whether it be a unit of time, of weight, or of measure,) is sup- posed to be divided into ten equal parts ; and each of those parts is again supposed to be sub-divided into ten equal parts, and so on to infinity, according to the powers of ten. The integer thus divided is to be considered as the numerator of a fraction, while 10, and its successive powers, compose the denominator. Thus T | &c - t0 infinity. But, in dividing by one with any number of cyphers annexed, it is usual to cut off from the dividend as many places towards the right as there are cyphers in the divisor; therefore, since the denominator of a decimal fraction is always one with some determinate number of cyphers annexed, it may be rejected in every case, and a point or period used in place of it : thus, ^ may be denoted by ’7, and by -07. Hence it appears, that cyphers placed to the left of a decimal fraction, decrease its value exactly in the same proportion that cyphers placed to the right of whole numbers increase their value ; that is, in a proportion rising by the successive powers of 10. The following Table will exhibit the relation between the integral and fractional scales p Whole Numbers. 1 Decimal Fractions. H CD H S" ffi a Ter d £3 ►d p | -d p T) n '■d p E5 C/2 a a C/J 00 til C/2 C/2 C/2 C/2 O C/3 § cd C O o O O — *-> o H ta o a P C/2 P 00 P o CD H CD p w a p H o S H H p g § p. p H CD m p C P o o ►M C/2 C| p- 5- p a p a • • • • p- p- • 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. m X From this it appears that Decimal Fractions are really more like whole numbers than Vulgar Fractions are ; and the various processes to be performed on them are precisely the same, the place of the point, or period, that marks the fraction, being the only difference to he attended to. ADDITION OF DECIMALS. Rule. — Place the numbers under each other, according to the value of their places. Find their sum, as in whole numbers, and point off as many places for decimals as are equal to the greatest number of decimal places in any of the given numbers. Examples.— 1. Find the sum of 25-635+7-0625-f 32-125+-00632-5+-75 + 11-010325: 25-635 7-0625 32-125 •006325 •75 11-010325 76-589150 Where the cypher on the right-hand side of the decimal may be omitted, as it does not alter the value of the fraction. 2. — Find the sum of 376-25+86-125 + 637-4725+6-5+358-865-f 41-02.— Ans. 1506-2325 3. — Find the sum of 3-5 + 47-25 +927-0 1+2-0073+ 1-5.— Ans. 981-2673. 4— Find the sum of 276+54-321+-65 + 112 + L25-f -0463.— Ans. 444-2673. SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS. Rule. — Subtract, as in whole numbers, and mark off the decimals, as in Addition. Examples. — 1. Find the difference between 2464-21 and 327-07643. 2464-21 32707643 2137-13357 2. — Find the difference between 127-62 and 13-725. — Ans. 113-895. 3. — Find the difference between 603-5725 and 32‘0012. — Ans. 571-5713. 4. — Find the difference between -65325 and -0735. — Ans. -57975. MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS. Rule. — Multiply as in whole numbers, and cut off as many decimal places from the product as are con- tained in both factors. If there be not so many places in the product as there are decimal places in Doth factors, the deficiency must be supplied by prefixing cyphers to the left-hand side of the product. Examples. — 1. Required the product of -325 and 32‘5. 32-5 325 1625 650 975 10-5625 2. — Multiply -0375 by 33-7 5.— Ans. 1-265625. 3. — Multiply -63478 by -8204 .—Ans. -520773512. 4. — Multiply -385746 by -00464.— Ans. 00178986144. 2 n 138 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. DIVISION OF DECIMALS. Rule. — Divide as in wnole numbers; and from the right-hand side of the quotient point off as many places for decimals, as the decimal places in the dividend exceed those of the divisor. If there are not so many places in the quotient, the deficiency must be supplied by prefixing cyphers to the left of the quotient If there be a remainder, cyphers may be annexed to the dividend, and the division continued. Examples. — 1. Divide 395-275 by 3-75. 3-75)395-275 (105-406 375 2027 1875 1525 1500 2500 2250 250 Here the number 250 would recur at every step : hence the quotient figure would always be the same, and this kind of decimal is said to repeat. Whence the appellation of repeaters. 2. — Divide 234-70525 by 64-25.— Ans. 3-653. 3. — Divide 217-568 by 1000.— Ans. -217568. 4. — Divide -408408 by 52.— Ans. -007854. REDUCTION OF DECIMALS. Case 1. — To reduce a vulgar fraction to a decimal of equal value. Rule. — Multiply the numerator by 10, or its power, and divide by the denominator. Examples. — 1. Reduce \ to a decimal fraction. 2 . — Reduce | to a decimal fraction. 3 — Reduce to a decimal fraction. 4. — Reduce §■ to a decimal fraction. 2) 1-0 •5 4) 1.00 -25 5) 1-0 •2 8) 1-000 •125 Note . — What number of cyphers more than one we have to annex before the division succeeds, so many cy phers must be placed on the left side of the first significant figure in the quotient. Examples. — 1 . Reduce to a decimal fraction. 16) 1-00 (.0625 96 40 32 80 80 2. — Reduce tc t decimal 200) 1-000 (-005 1-000 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. 139 Sometimes, in dividing, the same remainder successively arises, consequently the same figure must he successively obtained in the quotient; when this is the case, the decimal is called a repeater; when the repeater is not preceded by some figures that do not repeat, the decimal is called a pure repeater ; but if one or more figures precede the common figure, it is a mixt repeater. Examples. — 1. Reduce £ to a decimal fraction. 3) 10 •333, &c. a pure repeater. 2. — Reduce £ to a decimal fraction. 6)J •166, &c. a mixt repeater. It sometimes also happens, that a certain number of figures recur, in this case the decimal is called a cir- culating one. Examples. — 1. Reduce £ to a decimal fraction. 7) 1-000000 •1428571, & c. a circulating decimal. 2. — Reduce T * T to a decimal fraction. 11) 100 (-0909, &c. a circulate. Examples.— 1. What is the decimal value of f ?—Ans. -375. 2. — What is the decimal value of ? Ans. ’04. 3. — Reduce to a decimal. — Ans. -015625. 4. — Find the decimal value of — Ans. -071577, &c. Case 2— To reduce numbers of one denomination to decimals of another denomination retaining the same value. . , . Rule.— Reduce the integer to the same name with the given number, and divide the lesser by the greater, annexing cyphers to the dividend for the decimal. Examples.— 1. Reduce 9 shillings to the decimal of a pound. 1 20 20 shillings. ■ 5 ?o — - '45 a pound. o Reduce 2 feet 6 inches to the decimal of a yard. 2 ft. 6 in. = 30 inches. 3 x 12 — 36 inches. H = * = ' 833 > &c * 3.— Reduce 6 inches to the decimal of a foot. Ans. -5. 4 —Reduce 9 d. to the fraction of a shilling— Ans. 75. Case 3 — To value any given decimal in terms of the integer. Rule.— Multiply the decimal by the number of parts in the next less denomination, and cut off as many places for the right hand as there are places in the given decimal for a remainder. Multiply this remainder by the number of parts in the next inferior denomination, and cut off the same number of places as before, and so on. Examples. — 1. Wliat is the value of -625 of a shilling P •625 12 7-500 4 2 -000 Hence, 7 \d. is the equivalent ol *625 of a shilling. 2. What is the value of -75 feet ?—Ans. 9 inches. DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. MG 3. — What is the value of • 125 feet ? — Ans. 1^ incn. 4. — What is the value of '0375 £ ? — Ans. 9 d. 5. — What is the value of -333 feet ? — Ans. 4 inches. Note . — In those cases where repeaters occur, the steps are precisely the same as in finite decimals, onlv observing to cany for each 9 when operating on the first repeating figure. DUODECIMAL ARITHMETIC. As dimensions are generally taken in feet and inches, which are divided and subdivided by 12, and its powers, a peculiar kind of Arithmetic, adapted to subdivision by 12, is used by Artificers in computing the contents of their work ; it is called Duodecimals, or Cross Multiplication. To Multiply Feet, Inches, Sfc. by Feet, Inches, Sfc. Rule. — Under the multiplicand, write the corresponding denominations of the multiplier. Multiply each term in the multiplicand, beginning at the lowest, by the feet in the multiplier, and write the result of each under its respective term, observing to carry an unit for every 12 from each denomination to that next superior. In the same manner, multiply all the multiplicand by the inches in the multiplier, and set the respective results one place removed to the right of those in the multiplicand. Do the same with the seconds, and other lower denominations, and the sum of all the partial products will be the answer. Examples. — 1. Multiply 6 ft. 3 in. 9 sec. by 6 ft. 9 in. and 3 sec. ft- 6 6 in. 3 9 sec. 9 3 37 10 6 4 8 9 9 1 6 11 3 42 8 10 8 3 2. — A garden wall is 254 feet long, 12 feet 7 inches high, and three bricks thick : how many rods are in it? -Ans. 23 rods and 136 feet. 3. — A room is to be ceiled, whose length is 74 feet 9 inches, and width 1 1 feet 6 inches : what will it come to at 3s. 10 \d. per yard ? — Ans. £18. 10s. 1 d. 4. — If a house measures, within the walls, 52 feet 8 inches in length, and 30 feet 6 inches in breadth and the roof of true pitch, or the rafters three-fourths of the breadth of the house ; what will it cost roofing, a* 10s. 6d. per square? — Ans. £12. 12s. ll|c?. INVOLUTION, OR THE RAISING OF POWERS. A power is the product that arises by multiplying a number by itself as many times (wanting onej as there are units in the exponent of the power proposed. Examples. — 1 What is the fifth power of 7? 7 7 49 = second power. 7 343 — third power. 7 2401 ~ fourth power. 7 16807 — fifth power. DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. 1 4 1 2. — What is the third power of 35 P — Ans. 42875. 3. — What is the fifth power of "015 ? — Ans. *000000000759375. 4. — What is the fourth power of 3*7 P — Ans. 187*4161. The first nine powers of the nine digits being arranged in a Table, are frequently found to ho of consi- derable use in facilitating the computation of powers. Table of the first Nine Powers of Numbers. 1st. 2d. 3d. 4 th. 5th. 6th. 7th. 8 th. 9 th. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 3 9 27 81 243 729 2187 6561 19683 4 16 64 256 1024 4096 16384 65536 262144 5 25 125 625 3125 15625 78125 390625 1953125 6 36 216 1296 7776 46656 279936 1679616 10077696 7 49 343 2401 16807 117649 823543 5764801 40353607 8 64 512 4096 32768 262144 2097152 16777216 134217728 9 81 729 6561 59049 531441 4782969 43046721 387420489 EVOLUTION, OR THE EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. The root of any number or power, is such a number, as being multiplied into itself a certain number of times, will produce the power proposed. Thus, 3 is the square root of 9, because 3 x 3z=9 ; and 8 is the cube root of 512, because 8 x 8 x 8 =£12. The exact root of every number cannot be determined ; but, by means of decimals, we may approximate to any degree of exactness required. The roots thus approximated are called Surd Roots ; and those which can be exactly found, are called Rational Roots. To Extract the Square Root. Rule. — Divide the given number into periods of two figures each, pointing towards the left in integers, but towards the light in decimals. Find the greatest square that is contained in the first period on the left hand ; (setting down its root like a quotient figure in division ;) subtract that square from said period, and to the remainder bring down another period for a new resolvend. Double the root of the first square for a divisor. Find how often this divisor can be got in the dividend, omitting the first figure on the right, and set the result in the quotient, and also annex it to the divisor. Subtract the product of this quotient figure, and the divisor so augmented from the dividend, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a new dividend. Find a divisor, as before, by doubling the figures that are already in the root ; and from these find the next figure of the root, as in the last step ; and so on till all the periods be brought down. 2 o 142 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. if there be still a remainder, the root may be approximated by annexing periods of cyphers for decimals Note . — -The reason for dividing the number into periods of two figures each, is, because the square of any single digit never amounts to more than two places. Hence there must be as many figures in the root, as there are periods of two figures in the given number. Examples. — 1. What is the square root of 1225 ? 3) 1225 (35 9 65) 325 325 2.— What is the square root of 723 P 2) 723 (26-888659 4 46) 323 276 528) 4700 4224 5368) 47600 42944 53768) 465600 430144 537766) 3545600 3226596 5377725) 31800400 26888625 53777309 ) 491177500 483995781 ••7181719 8. — Required the square root of -0729. 2 ) -0729 (-27 4 47) 329 329 4. — Extract the square root of *00032754. — Ans. ’01809. 5. — Extract the square root of 368863. — Ans. 607*340092, &c. To Extract the Square Root of a Vulgar Fraction. Rule. — Extract the root of the numerator for the numerator of the root sought, and the root of the deno- minator for the denominator. Or reduce it to a decimal and proceed as before. Examples. — 1. Required the square root of The square root of 729 is 27, and the root of 1225 is 35, consequently, the square root of the proposed traction is 2. Reouired the square root of 29) 160 (-5517241379, &c. 145 150 145 5 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. 143 7) -5517241379 (-74278 49 144) 617 576 1482) 4124 2964 14847) 116013 103929 148548) • 1208479 1188384 • • 20095 3. What is the square root of f A P — Ans. £. 4. What is the square root of ~ £. To extract the Cube Root. Separate the given number into periods of three figures each, putting a point over every third figure from the place of units. Find the greatest cube in the first period, and set its root on the right hand of the given number, after the manner of a quotient figure in division. Subtract the cube thus found from the said period, and to the remainder annex the next period, and call this the resolvend. Under the resolvend put the triple root and its triple square, the latter being removed one place to the left, and call their sum the divisor. Seek how often the divisor may be had in the dividend, exclusive of the place of units, and set the result in the quotient. Under the divisor put the cube of the last quotient figure, the square of it multiplied by the triple root, and the triple of it by the square of the root, each removed one place to the left, and call their sum the subtrahend. Subtract the subtrahend from the resolvend, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a new resolvend, with which proceed as before, and so on till the whole be finished. Note.— Should there be a remainder after all the periods are brought down, the operation may be conti- nued by annexing periods of cyphers, as in the square root. Examples. — 1. What is the cube root of 1953125 P 3 3 Divisor 33 12x3= 36 12 a x 3= 432 Divisor 4356 1953 i 25 (125 root. 1 953 resolvend. 8 12 6 728 subtrahend. 225125 resolvend. 