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STANDARD WORKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Dr. WEBSTER'S DICTIONARY 
 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Note. — The only authorized Editions of the above celebrated 
 Dictionary are those here described : no other Editions 
 published in Engla,nd contain the Derivations and Etymolo- 
 gical Notes of Dr. Mahn, ivho devoted several years to this 
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 WEBSTEK'S GUINEA DICTIONARY 
 
 OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Thoroughly revised and improved 
 by Chauncey A. Goodrich, D.D., LL.D., and Noah Porter, D.D., 
 of Yale College. 
 
 The peculiar features of this volume, which render it perhaps the most useful 
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 with the assistance and under the super- 
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 3. Scientific and Technic?! Terms. — 
 
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STANDARD WORKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 WEBSTER'S DICTIONARY. 
 
 From the Quarterly Review, Oct. 1873. 
 
 " Seventy years passed before Johnson was followed by Webster, an 
 American writer, who faced the task of the English Dictionary with a 
 full appreciation of its requirements, leading to better practicaljresults." 
 * * * *i 
 
 " His laborious comparison of twenty languages, though never pub- 
 lished, bore fruit in his own mind, and his training placed him both in 
 knowledge and judgment far in advance of Johnson as a philologist. 
 Webster's ' American Dictionary of the English Language ' was pub- 
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 successive re-editing lias as yet kept it in the highest place as a practical 
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 " The acceptance of an American Dictionary in England has itself 
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 Dictionary must suit both sides of the Atlantic." .... 
 
 " The good average business-like character of Webster's Dictionary, 
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 distinctly unsuited to be expanded and re-edited by other hands. 
 Professor Goodrich's edition of 1847 is not much more than enlarged 
 and amended, but other revisions since have so much novelty of plan 
 as to be described as distinct works." .... 
 
 " The American revised Webster's Dictionary of 1864, published in 
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 names of Drs. Goodrich and Porter, but inasmuch as its especial im- 
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 " On the whole, the Webster-Mahn Dictionary as it stands, is most 
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TREATISE ON PAINTING 
 
 BY 
 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 a 
 
ss s 
 
 Zondoir, & Beli & Sons. York Street, Covent Garden. 
 
A 
 
 TREATISE ON PAINTING 
 
 BY 
 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI: 
 
 TBANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN BY 
 
 JOHN FEANCIS EIGAUD, E.A. 
 
 WITH A LIFE OF LEONARDO AND AN ACCOUNT OF 
 HIS WORKS BY JOHN WILLIAM BROWN. 
 
 NEW EDITION, REVISED. 
 
 LONDON: GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET, 
 COVENT GARDEN. 
 1877. 
 
AES EST HABITUS QUIDAM FACIENDI VERA CUM RATIONS. 
 
 Aristot. Ethic, lib. 6. 
 
 THE 6ETTY GENIifi 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 When Leonardo da Vinci made his will, nine days before 
 his death — which took place on the 2nd of May, 1519, at 
 his chateau at Clos-Lucé (Cloux), near Amboise — he be- 
 queathed all his manuscripts and drawings to Messer 
 Francesco da Melzi, gentleman, of Milan, "in remuneration 
 of grateful services done to the testator." Melzi trans- 
 ported his treasures to his residence at Vaprio, where, 
 four years afterwards, he died. His heirs set little store 
 by the writings of the great painter, and suffered thirteen 
 bound volumes and the "drawings in the garret" to be 
 taken away as valueless. Some of these drawings fell into 
 the hands of the Earl of Arundel, and are now in the 
 Royal Collection at Windsor. Many of the others, after 
 frequent changes of proprietorship, were presented to the 
 Ambrosian Library at Milan. 
 
 At the close of the eighteenth century, there were in 
 this library thirteen volumes of Leonardo's, including the 
 
 b 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 celebrated "Codice Atlantico," a book of huge size, 
 containing 1750 sketches which had been collected by the 
 sculptor Pompeo Leoni of Arezzo. *- 
 
 In 1796, Bonaparte seized these books and sent them 
 to Paris, where they were placed in the Bibliothèque de 
 l'lnstitut. After the Peace, in 1815, the " Codice Atlan- 
 tico " was returned to the Ambrosian Library. The other 
 twelve volumes still remain in Paris. 
 
 In the year 1651, a selection from these manuscripts of 
 such passages as relate to the Art of Painting, came into 
 the possession of Raphael du Fresne, who published them 
 in the original Italian, under the title of " Trattato della 
 Pittura," accompanied by a series of engravings from out- 
 line drawings by Nicholas Poussin (to which shadows and 
 backgrounds were added by Errard), and a set of geo- 
 metrical designs by Alberti. In the same year, the work 
 was translated into French by Roland Fréard, Sieur de 
 Chambray, and issued with the same plates. 
 
 In 1 721, a translation into English — it is not known by 
 whom — was published in London, and in 1796 another 
 edition was printed, which was soon exhausted ; for in the 
 year 1802, Mr. John Francis Rigaud, a member of the 
 Royal Academy, undertook to translate the work afresh, 
 and to re-arrange the whole book so as to make it easier of 
 reference ; careful indexes were given, and the plates were 
 re-engraved. This edition lasted till 1835, when a new 
 
 * From an inscription in the Ambrosian Library, we learn that a 
 King of England (probably Charles I.) offered 3000 gold doubloons 
 of Spain for this work. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 vii 
 
 one was issued by Messrs. Nichols and Son, to which 
 was added a Life of Leonardo by Mr. John William Brown. 
 This gentleman had the privilege of constant admittance 
 not only to the priyate library of his Imperial and Royal 
 Highness the Grand Duke of Tuscany, but also to his 
 most rare and valuable collection of Manuscripts in the 
 Palazzo Pitti, where he was permitted to copy from the 
 original documents and correspondence whatever he con- 
 ceived useful to his subject. He was enabled to produce 
 what was then the most trustworthy Life of Leonardo that 
 had ever appeared. Since that time many new biographies 
 of Leonardo have been written, of which one of the most 
 important is that by Signor Gustavo Uzielli. 
 
 The 1835 edition of the " Treatise on Painting " has 
 long been scarce. It is now reprinted, and the more 
 recent facts which have been discovered concerning the 
 life of Leonardo, and a full account of his manuscripts 
 and his acknowledged paintings have been added. 
 
 Nicholas Poussin's drawings and Alberti's designs are 
 reproduced, and great pains have been taken to make 
 Leonardo's work as useful as possible to students of Art. 
 
 John Francis Rigaud, the translator of the " Trattato 
 della Pittura," was born of French parents at Turin, in 
 1742. His father, who was a merchant, intended his son 
 to follow his profession; but young Rigaud evinced so 
 strong a talent for painting, that he was allowed to follow 
 his own desires. After he had received good instruction 
 in art from Chevalier Beaumont, principal painter to the 
 King of Sardinia, Rigaud travelled much in Italy, and 
 
viii 
 
 % 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 stayed more especially in Rome, Parma, and in Bologna, 
 where, in 1766, he was elected a member of the Clementine 
 Academy. In 1772, Rigaud left Italy and went to Paris, 
 where he remained but a short time. He then came to 
 England, and gained much praise for his picture of 
 Hercules. In the November of the year of his arrival, he 
 was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 
 1784 he became a full member. With the exception of 
 a journey on the Continent, Rigaud spent the rest of 
 his life in England. He died in 1810, at Packington, in 
 Warwickshire, the seat of the Earl of Aylesford, his chief 
 patron. 
 
 In the parish church at Packington is an altar-piece 
 painted by Rigaud for the Earl of Aylesford— noteworthy 
 from the circumstance that it is supposed to be the first 
 work executed in fresco in this country. 
 
 Among other honours in art, Rigaud was made a Mem- 
 ber of the Royal Academy of Stockholm, and Historical 
 Painter to the King of Sweden. 
 
i 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 The Life of Leonardo Da Vinci ... ... xi 
 
 Drawing — Proportion ... ... ... ... 1 
 
 Anatomy ... ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 Motion and Equipoise of Figures ... ... ... 20 
 
 Linear Perspective ... ... ... ... 37 
 
 Invention, or Composition ... ... ... ... 45 
 
 Expression and Character ... ... ... 63 
 
 Light and Shadow ... ... ... ... ... 67 
 
 Contrast and Effect ... ... ... ... 80 
 
 Keflexes ... ... ... ... ... 81 
 
 Colours and Colouring ... ... ... 87 
 
 Colours in regard to Light and Shadow ... ... 100 
 
 Colours in regard to Back-grounds ... ... 106 
 
 Contrast, Harmony, and Reflexes in regard to Colours 108 
 
 Perspective of Colours ... ... ... ... 1 14 
 
 Aerial Perspective ... ... ... ... 125 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations ... ... ... 135 
 
 Landscape, etc. ... ... ... ... 135 
 
 General Index ... ... ... ... ... 157 
 
 Appendix — 
 
 I. Manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci ... ... 173 
 
 II. Classified Catalogue of his principal Paintings — 
 
 Holy Families, Madonnas, etc. ... ... 179 
 
 Sacred Historical Subjects ... ... 197 
 
 Classical Subjects ... ... ... ... 204 
 
 Historical Subjects ... ... ... 209 
 
 Portraits ... ... ... ... ... 210 
 
 Pictures Lost or Missing ... ... 222 
 
 III. Catalogue of his Drawings and Sketches ... 228 
 
THE LIFE OF 
 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Among the many distinguished individuals who flourished in 
 Italy during the early part of the sixteenth century, whether 
 we consider his splendid and almost universal talents, or the 
 excellence of his character, there is none more worthy of com- 
 memoration than Leonardo da Vinci. Through a long and active 
 life his mind was zealously devoted to the revival of the arts, 
 to which he contributed in a greater degree, perhaps, than any 
 single individual of ancient or modern times. The arts of poetry, 
 music, and especially painting, were embraced by him with an 
 enthusiasm which awakened that of others, and gave a mighty 
 impulse to the mental energies, not only of his contemporaries 
 and countrymen, but of distant nations and posterity. 
 
 Every incident in the life of such a man must be full of 
 interest to the lovers of biography : the more so from the very 
 remarkable fact, that in no language have those incidents been 
 properly collected, though abundant and authentic sources of 
 information exist on which such a work might be founded. To 
 supply in some degree this deficiency, is the object of the 
 following pages.* 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci was born in the year 1452, at Vinci, in the 
 Val d'Arno Inferiore, on the confines of the Pistoiese territory, 
 not far from the lake of Fucecchio. He was the natural son of 
 Ser Piero Antonio da Vinci, who, in the year 1484, was Notary 
 to the Seignory of Florence. It is said that his mother was a 
 
 * This Life of Leonardo was first published in 1828. 
 
XU THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 servant * in his father's family ; but this must remain uncertain, 
 from the length of time that has since elapsed, and the numerous 
 reports that contradict each other, not only in what relates to his 
 origin, but even to the year of his birth, in which there is a 
 difference of no less than seven years, f It is, however, certain, 
 that he was entirely brought up in his father's family ; a fact 
 attested by an old and well-authenticated register, found among 
 the ancient archives of Florence by Signore Dei, who has written 
 largely on the subject of Leonardo's genealogy. It is a matter of 
 some regret, that, amidst all his learned and elaborate researches, 
 that gentleman has not been able to procure any documents to 
 prove that Da Vinci was subsequently declared legitimate, which 
 from various circumstances appears to be extremely probable. 
 If we may believe the register, and there is no better authority, 
 Leonardo was seventeen years old when his father was forty ; so 
 that he must have been born when Piero was a young man, and 
 most likely before his marriage. 
 