125=5 3 900 = 5 2 x 12x3 2160 = 12 2 x 3x5 225 125 subtrahend. 144 DECIMAL ARITHMETIC. 2. — What is the cube root of 146708 483 ? — Ans 52*74. 3. — What is the cube root of *0001357 ? — Ans. *05138. 4. — What is the cube root of 13-J ? — Ans. 2*3908. 5. — What is the cube root of 27054036008 ? — Ans. 3002. We shall now give a few examples to exercise the reader in the application of the square and cube roots. Given the hypothenuse and one leg of a right-angled triangle to find the other leg. Rule. — Multiply the hypothenuse and leg each by itself, and the square root of the difference will b« the length of the other leg. Or thus, multiply the sum of the hypothenuse and leg by the difference of the same, and the square root of the product will be the other leg. j Example . — The length of the rafters is 18 feet, and half the width of the house 12 feet, What is the perpen- dicular rise of the roof P 18x 18-324 12x 12—144 180 (13*038 feet. 1 23) “80" 79 2603) 10000 7809 26068) 219100 208544 10556 Or thus, 18+12— 30 18-12= 6 180 the root of which is 13*038 feet. Given the two legs to find the hypothenuse. Rule. — Multiply the two legs each by itself, and the square root of the sum will be the hypothenuse. Example . — The perpendicular height of a roof is 13*038 feet, and the width of the house 24 feet ; re- quired the rafter. 24= 12 2 12 x 12=144 13*038 x 13*038=180 1) 324 ( 18 feet, the rafter sought. J_ 28) 224 224 1. — The diameter of a globular stone is 12 inches What must be the diameter of another that contali* 6 times the matter.' — Ans. 21*7, &c. inches. Rule. — Cube the diameter and multiply by 6, and the cube root of the product is the answer. 145 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. ■ — f— . The first twenty-eight plates being described in the former part of this work, (vide the Contents,) we now proceed to describe the remaining plates. Plate XXIX. Figure 1 represents a Design for the Front Elevation of a first-rate House, the dimensions of this and the three following plates being proportioned according to the rules enforced by the London Building Act. Figure 2 represents a vertical section of Figure 1 . Figure 3 shews a Plan of the Basement Story. C, Area. D, front Kitchen. H, Passage. F, Cupboard. E, Wine Cellar. I, Stairs. N, Passage to 0, the hack Kitchen. L, Water-Closet. It, Servants’ Hall. S Butler’s Pantry. T, Store Room. V, Area. Figure 4.— Plan of Ground Floor. C, Vestibule. D, Dining Room. E, Stairs. F, Library. G, Pas- sage Room to Water Closet, H, and Bath Room, I. L, Lead Flat over Servants’ Hall. N, Area. O, three-stall Stable, with Bed-rooms over. P, the Coach-House. Figure 5 shews a front elevation of the coach-house. Plate XXX. — Figure 1. Front Elevation of a second-rate House. Figure 2, section of the same on the line AB, of Figure 3, which represents a plan of the ground floor. C, the Area. E, Vestibule. F, Dining Room. G, Library. H, Staircase. I, Passage Room to Bath Room, P, and Water Closet, 0. R, Lead- flat over back area, forming wash-house. Figure 4, Section of the Floors. Plate XXXI. — Figure 1 shews a front Elevation of a third-rate House. Figure 2, a section through the same on the line A B, seen in Figure 3, shewing, by dotted lines, the directions of the chimneys, or flues. In Figure 3, C is the Entrance. D, the Passage. E, Dining Room. F, Study. H, Door-way to back yard. I, Water-Closet. L, Store-Room. Plate XXXII. Figure L is an Elevation of a fourth-rate House. Figure 2, a Plan of the Basement Floor. A, front Kitchen. B, Wash-house. C, Stairs. D, hack Area. E, front Area. H, Cellar, under foot-way. Figure 3, Plan of the Ground Floor. A, Dining Room. B, back Parlour. C, Stairs. D, Water- Closet. E, Entrance to Yard. F, Stairs to back Area. For further particulars concerning the law and regulations for building the various rates of houses in the metropolis, we beg leave to refer our readers to Kelly’s edition of the Builders Price Book, containing the Building Act, &c. printed uniform to bind up with this volume. Plate XXXIII. is the Plan and Elevation of a Small Country Villa. Figure 1, Elevation of the villa, with a pediment in front, and another in the hack. The construction of the roof, from its great pro- jection of cornice, and the beautiful shadows which are thrown from the cantalivers has always a pleasing effect. In the centre is a porch, with four columns, of the Ionic order, coupled, on each side of the entiance, with a regular entablature and pediment. The windows of the chamber-floor are of the same height and width as the lower ones, with an architrave round them, on the top of which is a frieze and cornice. Figure 2 is the Ground Plan of the above. A, the porch ; B, stair-case ; the other apartments are described on the figure. _ . Plate XXXIV. — Plans and Elevations for a Villa, with wings. — Figure 1. Principal Elevation: this building, if properly situated, would command a fine prospect from the circular bows m the wings.. The whole extent of the building, including the wings, may be 85 feet 6 inches ; each of the wings 24 feet 9 inches, and the body of the building 36 feet. The entrance is 3 feet 9 inches, raised upon three steps, of 6 inches rise, on the top of which are two Doric columns, with pilasters behind them. The columns are six diameters high ; the entablature 2 feet 4 inches, and the blocking course 1 foot. The windows on eacn side of the porch, in the centre part of the building, are 4 feet 3 inches from the ground, 7 feet 6 inenes hisrh. and 2 p 146 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES- 3 feet 8 inches wide, with a Grecian architrave around them ; diminishing on each side of the centre of the window, and parallel to the sides of the column. Figure 2. — Ground Plan of the Principal Story. The Dining-Room, Library, Parlour, Drawing-Room, and Kitchen, are shewn by writing. A, the Vestibule ; BB, the Passage ; C, the Closet ; D, the Scullery ; E, the Pantry; e, d, Stairs to Chambers; f, Entrance to Wine-cellars, &c. Figure 3. — Plan of the Chamber Floor. AA, Passage to Bed-rooms, shewn at B, C, E, G ; D is a Dressing-room ; F is for the same purpose ; H, Water-closet. The stairs are shewn near A. Pi-ATE XXXV. — Figure 1. Plan and Elevation of a Castellated Gothic Villa, with buttresses, &c. This building would be suitable for a gentleman of moderate fortune. Its whole length is 78 feet ; and its height, from the surface of the ground to the top of the battlements, 34 feet 2 inches. The battlements are continued all round the building. The buttresses are 29 feet 3 inches high, with two water tables, on the top of which is a cornice. The cornice is continued all round the building. The windows on the ground-floor are 4 feet 3 inches from the ground. The top of each window is crowned with a tablet, which reaches to a little below the top of the window, on each side. The chamber-floor windows are 19 feet from the ground, they are also crowned with a tablet, as below. The entrance is on the flank to the right, raised 1 foot 6 inches above the level of the ground, and ascended by three steps ; it is enclosed within a porch ; the openings of the front and sides of the porch are 8 feet and 4 feet 10 inches. On the left flank is a green-house, which will have a very beautiful effect on entering, as seen at one extremity of the passage through a sash-door. Figure 2. — Ground Plan of the Principal Story. A, Porch; B, Passage, communicating to the different apartments ; C, Stone Staircase to the Bed-chambers, Breakfast-Room, Dining-Room, Drawing-Room, and Library, which are marked on the plan; E, Parlour; D, Waiting-Room, or Dressing-Room; F, Water-Closet, which is entered by a door under the staircase. The Green-house is also marked on the plan. The Servants’ apartments, &c. are on the basement, which is entered by the staircase, C. Plate XXXVI. — Figure 1. Plan and Elevation of a Castellated Gothic Villa, with Bruttresses and Pin- nacles on a straight Front. The extent of this building, from the extremity of one wing to that of the other, is 60 feet ; extent of each of the wings, 11 feet 10 inches. The body of the building, 36 feet 4 inches. The entrance, 3 feet 4 inches wide, with a Gothic head, receding from the central part of the front, forming a Porch, and raised above the level of the ground, and ascended by three steps. The entrance to the porch is 4 feet 10 inches wide, and it rises 6 feet to the springing of the arch : the arch is 4 feet high, and is orna- mented with mouldings and crockets on each side. The windows of the ground floor, on each side of the Porch, are 6 feet 6 inches high by 4 feet 6 inches wide ; and those in the wings are 6 feet high, and 4 feet 6 inches wide : those in the bed-chamber 4 feet 3 inches high, and 4 feet wide. Figure 2. — Ground Plan of the Principal Story. A flight of three steps to the Porch, L ; I, Hall ; N, Staircase, of wood; PP, Passage to the different apartments ; B, Breakfast-Room; A, Dining-Room, with folding-doors, opening into F, by which means the two may be united, forming thereby a great convenience upon many occasions. D, Parlour; C, Library; H, Servants Waiting-Room; E, Kitchen; G, Wash-house, O, Water-Closet. Plate XXXVII. — Lodges and Entrance to a Mansion. — These lodges are in the castellated style, and would be suitable for the octagonal mansion represented in plate XXXIX. Figure 1. The Elevation of the Lodges. The central part, betwixt the piers, for carnages, may be 1 1 feet 9 inches in the clear, above the plinth. The height of the gateway 7 feet ; the piers 3 feet wide and 9 feet 10 inches high : the faces and sides forming the internal angles (see plan, Jig. 2,) are ornamented with small recesses, terminating at the top with Gothic heads, filled in with three cusps and two semi-cusps, deno- minated by the name of a Quatrefoil arch. The jiart above that is carried solidly over the internal angles, forming a regular octagonal figure, with two water-table mouldings, and small panels in the faces betwixt the mouldings, filled in with cusps. The side-gate for passengers is 5 feet wide above the plinth, betwixt the porch and pier. The elevations of the fronts of the lodges is of an octagonal form, with hexagonal buttresses on the angles, the sides of which are filled in with small recesses, with Gothic heads. The battlements, including the corbels, are 2 feet high : DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. 147 the windows are 3 feet wide and 6 feet high, from the sill to the top of the arch ; standing in recesses 2 inches deep, 4 feet wide, and 8 feet high, from the top of the plinth to the top of the arch. Figure 2. — Plan of the Lodges and Gateways. The whole length in front, from the extremity of one lodge to that of the other, is 67 feet 9 inches : the distance betwixt the porches is 27 feet 9 inches : the size of the porch, in the clear, is 5 feet 3 inches by 3 feet. The Living-Rooms, 14 feet by 11 feet 7 inches. The Bed- Rooms 1 1 feet 7 inches, by 7 feet 6 inches. Plate XXXVIII. Ground Plan of a Design for a Mansion in the Castellated Style. The entrance is by a Groined porch, ascended by four steps, to be made of granite. I, Hall ; L, Passage, lighted by a borrowed light from the lantern of the Picture Gallery ; H, Principal Staircase ; K, Back Staircase ; E, Breakfast-Room; F, Music-Room; D, Dining-Room; G, Parlour; B, Drawing-Room; C, Library; A, Picture-Gallery, lighted by a lantern from the top of the building. The Water-Closet lighted by a bor- rowed light through ground-glass, from the well-hole of the staircase. The plans of the rooms above are adapted to contain, at least, seven Bed-Rooms, with Dressing-Rooms and Closets. Plate XXXIX. Principal Elevation for a Mansion in the Castellated Style. — The whole length in front may be assumed as 131 feet 6 inches, exclusive of the buttresses. The body of the building, parallel to the front, and at right angles, passing through the centre of it, will thus be 102 feet 6 inches. Its whole height, from the ground to the top of the battlements, 88 feet. The height to the top of the second row of battlements of the larger octagonal body, 79 feet 8 inches. The turrets, 15 feet 6 inches high, 5 feet 3 inches diameter, and projecting three-quarters of a circle below the corbels, from the angles of the plain faces of the octagonal body. The windows in the faces, from the top downwards, are all of one width; each of their heights is, respectively, 5 feet, 6 feet, 7 feet, and 8 feet, high ; with water-tables and mouldings over them. The window-frames, of oak, consist of a Munnion Transom and bars; the rectangular jDrojections are 30 feet each in front, and 19 feet deep, with turrets at the angles 13 feet 6 inches high, and 5 feet diameter. The openings of the porch, in the clear, each 7 feet wide, and 17 feet high; ornamented on the chamfers with mouldings. On the top of the arch are crockets, rising in the form of pinnacles. The doors that light the Hall', which is seen through the openings of the porch, are each 5 feet 7 inches wide in the clear, and 16 feet high, moulded all round. The frames of the apertures are of oak. and are made to open in two halves; the bottom of which is panelled. The front of the octagonal wings extends 50 feet 3 inches ; each of the faces is 20 feet 9 inches nearly, with buttresses on the angles. Their height, from the ground to the top of the enriched battlement, is 27 feet. The windows are each 7 feet 4 inches wide in the clear ; their height, from the cill to the top of the arch, is 14 feet. The reveals are chamfered about half-way in. The space between the cill and the plinth is filled in with ornamented panels. The frames of the windows are of oak, with Gothic heads, and are made to open in one of the compartments. Plate XL.-^Ground Plan of the Seat of Henry Monteith, Esq. at Carstairs, near the River Clyde. The space H represents the porch, with buttresses at the corners, ascended by three steps, and groined in the inside. E, Hall, with two small windows, on each side of the doorway ; D, Library, of an octagonal form, having a beautiful bay-window. Length of the Passage, 10 feet 3 inches. I, Grand Staircase, lighted by a large window in the side wall, and opposite to the window in the bottom of the passage ; C, Breakfast-Room ; B, Dining-Room; A, Drawing-Room; F, Bed-Room; V, Powdering- Room ; N, Parlour; L, Nursery; G, Kitchen, below the level of the Rooms on the ground-floor, and communicating to them by a winding staircase at one comer ; O, Bed-Room ; P, Bed- Room ; R, Housekeeper’s Room ; U, Anti-Room, lighted at the top, witn a closet at one end. . . The largest winding staircase leads up to the servants’ Bed-Rooms, which are carried lower than the Bed- Rooms over the body of the building, and communicate with the Bed-Rooms on the body of building by a door, leading off from the second flight of steps of the grand staircase. The parts which are broken off at the farthest extremity to the left, are the offices connected with the Kitchen. Plate XLI. — Principal Elevation of the Seat of Henry Monteith, Esq. — The whole extent of this building, exclusive of the offices, not shown in the plate, is 175 feet. The principal part, including the 148 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. bays, with the Oriel windows on each side of the porch, is 64 feet 10 inches. The entrance, within the porch, is 5 feet 9 inches wide in the clear, and 12 feet 10 inches high to the top of the sottit of the arch, raised I foot 7| inches above the level of the ground, and ascended by three steps of 6f inches rise, tread 1 foot. The width of the opening in the porch is 11 feet 6 inches, and its height 13 feet 6 inches, from the top of the steps to the top of the soffit of the arch. The height of the porch, from the ground to the top of the battlements, is 20 feet 9 inches. The height of the central part, behind the porch, from the ground to the top of the battlements, is 54 feet 6 inches ; its breadth, (including the octagonal buttresses, which rise at the top into pinnacles,) is 24 feet. The height of the bay, with the Oriel window, between the octagonal buttresses, from the ground to the top of the battlements, is 37 feet ; its breadth 12 feet 6 inches. The central Oriel window, without the munnions, is 5 feet wide, and 9 feet 6 inches high : each of the diagonal openings is 2 feet 6 inches wide, in the clear of the reveals. The window above the bay is 5 feet 8 inches wide, and 6 feet 2 inches high, divided into munnions with Gothic heads. The bays, with the Oriel windows on each side of the porch, are 35 feet 6 inches high, from the ground to the top of the battlements, and 16 feet wide. Each of the Oriel windows, in the central part, on the ground-floor, is 7 feet 4 inches wide, and 12 feet high in the clear ; and each of the diagonal openings 2 feet 4 inches in the clear. The Oriel windows over the ground-floor, in the central part, are each 7 feet 6 inches wide, and 9 feet high, and those on the diagonals 2 feet 4 inches wide. The part behind the bays is of a pediment-form, with square buttresses, and small pediments, rising into pinnacles. The extreme wing, to the left, is 29 feet wide, and 39 feet high, from the ground to the top of the battle- ments. The turrets are each 11 feet 9 inches high, and project three-quarters of a circle out, from the angles below. The window on the ground-floor is 7 feet wide, and 9 feet 3 inches high. The Oriel window above, in the central opening, is 4 feet 9 inches wide and 7 feet high : the side openings are each 1 foot 7 inches wide. The space which recedes from the wing to the left, and to the octagonal tower, is 24 feet 5 inches wide, and 31 feet high to the top of the battlements. The windows on the ground-floor are each 3 feet 9 inches wide, and 8 feet 5 inches high : the windows above are 3 feet 9 inches wide, and 5 feet 10 inches high. The octagonal tower, adjacent to the above, is I I feet wide and 45 feet high ; each of the small windows in the faces, from the top downwards, is 7 feet, 8 feet, and 8 feet 7 inches high : their width, in the clear, 1 foot. The space between the Oriel windows and the octagonal tower is 29 feet wide, and 36 feet 6 inches high, from the ground to the top of the battlements ; the windows on the ground-floor are 4 feet 10 inches wide, and 10 feet high ; the windows above those on the ground-floor are 3 feet 9 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches high. The octagonal tower at the extremity, to the right, is 1 1 feet wide, and 49 feet high from the ground to the top of the battlements ; each of the windows, from the top downwards, is 6 feet 9 inches, 7 feet 9 inches, and 9 feet 9 inches high ; and each of their widths 13 inches. The small space between the tower and the Oriel windows is 5 feet 9 inches : the small windows between are blank. All the munnions and Gothic heads which divide the windows into compartments are of oak. Plate XLII. — Plan and Elevation of a Mansion. — Figure 1. This building, though perfectly straight in front, would have a pleasing effect from its colonnade, and the portico projecting out from it. The whole length of the building may be 89 feet 6 inches, and its height, from the ground to the top of the blocking-course, 49 feet. The columns are of the Doric order, without flutes, raised upon a plinth 18 inches above the level of the ground, and stand 4 feet from the walj^ The height ol the columns is 14 feet ; being six diameters and a half high. The entablature, 2 feet 10 inches ; above which is a blocking-course, about 10 inches high, on which the balcony is fixed. The windows under the colonnade are 8 feet 9 inches high, and 4 feet 5 inches wide, and come down within 5\ inches of the level of the colonnade, forming a step out. The architraves around the windows are one-sixth of their opening. The sashes are of the common kind ; but are so constructed as to make them go higher up than the top of the window, in order that a person may get out without stooping. 149 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. The entrance is 4 feet 6 inches wide, with a small window on each side, and a fan-light over the top to lighten the vestibule. The two columns which stand before pilasters, and immediately behind the two extreme columns, in front of the portico, are intended to rest a beam upon the top of them, in order to support a verandah, which comes a little before the balcony, and is composed of piers of 1 foot 2 inches square, and 9 feet 6 inches high ; which may be either of stone or wood, with bases and ornamented caps. On the top of this is an entablature, 2 feet high, with a small blocking-course. The windows on each side of the verandah are 9 feet high, and 4 feet 3 inches broad, with an architrave one-sixth of the width round them, and a frieze and cornice above, and come down to 6 inches from the level of the balcony, forming a step out. The sashes are of the same form as those below. Those in the attic are of smaller dimensions ; then- height 6 feet 3 inches by 4 feet. That in the centre is a Venetian window, with a flat segment-head. Above the° attic is a cornice, 1 foot 3 inches high, and 2 feet projection ; its parts are a fillet, ovolo, and corona, with a channel underneath to carry off the rain. There is also a semi-reversa next to the wall, which is concealed in the channel, the bottom of which is on a level with the bottom of the corona, and cannot be seen unless in perspective. There is also a bead and fascia below that. Figure 2.— Ground Plan or Principal Story. A, Porch. BB, Colonnade. C, II Ml. G, Stone-Staircase, with flyers and winders. N, Back-Staircase. The Dining Room, 32 feet 6 inches by 19 feet 6 inches. Library and Breakfast-Room of the same dimensions. Housekeeper’s Room, 15 feet square. Steward's Room, 15 feet by 13 feet. Strong-Room, 7 feet 3 inches by 6 feet 3 inches. Dressing-Room, 15 feet by 12 feet 9 inches. Store-Room, 15 feet by 9 leet 10 inches. Plate XLIII. Ground Plan of a Church in the Grecian Style. The Portico (a), of four columns, projects out from the front of the wall, 8 feet 6 inches. The Vestibule ( b ) leads to the body of the chapel and side stair-cases. Staircases of an elliptical form (cc), leading to the gallery, 22 feet 8 inches by 20 feet 9 inches ; length of treads, 4 feet 10 inches ; breadth, in the middle, 11 inches; risers rather more than 6 inches. Side Entrances, ff. The body of the church may be 89 feet long and 54 feet 3 inches broad, and it will contain sixteeen hundred sittings, (including free seats,) exclusive of seats for children in front of the organ. hhhh, represent Pews, 3 feet wide ; seats, 1 foot; book-desk, 5| inches; oo, Larger Pew.s;pp, spaces between the free seats. The Pulpit ( n ), of an hexagonal form ; i, Stair, ascending to it. Reading-Desk {m), with clerk’s seat in front ; stair, (i) ascending to it. The Communion-place, of a circular form, with four three-quarter columns, and two antae : betwixt the columns are two niches, and a window in the centre. s, is the Vestry-Room ; y, the Entrance to Circular Stair leading to library above ; u, the Anti-Room under Portico ; t, the Robing-Room ; v, the Anti-Room ; X, Entrance to the Catacombs ; V/, Back Portico, cf four columns, projecting out from the wall 5 feet 6 inches. Plate XLIV. — Front Elevation of the same Church, in the Grecian Style. The extent of the front of this building to the extremities of the antae is 64 feet 9 inches ; the breadth of the portico, at the top of the columns, is 37 feet. The columns are raised 1 foot 7\ inches above the level of the ground, and are designed from the Monument of Lysicrates ; ( See Orders, pi. XXV.) their diameter is 3 feet, and height, including the base and capital, 29 feet. The height of the entablature is 7 feet 4 inches ; the architrave, 2 feet 9 inches ; the frieze, 1 foot 10 inches; and the cornice, 2 feet 9 inches. The ornament which stands on the top of the cornice is 13 inches high, and is continued all round the building. The antae are of the same width as the upper diameter of the columns, and do not diminish. The capitals of the antae are a composition, as there are no antae to be found in this style of Grecian architecture. The principal entrance is ascended by three ; steps, in front of the portico, of 6|in. rise ; tread, 1 foot. Its width at the bottom is 6 feet 1 1 inches , it ' diminishes to the top, and its height is 14 feet. The side entrances are each 6 feet 7 inches at bottom, ana diminish to the top ; their height, 12 feet 9 inches, with an architrave round them and a cornice at the top, supported at each extremity by a console. The niches on each side of the principal entrance are 4 feet 3 inches wide, and 9 feet 10 inches high, and diminish on each side parallel to the sides of the columns. 2 Q. J50 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. The Attic, which stands over the cornice of the entablature, is 5 feet 9 inches high, with a dentil cornice and three fascias below. The height of the pediment is 7 feet 10 inches, from the top of the cornice on the attic. The height of the pedestal, from the bottom of the pediment to the top of the columns round the belfry, is 7 feet 10 inches. The columns and entablature round the belfry are 20 feet 10 inches high, and are similar to those in the portico ; the wall, which is seen between the columns, is rusticated above the two plinths. The apertures in the belfry, for letting out the sound, are 4 feet 2 inches wide, and 11 feet 3 inches high. The part where the dials of the clock are placed is of an octagonal form ; its height, including the two circular steps from the top of the cornice, round the entablature of the belfry, to the top of the cornice, above the dials, is 9 feet 10 inches. There are four dials in it, at right angles to each other, and four small apertures in the diagonal faces, each 3 feet wide and 4 feet high, filled in with perforated luflfer boarding in the form of scales. The part over the dials, above the two circular steps, is of an octagonal form, with eight columns sup- porting an entablature. The height of the spire above the top of the pediments to the top of the cross is 44 feet 9| inches, and this portion is ornamented with scales to the height of 28 feet 10 inches. The whole height of the steeple, from the ground to tfnftop of the cross, is 152 feet. Plate XLV. — Flank Elevation of the same Church, in the Grecian Style. — The whole extent of this front, including the projecting porticos on the bottom line of the entablature, is 166 feet 3 inches. That between the two extreme half antae, on each side of the bows, is 146 feet 8 inches ; and the plain part between the bows, is 88 feet 2 inches. Each of the bows is 26 feet 3 inches. The height, from the top oi the steps to the top of the cills of the lower windows, is 3 feet 8 inches. The lower windows are 5 feet 2 inches wide, diminishing a little at the top, and their height is 4 feet 10 inches. The height between the under side of the lintel of the lower windows and the top of the cill of the upper windows is 6 feet 7 inches. The height of the windows above is 9 feet 6 inches ; and the breadth, at the bottom, 5 fee t, diminishing to the top about 3| inches. The height from the under side of the lintel of the upper windows, to the lower line of the entablature, is 4 feet 5 inches. The height from the ground to the top of the roof is 50 feet 1\ inches. The frames of the windows to be of metal. All the ornaments on the exterior of this building may be of terra-cotta, or of stone, if built in a country where both labour and stone are cheap. Plate XLVI. — Back Elevation of the same Church, in the Grecian Style. — This view represents the entrance to the Catacombs, the Vestry-Room, and the Robing-Room. The columns, the width of the portico, and the spaces on each side of the portico, with the widths and heights, are the same as in the front elevation. The windows on each side of the portico are similar to those in the flank elevation, and are oi the same height and breadth. The width of the entrance to the catacombs, in the clear, is 5 feet 8 inches at the bottom, diminishing upwards parallel to the sides of the columns ; and its height is 10 feet 3 inches. The entrances on each side of the central one, are each 5 feet at the bottom and 10 feet 3 inches high. The doors are of oak, and open in two halves. The height of the projecting part, under the portico, is 15 feet 4 inches, from the.top of the steps to the top of the ornament which extends right and left. Over the central door are 3 urns, standing upon a small pedestal. Plate XLVII. — Longitudinal Section of the same Church in the Grecian Style. — The lower part of this section represents the vaults, which are entered from the projecting part beneath the portico, at the east end, by a flight of steps descending downward. Their height from the ground to the top of the soffit of the arch is 7 feet 9 inches, and the width 6 feet. The height of the ceiling underneath the gallery, from the level of the floor of the body of the church, is 10 feet 5 inches : the small columns, which stand upon pedestals, to the height of the pewing, and which support the gallery, are 6 feet 4 inches high, and their diameter about a ninth part of the height. Tlid front of the gallery, over the columns, is 3 feet 5 inches high. The iieight from the floor of the body of the church to the top of the ceiling, beneath the roof, is 36 fe«. 8 inches DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. 