 His father had four wives, Albiera di Giovanni da Zenobi 
 Amadori, Francesca di Ser Giuliano Lanfredini, Margherita di 
 Francesco, and Lucrezia di Guglielmo Cortigiani ; and a proof 
 that Leonardo still formed a part of his family after his third 
 marriage, is afforded by a passage in one of Belincionni's sonnets, 
 addressed to Madonna Lucrezia da Yinci, which begins 
 
 " A Fiesole con Piero e Leonardo ; " 
 
 and relates the pleasures he enjoyed at their villa near Florence. 
 It is hardly probable that he would have received such unvary- 
 ing attentions, had he been considered merely as a natural child. 
 Moreover, we find from several documents in the " Codice 
 Atlantico," that his family were at all times proud of his 
 relationship, and his uncle Francesco da Yinci left him an equal 
 share of his property with his brothers and sisters. 
 
 Leonardo was gifted with one of the finest forms that can be 
 imagined, in which strength and symmetry were beautifully 
 combined ; his face was strongly expressive of his ardent mind, 
 
 * Her name was Caterina. She afterwards married a certain 
 Accatabriga di Piero del Yacca, di Yinci. — Uzielli. 
 f Yasari says he was born in 1445. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. xiii 
 
 and of the frankness and energy of his character. He would, it 
 may be presumed, have distinguished himself in the literary 
 world while in his youth, had he not been as unsteady as he 
 was enthusiastic in his various pursuits. He made such 
 wonderful progress in arithmetic, that when a child he fre- 
 quently proposed questions which his master himself was unable 
 to resolve. He next attached himself to music as a science, and 
 soon arrived at such perfection in playing on the lyre, which 
 was his favourite instrument, as to compose extemporaneous 
 accompaniments to his own poetical effusions. The following 
 sonnet is one of the very few which are extant : — 
 
 " Chi non può quel che vuol, quel che può voglia : 
 
 Che quel che non si può folle è il volere. 
 
 Adunque saggio è l'uomo da tenere 
 
 Che da quel che non può suo voler toglia. 
 Pero che ogni diletto nostro e doglia 
 
 Stà in si e no, saper voler potere, 
 
 Adunque quel solpuò che è col dovere, 
 
 Ne trae la ragion fuor di sua soglia. 
 Ne sempre è da voler quel che l'uom pòte, 
 
 Spesso par dolce quel che torna amaro 
 
 Piansi già quel che io volsi, poiché io l'ebbi. 
 Adunque tu, lettor di queste note, 
 
 Se a te vuoi esser buono, e ad altri caro, 
 
 Vogli sempre poter quel che tu debbi." 
 
 But, although an ardent admirer of the arts in general, 
 painting appeared to be his favourite pursuit, to which he 
 more particularly applied himself in all its different branches ; 
 and in which he soon attained great excellence, as well as in the 
 art of forming models and designs. 
 
 Cimabue, Giotto, and Masaccio had already begun to revive 
 the art of painting in Italy, and more particularly in Tuscany, 
 where, from the powerful patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici, so 
 justly styled " the Magnificent," the arts were most certain to 
 find protection and encouragement. His liberality had already 
 acquired for his native Florence the honourable appellation of 
 the " Modern Athens ; " and his taste for literature and the fine 
 arts considerably influenced the state of public opinion among 
 his countrymen. 
 
Xiv THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 . The Signore Piero, perceiving that his son's abilities and 
 inclinations might lead to future wealth and fame, determined 
 to show the productions of his self-cultivated talents to Andrea 
 Verocchio, one of the most celebrated painters, sculptors, and 
 architects of that age.* Messer Andrea, surprised at the strong 
 indications of original talent and hope of future excellence which 
 these early productions evinced, gladly consented to receive the 
 young Leonardo into his " studio," convinced that a pupil of so 
 much merit could not fail of increasing his master's celebrity ; 
 but he soon found that his scholar had little need of his instruc- 
 tions, and that he would ere long surpass him in his own works. 
 
 It happened about this time that Messer Andrea was employed 
 to paint a picture of St. John baptizing our Saviour; and 
 anxious to stimulate his young pupil to greater exertion, he 
 desired his assistance in this composition. Leonardo executed 
 the part assigned him with such extraordinary skill, that, as 
 Vasari relates, the angel painted by him greatly excelled all 
 the rest of Andrea's picture, which, he says, " was the occasion 
 of Messer Andrea's leaving off painting, enraged that a child 
 should know more than himself." f 
 
 Having thus early given proof of wonderful abilities, Leonardo 
 employed himself in studying the different branches of the art to 
 which he now intended more particularly to devote his attention. 
 But the natural inconstancy of his disposition frequently im- 
 pelled him to desert his studio, and indulge in imaginary specu- 
 lations. His time, however, was never unemployed ; and though 
 his occupations were always various, and sometimes inconsistent, 
 he nevertheless most assiduously cultivated whatever was calcu- 
 lated to adorn his mind or increase his accomplishments. He 
 must also have worked very diligently at his profession, as his 
 father could not have afforded him much money for his amuse- 
 
 * Andrea del Verocchio, or Yerrocchio, a Florentine painter, 
 architect, and jeweller, died at Yenice in 1488, where lie was employed 
 in forming the equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Coglioni in bronze. 
 He was more celebrated as an architect and sculptor than as a 
 painter. — See his life by Vasari. 
 
 f This statement must be received with some qualification. 
 Leonardo remained with Verocchio till 1477, when he was twenty- 
 five years of age. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XV 
 
 ments; and he is known, if we may believe his contemporaries, 
 to have led rather a gay life. The delight of society wherever 
 he went, and an extraordinary favourite with the fair sex, he 
 became too fond of dress and parade ; he maintained a numerous 
 retinue of servants, a sumptuous equipage, and purchased the 
 most spirited horses that could be procured. These extravagances 
 were, however, extremely pardonable in a youDg man flushed 
 with success and conscious of his superior acquirements, par- 
 ticularly as they could only be supported by the produce of his 
 own industry, and must therefore have greatly tended to stimu- 
 late his exertions. 
 
 Like most people who are endowed with great natural talents, 
 he undertook much more than he was able to accomplish ; and 
 we find him continually changing his occupations : at one time 
 diligently employing himself in astronomical observations, to 
 .ascertain the motion of the heavenly bodies ; at another, intently 
 pursuing the study of natural history and botany ; yet, with all 
 his versatility of talent and inconstancy of disposition, never 
 permitting himself to neglect his favourite pursuit. With the 
 utmost perseverance he sought every possible means of improv- 
 ing himself in painting, from the time he left the studio of 
 Andrea Verocchio and became his own master. 
 
 The numerous works on scientific subjects that Leonardo has 
 left to posterity, sufficiently prove how well he must have em- 
 ployed his youth, though very little is to be found in the writings 
 of his contemporaries to give us any information of the occurrences 
 of his every-day life. Both Vasari and Lomazzo relate that he 
 invented various machines for lifting great weights, penetrating 
 mountains, conducting water from one place to another, and 
 innumerable models for watches, windmills, and presses. Two 
 of the many projects which he had in contemplation, some of 
 which were almost too wild for belief, deserve to be particularly 
 noticed. One of them was to lift up the Cathedral of San Lorenzo 
 en masse, by means of immense levers, and in such a manner that 
 he pretended the edifice would not receive the slightest injury. 
 The other, which was more feasible, was to form the Arno into 
 a canal as far as Pisa, and which would have been extremely 
 beneficial to the commerce of Tuscany. 
 
 That Leonardo continued to reside at Florence, or at least in 
 
Xvi THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 its neighbourhood, is confirmed by the story Vasari relates of 
 the Rotella del Fico, which was a round piece of wood cut from 
 the largest fig-tree on his father's estate. Signore Piero was very 
 fond of field sports and country amusements ; and one of his 
 f contadini " who was particularly useful to him on these occa- 
 sions, brought him a piece of wood, requesting him to have 
 something painted on it as an ornament for his cottage. "Willing 
 to gratify his favourite, he desired his son to do as the man 
 wished; and Leonardo, determined to paint something that 
 should astonish his father by the great progress he had made in 
 his art. This piece of wood must have been roughly made and 
 badly put together, as our young artist was obliged to have it 
 planed off and the interstices filled up with stucco, so as to leave 
 a surface sufficiently smooth for his purpose. He then con- 
 sidered for some time what he should represent, and at length 
 determined on painting a monster that should have the effect 
 of Medusa's head on all beholders. For this purpose he collected 
 every kind of reptile — vipers, adders, lizards, toads, serpents, and 
 other poisonous or noxious animals, and formed a monster so 
 wonderfully designed, that it appeared to flash fire from its eyes, 
 and also to infect the air with its breath. When he had suc- 
 ceeded to his wishes in this horrible composition, he called his 
 father to try its effect upon him ; who, not expecting what he 
 was to see, started back with horror and affright, and was just 
 going to run out of the room, when Leonardo stopped him by 
 assuring him it was the work of his own hands, exclaiming, that 
 he was quite satisfied, as his picture had the effect he anticipated. 
 Signore Piero was, of course, too much delighted with his son's 
 performance to think of giving it to his " contadino," for whom 
 he procured an ordinary painting, and sold Leonardo's to a 
 merchant of Florence for one hundred ducats. This was a very 
 large sum to give for a picture, when the value of money at the 
 time is remembered ; but it was soon after sold to the Duke of 
 Milan for three times the original cost. 
 
 The life of a painter, however celebrated, cannot be expected 
 to furnish the same variety of incidents as that of a warrior or 
 a statesman, though the civil virtues and splendid talents of 
 Leonardo da Vinci were probably more useful to his country 
 than the warlike qualifications of his more ambitious contempo- 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XVÌÌ 
 
 raries, which were usually accompanied by violence and followed 
 by remorse. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci had now reached his thirty-first year, and 
 was most indefatigable in the study of whatever might tend to his 
 improvement or increase his knowledge in the art of painting, to 
 which he almost exclusively devoted himself. One of his first 
 undertakings was the celebrated cartoon (pasteboard, or rather, 
 thick paper), which he designed, by order of the King of Portugal, 
 for a piece of tapestry that was to be worked in Flanders for 
 that monarch. This drawing represented the Story of Adam and 
 Eve when first tempted to sin, and surpassed everything which 
 had been seen of the kind. 
 
 One of his first pictures was a painting of the Madonna, in 
 which he introduced, among other accessories, a vase of flowers, 
 so inimitably executed that the dew seemed glittering on the 
 leaves. This production became afterwards the property of Pope 
 Clement the Seventh, who purchased it at an immense price. 
 For his friend Antonio Segni he formed a design of Neptune, 
 drawn in his car by sea-horses through the ocean, surrounded by 
 tritons, mermaids, and all the other attributes of that deity 
 which his fertile imagination could invent. It was some time 
 after presented by Segni's son, Fabio, to Messer Giovanni Gaddi, 
 with this epigram : — 
 
 " Pinxit Virgilius Neptunum : pinxit Homerus 
 Dum maris undisoni per vada flectit equos : 
 Mente quid em vates ilium conspexit uterquej 
 Vincius est oculis, jureque vincit eos." 
 