151 The columns in the communion-place are 21 feet 4 inches high, and their diameter 2 feet 4 inches. The shafts of the columns are represented in Scagliola : the entablature over the columns is 4 feet 1 1 inches high. The height of the columns in the Vestibule is 20 feet 8 inches, and their diameter 2 feet 5 inches. The height of the entablature is 5 feet, and the dome 9 feet 4 inches, from the cornice to the elliptical opening which admits the light into the vestibule from the small windows above. The height from the level of the vestibule to the top of the first platform, which leads up to the belfry, is 43 feet 6 inches ; to the second platform on the floor of the belfry, 57 feet ; and, to the third platform, where the clock-wont is fixed, 78 feet 9 inches. The view of the part above the clock-work exhibits the manner of framing the different off-sets to the top of the spire. Plate XLVIII. — Transverse Section of the same Church, in the Grecian Style. — This section exhibits a view on looking towards the west end. The lower part shows the arrangement of the vaults, with the passages communicating to them. The depth of the vaults, on each side of the central passage, is 10 feet ; and those on the right and left of the side passages, 9 feet. The width of the side passages is 3 feet 3 inches and of the middle one 5 feet 9 inches. The openings in the exterior walls, which are sectioned, are of a cir- cular form, and are to admit light into the vaults, by means of circular walls built in front of them, and covered with a grating. Over the vaults is shown a section of the interior of the pews, the free seats down the middle aisle, and also the middle and side entrances to the body of the church. Upon the gallery is shown the Organ, and the side entrances from the staircases. The breadth of the gallery, which is shown in this section, is 14 feet 10 inches from the wall, to the front of the gallery. The width of the passage is 3 feet 4 inches, and each of the pews 2 feet 8 inches. The height of the seats, in the pewing, is 1 foot 6 inches. Plate XLIX. — Ground Plan of a Chapel. — A, represents the Porch, recessed within two columns; B, an elliptical Vestibule, with pilasters and niches, lighted from the top ; D and C, Side Staircases to gallery with a circular staircase in one corner, leading to the children’s gallery and tower. The size of the interior of the body of the chapel is 83 feet by 58 feet. The principal passage, repre- senting the free seats, is 8 feet within the clear of the pew-doors. The side passages are each 3 feet to the front of the seats next the walls. The pews are 3 feet wide ; the seats 1 foot ; the book-desk 5§ inches ; and the doors 1 foot 7 inches. The Pulpit, ( n ) is of an hexagonal form, with stairs ascending up to it ; ( and its exposure southwards, its shelter to the north, and if the dip of the ground should be a little to the east of south, it would render the general aspect of the morning more cheerful and reviving, and also be less exposed to the prevalent winds. The nature of the soil is important, both on account of its qualities and the nature of its products ; even the colour of ground has a considerable effect on the air and character of the place. Dark mould absorbs heat powerfully, and produces much vapour, and often of a deleterious kind ; the lighter coloured species of earth are less heated, because they reflect more of the sun’s rays. Where clay predominates in a soil it is retentive of moisture, and is cold and damp, and when iron is much diffused in it, there is unfruitfulness in proportion, except in worthless mosses and the like. Siliceous sands and gravels having no affinity for water further than capillary attraction, soils where they abound are dry, easily drained, and productive of a healthy vegetation. In the state of limestone its effect varies as the character of the stone ; the less earthy it is in its nature, the more healthy the country of which it forms the chief portion of the surface. The products of a soil depend partly on its composition and partly on its condition as to waeer, and not in a small degree on the purpose to which it is most beneficial to the owner to employ it. Pasture lands bearing- healthy grasses in moderate luxuriance are most healthy when dry; next in order are arable lands of analogous qualities: meadow lands are less so ; and water meadows are objectionable : wood lands are not favourable in a close fiat country. Having a soil so generally retentive of water, they interrupt the free circulation of air, and retain a damp and cheerless atmosphere round them, which the strength of a storm is required to dispel : single trees, and groups properly disposed, arc rather beneficial than otherwise, the objection being urged only against continued belts, large woods, and close plantations. Market-gardens, swamps, marshes, bogs, and the like, are too obviously bad to need comment; hence the vicinity of such places ought to be avoided. In regard to water, it is desirable that a supply should be available from a pure and abundant source, for the use of the establishment, and at a moderate expence. If the water contain so much earthy salt in solution as to render it hard, perhaps some less abundant source may be found, where the water is soft and in sufficient quantity for the purposes requiring soft water ; as for the larger portion of the water required, hard water is as good as soft, and it is most desirable to have both, if both can be easily procured. Water containing putrescent vegetable matter should be avoided if possible, or, indeed, any substance in solution ; the more pure natural water, it is in all respects the better. Rain-water may be collected in considerable quantity, and may be rendered very useful, but for potable water it is at least questionable whether it be so good as water which has filtered through the earth, and slowly acquired the quantity of fixed air which renders it agreeable ; and it is essential to state that the term pure water is here applied only to the kinds which are agreeable to the palate, that is to say, natural water; that which is distilled is chemically pure water, but water so deprived of air, and, consequently, in a state to absorb air on being used as drink, may in most cases, he injurious. In regard to air, the most important point is to avoid the possibility of the air being stagnant in any part of the neighbourhood ; and particularly round the buildings : all places and all parts should be accessible to the sun and wind in as great a degree as convenience will allow. The influence of the sun is obtained in a more complete manner by making the buildings front one of the quarter points of the compass, instead of the common practice of making the faces correspond with the cardinal points. In regard to winds, the south- west are most frequent, hence partial shelter from these may be considered an advantage ; but there should be 2 s 158 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. no place inaccessible to winds of rather frequent occurrence, and where the natural direction is not suitable it may be changed by the disposition of trees, &c. The great advantage of frequent change and motion in the air is sufficiently obvious, only in one respect it has been little considered ; stagnant air acts more powerfully in decomposition than air in motion, and once in contact for some time with decomposing matter, it acquires, in some degree, the nature of a ferment, and has consider- able influence in disposing the bodies to decompose ; the marsh poison is probably nothing more than air, which, by being stagnant over putrescent matter, becomes a ferment to renew a similar process in the system of those who inhale it. The great receptacles of stagnant air are valleys in directions rarely traversed by the winds, basin-shaped hollows and dells, and the most noxious sources of bad air, the muddy borders of a stagnant piece of water or dull stream. It is desirable to state the order in which the design may be considered. First, The design should be considered as an object of taste, as to fitness, propriety, &c. 2ndly, As to distribution for convenience and health, for classification and access, and as relates to economy, additions, &c. 3rdly, The construction of the parts, for safety, strength, security, and cleanliness, the modes of drainage, &c. ; and lastly, of the means of supply with air, water, heat, and light ; each of these involves a vast inquiry into minute circumstances, which few, except professional men, have resolution to engage in ; but it is obvious that they ought to be inquired into in the most careful manner before the erection of the building be commenced, in order that it may be a model for the guidance of all others, and worthy of the magistrates of the metropolitan county of the British empire 1. As a work of taste, the design should excite a hope of cuie : it should look gay and cheerful; a dense, heavy, and formal mass of building should be avoided, and every thing which conveys the idea of great numbers in a state of confinement ; for a building may be rendered amply secure without being in appearance a place of imprisonment. The ground should be laid out with taste, but in the most simple style, and with a view to their being kept in order by the convalescent ; and the bounding enclosure so arranged as to prevent the interference of idle curiosity, as well as to obstruct as little of the prospect as possible. No ornament conveying the slightest allusion to the state of the patients should be allowed, no useless columns for effect, nor heavy cornices to connect them ; but simple neatness and solidity, produced by plain but well-proportioned masses. 2. Distribution may be considered in regard to light and air, to separation and access, inspection, &c. ; to night and day convenience, and, on principles of economy, courts enclosed on the four sides exclude the wind, and, therefore, have no natural ventilation ; and as the shadow of a building extends to a great distance when the sun has south declination, it is clear that courts must exclude the effect of sun and air for a long period of the year. 3. Another object of consideration is construction. Where a number of people are to be collected together in different stories of a building, it appears to be a necessary precaution to render it fire-proof, and so necessary that it is very generally acted upon; but it is doubly so, when the persons are either confined, or incapable of escape; and in a place for insane people it has the further advantage of greater security, of being more easilv kept clean and wholesome, and of being more durable in consequence of the materials not being liable to dry-rot, or other sources of decay. The greatest disadvantage of the usual fire-proof construction is the coldness and dampness of the floors of stone, as Yorkshire or other argillaceous sand-stones used for paving, attract moisture from the air, and turn black with damp in damp weather; and, consequently, fonn a comfortless floor. A better, a stronger, and a cheaper floor would be formed by clinkers (either Dutch or English) set in roman cement; such a floor would be like a stone in one piece, and by having a descent to a proper channel, might be most effectually washed with very little trouble. A brick floor is next to a wooden one in comfort. The lower part of the walls in the cells for the refractory are sometimes lined with wood, but these might be more effectually done at a less expense, by a coat of roman cement finished smooth. In the cases where the transmission of sound should be prevented, hollow walls are desirable ; and, indeed, it would contribute materially to the comfort and strength of the building to make the whole of the outer walls hollow ; also, in some parts double floors may be required, to prevent the passage of sound. DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. 159 Plate LXVII.-Perspective View of the Building complete.-Bj comparing the two plates, it will be seen, in the plan, that two wings and two towers have been omitted in the plan, which are now being m , without interfering with any of the previous arrangements. . , The buildings on the eastern side are appropriated to the male patients, and those on the western Sid. ^he’cemre tower contains the Chapel, the Superintendent's apartments, the Committee Room, four Day and Diniiur Rooms, and an extensive basement story unappropriated. Ti e eastern tower contains, in the second story, apartments for convalescent patients. On the first story Day and Dining Rooms ; on the ground floor. Apothecary's Shop, the Office and Receiving Rooms, Day an Dining Rooms ; and the for convalescent patients ; on the first floor. The western tower contains, m the second story, aparunems iw ? . , . . . . Apothecaries’ apartments, Day and Dining Rooms; on the ground floor, Receiving Room and Assistant Mali’s Rooms and Day and Dining Rooms ; the basement is appropriated to unclean patients The sides of the quadrangle, between and adjoining the towers, contain the Galleries and Sleeping and Sl ThrrildiIg h at F ftrso’uth-east angle contains the Kitchen, Scullery, Bread Room, Servants' Hall, Beer C The “uMng^t contains the Infirmary, Servants' apartments, Provision Room, Cel- lari r£ office buildings, on the east side, contain a Bath, Gas House, Seed Room, Foul Linen Room, Steam Boiler for warming and cooking. Drying Closet, Brewhouse, Bakehouse, and Straw Rooms. The office building, on the west side, contains a Bath, Store Room, Laundry, Drying Closets, Wash Linen Rooms, Straw Rooms, Steam Engine, Steam Boiler, for warming and drying. The farm yard behind contains the Cow House, Piggery, Stabling, and Coal Sheds, Poult y Houses, Rabbit Warren, Tool House, ami Vegetable Room. The kitchen garden is enclosed with a wall 11 feet high f„d the grounds in general are inclosed by a light fencing. An orchard is also enclosed on the western std , lt e t,r“ (not shewn in the plates) is occupied by the principal gardener, and con- The jiff-five acres, and is bounded on the east by the river Brent; on the sou* ^>y the Grand Junction Canal; on the west by land belonging to Lord Jersey, and on the north by the Uxbridge Road. It will be seen, by comparing the plan with the perspective view, that some variation has been adopted ... lnvinp - out the grounds in front of the building. . „ . Tibs Asylum is built on an elevated spot, in the parish of Hanwell, and on a hank of the river Brent, in o will, the whole of the drainage is conveyed. It also adjoins the Grand Junction Canal, from which it receives Toals and other necessaries by water carriage. The soil is a fine dry gravel, and tts elevated st.ua, ton com- mands extensive views over some of the finest parts of the country. Its contiguity to the public road ren rvet aeZlle, on account of the easy transit of the unfortunate inmates, who are sent by the various parishes in the county. The air is equal to any caLlated toMleriate the ^ ^ hopes are e,itertained of !ts proving an important advantage to the county, and also to the cause of humanity. These extensive buildings were erected from designs and under tbe^rectren of Rober t &b!ey E^q. Plate LXVIII.