 Da Vinci always took great pleasure in delineating the most 
 grotesque figures and extraordinary faces, so that, if he met a 
 man in the street with any peculiarity of ugliness or deformity of 
 countenance, he would follow him until he had a correct idea of 
 his face, and would then draw the person, on his return home, 
 from memory, as well as if he had been present. He not only 
 studied to perfect himself in giving the mere beauty or deformity 
 of the likenesses he painted, but he sought to give the very air, 
 manner, and expression of the persons represented. He at all 
 times preferred studying from nature to following rules that 
 were then but imperfectly understood ; and he was in the habit 
 
xviii 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 of inviting the contadini, and people of the lower orders, to sup 
 with him, telling them the most ridiculous stories, that he might 
 delineate the natural expressions of rude delight undisguised 
 by the refinements of good breeding. He would then show them 
 their own likenesses, which no one could possibly behold without 
 laughter at the ridiculous faces which he had caricatured, but 
 with so much truth that the originals could not be mistaken.* 
 He was so indefatigable in pursuing the object of his ambition, 
 that he neglected no means of procuring fresh studies for his 
 pencil. He would sometimes put himself to the pain of ac- 
 companying criminals to the place of execution, and would 
 remain with them in their last moments, that he might catch 
 the expression of their countenances, and delineate the agony of 
 their sufferings. In short, there was no branch of his art which 
 he considered unworthy of his attention, aware that perfection 
 in anything is only to be attained by unwearied industry and 
 application. 
 
 We find from Vasari, that it was about this time that he 
 painted a picture for the Grand Duke Cosimo the First, repre- 
 senting an Angel in strong light and shade, which was placed 
 by that prince in the collection of the Palazzo Vecchio, from 
 whence it has been missing for upwards of a century. Most 
 probably it was turned out of its place from the oversight or 
 carelessness of the directors, who had condemned it to be put 
 aside with a quantity of rubbish, old furniture, and frames, 
 which are occasionally sold by order of the Duke's guardaroba. 
 It was not long since bought by a " rivenditore " for twenty-one 
 quatrini, about three-pence, and resold to its present possessor, 
 the Signore Fineschi, a drawing-master of Florence, for five 
 pauls — two shillings and sixpence. There is no doubt of the 
 originality of this painting, both from the particular style of 
 colouring Leonardo made use of, and the sort of stucco with 
 which it is covered behind, a chemical composition which he 
 is well known to have used to preserve his pictures from the 
 worms when they were painted on wood. It is also most 
 accurately described in Vasari's Life of Leonardo, in these 
 
 * The best of these caricatures were published by Clarke, in 1786, 
 from drawings by Wenceslaus Hollar, taken from the Portland 
 Museum. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XÌX 
 
 words : — " Among the best things in the Duke Cosimo's palace 
 is the head of an Angel, with one arm lifted up in the air, 
 shortened off about the elbow, and the other with the hand on 
 the bosom. It is a very extraordinary thing that this great 
 genius was in the habit of seeking for the very darkest blacks, 
 in order to effect a sort of chiaroscuro, which added more bril- 
 liancy to his pictures, and gave them more the appearance of 
 night than the clearness of day ; but this was in order to increase 
 the relief, and so improve the art of painting." 
 
 The celebrated picture of the Medusas Head, which is now in 
 the Public Gallery at Florence, was executed about this time, but, 
 as it was a work that required great labour, it, like too many 
 of his undertakings, is in an unfinished state. It is a most ex- 
 traordinary subject, and the snakes are interwoven and grouped 
 together instead of hair with such wonderful skill, that it excites 
 almost as much disgust as admiration. 
 
 The fame of Leonardo's extraordinary abilities spread through 
 Italy, and he was invited by several princes to reside at their 
 courts, and enrich their palaces with his works. The ex- 
 ample of the great Lorenzo had raised an emulation among 
 the princes of Italy for the encouragement of literary men ; and 
 whoever was distinguished by talent was sure not only of wealth 
 and preferment, but was flattered and caressed by all his 
 superiors. The unusual tranquility Italy enjoyed from the wise 
 precautions and conciliatory policy of Lorenzo de' Medici, left 
 her turbulent rulers at leisure to cultivate the arts of peace. 
 Their habitual restlessness required employment ; and reduced 
 to inaction by the temporary cessation of their petty wars and 
 intrigues, their ambition consisted in drawing to their respective 
 courts the greatest men of that luminous period. Lorenzo may 
 therefore be justly styled, not only the Msecenas of Florence, 
 which he governed, but of the age in which he lived, as his 
 politics so materially influenced the revival of literature and the 
 progress of general civilization. 
 
 Anxious to secure to himself a certain provision for his 
 expensive style of living, Leonardo addressed a letter to Ludo- 
 vico Sforza, surnamed 11 Moro, offering his services to that 
 prince, who governed Milan during his nephew's minority, and 
 whom he knew to be most desirous of attracting to his court all 
 
XX 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 the literati of the age, under the pretence of assisting him in 
 the young Duke's education.* None of the writers of that period 
 have given any reason why Leonardo preferred the patronage 
 of Ludovico to that of the house of Medici, particularly as the 
 latter were distinguished by their liberal encouragement of the 
 arts. Perhaps Lorenzo might have sent him to II Moro, with 
 whom he was in strict alliance ; or Leonardo might himself have 
 preferred Milan, where he would have hoped to have found a 
 more extensive field for the exercise of his talents, and less 
 competition than he must have had to contend with at Florence. 
 The uncertainty of his birth perhaps influenced so high-minded 
 a man ; and he probably wished to establish his own fortunes at 
 a strange court, where he was only known as an illustrious 
 Florentine, distinguished by his sovereign for the superiority of 
 his talents and acquirements. Whatever might have been Da 
 Vinci's motive, it is certain that he entered the service of the 
 Duke of Milan, and consented to receive an annual salary of 
 five hundred scudi, which was then by no means a contemptible 
 sum. He was, moreover, entitled to various privileges and 
 immunities, and permitted to appropriate to his own use the 
 produce of such of his paintings as were not executed by the 
 Duke's order. 
 
 It is important to the history of Leonardo da Vinci to fix, as 
 nearly as possible, the period of his arrival at Milan. From the 
 most authentic sources it appears that he must have taken up 
 his residence there previous to the year, 1487 ; for we find in an 
 old treatise entitled " Della Luce e dell' Ombra," in his own 
 hand-writing, the following observation: " A dì 23 d'Aprile 1490, 
 ehominciai questo libro, e richominciai il Cavallo." t In this 
 memorandum he no doubt alludes to the equestrian statue of 
 Francesco Sforza the First, which, if he recommenced in 1490, he 
 
 * It is a curious fact, that Leonardo da Vinci frequently wrote 
 from right to left, like the Persians, for which no one has been able 
 to account. It was most probably from a love of singularity ; and, 
 although it increases the difficulty of deciphering his manuscripts, it 
 also serves to place their identity beyond dispute. This singularity 
 is supposed by many of his biographers to have arisen from the fact 
 that he was left-handed. 
 
 f " On the 23rd of April, 1490, 1 began this book, and recommenced 
 the horse." 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XXÌ 
 
 must have begun long before, as it must have consumed much 
 time to form the necessary moulds and designs. Moreover, he 
 is alluded to by Belincionni, a Florentine poet, who resided at 
 the court of Ludovico il Moro, and celebrated most of the 
 principal events of that period, under the name of the " Appelle 
 Fiorentino : " 
 
 " Qui come l' ape al miei viene ogni dotto, 
 Di virtuosi ha la sua corte piena : 
 Da Fiorenza un Apelle ha qui condotto j " * 
 
 and the editor Tantio, or Tanzi, has added in the margin, 
 fearing it might not be understood, "Magistro Leonardo da 
 Vinci." 
 
 There is also another authority not less respectable than the 
 former, in the Eicordi of Monsignore Sabba da Castiglione, 
 which dates his coming to Milan as far back as 1483, from the 
 circumstance of his having been an eye-witness to the destruction 
 of this unfinished equestrian statue, when the French under 
 Charles the Eighth took possession of Milan, in 1499. There is 
 no evidence to confirm the assertion of this noble Milanese 
 writer that his contemporary Leonardo had worked at this 
 model for sixteen years ; but there is no reason to disbelieve 
 him when he declares he saw the bowmen of Gascony make use 
 of this magnificent production as a target. 
 
 Ludovico il Moro, at whose request Leonardo went to the 
 court of Milan, although only nominally Kegent, governed that 
 state with absolute authority; for his nephew Giovan-Galeazzo 
 possessed merely the title, and enjoyed the pageantry of sovereignty, 
 without the slightest power. 
 
 Ludovico Sforza, surnamed " Il Moro," not from his darkness 
 of complexion, as is erroneously stated by Gibbon, but from 
 his having taken a mulberry-tree, in Italian Moro, for his 
 device,f was a prince of great talents, and one of the first 
 
 * " Like bees to hive, here flocks each learned sage, 
 
 With all that's great and good his court is throng'd : 
 From Florence fair hath an Apelles come." 
 f " The Signore Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, adopted a 
 mulberry-tree, Moro, as his device, from its being considered wiser 
 than all other trees, as it buds later, and does not flower until it has 
 
 c 
 
Xxii THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 politicians of the age. Although the more noble qualities of his 
 mind were obscured by ambition, he was greatly beloved by all 
 who were about his person and admitted to his intimate society. 
 He was frank and pleasing in his manners, easy of access, and 
 liberal even to profusion to those who possessed his confidence. 
 To a very handsome and prepossessing exterior, he united the 
 most powerful eloquence. He successfully cultivated the arts of 
 peace, and lost no opportunity of drawing to his court those who 
 had most distinguished themselves in the arts and sciences. It 
 was his opinion that much more might be done by council than 
 by arms ; and that the pen was frequently of more weight than 
 the sword ; he was therefore averse to warlike enterprises, and 
 always preferred obtaining his object by overreaching his 
 adversaries in politics and intrigue. To such a man Leonardo 
 da Yinci must have been invaluable. His various talents, to a 
 prince who so well knew how to appreciate them, were of the 
 greatest importance, and he was received at his court with every 
 possible demonstration of favour and affection. It would far 
 exceed the limits of this work to enumerate all the celebrated 
 men whom Ludovico had drawn around him under the laudable 
 pretence of his nephew's instruction and amusement. The poet 
 Belincionni has enumerated them in his various compositions ; 
 and Leonardo is also mentioned in most honourable terms. 
 
 " Del Vinci e suoi pennelli e suoi colori, 
 I moderni e gli antichi hanno paura." * 
 
 The Padre Luca Paciolo, who was the friend and companion 
 of Leonardo and the great restorer of mathematics in Italy, 
 places our hero before all his contemporaries, and makes the 
 following playful allusion to his name " Il Vince in scoltura, getto, 
 e pittura, con ciascuna il nome verifica." f 
 
 escaped the injuries of winter, when it immediately bears fruit : 
 thereby demonstrating itself of a nature to do nothing hastily, but 
 rather maturely to reflect, and then promptly execute. This wise 
 prince made use of this device as emblematic of a similarity of 
 disposition." — See Giovio, Vite d'Uomini Illustri. 
 
 * " Vinci and his pencils and his colours, both moderns and ancients 
 have in dread." 
 
 f 11 In sculpture, casts, and painting, Vinci verifies his name 
 in all." 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 xxiii 
 
 Vasari is greatly mistaken in supposing that Ludovico sent 
 for Da Vinci merely to amuse him with his musical talents ; * for 
 it appears very improbable that this prince, who was so well 
 aware of Leonardo's knowledge and taste for the fine arts, from 
 having the famous Rotella del Fico in his possession, which was 
 painted by him when a young man, should have considered 
 him in the light of a musician. Whatever reputation he 
 might have gained for playing on the lyre, it is evident that 
 he himself considered that accomplishment a mere pastime, as 
 he never makes the slightest mention of his musical abilities in 
 the celebrated letter addressed by him to the Duke of Milan : 
 and if the enlightened politics and vast ideas of Ludovico il 
 Moro are considered, it will be readily conceived that Leonardo 
 was sent for with the view of giving instruction to others as well 
 as of working himself, by instituting an academy of arts and 
 sciences, of which he was to. have the chief direction. We know 
 also, from the best historians of the period, that this wary prince, 
 from the moment of his brother Galeazzo Maria's assassination, 
 had formed the plan of usurping his throne, and therefore 
 was particularly anxious to draw over to his party the most 
 celebrated men in Italy ; as the protection and patronage of such 
 eminent persons could not fail to increase his reputation and 
 strengthen his power. The advantage of such a mode of 
 proceeding had been already seen in the popularity of the 
 Medici at Florence, and of his own ancestors the Visconti at 
 Milan. That painting was never neglected in Lombardy, is 
 shown by the Abbate Lanzi, in his " Storia Pittorica," in which 
 he observes, that " while the whole of Europe was obscured by 
 the grossest ignorance, Lombardy still preserved the use, and 
 cultivated a general taste for, the art of painting, of which there 
 
 * " It is true that he was an excellent musician and a particularly 
 good performer on the lyre ; so much so, that Lommazo reputes him 
 superior to every one in that art. A note is to be seen in his Codex 
 marked Q. R. p. 28, where a new viola is mentioned of his con- 
 struction ; and in another place there is a drawing by him for a 
 lyre. Vasari speaks of a lyre which belonged to him in the form of 
 a horse's head, the greatest part of which was silver ; and I saw his 
 portrait done with a guitar in his hand for the frontispiece of an old 
 parchment manuscript dedicated to Cardinal Ascanio Sforza." — See 
 Ammoretti. % 
 
XXÌV THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 are several monuments still existing ; amongst others the church 
 of Galiano, about six miles to the south of Como, painted in the 
 year 1007." 
 
 When Giotto came to Milan, which undoubtedly was previous 
 to 1334, to paint the Visconti palace, that art assumed a superior 
 character, and created a school which has produced many great 
 men, whose works are still preserved in some of the ancient 
 churches and in the private collections of several individuals. 
 There is a lasting monument of the revival of sculpture in the 
 church of San Francesco, done in the year 1316, representing 
 the transit of the Blessed Virgin, in marble, and two other 
 monuments, the work of Giovanni da Pisa, finished in 1339. 
 The improvement of architecture may be dated from the time 
 when Gian Galeazzo Visconti invited the first masters to Milan 
 in order to construct the cathedral ; but they had not then 
 abandoned the Gothic style. The Abbate Lanzi's work just 
 cited, will show the progress made in the arts and sciences 
 until the arrival of Leonardo ; but a great deal is to be gathered 
 from the inedited Memoirs of the Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects of Milan, by the late Antonio Albuzzi. 
 
 At the court of II Moro, Leonardo found himself in possession 
 of what was then considered an affluent fortune, which relieved 
 his mind from the consideration of being obliged to provide for 
 his own support. He found Ludovico an easy patron, and was 
 much delighted with his situation. Caressed and flattered by 
 the whole court, he entered with all the energy of his character 
 into the pleasures and amusements of the gay world, and made 
 almost daily progress in the confidence and good opinion of 
 Ludovico, by nattering his wishes and sharing his amusements. 
 By turns a poet, a painter, a musician, and always a most ac- 
 complished courtier, he completely gained II Moro's favour, who, 
 although a crafty politician and a man of sense, was, neverthe- 
 less, open to flattery, and unable to resist the fascinations of 
 such versatile talents. Ludovico was a great lover of pleasure, 
 and was almost as much distinguished by the dissolute intrigues 
 and lascivious amours of his private life, as by the sagacity and 
 steadiness of his public conduct ; and whilst Da Vinci assisted at 
 his councils, and adorned the city with public buildings, he like- 
 wise painted his mistresses, and diverted his leisure hours with 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 XXV 
 
 music and poetry ; in short, he was always ready either for his 
 patron's service or pleasure. 
 
 The first public work in which Leonardo was employed after 
 his arrival at Milan, was the celebrated equestrian statue of 
 Francesco Sforza the First, which, if we may believe the 
 authority before cited of Monsignore Sabba da Castiglione, he 
 began in 1483. According to the poet Taccone, it would have 
 been sooner commenced had any one been found capable of 
 undertaking it : — 
 
 " E se più presto non s' è principiato, 
 La voglia del Signore fu sempre pronta : 
 Non s'era un Leonardo ancor travato, 
 Che di presente tanto ben l'impronta," etc.* 
 
 From the high opinion entertained of his taste, Leonardo was 
 made director of all the public fetes and entertainments either 
 given by the sovereign, or to him by the lords of his court ; of 
 which Belincionni has preserved the recollection in the poems 
 written by him on these occasions ; and if Tantio, who collected 
 and published them, has observed a proper chronological order, 
 we may date the two representations in praise of Patience and 
 Labour, given by the Sanseverini family in honour of the 
 nuptials of Isabella and Beatrice, to the first year of his 
 residence at Milan, To this period we may also refer Leonardo's 
 celebrated portraits of Ludovico's two favourites, Cecilia Gal- 
 lerani and Lucrezia Crevelli, so frequently celebrated by the 
 poets of that age. 
 
 Belincionni's sonnet on the picture of the former does more 
 honour to the painter than the poet : — 
 
 " Di che t' adiri, a chi invidia hai Natura ! 
 Al Vinci che ha ritratto una tua stella. 
 Cecilia sì, bellissima, oggi è quella 
 Che a' suoi begli occhi, il sol par ombra oscura. 
 L' onor é tuo, sebben con sua pittura 
 La fa che par che ascolti, e non favella. 
 
 # " And if this work was not sooner begun, 
 The sovereign's will was always ready, 
 But a Leonardo had not then been found, 
 Who at this time so well undertakes it." 
 
xxvi 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Pensa quanto sarà più viva e bella, 
 
 Più a te fia gloria nell' età futura. 
 Eingraziar dunque Ludovico, or puoi, 
 
 E 1' ingegno e la mano di Leonardo 
 
 Che a' posteri di lei voglion far parte. 
 Che lei vedrà così, benché sia tardo, 
 
 Vederla viva dirà : basti à noi 
 
 Comprender or quella, eh' è natura ed arte." 
 
 This portrait was at Milan at the end of the last century, in the 
 Marchese Bonesana's collection, and there is a fine old copy in 
 the Public Gallery. The Gallerani married Count Ludovico 
 Pergamino ; she was a lady of very great talents, and a poetess. 
 Da Vinci painted one of his best pictures for her, representing 
 the Virgin and Child in the act of blessing one of those roses 
 usually called Rosa della Madonna ; and this picture was in the 
 possession of a wine-merchant at Milan when the French occu- 
 pied that city during the late war. It is framed in the fashion 
 of those times, with a scroll bearing this inscription : — 
 
 " Per Cecilia qual te orna, lauda, e adora 
 E'l tuo unico figlio, o beata Vergine exora ! " 
 
 The portrait of Lucrezia Crevelli, which was not less celebrated 
 and admired than that of her fair contemporary, is now in the 
 Louvre at Paris. 
 
 The greatest proof of the esteem and consideration in which 
 Il Moro must have held Leonardo, not only as a painter, 
 sculptor, and mechanic, but also as a man well versed in all the 
 arts and sciences, is his having chosen him to be the founder and 
 director of the academy he caused to be established. The Padre 
 Luca Paciolo informs us, that that prince had long been desirous 
 of forming a union of learned men and skilful artists, who might 
 reciprocally communicate their knowledge, and forward the pro- 
 gress of literature and the arts. That such an academy existed 
 at Milan, the first that was ever known in that city, and to which 
 Leonardo gave his name, is proved by the testimony of Vasari, 
 and by several manuscripts still existing in the Ambrosian 
 Library, and also by six engravings representing several in- 
 genious devices, in the centre of which is inscribed " Academia 
 Leonardi Vinci." 
 
 It is most probable, that for the use of this academy, and for 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 xxvii 
 
 the purpose of argument with his colleagues and instruction to 
 his pupils, Leonardo wrote all those treatises which are to be 
 found, not only in his " Trattato della Pittura," but in several 
 manuscript volumes which are now preserved in the Public 
 Gallery at Milan. This would easily explain his reasons for 
 undertaking so many and such various arguments ; and would 
 also account for the number of unconnected ideas, unfinished 
 sketches, memoranda, and materials for the composition of 
 future works, as well as several complete and highly finished 
 discourses. Among the latter, his " Trattato della Pittura," is 
 generally considered as one of his best and most useful composi- 
 tions ; so much so that the Count Algarotti has not hesitated to 
 declare, that even in the present day he should not desire any 
 better elementary work on the art of painting; an opinion 
 entertained by many other distinguished writers. 
 
 Although it is now almost impossible to fix the exact epoch of 
 the foundation of the Vinci Academy, it must have been about 
 the year 1485 or 1486, as, previous to that time, we know that 
 Leonardo was engaged in forming the model of the equestrian 
 statue of Francesco Sforza, and afterwards in painting the two 
 portraits of Ludovico's mistresses which have been mentioned. 
 
 In 1489 we find Da Vinci occupied, by his patron's orders, in 
 preparing a grand fete which was to be given in celebration 
 of the young Duke Giovan-Galeazzo's marriage with Isabella of 
 Arragon. For this entertainment he invented a moving repre- 
 sentation of the planets, which, as they approached the royal 
 party in their evolutions, opened of themselves and discovered a 
 person dressed to represent the deity attributed to each planet, 
 who recited verses composed by Belincionni in honour of the 
 occasion.* We also learn from an old manuscript, in which 
 there is a memorandum in his hand- writing, that he invented 
 and directed a sort of joust, or tournament, given by Messer 
 Galeazzo da Sanseverino to the Duke and his court ; this ^e 
 incidentally mentions from the circumstance of his servant 
 Jachomo having committed a theft on the occasion. 
 
 # The reader will find an account of these fetes in the Eicordi of 
 Monsignore da Castiglione : and Belincionni's verses are included in 
 his works, collected and published by Tantio, at Milan, in 1495, which 
 are now extremely scarce. 
 
xxviii 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 In 1492, Il Moro having formed a plan to tnrn the waters 
 of the Ticino, in order to fertilize the country to the right of that 
 river, had recourse to Leonardo's knowledge of hydraulics to 
 carry his intentions into execution. We know from his notes, 
 that about that time he visited Sesto Calende, Varai Pombio, 
 and Vegevano, where " ai 20 di Marzo del 1492," he observes 
 that " nella vernata le vigne si sotterano." 
 