-Plans and Elevations of St. Peter s, at Rome, and St. Pall s Ltmdo . The design for St. Peter's Church was made by Bran, ante, of Urbino, by d. reel, on of lope Julius, great work was begun with much zeal, in 1506, but suffered a serious mtern.pt, on by he death o me Ion and the Architect, which took place in 1514. It was afterwards contmued, under twelve atchtlects, dig , 35 years. The plan was considerably varied under Leo the Xth by Ba dassa Peruzzt; and many parts of the elevation, and the whole of the dome and cupola, as executed, were des.gned by the celebrated Michael Angelo Buonarotti 160 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. In the plan, the great western entrance bears some resemblance to that of the Temple of Peace havinsr seven passages into a porch 230 feet long and 40 feet wide. The areas of the nave, choir, and transept form a pei feet Latin cross. The space which encompasses the plan of the dome, with its supporting piers, forms a para elogram, having a small circle at each angle, the whole being admirably disposed for simplicity, strength, an magm cence. The side aisles, instead of being each of consequence, when taken lengthwise, seem rather o consist of a number of distinct chapels, ranged along each side of the nave; but the whole interior of the abnc is so completely occupied by pilasters, columns, recesses, and niches, that nothing is left imperfect, and e rea ti o tie ground plan being so great in proportion to its length, conveys an idea of stability. , 16 ° me f° miS nearl T an ellipsoid on the exterior, rising vertically from the base, and, at the height of , eet> ran(dies “ lt0 two ^lin vaults, separating gradually as they rise. Thin partitions are dovetailed into each shell, to connect the two together ; so that the whole is rendered at once light and firm. in in D composed of columns and pilasters, 9 feet diameter, and the whole order upwards of 100 feet ° ’ U ^° n a a ? acle Peet ' and of nearly double that extent, when taken in perspective as far as the sept, is certainly one of the most imposing objects which art has accomplished. A dome resting upon a pe lesta , encompassed by a colonnade 50 feet high, having its base elevated 200 feet above the surface of the , ’, a S °. Cam ™ an ^ S an eguod degree of admiration, for the extent of the outline rivals the Egyptian pyramid, " 16 81 ls P la y e d in the construction far exceeds any thing connected with these enormous heaps of siue stones. But while we admit, in the fullest extent, the merits of this magnificent work, we con- c uty to notice defects, which appear to lessen the effect which it might have produced, o tiose accustomed to examine the outlines of the facade of the Greek temple, the portico of the Pantheon, a Rome, or of the Square House, at Nismes, in France, and who have considered the associations they produce, „ 6 6V1 eUt ^ lat tbe mu ^iplicity °f breaks in the western facade destroy the simplicity of the horizontal , ° 16 entMatme ’ ou § dlt to represent wooden beams ; the mind is perplexed how timber could be connected in this manner, and is provoked to observe this deviation without any good cause, same objection is moie palpably evident in the colonnade which encompasses the pedestal of the dome* iere the columns are placed in pairs, and there is a break over each pair, by which their connection with each ,. ° ta ^ int enupted. In the great order, the pediment, instead of being rendered a bold feature, bv ° ° ^ 1 le wbtde s P ace wheie columns are introduced, and thereby affording room for sculpture (the on y purpose in a square front which renders a pediment admissible), is confined to four columns only, a thing " r n U1 a dWelling * . InStead ° f P reservin o the face of the building plain and simple, to accord vt i i s gieat out mes and gigantic order, the entrance door-ways are of various dimensions and shapes, and the whole building is covered with small tablets, and perforated with small windows, even the dome itself, cir- cumstances much to be regretted. described^ ^ ^ ^ metl0 ^°^ tan edidce > St. Paul’s, in comparison with what has been just Ihe plans, and elevations being drawn to the same scale, the comparative size of each to the other may be y appreciate . This comparison renders the disparity in point of size very conspicuous ; but when it is considered that the Italian temple was constructed at the joint expence of all the richest countries in Europe * and that the English temple was built at the expense of that nation alone, and immediately after the city had been destroyed by fire, m 1666, its magnitude will appear not a little surprising. In taste and scientific skill Sir Christopher Wren, the architect, was fully equal to any of his predecessors in this school ; but the funds icing limited, and materials of large dimensions not easily procured, he was prevented from adopting his favourite design, and obliged to substitute one in which the individual members were more minute. n . !„ e P ! a . n ° f th i e buildingj as executed > lhe dome is placed nearly in the middle of the length of the nave m imddle aisle ; and as the terminations of the transept are square, the shape of the cross is not only internally leient. from that m St. Peters, but is externally more distinctly defined. In St. Peter’s, the length of the mic die aisle, from the western entrance to the extremity of the choir, is only about eight times its width. In ‘ ' / S ; n 18 aW eleven times > which adds m «ch to the imposing effect of the internal perspective. The rea t o tlie side aisles in St. Paul’s bears a greater proportion to that of the middle one, and the form is more distinctly continued through the whole length of the edifice, than in St. Peter’s. The piers which DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. 181 support the dome are, in St. Paul’s, well disposed to afford stability, without too much crowding the space on the pavement. Immediately under the dome, a greater degree of simplicity would have been preserved, if the entire order had, as in the original design, reached sufficiently high to receive the whispering gallery upon the entablature, instead of resting, as it now does, upon large arches and their spandrels. Externally, the height of St. Paul’s is greater, in proportion to its breadth, than St. Peter’s, but not so much as materially to lessen the idea of stability, which is also well preserved by the square terminations of the projecting part of the transepts. This relative proportion creates a greater degree of apparent elevation than if the edifice had more breadth. The dome is elegantly shaped, and the pedestal, or neck, upon which it immediately rests, being considerably raised, is the means of shewing the dome to advantage, while the order which supports this neck, having its columns supported at equal distances, and well relieved, and having its entablature continued quite round, without any break, presents a feature which far surpasses that of any other structure of the kind. The dome has also its simplicity well preserved, by being clear of those pitiful small windows which dis- grace St. Peter’s. A radical defect in St. Paul’s, is its having two orders in the height of the elevation, by which the simplicity and grandeur of the general effect are much diminished ; but in the western facade, the upper and lower porticos occupy a considerable portion of the breadth, being also well isolated, and having a pediment, enriched with sculptures, extended over eight columns, produce altogether an imposing effect. The manner in which the Turrets are constructed and finished has little claim to commendation. The smallness and varied shape of the windows are objectionable. If there had been niches with statues, instead of windows, in the lower order, and the windows of the upper order made as large as the space would admit, and of uniform shape, the whole would have been more conformable to the character of a temple. We are aware that this would have required a considerable change of the interior arrangement. The engravings we have given will convey a distinct idea of the plan and elevation. It required seven years to prepare the materials of this noble structure, and on the 21st of June, in the year 1675, the first stone was laid, and the whole work finished in 1723. The expense of this building was between 7 and 800,000/. Plate LXIX. — Plane Scales, &c. — The Scale is so called from a Greek word, which signifies a wooden measure of length, and is a thin broad rule of wood, ivory, or brass, divided into different lines, of various names and use. The best and most useful scales, for architectural purposes, are represented on the plate, of the exact size in which they are usually made. The graduations in the plate have been made with such care, that we believe it may be relied on, for practice, by such as have not the instruments at hand. In this plate, figure 1 represents the Protractor or Semi-circle, projected in form of a parallelogram, either for laying off or measuring angles, and numbered both from right to left, and from left to right, to 180 degrees. Figure 2, exhibits the back of the same scale, and it contains six lines of equal parts, with a Decimal Diagonal Scale, for plotting, or planning. The first have sub-divisions, both for decimals and inches ; and the larger figures at the end of the lines show how many decimal parts are contained in one inch, as from 30 to 60. The diagonal scale is sub-divided to hundredth parts of one half and one quarter of an inch : its principle and use will be obvious on inspection ; as it may be seen that the perpendiculars are divided into ten equal parts, and through the divisions parallel lines are drawn, of the whole length of the scale. Again the length of the first division is divided both at top and bottom, into ten equal parts, and the points are connected by diagonal lines, so as to take off dimensions or numbers of two or more figures. Figure 3 represents the face of another plotting scale, which contains lines of chords, of different radii ; and equal parts, for feet and inches. Figure 4 represents the back of fig. 3, and contains another set of plotting scales, for half an inch, one quarter of an inch, three-eighths, and one-eighth, of an inch, to the foot, &c. and sub-divided diagonally ffir greater accuracy. The uses of these are too clear to require further explanation. Plates LXX. to LXXVII. are described on pages 126 to 129. Plate LXXVIII. — The Centrolinead is an instrument used in Perspective, &c. and invented by Mr Peter Nicholson, for drawing lines to an inaccessible or vanishing point. Figure 1, represents the instrument now in use. It is constructed with two legs, about a foot long, with 2 T 162 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OE THE PLATES. a joint in the angle, similar to a carpenter’s rule. The centre of the knuckle is pierced with a small hoie. (jig. 2,) in which a pin is rivetted, in order to admit of a blade being fitted on it, for drawing lines to a point. The drawing edge of this blade is made to pass through the centre of the joint; and the blade screwed to the two legs, may he fixed at any required angle. The edge of the blade and the edges of the two legs, all tend to the same point. The blade is made to reverse, so as to draw lines to either side of a building : the same legs will answer to blades of various lengths, as occasion may require. In complex, drawings, it will be convenient to use a distinct centrolinead for each point, to prevent the trouble of fre- quently adjusting the instrument. Figure 2 exhibits the instrument on a larger scale, with part of the legs and the blade broken off. Figure 3. — The joint fixed to part of the legs. The figures No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No, 5, are the detail of figure 3. Figure 4. — Brass fixed to the blade and legs, by means of three screws, so as to fasten them together, as represented in figure 1. Figure 4, No. 1, edge of figure 4, with part of the edge of the blade fixed to the brass, by a screw, and two pins to steady it. Figure 5 shows how a T-square may be made into a centrolinead, by fixing a piece in the form of a wedge to the stock of the square. Figure 6. — A diagram, showing the figure where the points form for working the instrument on, when the legs of the instrument are at different angles, to draw to the same vanishing point. Plate LXXIX. — Mode of Setting the Centrolinead. — Draw two lines tending to the vanishing- point, or to the station point, which must be found by a problem : then put two pins in vertically, over each other, on each side of the line without the space, making the distances on each side of the line nearly the same. Press the two edges of the legs, which run to the centre of the joint, against the pins, ana move them along till the edge of the blade, which passes through the centre of the joint, coincides with the line or crosses it ; then loosen the screw that fastens the blade to the leg of the centrolinead, and press the legs gently against the pins till the blade coincides with the line : then fasten that screw, and loosen the other ; next move the instrument down to the other line ; and, if the same edge of the blade coincides with the line, fasten the screw, and the instrument is set : but if not, proceed, as above, till the edge of the blade coincides with the two lines ; it generally requires three settings ; the least number it can have is two, that is, one for each angle. The centrolinead may be clamped at once, in the manner following : Draw a line between the two given lines, so as to be terminated by them, set each of the angles of the cen- trolinead to each angle formed by the cross line ; put a pin in each angular point, formed by the cross line, with each of the given lines ; then placing the central edges of the legs upon the pins, one on each, draw lines by the central edge of the blade, and those lines will tend as accurately to the point as if they were drawn to it by a longer ruler. Plates LXXX. to LXXXIII. are described on pages 130 to 136, Examples of Gothic and Norman Architecture. Plate LXXX1V. represents a section of part of Waltham Abbey, Essex ; and part of the church L’ Abb aye aux Dames, at Caen, in Normandy; and also part of the Apsis of the church of St. Nicholas, at Caen. These are considered fine specimens of the Norman style, and worthy of the consideration of the young architect. Plates LXXXV. and LXXXVI. — Elevation, Plans, and Details of Waltham Cross. — This cross was erected in memory of Queen Eleanor, wife of Edward the first, about the year 1250. This elegant building has been lately repaired, by subscription of the neighbouring gentry, under the direction of Mr. W. B. Clarke. For its size, Waltham Cross may be considered one of the finest examples of the style this country possesses, and although commenced at the end of the thirteenth century, may rather be considered an early example. Flaxman, in his lectures, praises in high terms the statues of Queen Eleanor, at Waltham Cross Plate LXXXVII. — The King’s Palace, Pimlico. — Front or entrance elevation, from St. James’s Park The length of each wing is 150 feet, the centre 185 feet, making an extreme length "f 485 feet; the centre DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. 