 In this manner Ludovico continued to avail himself of Da 
 Vinci's various talents, and kept him constantly employed, not 
 only as a painter, but also in superintending the magnificent 
 entertainments given either by himself or his nobles, in directing 
 the public works, and in ornamenting his palaces.* 
 
 It is supposed by some writers that Leonardo first introduced 
 the art of engraving on wood and copper, and that the designs 
 of several old plates, representing the most celebrated literary 
 men at Ludovico's court, were of his composition. It is also 
 said that these were the first examples of an author's portrait 
 being prefixed to his works, unless we credit Pliny's account 
 that the Eomans were accustomed to make use of engravings on 
 wood. His beautiful picture of The Virgin and Child with St. John 
 and St. Michael, now in possession of Count San Vitale, of 
 Parma, is dated, and— what is almost without example in his 
 works — is inscribed, " Leonardo Vinci fece, 1492." 
 
 About the end of the autumn in 1494, Charles the Eighth 
 invaded Italy, and repaired to Pavia, where II Moro had 
 prepared the most magnificent fetes and entertainments for his 
 reception, the arrangement of the whole being entrusted to the 
 elegant taste of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 * To give some idea of the manner in which the Hall of the Castle 
 of Milan was painted, and of the prices in those days, the following 
 note is transcribed, viz. : — 
 
 " The narrow border round the top of the room, 30 lire. The 
 mo^ilding underneath, each square separately, 7 do. ; and the expense 
 of blue, gold, bistre, indigo and gum, 3 do. Three day's labour. — 
 Pictures under the panels, 12 lire each. Each of the arches, 7 lire. 
 The cornice under the windows, 6 soldi the brace. For 24 stories 
 from the Roman History, 10 lire. An ounce of blue 10 soldi. Gold, 
 15 soldi. Black, 2| do. Five days' labour in the composition," etc. etc. 
 
 The Italian lira is about 8|d. English, and the soldo is as nearly as 
 possible a French sous. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XXIX 
 
 During his residence at Pavia, Leonardo, who never permitted 
 any opportunity to escape him by which he could acquire 
 information, determined to employ his time in studying the 
 anatomy of the human frame under the instructions of Marc' 
 Antonio della Torre, a learned Genoese, and one of the most 
 celebrated professors of that university. These two great men 
 were equally pleased with each other; the professor deriving 
 much benefit from the correct drawings Leonardo executed 
 to illustrate their studies, and the latter being greatly improved 
 by the thorough knowledge of the human frame which he thus 
 acquired. 
 
 It was always Da Vinci's opinion that a perfect acquaintance 
 with anatomy was essentially necessary to a painter, and that 
 without it he could not hope to attain any excellence in his art 
 — a doctrine which he has enforced in a manuscript now existing 
 in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. " It is necessary that a 
 painter should be a good anatomist, that in his attitudes and 
 gestures he may be able to design the naked parts of the 
 human frame, according to the just rules of the anatomy of the 
 nerves, bones, and muscles ; and that in his different positions 
 he may know » what particular nerve or muscle is the cause of 
 such a iDarticular movement, in order that he may make that 
 only marked and apparent, and not all the rest, as many artists 
 are in the habit of doing; who, that they may appear great 
 designers, make the naked limbs stiff and without grace, so 
 that they have more the appearance of a bag of nuts than the 
 human superficies, or rather more like a bundle of radishes than 
 naked muscles." 
 
 In this manner Leonardo and his learned'instructor pursued 
 their studies together, deriving equal advantage from the 
 exertion of their respective talents. Da Yinci used to draw the 
 naked parts of the human frame in red chalk ; while his friend 
 described them with such admirable skill, that Vasari declares 
 he was the first who brought the science of anatomy into general 
 repute, by rendering it plain to all. Some of these drawings are 
 preserved in the Royal Library in London. The celebrated 
 Dr. Hunter, in his course of Anatomical Lectures published in 
 1784, mentions having seen them, and greatly admires the 
 precision with which they are executed, particularly the most 
 minute parts of the muscles. 
 
XXX 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 From Pavia Charles, still accompanied by Ludovico and his 
 court, repaired to Piacenza, and there soon after received 
 intelligence of Giovan-Galeazzo's death. This occasioned II 
 Moro's immediate return to Milan; when the Ducal Council, 
 privately suborned, decreed that the crown should be confirmed 
 to him in preference to Giovan-Galeazzo's infant children, as 
 they considered it necessary to the general good to place the 
 government in the hands of a powerful prince, who could defend 
 the state and provide for its security amidst the broils and 
 misfortunes which threatened the tranquility of Italy. 
 
 In the mean time Leonardo had returned to Milan from Pavia, 
 where he left his friend Marc' Antonio della Torre, and recom- 
 menced his exertions for his patron Ludovico, who, now firmly 
 established as Duke of Milan by the voice of the people, the 
 connivance of the French King, and the Emperor's grant, had 
 greater leisure for the cultivation of the fine arts. He was a 
 prince of quiet habits, mild in his manners, and particularly 
 averse to bloodshed — so much so, that we may doubt his having 
 been at all concerned in his nephew's death. In order to gain 
 the favour of the people, he amused them with continual enter- 
 tainments, and collected around him the greatest men from all 
 parts of Italy, who by their talents and accomplishments might 
 contribute to the embellishment of his city, or the refinements 
 of his court. The poet, the historian, and the painter, equally 
 shared his patronage, and were equally zealous in their 
 demonstrations of gratitude. The court of Milan became what 
 that of Florence had ceased to be ; the latter being desolated by 
 internal broils, the arts of peace fled to a more congenial soil, 
 and Ludovico was now the great patron of the fine arts, and the 
 restorer of literature in Italy. 
 
 Shortly after his return to Milan, Leonardo was called upon 
 to celebrate the Duke's virtues, and designed a picture of which 
 we find a description in his own writing : " Il Moro representing 
 Fortune, with flowing hair and his hands extended, and Messer 
 Gualtiere in the act of doing homage to him in the foreground ; 
 Poverty, in frightful guise, is pursuing a youth whom II Moro is 
 sheltering under his robe, while with his golden rod he menaces 
 the monster, and warns him not to approach." 
 
 From several memoranda and remarks which are to be found 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 xxxi 
 
 among his manuscripts, such as, M A dì 24 Marzo 1494, venne 
 Galeazzo a stare meco, con il patto di dare 5 lire il mese, pagando 
 ogni 14 dì del mese. Datemi da suo padre fiorini due di Eeno ; " 
 and a little lower down, " A dì 14 di Luglio ebbe da Galeazzo 
 fiorini 2 di Eeno," — it is evident he was in the habit of 
 receiving scholars who paid him for the benefit they derived 
 from his instructions, and the information they gained by 
 frequenting his studio. 
 
 In the year 1495 there is no mention of any particular work 
 having been undertaken by Leonardo. It is most probable that 
 he was occupied in perfecting the Yincian Academy ; as it is 
 supposed he wrote his famous Treatise addressed to the Duke 
 about this time, in which he examines the respective merits 
 of the two arts, painting and sculpture. It is much to be 
 lamented that this book is no longer extant, as it would have 
 been highly interesting to know the opinion of one so capable of 
 forming a proper judgment from his extensive knowledge of the 
 fine arts. Leonardo's treatise was composed for the use of the 
 Academy, and is even now held in general estimation. In 
 the collection of his works lately published at Paris, there are 
 several tracts comparing the different merits of the sister arts, 
 both considered relatively and individually, which prove that 
 this treatise really existed; and it is moreover frequently 
 alluded to in the " Trattato della Pittura," written by Lomazzo, 
 who was his friend and scholar. 
 
 Leonardo's pencil was not, however, unemployed during this 
 year, as the Duke ordered him to paint his own and the Duchess's 
 portraits on each side of a large picture representing Mount 
 Calvary, which Montorfano had painted on the wall of the 
 refectory in the Convento delle Grazie. This task he very 
 unwillingly undertook, if we may believe Padre Gattico, a 
 Dominican friar, who has left an account of this convent in 
 manuscript, in which he says : " Quelle pitture si sono 
 infradiciate per essere dipinte all' olio, perchè 1' olio non si 
 conserva in pitture fatte sopra mure e pietra." * About the end 
 
 * " These pictures have mouldered away in consequence of their 
 being painted in oil : oil does not keep in paintings made upon walls 
 and stone." 
 
XXXÌÌ THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 of this year there was printed, at Milan, a curious work on 
 music, by Franchino Gaforio, which was preceded by an 
 engraving, supposed to have been done by Leonardo, or by one 
 of his scholars under his direction and with his assistance. 
 
 In the year 1496, Da Vinci derived much pleasure from the 
 arrival of his friend and countryman the Padre Luca Paciolo, 
 who has been before mentioned in these pages. As they had 
 studied together, and were equally well versed in mechanics, 
 mathematics, and architecture, they were mutually delighted 
 with each other's society, and Leonardo had sumcient in- 
 fluence with the Duke to persuade him to receive his friend 
 into his service. Engaged in the same pursuits, they lived in 
 the same house, shared the same studies and amusements, and 
 assisted each other in their separate undertakings. Paciolo 
 prevailed on his friend to draw all the geometrical figures for his 
 Treatise on Architecture, as he well knew there was no one 
 capable of executing them with the same precision; and he 
 acknowledges this assistance in the following well-merited 
 eulogium: "As in the disposition of the regular bodies, you 
 will observe those which are done by that most worthy painter, 
 architect, musician, and universally endowed Leonardo da Vinci, 
 a Florentine, at the city of Milan, when we were both in the pay 
 of the most excellent Duke Ludovico Maria Sforza, in the year 
 of our salvation 1496." 
 
 A little further on he mentions the drawings which Leonardo 
 made for his work on the "Divina Proportione," which he 
 dedicated in manuscript to the Duke Ludovico. They were 
 sixty in number, and were published in 1509, with a new 
 dedication to Pietro Soderini, Gonfaloniere of Florence, to whom 
 he writes : " Libellum .... Ludovico Sportize nuncupavi tanto 
 ardore, quoque sua Vincii nostri Lionardi manibus scalpta," etc. 
 
 To this period also belong the drawings, or rather illustrations, 
 of the celebrated " Codice Triulziano," which was written by the 
 Duke's eldest son, Maximilian, when a child studying the Latin 
 language. This manuscript forms a small quarto volume, 
 written on parchment, which, besides being ornamented with 
 numerous highly finished devices and heraldic emblazonments, 
 is enriched with several pictures relating to the youth and 
 occupations of the young prince, who then possessed the title 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XXxiii 
 
 of Count of Pavia. Among these there are two which are 
 generally considered the production of Leonardo's pencil: one 
 representing the Count in the act of doing homage to his cousin 
 the Emperor Maximilian; and the other, of the same prince 
 amusing himself catching birds, while his tutor, Count Secco 
 di Borella, is advising him to leave off his diversions and attend 
 to his studies. This manuscript is held in the greatest estima- 
 tion, and is still preserved at Milan. 
 
 About the end of this year Ludovico il Moro went to Pavia, 
 attended by all his court, to meet the Emperor Maximilian, 
 whom he had invited into Italy. Triumphal arches were 
 prepared everywhere on his road, and most magnificent fetes 
 awaited his arrival wherever he stopped ; as Ludovico disguised 
 his true reason for this conference under the pretence of merely 
 doing homage to his feudal lord. Leonardo, who accompanied 
 his patron on this occasion, had no doubt a principal share in 
 arranging these festivities. That he was not forgotten by the 
 Duke is proved by his having ordered him to paint a picture 
 of The Nativity, which he presented to the Emperor in honour 
 of the occasion, and which is now in the Imperial cabinet at 
 Vienna. 
 
 Leonardo's residence at the court of Milan, although extremely 
 agreeable to himself, was highly detrimental to his fame as a 
 painter ; as he was so constantly occupied in different works for 
 the good of the state and the amusement of the court, that he 
 could not devote so much of his time to painting as his admirers 
 wish. A number of those pictures which are really his own, 
 are left in an unfinished state, from the extreme nicety of his 
 taste. His imagination went so far beyond what it is in the 
 power of man to execute, that he was seldom or ever contented 
 with his own works, and he would frequently lay aside a picture 
 altogether, if it did not equal his ideas of the subject. At other 
 times he would hastily abandon an undertaking, if his design 
 did not embrace all that his imagination had preconceived. 
 Hence there remain so few pictures by this inimitable artist; 
 but these few are so very highly finished, that no one since has 
 been supposed to have surpassed him. Many of the pictures 
 which are shown in Italy as Leonardo's paintings, are falsely 
 considered so, particularly in Milan, where they are generally 
 
XXXÌV THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 the work of some of his scholars, with the advantage of receiving 
 the last touches from himself. 
 
 There could have been no part of Da Yinci's life more pleasant 
 to himself than the time he spent at Milan previous to the mis- 
 fortunes of the house of Sforza. In the full enjoyment of his 
 princely patron's confidence and favour, he lived in the most 
 splendid manner, beloved and respected by everybody. Free 
 from all care for present wants, and too little accustomed to 
 consider the future, he passed his time in the gratification of 
 his favourite pursuits, and devoted his leisure to the entertain- 
 ment of his friends. Expensive in his habits, he kept a most 
 liberal table; his house was always open to those who were 
 distinguished in any way for talents or accomplishments; and 
 he drew around him the best society in Milan during that 
 brilliant period. He sought for merit wherever it was to be 
 found, for the rust of envy never corroded his noble heart, and 
 the poorest artist was always welcome to a seat at his board 
 and a share of his purse. 
 
 His principal object in life was the encouragement of literature 
 and the arts, in all their various branches ; and, enthusiastically 
 desirous of promoting what he most loved, he assisted the poor, 
 encouraged the weak, and brought forward the unknown. It is 
 only to be regretted that his means did not equal his inclina- 
 tions; for his profuse liberality rendered him but ill qualified 
 to give assistance to others; and unfortunately his friend and 
 patron Ludovico il Moro had exactly the same propensities. 
 He also undertook more than he was capable of finishing; his 
 ideas were too much enlarged for his situation, which impover- 
 ished his treasury, diminished his revenues, and became the 
 principal cause of his ultimate ruin. A proper attention to his 
 expenditure is as necessary to a prince as to an individual, 
 without which, even with the very best intentions, neither can 
 be certain of remaining honest. The one must oppress his 
 subjects, the other must defraud his equals; and both must 
 risk the loss of that claim to assistance in the hour of need 
 which both may occasionally require. Upon no one was this 
 truth more severely impressed than on Ludovico il Moro, who, 
 although he had exhausted his finances in beautifying his city 
 and encouraging the arts, was neglected by his subjects when 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONAKDO DA VINCI. XXXV 
 
 they found he had exhausted his resources; and they left him 
 to pay the forfeit of his imprudence and ambition with the loss 
 of his dominions and his life. 
 
 On his return to Milan from Pavia, the Duke was desirous of 
 enriching his capital with some great work that should be con- 
 sidered worthy of Da Vinci's talents, and that might serve to 
 perpetuate the fame of the artist and the liberality of the prince. 
 With this idea Ludovico desired Leonardo to paint his celebrated 
 picture of The Last Supper, on the walls of the refectory in the 
 Dominican Convent of the " Madonna delle Grazie." 
 
 It was almost impossible to have selected a subject more 
 adapted to Leonardo's taste and genius, and he had certainly 
 never before undertaken so interesting a work. He proposed 
 to represent the moment when our Saviour exclaims "Amen, 
 dico vobis quia unus vestrum me traditurus est." This gave 
 him an opportunity of exercising his peculiar talent, of repre- 
 senting the different passions that agitate the human frame, and 
 of giving to each individual of his picture the merit and interest 
 of a separate composition, without disturbing the harmony of the 
 whole. 
 
 It is not exactly known when he commenced this picture, but 
 from various circumstances it appears that it must have been 
 about the year 1497, as Bottari tells us there is a rude engraving 
 bearing that date, and supposed to be Leonardo's own work. 
 The Padre Luca Paciolo mentions, in one of his manuscripts, 
 that in 1498 Leonardo had already considerably advanced in 
 drawing the outlines of this composition ; and whoever observes 
 it now, at least as much as is spared to us from the ravages of 
 time and the attacks of ignorance, will easily perceive that three 
 or even four years are very little to have employed on such an 
 undertaking ; the more so when we consider Leonardo's extreme 
 difficulty in being satisfied with his own productions. It is also 
 to be remembered, that he was obliged to form a cartoon of the 
 same size as his picture. 
 
 The general disposition of this admirable work is considered 
 extremely simple, and therefore the more appropriate to the 
 subject. Our Saviour is represented seated in- the middle, which 
 is the place of honour : his attitude is tranquil and majestic, a 
 kind of noble serenity appears to pervade his countenance and 
 
XXXVÌ THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 action, which impresses respect. The Apostles, on the contrary, 
 are in extreme agitation, and their attitudes and countenances 
 are expressive of various emotions. Fear, love, anxiety, and a 
 desire to penetrate the full extent of our Saviour's meaning, are 
 easily distinguishable in their looks and gestures. But when 
 Leonardo wished to pourtray the character of the divinity on 
 the figure and countenance of our Lord, his hand was too weak 
 to represent the conceptions of his mind, and whatever he 
 executed was still very far from satisfying the sublimity and 
 delicacy of his ideas. At length, despairing of success, he un- 
 burthened his mind to his friend Bernardo Zenale,* who, not 
 believing that he could surpass what he had already done, 
 advised him to leave the head of Christ unfinished. Leonardo, 
 after much consideration, resolved to follow his friend's counsel : 
 in imitation of Timanthes, of whom it is related, that in his 
 picture of The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, having employed every 
 possible expression of grief in the attendants, he conceived he 
 could not do more justice to the father's feelings, who was to 
 behold the sacrifice of his own child, than by covering his 
 face with his mantle, and leaving the effect to the beholder's 
 imagination.! 
 
 Nothing can be more impressive than the idea of the impos- 
 sibility of representing our Saviour's countenance by human 
 means; and this very imperfection becomes a greater beauty 
 in a country where one is too much accustomed to see the 
 Deity represented, or rather misrepresented, in all sorts of 
 extraordinary and fantastic forms, in the old frescoes and 
 mosaics. J 
 
 Having settled this difficulty, he found himself speedily em- 
 barrassed by another, which was to find a countenance sufficiently 
 
 * This painter and architect was a native of Treviso, and was 
 working at the same time as Leonardo in the Convent of the 
 " Madonna delle Grazie." Lomazzo mentions him as the author of a 
 treatise on Perspective, of which he had a thorough knowledge. — See 
 Lomazzo, Idea del Tempio della Pittura, book 5, chap. 21. 
 
 f Pliny, lib. 35, cap. 10. 
 
 X As an example of the paintings alluded to, it is sufficient to 
 mention an old picture on wood of the Annunciation, in which the 
 Almighty is represented as an old man looking in at the window, 
 while the angei is delivering the divine message to the Yirgin. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. XXXVÌÌ 
 
 wicked to convey an idea of the man who was about to betray 
 his divine master. This feeling, to one who was always in the 
 habit of long reflection before he attempted anything of con- 
 sequence, greatly delayed his work, and gave rise to the story 
 Vasari tells of the Prior of the Dominicans, who became impatient 
 whenever he saw Leonardo in contemplation instead of continu- 
 ing his picture ; he being one of those who imagine that a painter 
 must be neglecting his work whenever his hands are not actually 
 employed on it. He therefore complained of Leonardo's indolence 
 to the Duke, who, in order to satisfy him, inquired about the 
 picture, and found that the artist never passed a day without 
 working at it at least for two hours. Still, however, its progress 
 did not keep pace with the Prior's impatience, who continued to 
 persecute the Duke with his complaints until he prevailed on 
 him to send for Da Yinci, and remonstrate with him on his 
 delay. But Ludovico did this with so much kindness and 
 affability that Leonardo was quite charmed with the prince's 
 condescension, and willingly explained to him, that a man of 
 genius is, in fact, never less idle than when he appears to 
 be entirely so, particularly in painting, where so much depends 
 on a just and proper conception of the subject. He concluded 
 by telling the Duke, " There remain, Sir, only two heads un- 
 finished in the whole picture. That of Christ I have long 
 despaired of ever being able to complete, as I am quite con- 
 vinced of the utter impossibility of finding a model on earth 
 capable of representing the union of divinity with humanity, 
 and much less can I hope to supply the deficiency from my own 
 imagination. Nothing, therefore, is wanting but to express the 
 character of Judas, and I have for some time sought without 
 success, among your prisons and the very refuse of the people, 
 for a countenance such as I require ; but if your Excellency is 
 so impatient that the picture should be finished, I can take the 
 likeness of the Dominican Prior, who richly deserves it for the 
 impertinence of his interference." The Duke could not avoid 
 laughing heartily at this sally, and being fully convinced how 
 much labour and judgment Leonardo bestowed on each individual, 
 was only impressed with a still greater respect for his talents. It 
 may also be easily supposed that the fear of being handed down 
 to posterity as Judas, effectually silenced the Prior's impor- 
 ti 
 
XXXviii THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 trinities.* Da Vinci, however, was a man of too much honour 
 to have had any idea of putting his threat in execution, as has 
 been erroneously asserted; besides which, the Prior of the 
 Dominicans is described by the writers of that period as having 
 too noble an appearance for such a purpose. Some little time 
 after, Leonardo found a face such as he required, so that by 
 adding something from his imagination, he finished the head 
 of Judas, completed his picture, and excelled all his former 
 productions. 
 
 In this wonderful composition, which was then considered 
 almost a miracle of human perfection, Leonardo derived the 
 greatest assistance from his previous studies. These he found 
 a perfect treasure of intelligence to him ; and, whenever he was at 
 a loss for any particular trait of countenance, he had recourse to 
 his tablets, and there found ample reason to applaud his former 
 industry; for, as has before been observed, he never lost an 
 opportunity of drawing every remarkable countenance that he 
 could meet with. This he considered to be of such utility, that 
 he always carried a small sketch-book in his girdle, in which he 
 drew whatever made the most impression on his imagination ; 
 and he advised all artists to do the same. It was his opinion 
 that nature was the best teacher ; and for that reason he obliged 
 his scholars to delineate the most extraordinary as well as the 
 most beautiful features they could meet with, which he con- 
 sidered the best means of taking good likenesses. Had he 
 entertained any doubt of the usefulness of this system, the 
 assistance he derived from it in his great work of The Last 
 Supper, where he had so many different feelings and passions 
 to pourtray, would have been sufficient to confirm his opinion. 
 