163 of which is a parallelogram, recedes from the wings 340 feet, forming a court, through which the carnages pas’s and drive under the portico, in the middle of the principal building ; between the wings, and situate about 100 feet in advance, is an entrance lodge, consisting of three archways built of white Carrara marble, assimilating in design to the triumphal arch of Constantine, at Rome ; the whole court from the wings to the lodge being enclosed by a richly ornamented bronze railing, and placed in the position shown by the dotted lines on the Plan. The external appearance of the ground-floor is of the Doric, and the principal floor of the Corinthian order, richly embellished with groups of illustrative figures and statues. The entrance hall is splendid, and paved with variegated marble ; the walls are lined with Scagliola ; and the frieze of the ceiling supported by columns of white marble, with Corinthian capitals of mosaic gold. The staircase, which is of solid marble, ascends on each side of the great hall, and leads to the state rooms and picture gallery, which are magnificent. The south wing is appropriated to the king’s, and the north wing to the queen’s private apartments. The palace is erected upon the site of Buckingham House, and the alterations were commenced by J. Nash, Esq., and have been finished under the superintendence of Edward Blore, Esq. Plate LXXXVIII. — National Gallery for the Exhibition of Paintings, Sculpture and Archi- tecture. — This erection extends from St. Martin’s Lane to Pall Mall East, and embraces the whole of one side of Trafalgar Square. It is about 425 feet in length ; and it is composed, as is usual in buildings of this de- scription, of a centre and wings. The style is of the Corinthian order, and the centre has rather an imposing effect when viewed from Whitehall, as it also has from the corner opposite the Union Club House, from which situation it is put in juxtaposition with the beautiful outline of St. Martin’s Church. This structure has been erected from the designs, and under the superintendence of William Wilkins, Esq. Plate LXXXIX. — Holford House, Regent’s Park. — Plan of the principal floor and south elevation of the house belonging to James Holford, Esq. Its extreme length is about 185 feet, and width about 120 feet, and is fitted up both externally and internally in the costume of the Corinthian order. The various rooms of the principal story will be seen by referring to the plan, and their dimensionsby applying to the scale. Architect, Decimus Burton, Esq. Plate XC. — Goldsmiths’ Hall, City. — This edifice has been carried into execution from the designs and under the superintendence of Philip Hardwick, Esq., on the site of the old Hall, with increased dimensions, its present length being nearly 160 feet, and breadth 120 feet. The style of architecture adopted is the Roman Corinthian, and is very rich in its arrangements ; but unfortunately from its confined situation the effect is destroyed. The rooms on the principal story are sufficiently explained on the plan, and the proportions of the elevations will be found by applying them to the scale. Plate XCI. — Front Elevation of Westminster Hall. — This beautiful structure was erected by William Rufus, or William II. about the year 1097, and is the admiration of every one of taste who views it. Plate XCI. 2. — An Elevation of part of the North Side o/FIenry VII. ’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey. — This edifice may be justly considered as the finest example of the perpendicular style in this country, and has always been admired by men of taste and science. Plates XCII., XCIII., and XCIV., represent parts selected from the Cathedral of Lincoln. — These are examples of both early and decorated English. The greater part of the present fabric was erected between the year 1 186 and 1200. The whole east end, beyond the upper transept, which in beauty of design far sur- passes every other part of the edifice, is stated to have been erected about 1250. The vaultings of the side aisles are 40 feet high, half the height of the centre vaulting. The ribs of both are few, and simple in their arrangement. The ribs and bosses are of stone, but the intermediate parts are of rubble faced with plaster. Plate XCIII. 2. — Elevation of the Cathedral of Freiburg, in Breisgna on the Rhine. — The spire is considered by architects and travellers the most beautiful specimen in all Germany. Plate XCV. —-Elevation and Details of the Palace Grimani, on the Great Canal, Venice. — This beautiful Italian specimen of Gothic architecture is well worth the attention of the student and the curious. We have endeavoured in this plate to give an example of the domestic architecture of the Venetians. The date is uncertain. This style of architecture is very common at Venice, and predominates in the palaces of the great families erected previous to the introduction of Palladian architecture. 164 DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. Plate XCVI. — Examples of Gothic Sculpture of the thirteenth century. — Nos. 1 and 2 are speci- mens of sculpture of the thirteenth century. No. 3 was found in Westminster Abbey, the date uncertain ; it may, from the similarity of style, be considered to have been executed about the same period. The remaining examples. Nos. 4 to 12, are from Lincoln Cathedral, and are remarkably fine, both for their design and execution. It is worthy of remark, that a great taste for sculpture prevailed about this period, particularly where the style of the antique was introduced. To this circumstance may be ascribed the excellence of the art as then practised. In the partial exposure of the naked form, and style and arrangement of the drapery, on the figures over the porch at Lincoln, a strong resemblance to the antique may be traced. Plate XCVII. — Elevation and Plan of the Hall of Christ’s Hospital, lately erected, from the design and under the superintendence of the late — Shaw, Esq. This may be considered an example of the perpendicular style of Gothic architecture. It is worthy of notice, that, although the perpendicular style is the richest, yet, in the present day, from the circumstances of capital being applied to more useful purposes than the mere decoration of buildings, Gothic architecture is for the most part executed with very little ornamental decoration. Plate XCVIII. — South Elevation of the New Church, Chelsea, designed and executed by Mr. Savage. It was commenced about the year 1820. This structure is finely proportioned, though not highly decorated. The style may also be considered perpendicular. Plate XCVIII. 2. — Elevation of the Cathedral Church of Notre Dame, at Paris. — This is a fine ancient Gothic building, but is more remarkable for its strength than the elegance of its architectural symmetry ; it was erected and completed at several times. Plate XC1X. — Elevation and Plan of 'part of the Lady Chapel, St. Saviour’s, Southwark. — This building, which has been lately restored, by subscription, is a fine specimen of early English architecture. Plate C. — North Elevation of the Church o/Bathalha. — This represents a portion of the Church of Bathalha, in Portugal, the object being in this and some other of our plates to present to the reader some interesting and fine examples of Gothic architecture of other parts of Europe, to enable him to form a comparison of their merits. Plate C. 2. — Section of the Basilica of St. Francis, at Asisi. — This most elaborate and richly deco- rated specimen deserves minute consideration and inspection. This edifice is remarkable for the painted decorations with which it abounds ; all those ornaments which are usually in other buildings carved, are here represented in colours. The total number of plates to this volume (double and single) is one hundred and twelve, and ninety- three wood-cuts. Although the plates do not follow numerically, owing to the mistakes of the engraver, the whole are described according to their respective numbers, and as referred to the Directions to the Binder. Plate CL — Stafford House, St. James’s. — Now the town residence of his Grace the Duke of Suther- land, was originally intended for his late Royal Highness the Duke of York. It was commenced from the designs, and uuder the superintendence of Messrs. Benjamin and Philip Wyatt; but has been completed under the direction of Sir Robert Smirke. It is of the Corinthian order. The extent and proportions will be sufficiently explained by referring to the scale under the elevation. Plate CII. — Plan and Elevation of Westminster Hospital. — This building has been erected from the designs of Henry William Inwood, Esq. It is in the Gothic style, and is of large dimensions, and is equal to any other establishment of a similar description in the metropolis. The arrangements of the various wards and other apartments will be seen by the ground plan, and their dimensions, as well as the proportions of the elevation, will be acquired by applying to the scale. Plate GUI. — Plan and Elevation of the General Post Office, London. — This building was de- signed and carried into execution under the superintendence of Sir Robert Smirke. It is of the Ionic order. The basement is composed of granite and rendered fire-proof, and the superstructure of bricks faced with Port- land stone ; the extreme length is 400 feet, the width 80 feet. The vestibule which occupies the centre of the edifice forms a thoroughfare from St. Martin’s-le-grand to Foster Lane, and is 80 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 53 feet high ; on each side is a range of six columns, similar to those in the portico. On the north side are the several receiving rooms for newspapers, inland and ship-letters, and behind these are rooms for inland letter- DESCRIPTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES. 165 sorters and carriers ; the mails are received at the east end, which also contains the West Indies, comptroller’s, and mail coach offices, with the twopenny post office and their requisite apartments ; on the south side are the foreign receiver general’s and accountants’ offices. Plate CIV. Custom House, London. — This edifice was commenced and carried into execution from the designs and under the superintendence of David Laing, Esq., but in consequence of some unfortunate failings in the foundations of the centre of the building, that portion of it was taken down and rebuilt under the direction of Sir Robert Smirke. It is of the Ionic order, is 495 feet in length, by 108 feet in depth, and affords accommodation for about 650 officers and clerks. The long room in this building is considered a principal fea- ture, and is appropriated for the transaction of public business: it is 186 feet long, and 60 feet wide. In the front next the river are an embankment and broad wharf, with a stone curvilinear wall, built on close sheet piling, ranging out of the perpendicular, continuous with the facing of the quay wall, with a flight of steps at each end provided for the public. Plate CV.— Interior of Norwich Cathedral.— A most beautiful specimen of the architecture of the middle ages, and is considered, in consequence of its fine proportions, and judicious application of its parts, to vie with any erection of a similar style in the kingdom. Plate CVL— Plan and Elevation of Fishmongers’ Hall.— This hall has been recently erected from the design and under the superintendence of Henry Roberts, Esq. It is situate on the city side, and imme- diately at the termination of London bridge, and is of the Ionic order. The engraving exhibits the plan of the principal floor, the eastern or entrance front from King William Street, and the south or river elevation. The extent of the entrance front is 160 feet, that of the river nearly 100 feet. The basement is rusticated, and has a cornice and blockings to correspond with that of London bridge, to which it is in some measure contiguous. The river front from the basement to the principal floor, and embracing that portion of the centre occupied by three-quarter columns, is an arcade projecting on the wharf towards the river, which is shown on the elevation, but not on the principal plan. The various dimensions of the principal rooms are figured on the plan, and the method of panelling the ceilings is indicated by the dotted lines. The proportions of the elevations will be sufficiently developed by applying to the scale. Plate CVIL— River Front of Somerset House.— This edifice was designed and earned into execution by Sir William Chambers for various public offices. It at present finds accommodation for various societies, and until this year the annual exhibition of the works of British painters, architects and sculptors, took place in the apartments which belong to the Royal Academy. The building occupies a space of about 800 feet in width, and 500 feet in depth. Plate CVIII. New Method of Constructing Wharf Walls without the aid of Coffer- dams.— This method, which was invented by Robert Sibley, Esq., has been adopted with admirable success at the island lead works, Limehouse, at London bridge, &c. It will be perceived by referring to the drawings, that cast iron piles are placed about 10 feet asunder, and when these are driven, and any impediment^ irregularity presents itself, it is removed or corrected by using an auger or jumper within the pile. The piles are cast with grooves to receive the panels or plates ; consequently when the piles are driven, the principal labour is done. Wrought iron ties are fixed with rings externally and permanently to some contiguous build- ing or block of stone (for mooring vessels to, &c.) and the whole is backed in with concrete of a proportionate thickness to the soil or depths, which becomes a solid mass. When these piles were first used, holes were bored for placing the piles and to guide them in driving, but in the second and third works at London bridge, the piles were driven without boring, and the bed of the river was dredged for putting down the plates • they have also two tiers of iron ties. It is necessary to fill the iron piles with concrete to prevent mischief from freezing, &c. ; the dimensions of the piles, plates, &c., are shown in the drawings. The great advantages derived from the new method of construction are from the facility of execution, economy and durability, the expenses not exceeding the cost of a cofferdam. It should be observed that the removal of cofferdams has frequently caused serious settlements in the works built within them, particularly the new wall at Sheerness, and the piers of the new London bridge, &c. 2 v GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS Aaron's Rod; an ornamental figure, repre- senting a rod with a serpent twined about it, and called by some, though impro- perly, the Caduceus of Mercury. Abacus ; the upper member of a capital of a column, serving as a kind of crown piece in the Grecian Doric, and a collec- tion of members or mouldings in the other Orders. Acanthus; a plant, the English Bear’s Breech, the leaves of which are repre- sented in the capital of the Corinthian Order, &c. Acanthine means ornamented with leaves of the acanthus. Acropolis; from the Greek: the highest part of a city, the citadel or fortress. Acroterium ; (plural, Acroteria ) the extre- mity or vertex of any thing; a pedestal or base placed on the angle, or on the apex of a pediment, which may be tor the support of a vase or statue. AZgis; in decoration, a shield or breast- plate, particularly that of Minerva. JEgricanes; sculptures representing the heads and sculls of rams ; commonly used as a decoration of ancient altars, friezes, &c. yEneatores; sculptures representing mili- tary musicians. Mtoma; a pediment, or the tympanum of a pediment. A He or Aisle; a walk in a church, on the sides of the nave; the wings of a choir. Alcove ; a recess or part of a chamber, sepa- rated by an estrade, or partition of co- lumns. Arceostyle; the greatest interval or distance that can be made between columns. Alto-relievo or High-relief; that kind or portion of sculpture which projects so much from the surface to which it is at- tached, as to appear nearly insulated. It is therefore used in comparison with Mezzo-relievo, or Mean-relief, and in op- position to Basso-relievo, or Low'-relief. Amphitheatre; a spacious edifice, of