 This inimitable picture has been so frequently described, and 
 so universally eulogised, that there is little which is new to be 
 said upon the subject, and any description of that painting would 
 be superfluous after the beautiful engraving made from it by the 
 Chevalier Eaphael Morghen. It therefore only remains to join 
 in the general regret excited by its too speedy decay, which has 
 deprived the world of what formed the glory of Da Yinci, and 
 
 * This story is to be found fh Bottari's " Lettere Pittoriche," and 
 is also told by Vasari and several of Leonardo da Vinci's con- 
 temporaries. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 xxxix 
 
 the wonder of the age in which he lived. As far back as the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, Armenini speaks of this picture 
 as half destroyed: if we may believe Da Yinci's friend and 
 scholar Lomazzo, who frequently mentions it in his Treatise, 
 the colours soon disappeared, so that the outlines only remained 
 to indicate the excellence of the drawing. In the early part of 
 the seventeenth century, both Cardinal Borromeo and Padre 
 Gattico, who resided some time in the Dominican Convent at 
 Milan, agree in saying of this picture, "che del Cenacolo 
 vedeansi solo le reliquie ; " and that from its continually 
 mouldering away, copies had been taken of it in all sizes by 
 most of the celebrated artists of that time. These are now 
 dispersed throughout Italy.* In 1624, Bartolomeo Sanese, who 
 saw both the original and the famous copy ìd the Chartreuse 
 Convent of Pavia, by Marco Oggione, declared that more praise 
 was due to the Chartreuse than the Dominicans ; as, while 
 Leonardo's own work was so much destroyed by age and damp 
 as to be scarcely discernible, the copy would be the means of 
 handing it down to the admiration of posterity. The picture 
 became gradually so much worse, that Scannelli, who saw it in 
 1642, observes, that " There are but few vestiges remaining of 
 the figures ; and the naked parts, such as heads, hands, and feet, 
 
 * The following is the most authentic list of the ancient copies, 
 still extant: — 
 
 1. In the Franciscan Convent at Milan, by Lomazzo, in 1561. 
 
 2. In St. Barnabas, a small copy by Marco Oggione. 
 
 3. At St. Peters, a copy by Santagostino. 
 
 4. In the Grand Monastery, by Lomazzo. 
 
 5. In the Public Library, done by order of Cardinal Borromeo. 
 
 6. In the Monastery of the Jesuits, two miles from Milan, by 
 Oggione. 
 
 7. In the Grand Chartreuse at Pavia, by Marco Oggione in 1510, 
 now in the possession of the Koyal Academy of Arts. During the 
 Revolution this copy passed into France. It was afterwards, in 1815, 
 offered for sale in London, and, it is said, was bought by the Royal 
 Academy for £600. 
 
 8. At St. Benedetto, at Mantua, by Monsignori. 
 
 9. At Lugano, by Bernardino Luini. 
 
 10. In Spain, at the Escurial, by Luini. 
 
 11. In France, at St. Germain's, painted by Luini, by order of 
 Francis the First. 
 
 12. At Ecoens ; painter unknown. 
 
xl 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 are almost entirely annihilated." This is the only excuse the 
 Dominicans could possibly have had for cutting off the feet of our 
 Saviour and several of the Apostles near him, in order to enlarge 
 their entrance into the refectory. Nothing but the extreme 
 decay of the picture itself could palliate so senseless an act; 
 and it is most probable that it remained in this neglected state 
 until 1726, when the painter, Bellotti, succeeded in cleaning and 
 restoring it so well that it appeared to revive, and almost to 
 regain its former beauty. Many writers assert that Bellotti 
 simply repainted it on Da Vinci's outlines ; but this is denied 
 by his contemporaries, and Padre Pino assures us that he 
 " made the picture revive by some secret of his own, retouching 
 with the point of his brush only those places where the colour 
 was quite peeled off." 
 
 Notwithstanding Bellotti's labours to preserve this painting, it 
 soon began to lose its newly acquired beauty, and to peel off and 
 moulder away in such a manner that the Abbate Luigi Lanzi, in 
 his celebrated work of the " Storia Pittorica dell' Italia," observes, 
 that there were only three heads in the whole picture that could 
 be considered as Leonardo's painting. However, it remained 
 tolerably discernible until the Dominicans themselves were 
 driven out of their Convent when the French army invaded 
 Italy under Napoleon. The Convent was then used as a 
 cavalry depot, and the refectory turned into a stable; so that 
 the brutality of the soldiery soon completed what the ignorance 
 of the priesthood and the ravages of time had commenced. 
 With a spirit of destruction scarcely to be accounted for, the 
 troops of republican France had no hesitation in firing at our 
 Saviour and all the Apostles, leaving more proofs of their skill 
 as marksmen than of their feelings as Christians or civilized 
 beings. 
 
 It is now so much destroyed that it is even a matter of dispute 
 whether it was originally painted in oil, fresco, or tempera. 
 That it was done in oil is most probable, from it always having 
 been said so in the earliest engravings, and spoken of as such in 
 contemporaneous writings, and also from its speedy decay, there 
 being rarely an instance of the durability of oil painting upon 
 walls. Many authors pretend that the colours faded so soon 
 from Da Vinci's having made use of some particular varnish 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Xli 
 
 or chemical preparation, as he was always considered too fond 
 of experiments. Had Leonardo been merely a painter, he would 
 have been contented with the usual methods of painting; but 
 his lofty genius and love of new inventions tended on this, as on 
 many other occasions, to eclipse his fame ; for, had it been other- 
 wise, this great work might have been spared to the present age. 
 Much of the destruction which this picture has suffered must 
 doubtless be attributed to bad restoration; and considerable 
 allowances should be made for the envy of his contemporaries. 
 
 We may endeavour to trace the progress of its decay, as the 
 only consolation which remains to us for such a loss ; and when 
 we consider the time at which it was executed, it must be allowed 
 to have been one of the greatest works of art ever undertaken. 
 BaphaePs " School of Athens," is considered by some as a work 
 of greater merit ; but it should be recollected that a number of 
 years had elapsed between the painting of these two pictures, 
 and that great progress had been made in the arts during that 
 period. Besides, it is scarcely just to Leonardo da Vinci that 
 Eaphael should claim superiority from having profited by the 
 improvements which his predecessor had introduced. It is a 
 curious coincidence that the two invasions of Italy by the French 
 should have been equally detrimental to Da Vinci's two great 
 works, although so many centuries intervened between them. 
 Monsignore Sabba da Castiglione, a noble Milanese, tells us 
 in his " Bicordi," that " he saw the bowmen of Gascony make 
 use of Da Vinci's model for the colossal statue of Francesco 
 Sforza as a target," and many noble Milanese of the present day 
 could tell us in their "ricordi," that they saw the troops of 
 republican France make a somewhat similar use of his magnifi- 
 cent picture of The Last Supper. 
 
 In 1497, Ludovico's wife, Beatrice of Este, died after a short 
 illness, and the Duke honoured her memory, according to Corio, 
 with a "stupendissime ossequie." From several notes in his 
 tablets we find that these were directed by Leonardo, which 
 affords an additional proof of his patron's confidence. 
 
 It was about this time that he became acquainted with Andrea 
 Salaj'no, whom he received into his studio, and soon admitted to 
 his intimate friendship. He had the greatest regard for this 
 young man, and took great pleasure in teaching him everything 
 
xlii 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 relating to painting; in which he acquired such proficiency, 
 that some of his works in Milan have been falsely attributed to 
 Leonardo. The probability is, that some of them were corrected 
 by him, or had the advantage of receiving his finishing touches. 
 Salaj'no was so gratefully attached to his master, that he never 
 quitted him from that period, and was the constant companion 
 and sharer of his fortunes. 
 
 Da Vinci's principal occupation during this year was the 
 navigation of the Adda, between Brizzio and Frezzo. This was a 
 " most difficult undertaking, from the rapidity of the stream, and 
 the numerous shoals which impeded its progress. From 
 different circumstances we may believe that he formed plans 
 to overcome all these difficulties, though it does not appear that 
 they were carried into effect at that period, as the political 
 troubles which embarrassed his patron obliged him to put a 
 sudden termination to many of the works which he had pre- 
 viously undertaken. There is proof, however, that he invented 
 new lock-gates, and in many ways improved the navigation of 
 the Martesana canal. 
 
 It is not known that Leonardo painted anything of consequence 
 subsequent to his grand work of The Last Supper, before the 
 misfortunes of the house of Sforza obliged him to return to his 
 own country, except another portrait of the beautiful Cecilia 
 Gallerani, on wood, which is at present in the possession of the 
 Palavicini family at San Calocero. 
 
 The greatest mortification to Leonardo was his being obliged 
 to abandon all idea of finishing the equestrian statue of 
 Francesco Sforza, which was to have been cast in bronze, and 
 had already occupied him so many years. His mould was pre- 
 pared, and nothing was wanting but the metal, which the Duke 
 was no longer able to furnish, as, according to Luca Paciolo's 
 calculation, it would have taken 200,000 pounds weight of 
 bronze. In vain did Leonardo solicit his friends to use their 
 utmost influence with the Duke ; in vain did the poets of the 
 court endeavour to flatter him into acquiescence with Da Yinci's 
 wishes ; Ludovico no longer had it in his power to expend money 
 on the fine arts, but was obliged to employ the little that re- 
 mained in his own defence. 
 
 Da Vinci's situation must now have been extremely un- 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 xliii 
 
 pleasant, as it appears, from a fragment of one of his own letters, 
 that the Duke owed him more than two years' salary. He 
 must have been in great pecuniary embarrassment before his 
 pride would have permitted him to have written " that he was 
 no longer able to continue his works at his own expense, as he 
 had not the means either of paying his workmen or purchasing 
 his materials." It must have been a most bitter disappointment 
 to him to have found his time so thrown away, as he could no 
 longer entertain any hope of making his cast of this statue, on 
 which he had bestowed so much labour, and from which he had 
 expected to have derived so much fame. His enemies assert 
 that his design was too grand and speculative to have been 
 ever carried into effect ; but great allowances should be made 
 for the envy excited by his talents and success at the court of 
 Milan. 
 
 It appears, however, from several memoranda in his own hand- 
 writing, that Leonardo himself not only considered it possible, 
 but had made his calculations with the greatest nicety, and 
 would have, no doubt, succeeded in his undertaking, had not 
 the political events of the times put it entirely out of his power. 
 
 In the following year, 1495, the Duke gave Leonardo a proof 
 of his friendship and generosity, by making him a present of a 
 small estate near the Porta Vercellina, with full power to 
 bequeath it to whom he pleased, or to dispose of it in any way 
 he thought proper.* Whether this land was given as a compensa- 
 tion for the arrears that were justly his due, or as a gift for 
 services received by the state, is immaterial ; most probably the 
 Duke wished to avert as much as possible the want and misery 
 to which he feared Da Vinci would be exposed in the event 
 of his own ruin, as he had been exclusively employed for the 
 benefit of the house of Sforza and the government of Milan. 
 It is a proof, however, of II Moro's goodness of heart, that 
 
 * This gift is registered in the public office at Milan as follows :— 
 " 1429, 26 Aprilis, Ludovicus Maria Sfortia, dux Mediolani, dono 
 dedit D. Leonardo Quintio (sic) Florentio, pictori celeberrimo, 
 pert. n. 16 soli seu fundi ejus vinse quam ab Abate seu Monasterio S. 
 Victoris in suburbano portse Vercellinae proxime acquisierat, ut in eo 
 spatio soli pro ejus arbitrio aedifìcare, colere hortos, et quicquid ei vel 
 posteris ejus, vel quibus dederit ut supra, libuerit, facere et disponere 
 possit." — Copied verbatim from the Register. 
 
xliv THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 he could remember the wants of his friends when pursued on 
 all sides by his enemies. Shortly after, he was forced to fly from 
 the city. 
 