a cir- cular or oval form, in which the combats and shows of antiquity were exhibited. Amphora (plural, Amphora',)-, a vase or earthen jar, with two handles. Hence, in decoration, Amphoral means shaped ike an amphora or vase. Ancon; in decoration, a curved drinking cup or horn. Ancones; ornaments depending from the corona of Ionic door- ways, &c. Angels; brackets or corbels, with the figures or heads of angels. Angular Capital; the modern Ionic or Scam- moziati capital, which is formed alike on all the four faces, so as to return at the angles of the building. Annulet or Fillet ; a small square member in the Doric capital, under the quarter- round. Anta; a species of pilasters common in the Grecian temples, but differing from pi- lasters, in general, both in their capitals and situation. Arcade-, an aperture in a wall, with an arched head : it also signifies a range of apertures with arched heads. Arc-boutants, or Boutants; arch-formed props, in Gothic churches, &c. for sus- taining the vaults of the nave ; their lower ends resting on the pilastered buttresses of the aisles, and their upper ends resist- ing the pressure of the middle _ vault, against the several springing points of the groins. They are, at times, called flying- buttresses, arched buttresses, and arch-butments. Arch; arches are either circular, elliptical, or straight: the last being so termed, but improperly, by workmen. The terms arch and vault properly differ only in this, that the arch expresses a narrower, and the vault a broader, piece of the same kind. Architectonic ; something endowed with the power and skill of building, or calculated to assist the architect. Architecture ; the art or science of erecting edifices, either for habitation or defence. Architrave; a beam; that part of an enta- blature which lies immediately upon the capital or head of the columns. Bagnio; the Italian name for a bath, or bathing-house; answering to the Greek Balaneia, and the Latin Balneum. Balcony; an open gallery, projecting from the front of a building, and commonly constructed of iron or wood. Baluster ; a small column or pillar, belong- ing to a Balustrade. Bi lustrade ; a range of Balusters, support- ing a cornice, and used as a parapet or screen, for concealing a roof, &c. Bande; a narrow flat surface, having its face in a vertical plane. Banded Column; a column encircled with Bands, or annular rustics. Bay- Window ; a window projecting from the front, in two or more planes, and not forming the segment of a circle. Belfry, anciently the campanile ; the part of a steeple in which the bells are hung. Belvedere; a turret, lookout, or observatory, commanding a fine prospect, and gene- rally very ornamental. Bosse or Boss, in sculpture ; relief or pro- minence : hence Bossage, the projection of stones laid rough, to be afterwards carved into mouldings, capitals, or other ornaments. Boulder-Walls ; those constructed of flints or pebbles, laid in strong mortar. Buttresses, flying, &c. See Arc-boutants. Caduceus, an emblem or attribute of Mer- cury ; a rod entwined by two-winged serpents. Camber; an arch on the top of an aperture, or on the top of a beam : whence Camber- windows, &c. Campana ; the body of the Corinthian ca- pital. Campana, or Campanula, or Guttce ; the drops of the Doric architrave. Caryatides, or Caryatides ; so called from the Caryatides, a people of Caria ; an or- der of columns or pilasters, under the figures of women dressed in long robes, after the manner of the Carian people, and serving to support an entablature. This order is styled the Caryatic. Castellated; built in imitation of an ancient castle. Catacomb; a subterraneous place for the interment of the dead. Chain-timber, in brick building; a timber of large dimensions placed in the middle of the height of a story, for imparting strength. Chancel; the communion -place of a Chris- tian church. Chantry; a small chapel, on the side of a church, &c. Cloaca ; the Roman name for sewers, drains, and sinks, conveying filth from the city into the river. Coffer-dam; a hollow space, formed by a double range of piles, with clay rammed in between. Coin or Quoin ; a corner or angle made by the two surfaces of a stone or brick building. Colonnade; a range of columns, whether attached or insulated, and supporting an entablature. Conservatory ; a superior kind of g: een* house, for valuable plants, &c. Console ; a bracket or projecting body, shape d like a curve of contrary flexure, scrolled at the ends, and serving to support a cor- nice, bust, or other ornament. Corbeils ; carved work, representing baskets filled with fruit or flowers, and used as a finish to some elegant part of a building. Corbels ; a horizontal row of stones or tim- ber, fixed in a wall or on the side of a vault, for sustaining the timbers of a floor or of a roof. Cornice; a crowning; any moulded projec- tion which crowns or finishes the part to which it is attached. Cornucopia ; the horn of plenty ; represented in sculpture under the figure of a large horn, out of which issue fruits, flowers, grain, &c. Corona, Larimer, or Drip. Corridor ; a long gallery or passage around a building, and leading to the several apartments. Cove ; any kind of concave moulding ; also the concavity of a vault. Hence, a coved and flat ceiling is a ceiling of which the section is a portion of a circle, springing from the walls, and rising to a flat surface. Crockets ; in the pointed style of architec- ture, the small ornaments placed equi- distantly along the angles of pediments, pinnacles, &c. Crosettes, in decoration ; the trusses or con- soles on the flanks of the architrave, under the cornice. Cross-springers ; in groins of the pointed style, the ribs that spring from one dia- gonal pier to the other. Crown ; the uppermost member of a cor- nice, including the corona, &c. Crypt ; an antient name for the lowest part or apartment of a building. Cupola ; a dome, arched roof, or turret. Cusps ; the pendents of a pointed arch, &c., two of which form a trefoil, three a qua- drefoil, four a cinquefoil, &c. Cymatium, or cyma, or summit of a cornice. Dado, the Die, or that part of the middle of the pedestal of a column between its base and cornice. Demi, or Semi, or Hemi, signifies one-half. Hence semi-circle, hemi-sphere, &c. Demi-relievo, in carving or sculpture, de- notes that the figure rises one-half from the plane. Dentils; ornaments in a cornice. Diglyph; a tablet with two engravings or channels. Ditriglyph ; having two triglyphs over an intercolumn. Domes ; spherical roofs. Dormer or Dormant Window, windows made in the roof. Drops; in ornamental architecture, small pendent cylinders, or frustums of cones attached to a surface vertically, with the upper ends touching a horizontal surface, as in the cornice of the Doric order. Drum or Vase, of the Corinthian and Com- posite capitals; the solid part to which the foliage and stalks, or ornaments, are attached. Eaves ; the margin of a roof, overhanging the walls. Echinus or ovolo, Roman. Embattled ; a building with a parapet, hav- ing embrasures, and therefore resembling a battery or castle. Embossing ; forming work in relievo, whe- ther cast, moulded, or cut with a chisel. See Alto and Demi-relievo. Entablature; the ornament supported by the capital of a column or pilaster. GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 167 Epistylium, or architrave of the entablature. Facade ; the face or front of a building. Flying Buttresses. See Arc Boutant. Fret - a species of ornament, commonly composed of straight grooves or chan- nelures at right-angles to each other. The labyrinth fret has many turnings or angles, but in all cases the parts are pa- rallel and perpendicular to each other . Frieze, or Prize, or Zopliorus ; in the en- tablature of columns, separating tne ar- chitrave and cornice. Gable ; the triangular part of the wall ol a house or building, immediately under the roof. . Granite. See Materials, in Masonry. Groined Ceiling-, a cradling constructed ol ribs, lathed and plastered. Groins and Arches. See Carpentry and n Qfi'nr')/ Grotesque-, the light, gay, and beautiful style of ornament, practised by the an- cient Romans in the decoration of then palaces, baths, villas, &c. Hall-, a word commonly denoting a man- sion or large public building, as well as the large room at the entrance. Hence Guildhall, Town-Hall, &c. Helix ; scrolls in the Corinthian capital, also called Urillce. . e , Hem ; the projecting and spiral parts ot the Ionic capital. . , Hexastyle ; a building with six columns in front. . . Impost ; a term used to express a fascia. Intaglios ; the carved work of an order or any part of an edifice, on which heads or other ornaments may be sculptured. Intercolumn-, the open area or space between two columns. . . , Keep ; in a castle, the middle or principal Labyrinth-, an intricate building; a. Laby- rinth-fret, a fret with many turnings, which was a favourite ornament ol the ancients. See Fret. Lacunariee, or Lacunars ; panels or coffers formed on the ceilings of apartments, and sometimes on the soffits of coronae in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, orders. Lantern-, a turret raised above the roof, with windows round the sides, constructed for lighting an apartment beneath. Lobby, a small hall or waiting-room, or the entrance into a principal apartment. Lunette ; an aperture in a cylindnc, cylin- droidic, or spherical ceiling; the head ot the aperture being also cylindric or cylin- droidic. . Luthem-, a kind of window, over the cor- nice, in the roof of a building, for the purpose of illuminating the upper story. They are denominated according to their forms, as square, semi-circular, bull s eyes, & c. . . Meros ; the middle part of a trigliph. Metope-, in the Doric frieze, the square piece or interval between the trigliphs, or between one trigliph and another. The metopes are sometimes left naked, but are more commonly adorned with sculpture. When there is less space than the com- mon metope, which is square, as at the corner of the frieze, it is called a sewn or demi-metope. Mezzo-relievo, or Demi-relievo ; sculpture in half relief. . . , Minnaret ; a Turkish steeple, with a balcony. Monopteron, or Monoptral Temple-, an edi- fice consisting of a circular colonnade, supporting a dome, without any inclosing Monotrigliph ; having only one tngliph be- tween two adjoining columns : the gene- ral practice in the Grecian Doric. Mosaic Work; an assemblage or combina- tion of small pieces of marble, glass, stones, &c., of various colours and forms, cemented on a ground so as to imitate paintings. . Nave ; the body of a church, reaching from the choir or chancel to the principal door. Nebule; a zigzag ornament, but without angles, frequently found in the remains of Saxon architecture. Neck of a capital; the space between the cliannelures and the annulets of the Grecian Doric capital. In the Roman Doric, the space between the astragal and annulet. . Niche ; from an Italian word, signifying a shell; a hollow formed in a wall, for re- ceiving a statue, &c. Obelisk; a quadrangular pyramid, high and slender, raised as a monument or orna- ment, and commonly charged with in- scriptions, &c. Oriel-window; a projecting angular window, commonly of a triagonal or pentagonal form, and divided by mullions and tran- soms into different bays and compart- ments. . Orthography ; an elevation, showing all the parts of a building in true proportion. Pagoda or Pagod; an Indian temple, com mon in Hindoostan and the countries to the east. Pantheon; a temple of a circular form, ori- ginally pagan. Parapet ; a dwarf wall raised on a terrace or building. Pedestal ; a square body of stone or other material, raised to sustain a column, StcltllG &C. Pediment; an ornament, properly of a low triangular figure, crowning the front of a building, and serving often also as a de- coration over doors, windows, and niches. Periptere; a building encompassed with columns, which form a kind of aisle all round it. Peristyle; among the ancients, the con- verse of Periptere, a continued row of columns within the buildings ; among the moderns, a range of columns, either within or without the same. Piazza; a portico or covered walk, sup- ported by arches. Pier ; a square pillar, without any regular base or capital. Pilaster ; a column let into the wall, showing one-fourth or one-fifth part of its thickness. Piles; planks of which the ends are sharp- ened, so as to enter into the bottom of a Pillar ; a column of an irregular make ; not formed according to rules, and deviating from the measures of regular columns. This is the distinction of the pillar from the column. A square pillar is commonly called a pier. Plinth; the square piece under the mould- ings in the bases of columns. Pointed arch ; an arch so pointed at the top as to resemble the point of a lance. Porch ; the kind of vestibule at the entrance of temples, halls, churches, &c. Portail ; the face of a church, on the side in which the great door is formed ; also the gate of a castle, palace, &c. Portal; a little gate, where there are two of a different size. Portico ; a covered walk, porch, or piazza, supported by columns. Priory; a religious house or institution, at the head of which is a prior or prioress. Profile; the figure or draught of a building, &c. ; also the general contour or outline. Proscenium ; in a theatre, the stage, or the front of it. Prostyle ; a range of columns in front of a temple. Pyramid; a solid massive structure, which, 'from a square, triangular, or other, base, rises diminishing to a vertex or point. Quoin ; this term is applied to the stones at the corners of brick buildings. When these stand out beyond the brick-work, with edges chamfered, they are called Rustic Quoins. Rampant arch ; an arch, of which the abut- ments spring from an inclined plane. Relievo, Relief, or Embossment. See Alto- relievo, & c. Revels, pronounced Reveals ; the vertical re- treating surface of an aperture. Rose ; an ornament in the form of a rose, found chiefly in cornices, friezes, &c. Rotondo or Rotunda; a common name for any circular building. Rustic building; one constructed in the simplest manner, and apparently more agreeable to the face of nature than the rules of art. Saloon; a spacious, lofty, and elegant hall or apartment, vaulted at top, and gene- rally having two ranges of windows. Sarcophagus ; a tomb of stone, in general highly decorated, and used by the an- cients to contain the dead bodies of dis- tinguished personages. Shaft of a chimney ; the turret above the roof. Shanks ; the intersticial spaces between the channels of the trigliph, in the Doric frieze : sometimes called Legs. Soffita or Soffit ; any timber ceiling, formed of cross-beams of flying cornices, the square compartments or panels of which are enriched with sculpture or painting. Soffit also means the under side of an architrave, and that of the corona, or drip, &c. ; also, the horizontal undersides of the heads of apertures, as of doors and windows. Spherical and Spheroidal Bracketing ; brack- ets formed to support lath and plaster, so that the outer surface shall be spherical, or spheroidal. Sphinx; a favourite ornament in Egyptian architecture, representing the monster, half woman and half beast, said to have been born of Typlion and Echidna. Strive ; the fillets or rays separating the fur- rows or grooves of fluted columns. Striges ; the channels of a fluted column. Tania, or Tenia ; a small square fillet, at the top of the architrave, in the Doric capital. Tambour; from a word signifying a drum, and meaning the naked of a Corinthian or Composite capital : also the wall of a circular temple, surrounded with columns. Terrace; an elevated area for walking upon, and sometimes meaning a balcony. Transept; the cross- ailes of a church of a cruciform structure. Trophy, an ornament representing the trunk of a tree, supporting military weapons, colours, &c. Vellar cupola ; a cupola or dome, terminated by four or more walls. Vermiculated Rustics; stones worked or tooled so as to appear as if eaten by worms. Volute ; the scroll or principal ornament of the Ionic capital. Wainscot ; the lining of walls ; mostly- panelled. Water-table; a ledge in walls where the thickness begins to abate. Weather-boarding; feather-edged boards, lapped and nailed upon each other, so a# to prevent ram or drift from passing: through. Zophorus. See Frieze. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER FOR PLACING THE PLATES. As several Plates are described in the same page, we recommend placing the whole together at the end of the Volume but when tins is not adopted, the Plates may be placed opposite the pages, as below. 23 28 33 45 46 50 r* 145 Plate I. Theory of Mouldings, &c. and Methods of Swelling Columns, with Profile of i the Grecian and Doric Entablature ! and Capital II. The five Ancient Orders of Roman Ar- chitecture III. The Three Ancient Orders of Grecian Architecture IV. Parts of the Tuscan Order V. Roman Doric Order VI. Grecian Doric Entablature and Capital of a Column VII. Grecian Doric Order VIII. Grecian Doric Entablature and Ant®. IX. Grecian Entablature and Ant® X. Roman Ionic Order XI. Roman Ionic Volute, by Mr. Elsam . . 'I XII. Ionic Order, from the Ionic Temple on f the Ilissus XIII. Grecian Ionic Capital (angular) v XIV . Grecian Ionic Capital at large f 37 XV. Grecian Ionic Capitals XVI. Elevation of Grecian Ionic Capitals to j a large scale J XVII. Grecian Ionic Entablature, Bases, and x Antae ) XVIII. Grecian Ionic Capital r 38 XIX. Grecian Ionic Capitals and Bases .... ^ XX. Roman Composite Order 42 XXI. Roman Corinthian Order, after Sir )* William Chambers j XXII. The Corinthian Capital and Base, from- the Temple of Tivoli J XXIII. Grecian Corinthian Capitals .{ XXIV. Grecian Corinthian Capitals and Bases V to Pilasters or Ant® ... C XXV. From the Choragic Monument of Ly- \ XXVI. Grecian Ornaments ) XXVII. Grecian Ornaments C XXVIII. Grecian and Roman Ornapients 5i XXIX. First-rate House, Plan, Elevation, and'] Section XXX. Second-rate House, Plan, Elevation and Section XXXI. Third-rate House, Plan, Elevation, and Section XXXII. Fourth-rate House, Plan, Elevation, and Section XXXIII. Plan and Elevation of a Villa XXXIV. Plan & Elevation of a Villa with Wings^ XXXV. Plan and Elevation of a Castellated Gothic Villa XXXVI. Plan and Elevation of a Castellated Gothic Villa, with Pinnacles 146 XXXVII. Lodge and Entrance to aMansion, Plan and Elevation ~ £ XXVIII. Ground Plan of a Design fora Mansion) in the Castellated Style XXXIX. Design of a Mansion in the Castellated Style XL. Ground Plan of the Seat of Henry Monteitli, Esq. . XLI. Elevation of the Seat of Henry Mon- teith, Esq „ _ XLII. Plan and Elevation of a Mansion 148 XLIII. Ground Plan of a Church in the Grecian .. Style .1 XLIV. Front Elevation of a Church in Ditto ( XLV. Flank Elevation of a Church in Ditto ) XLVI. Back Elevation of a Church in the") Grecian Style / XLVII. Longitudinal Section of a Church, Do,( XLVIII. Transverse Section of Do \ XLIX. Ground Plan of a Chapel 1 L. Principal Elevation of a Chapel . . . . C LI. Flank Elevation of a Chapel LII. Back Elevation of a Chapel J *^2 LIII. Longitudinal Section of a Chapel . . . . ) LIV. Transverse Section of a Chapel ( 153 LV. Plan of an Octagonal Mausoleum ... 3 'I he Engraved Title-page to be placed in Vol. I. The Portrait 155 156 127 128 162 147 149 150 151 Plate LVI. Elevation of a Mausoleum ) fade LVII. Section of a Mausoleum £ 453 LVIII. Ground Plan of a Mausoleum, P V LIX. Upper Plan of a Mausoleum, P / LX. Front Elevation of a Mausoleum, P. ,.Q *^4 LXI. Flank Elevation of a Mausoleum, P...J LXII. Ground Plan for a County Court-House") and Prison r LXIII. Elevation of a Design for a Countyf - Court-House and Prison j LXIV. Ground Plan of a small County Prison > LX V . Elevation of a small County Prison ^ LX VI. Ground Plan of the Middlesex County ) Lunatic Asylum C 457 LXVII. Perspective View of Ditto ) LXVIII. Plans and Elevations of St. Peter’s in > Rome and St. Paul’s in London .... V *38 LXIX. The Plain Scales, &c 459 LXX. Perspective — Diagrams 426 LXXI. Perspective — Shaded Figures ) LXXII. Perspective — Ditto $ LX XIII. Perspective — A Shaded Cornice ") LXXIV. Perspective — A Shaded Building ....( LXXV. Perspective— Grecian Doric Entabla-f - ture and Capital ) LXX VI. Perspective — Ionic Capital ) LXXVII. Perspective — Corinthian Order \ LX XVIII. Centrolinead ) LXXIX. Mode of Setting the Centrolinead .... 5 LXXX. Projection 430 LXXXI. Projection 433 LXXXII. Projection of Shadows . . . .\ 434 LX XXIII. Projection of Shadows 433 LXXXIV. Section of Part of Waltham Abbey, &c.-. LXXXV. Elevation of Waltham Cross / LXX XVI. Plans and Details of Waltham Cross v LXXXVII. Plan and Elevation of the King’s Palace ( Pimlico J LXXXVITI. Plan and Elevation of the National Gal-) levy, Trafalgar Square I LX XXIX. Plan and Elevation of Holford House, j Regent’s Park ! XC. Principal Plan and Elevation of Gold- smiths’ Hall XCI. Front Elevation of Westminster Hall XCI. 2. A Part of Henry the VII. ’s Chapel XCII. Compartments of the Interior and Ex- 463 terior of Lincoln Cathedral XCIII. Part of the Choir and Transepts of Lincoln Cathedral XCIII. 2. Cathedral of Freiburg .... XCIV. Parts of the Nave and Aisle of Lin- coln Cathedral XCV. Palace of the Grimani, on the Great Canal of Venice XCVI. Examples of Gothic Sculpture in the : ISth Century XCVII. The Hall of Christ’s Hospital XCVIII. South Elevation of the New Church, Chelsea XCVIII. 2. Cathedral de Notre Dame at Paris. .. . XCIX. Lady Chapel, Southwark C. Part of the Church of Bathalha in Portugal L 464 C. 2. Section of the Basilica of St. Francis at Asisi Cl. North Front of Stafford House, St. James’s CII. Plan and Elevation of Westminster Hospital CIII. Plan and Elevation of the General Post Office, London j CIV. Plan and Elevation of the Custom House- London CV. Interior of Norwich Cathedral CVI. Plan and Elevation of the Fishmongers’ . Hall 165 CVII. Plan and Elevation of Somerset House | CVIII. New method of constructing Wharf I Walls without the aid of Cofferdams J of Mr. Peter Nicholson, to face the Engraved Title-page. n . A ; *-\ r' V ’ T 11 E Cl RT O F M 0 U X. D I NOS, &C . , ; . ; and T 1 1 K ANCIENT METHOD OF SWELLIATO THE SHAFTS 0 R.D E.RS. rzn TE 1 . dvrr/a 7idan Cyrus/ Tieeta -f J'/r/. /-’iff. O. /■/<;. 5. 70 <7 /. Dig. 3 . A FlinlJi, . I, Fillet crupper Cincture- - W FiUetor7inur li LmerTcrus M Astr-agal X Triylyphs 0 MMerSftum/.. N Tfec/c or Frist trf y" Capitals Capita/ ’-efy* THctlyph 1 > Scot/// O Fillols or AnrvuJsis Z Ovolo or Quarter rau-nd Vj lili/i P Ovolo or E dr dues \ MuMde or Mod/ : llion- Band P Upper To/us Q Abacus iMutuUs (> Fid. -I or low uuc./um R IrwerUdlGymaorOgco 3 Ogee H Aw 8 fills t i Corona or/rrig I Shn/l of /he Column T fascia cf ' y''Anhilmvo 5 Ogre K Conyo Wraps 6 Covdlo 7 fill-el Tra/ile : /£Mv, 17. St&mes/ei- J\cv M 11,48 O RDEHS. PARTS ©F TIE TUSCAN ORBEl Plate IV. h 'ig . / • /)/\/r uvt by i\ LA. J I’ckolson, ■ Z, JPuitu/ud. l> V Tho fEeU y,17Pn ternc. i/a'Mr ’ « Oc/rbrr!*. 7648 Eriyra vcd by W.d ymns. AO Minu tes 3 Z Minutes 30 Minutes 43 Minutes 4 5 Minutes ORDERS. R O M A N O© MIC ORDER PLATE V. Fig . 1 . lhawni hyMA. Nicholson. l\n/)ravcd by Ji'Sycmns. London Published byThx>?Eelfy.l7Paternoster Tow. January 1J648 own; u s GMiRCMK DGK.1IC IE, _N TAB 1 L ATI J HE r APITAL OF A ( ' o L IT 31 N „ /V..I 77 '. -SC Minutes J-l~ i rvi .. //'. Scale MiYltUcs Min/ites. r: . . ! rd. ' >Crr.r f . Adta rd Sculp. /..v/d. >n, Published 'Ay W/\- /? Pal anas/erXi >» fied'24.1840 nnfrrayeH tr 7ir$vvran. I. ancion . . TtibiuJivL by . Thof Kelly J 7 J? a tim csterlto wJ7o vembcrlJS4 3 03; DO; s PlATt ill €w IE €1 AN DOMIC ORDER b O o p o o b o O: o o o ] O o o O 0 o oooooc OOOOOd booo O' ORDERS. GRECIAN DORIC ,IT1B ii T im K AM ID AM TJK FZATE Wf. ' Fig. 2. 1- I A l . ■ i_. A JO. '{ JtfsrxtH. Jvr/f ! i/i/r.f? / Sc&le- 2. 1 a Modules. 2C. 30. 40. 30. 60. 70 60. &o Mi nicies. //. , idurfy /.ond rn. ’'Z-W/y. /7. Pi/,./ nester kow. ,/v.y r 281S4S. O R DER S. CHEUBCI&Kr EN TABLATUH E PLATE IT. Fiy.2. Fl F 1 - — 50 Minutes. Scsr/e to, 2 i' 4c. ' so. Minutes. R . Tdsam.Arc/i f direx* JL.Ad/ard, Scu/f. London, TtM /sited by TftcfScBy. nld/emoslerltow. Deed 4.184 ft R O M A K I O XX I X O K iii JRK . FfY/crl. Gc&JTewh/s. j. /&. mM/ji;' r. Ah’du/s.-. f.otufi'/t "uMls/uid- fry r //.< f ZfMy. JV7 m.ji >ch . 1 dit'cjc . 1 H.Adhrd Sculp. GRECIAN IOFI€ CAPI1 _/C on Amu I’ltblUhtd by ThcfETcHy. /7.Tatern!rn&*rl}&48 }■" vert, by W. Symn.’. Oil!) JiitS. FLA.TE XXX ill O MM C O li I N T II I -A-N O H D h 11 , X//< ' \ ' ( ~^Ch(a, mCeHJ. .ndai.Fu Wished by The! Kelly. a IWermsterSew. March 5. IMS ■ JnyuMrl ?V 1 1 *f The* Capitol ^/■3. Coiintbian Base-. M bciule. so. Mh notes. -do Minutes Xfcy %■ - 60 Mi*Uotes Modules. MuuUcs. ORDERS. - /• raved /'V f. J en.fi « Jj /■(/;<’// />v . l.Y /. ,>/sv >// L / ?n/.on . Published by T/tu? A'dlyJJ /aA-rncrlrr/lw pd . J /'<1A\ W OiE C I AW 0R1AMEMT § PJM : i~-' i a HiriRT iffili ;■' I L__ J LJ J * London RiiliLheeity rho J .Kel{v j.y,Ihlanester7to to, July 3 r '- J jx,4d . Third hate house . flate ixxi Drawn by M SL . TVtc/iolsorv Jdny raved. by "W. Synuis . FO'rKTI^RATiE HOfSE. London Fub hslwd hy ThoU Kelly. 1J. Fiotemoster Row. Sep.' 23 1836. Fu,. 2. ground flan . Dmu /i (jy M AJVicholspn- Engraved by W.Symns. I. ondou.1V b Lushed by ThofEdly.ll. IcUemoster Haw. Jime.1.1848. ELEYATICXN . PLATE XWJ Tic/, j. Chamber Fean. Tie/. 2. Desii/ned by M.A . Mvfwhm . GROUND FLAW. Luqmved bylf./hdcur/ . Louden. Fuhtished, by VudKdtyJl, C/dej'n vstcr Rew „ /«//.* S>. 1848 . ELEVATION. PLATE . oxp : library. Greeti House. Diriuuj Room. Brea/fcLst. Room Drawing Ro W Fig. 2. m (PRO UNJJ PLAN Designed by M. A . Ni.o/wUv/i CROr> r I) PLAN . londc/t ft (bli.s'hr rf fry Tfwf. Kdty. JJ: Fale/TU^ta • ftow. A ui/ust . 1. l<94fi . LODGE AND ENTRANCE TO A MANSION London BublilhoiL by Thomas TCeLLy. 17. Paternoster Row. August 16. 1848 rj.jrn: i.i't (G1K.01TM) YJLAN OF A. ]DES][GK FOM A MARSOTK LX Till: CASTELETTEJj STYLE. k turned fir ILYNic/wlsoro. wm i PP4TK JXXIX HE SIGN FOE A MAW SION IN THE CASTELLATED STYLE. Prujnncd by < jrrA 4 Dick londen dubtUkcd bv The fdfei/vJ'lFidernpJtcH/Sow. Sep* ZO.lodS j rjo det J)esii/?uxl by M.^dSNicAolsm ■ GROl.'XD PL AX OF THE SHAT OF HE ARY MOWTEITH ES /), r.yne/t by M /l. A'ic/lo Isan, Snyr,. /vnfttm, Ji/Whbrd by Tbo'tfcTh tj ]‘atrrrwsierJ\‘CH , dune j,j64tf London, Jhib/irhed. by Tko s K&Uy, .17 Paternoster' How'. Seyt'y ^843 !>• .'hiih'tl >v Drawn by M..l.Xicholson. Knqraved on Steel by yl .Dick. /■DA TE XLTV FRO.VT r. v AT I () V O •' ciiricj, ,LV THE v.\i ]', V \s Y I, London. Published by TKo 3 Kelly, 17 Paternoster Pern March 20.1848. * 7)A77• . LONGITUDINAL SECTION OTACHlTfl, J)esiff>ud and. Drawn by MJ NitheUen. • ' £ryi'aver I ’UcheMarv. JLOIST GITYJJIINAX. SECTION QjF A CILAPKJ vidon, Htblis/ud Ay ThvfSelfy, !J J > afcm > ■ ' ' . - ■■ ... , , .. ■ . ' V . ■; . ' ’ • • • 1 : • ^PS3 /'LATE LV1 /.rnjf/i, ■ii'i,,/ fa // /', S E € T I O N O F A MAU S O LE IT London,. 2'uh/istuut. by L’hofJLeliy, 7 / Later waster LioW. July 2, 0 2848 Pla t />; £X //z/'/aV/vv/ /tv T/i/) '.' Z' el ty, // Perfer/tojfci'ltinv. Zl/i/i * o :/ ft 4- 8 Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged of a small County Prison. flaieuIP. ■/dte/ci sculp! ■ • ' • . • •• ■ . . • , . • . - , ■ '• •• ■ ' !-:rev^-ed Back of Foldout Not Imaged rrrr •• Jl r r rm rrrrrrrrfrrr rrr T j [frrrnnrrnrrrTrrrrf.rrrf r. rrrrfrrrr'rrrrrrrrrv i.* ^ rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrxrr / frrrrrrrrrrrTrfrrrrrrrrr [frjyrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr mm PERSPECTIVE Oil BIRDS EYE VIEW OP THE MIDDLESEX COUNTY LUNATIC ASYLUM. Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged I v E OM E T HIT . 'J'/je Plane Scales See. Plate • uu/< >.v JPubhisktd by The? KtU.yJ.7 Paternoster Mow. Trh> MW8. 1 ‘l.AT I I XXI r w M S F J E C T IV J5 , 1 MJlX’Lckc Is o n. LondonJUblishzcL by IboXtUyl'/faLerrios ter Row Sep' 201M6 Enyraved by W.Syrruis c Fzy. 6 . Fxg.3. Fig - 5 YWM SPEC T I Y¥,. P LJLTJE IlXXJI , Dr-Z wn. by J'f.A JT / ckM P-ndon.-, Published. bv T/w J fatty. n.Palerrurfcr Kow. March. 26. !S4h PLATE LXXV! IONIC CAPITAL IN PERSPECTIVE J.i'/tAi'/l.j'iii'iix’---. '»'r Thi\MA\ // /‘ajerii<>.sti-r / 'nr- if mi . 1 . 1 8 . ’ •' PLATE LXXVII. C OIUTHIM OK B KB \y PEKSPECTIVJi, FROM THE TFMJ’IE OF JUPITOK STATOR AT ROME. iJrann. fry M. A '.Nichols cn ■ E/zqraved. fry J. JJic/c Lpn.dcn, Pufrtished fry ThofFdly. // Palcrrwstcr Jan,' J 5. 048 OLINEAD KT i L.i ri: i.xwiii. f.t'mlt'n . /‘uHished by ThofKdb. H I’atorn-osUr How OcC18.1848 MODE OF SETTING THE CENTRO LINE, AD. PLATE LXXTX. Irrawn, iy MALndhelson. Engraved lyADLck. ImdmulWiti.thtcLty The:' 'Kelly. MbtmwtrrZs#JpnL LOMU. SHADOWS PLATE JJaXUJ , Fig.l Eig.2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 3. Drawn by M. A.Nicholson . Engraved by W.Symns. Dondon. Published fy Tho'i KeUy, LJ. PuJenwtcr How. SepT 11846. Back of Foldout Not Imaged Jo Ujj national Gallemy Trayilgab Square. =£-3 j# #1 B# ' #1 /Mv*/,aut4. del! ■ Back of Foldout Not Imaged holfosd mouse Regents Park Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE PLATE XCH. COMPARTMENTS OF THE INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR OF LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. Part of Ike Exterior of the Nave . Part of the Interior of the Nave . I.p/i.l 'n .PitblishfJyb}' Tho s Kelty, 1? Pat&'noster Ecu'. fi ■/ E. TurrelL, ,r< I’LATK X( GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE a PARTS OF THE CHOIR AND TRANSCEPT OF .LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. Tran s cep t C h.oir London .Published by Tho * Kelh/, 17, Tatemoster Low, ' L.TurnUsc. ( . > • • * • • . • • • ■ • ' • [ _____ PLATE X'I'V. GOTHIC ARCHITECT!’ JUS OF ITALY • EL EVATli XV < JF THE PALACE GRIMAN 1 ON THE GREAT CANAL , VENICE . Ithwrn cv IJT Ji. i 'Lu'i: London Published by Thaf Kelly. 17 Paternoster Raw. Jan*. 1**1848 Engraved, by E. Turrell . i3 . a Plate . xcvi N°l. N°Z. N° 6. N?4. ¥°7. N?d. N?n. 21912. iJrawn try ir.KClarkr. Lotulan Fu LI i slut! by Thof Judly lj Fatemoster Row May i*Li84d . ELEVATION AND JP3LAN OF THE HAUL. OF CHRISTS MOSPITAH by AHoi-kuu. London TubUshed by ThofTkUy ,37 Ihtaitaster Bow Feb? SOUTH ELEVATION \)Y THE >'EW nn'RCH, CHELSEA. plate xcviii. S/i' IV J.\th , rihK*l* , r ln>n M,uv/i Jfi48. ELEVATION AM* FLAN OF FART OF THE LADY CHAPEL S'T SAYIOUMS SOUTHWAlKo mmm 3B Back of Foldout Not Imaged U- Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged Back of Foldout Not Imaged