 The flight of his patron, and the subsequent change in the 
 government of Milan must have caused the greatest regret to 
 Da Vinci and his friends, who had equal reason to lament his 
 fate as a prince and an individual, as they were all obliged to 
 him for the means of continuing their studies and exercising 
 their talents. He had been their patron and friend; and 
 although his enemies accuse him of having encouraged the fine 
 arts solely from ostentation, the greatest praise is due to him for 
 the manner in which he promoted general knowledge. His 
 worth must have also been more appreciated by his literary 
 friends when brought into comparison with their new masters ; 
 for Louis the Twelfth, after he had made his grand entry into 
 Milan, thought of nothing but fetes and entertainments during 
 the time he remained there; and the French in general were 
 extremely indifferent to the progress of literature and the arts. 
 They destroyed a magnificent building which Leonardo had 
 designed for Galeazzo da San Severino, and wantonly broke up 
 his model for the equestrian statue, both of which must have 
 caused him great mortification.* 
 
 Finding his talents neglected, himself unrewarded, and his 
 works no longer esteemed, without any immediate prospect of 
 his former patron's re-establishment in Milan, Leonardo deter- 
 mined to leave a city where his finances were so much reduced, 
 and his situation so unpleasantly altered. It appears, however, 
 that he delayed his departure until the year 1500, and that he 
 waited the issue of II Moro's return to Milan at the request of 
 his faithless subjects, when they revolted against the French. 
 Hoping to maintain himself by force, the ex-Duke raised a body 
 of Swiss mercenaries, who, instead of fighting in his defence, 
 basely sold him to his enemies, by whom he was taken in 
 
 * The destruction of this model has always been supposed to have 
 taken place when the French entered Milan in 1499, but recently 
 discovered evidence has shown that it was still in existence, though 
 not perhaps in a perfect state of preservation, in 1501. — SeeCampori. 
 " Nouveaux documents sur Leonard de Vinci." Gazette dies Beaux- 
 Arts, 1866. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 xlv 
 
 disguise with his brother the Cardinal Ascanio, and several of 
 his followers. II Mora was imprisoned in the castle of Loches, 
 in France, where, after ten years' confinement, he died of a 
 broken heart at the unhappy issue of all his wild dreams of 
 ambition. 
 
 During the uncertainty of this revolution, while awaiting the 
 result of his patron's last struggle for power, Da Vinci remained 
 at Vaprio * to be out of the way of the cabals and disturbances 
 of the capital. This would have given him an opportunity of 
 studying the source of the Adda, which had always been a 
 favourite object of his researches. Or perhaps he lingered 
 behind in hopes of seeing Milan again restored to tranquility, 
 and the love for the arts revived in a place where he had so 
 highly distinguished himself. He must also have been extremely 
 unwilling to lose the fruits of his long services to this state, as he 
 considered himself attached to the court of Milan, whatever 
 sovereign might be at the head of that government. But, per- 
 ceiving at length that the French thought of nothing but their 
 amusements, he made up his mind to return to his own country ; 
 and shortly after, accompanied by his friends Salaj'no and Luca 
 Paciolo, set out for Florence, where he resolved to take up his 
 residence, and hoped to find employment. 
 
 In the meantime the government of Florence had passed into 
 other hands, and had undergone an almost entire change. 
 Disgusted with the arrogance and imbecility of Pietro de' 
 Medici's conduct, his fellow-citizens had revolted from his sway, 
 and banished him and his whole family, declaring them enemies 
 to the state. They had elected Pietro Soderini, one of their 
 principal citizens, as their Lord, with the title of " Gonfaloniere 
 Perpetuo," and the city was now enjoying more tranquility than 
 it had experienced since the death of Lorenzo the Magnificent. 
 The immense wealth produced by their extensive commerce 
 enabled the Florentines to cultivate the fine arts, and adorn their 
 city with public buildings, notwithstanding the miseries and 
 disturbances occasioned by the perpetual struggles of contending 
 
 * The Melzi Villa, at Vaprio, is half-way between Milan and 
 Bergamo, on the canal of the Martesana. The situation was ex- 
 tremely pleasant, and this place was a great favourite with Da Vinci, 
 who frequently retired there. 
 
xlvi 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONAEDO DA VINCI. 
 
 parties to obtain a preponderance in the government of the 
 state. Their patriotism and public spirit overcame every 
 difficulty, and the pride of all was interested in enriching their 
 country with works of art, and in giving employment to the 
 first artists of the age. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci was received with every distinction by the 
 Gonfaloniere, who immediately enrolled him in the list of those 
 artists who were employed by the government, and assigned him 
 a sufficient pension to provide for his subsistence, which enabled 
 him to form a tolerably comfortable establishment, with his 
 friend Paciolo and his scholar Salaj'no. On the subject of this 
 pension, Vasari relates the following anecdote : — 
 
 " Leonardo was very high-minded, and extremely generous in 
 all his actions. It is said that, going one day to the bank for the 
 monthly provision that he was accustomed to receive from Pietro 
 Soderini, the cashier wanted to give him some bundles of 
 halfpence, which he refused, saying, 1 1 am not a halfpenny 
 painter.' " * 
 
 It is a great pity that Da Vinci allowed his pride to have so 
 much ascendency over his better judgment. His irritable 
 sensibility was his greatest enemy through life, and was the 
 occasion of his losing many friends, who had both the power and 
 inclination to assist him. This prevailing foible was also 
 extremely detrimental to his fame in his profession, as it 
 frequently blinded him to the difficulties of executing the vast 
 conceptions of his all-comprehensive mind. His brilliant 
 imagination made him suppose that everything must give way 
 to his abilities, and led him into errors which have deprived 
 posterity of some of his best works. His ideas were too gigantic 
 for the age in which he lived, and it would have been much 
 better for his reputation as a painter if he had been a less 
 universally accomplished man. 
 
 After his return to Florence, he pursued his studies with 
 unremitting assiduity, and diligently worked at his profession, 
 which he was the more obliged to attend to from no longer 
 
 * " Io non sono un dipintore per quatrini." The quatrino is trans- 
 lated in the text as a halfpenny, to make it the more intelligible ; its 
 real value is the fifth part of a grazia, which is the eighth of a franc, 
 valued at 6Jd. English. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. xlvii 
 
 having the advantage of so good a salary as he had enjoyed at 
 Milan. Instead of the luxuries and extravagances of II Moro's 
 splendid court, he had now to accommodate himself to the more 
 prudent restrictions of a republic, whose sumptuary laws were 
 enacted in a spirit of economy quite different to what he had 
 seen at Milan. 
 
 The first work of consequence in which he was engaged, was 
 an altar-piece for the church of the " Annunziata." Unfor- 
 tunately, however, he only formed the design of this picture, 
 which is generally called the Cartoon of Santa Anna, which was 
 so exquisitely finished, that Vasari says, " not only all the artists, 
 but the whole city, men and women, young and old, flocked to 
 see it in such crowds, that for two days it had almost the 
 appearance of a public festival." The same author describes 
 the artist's having successfully expressed in the countenance of 
 the Virgin Mary " all the grace which simplicity and beauty 
 could possibly give to the mother of Christ, anxious to show the 
 modesty, humility, and thankfulness, which she might be 
 supposed to feel in contemplating the beauty of her child, which 
 she is supporting in her lap; while she is looking down at 
 St. John, a little boy playing with a kid, encouraged by the 
 smiles of Santa Anna, who is delighted to see her terrestrial 
 progeny thus become almost celestial." " A consideration," he 
 further observes, "truly worthy of Leonardo's talents and 
 genius." This picture was carried to France in the time of 
 Francis the First ; but it must have found its way back to Italy, 
 as it belonged to Aurelio Luini when Lomazzo wrote his 
 Treatise on Painting.* 
 
 About this time Da Vinci applied himself more particularly 
 to portraits, and painted two of the most celebrated beauties of 
 Florence — the Lady Ginevra, wife of Amerigo Benci, which, 
 according to Vasari, was " una cosa bellissima," and the Madonna 
 Lisa, wife of Francesco del Giocondo, which all the artists and 
 writers of that period considered as the perfection of portrait - 
 painting. Vasari describes this picture in so very minute and 
 lively a manner, that it is impossible to give a more accurate 
 description of it than by making use of his own words, written 
 
 * This cartoon is now in the possession of the Eoyal Academy. 
 
xlviii 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 on the spot shortly after it was finished : " In this head the 
 beholder may observe how nearly it is possible for art to approach 
 nature. The eyes have the lustre and expression of life. The 
 nose, and more particularly the mouth, have more the appearance 
 of real flesh and blood than painting, from the beautiful contrast 
 of the vermillion of the lips with the clear red and white of the 
 complexion. Whoever attentively looks at the throat, can 
 almost see the beating of the pulse. As the Madonna Lisa was 
 a very beautiful woman, Leonardo studied all possible means of 
 making her picture surpass everything that had been then seen 
 of the sort. He was in the habit of having music, singing, and 
 all kinds of diversions to make her laugh and remove the air of 
 melancholy so frequently to be observed in portrait- painting ; 
 which produced so pleasing an effect in this picture, that it gave 
 to the canvas an almost superhuman expression, and the only 
 wonder seemed to be that it was not alive." 
 
 Francis the First bought this picture for his collection at 
 Fontainbleau, and paid 4000 gold crowns to the family for whom 
 it was painted, a sum that would be equal to 45,000 francs in 
 the present day. It is now in the Louvre, and is considered one 
 of the finest specimens of Leonardo's painting extant : it is called 
 " La belle Joconde ; " there is a landscape in the back-ground. 
 
 After remaining two years at Florence, Da Vinci travelled over 
 the greater part of Italy, and made notes and drawings of what- 
 ever he found instructive and amusing. It would have been 
 highly interesting to have had an opportunity of collecting the 
 remarks of a traveller so perfectly capable of describing what- 
 ever he saw, and who united in himself the different qualifications 
 of a painter, mechanic, and architect, with the philosophical 
 feelings of a liberal-minded man. He must have visited the 
 whole of the Eomagna, as we find from his notes that he was at 
 Urbino on the 30th July, 1502, where he designed the fortress. 
 He went to Pesaro, Einucci, and Cesena, where he remarks " the 
 picturesque manner in which the vines were suspended in 
 festoons." It would have been difficult to have assigned a 
 reason for his having consumed his time and money in travelling, 
 if it were not sufficiently explained by the fact of the Duca 
 Valentino's having appointed him his surveyor and engineer- 
 general. This naturally obliged him to visit all the strong 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. xlix 
 
 places, of which the Duke had usurped the dominion as 
 Gonfaloniere or Captain-General of the ecclesiastical army. The 
 immoderate ambition of the house of Borgia was, in this instance, 
 of material service to Leonardo, enabling him to see more of his 
 country than he had hitherto done, without any expense to 
 himself; as it is well known that, whatever were Valentino's 
 vices, he was, either from policy or ostentation, liberal even to 
 excess to those who were in his service. Pope Alexander the 
 Sixth died 18th August, 1503, in the seventy-first year of his age, 
 a victim, it is supposed, to his own treacherous intrigues, as he 
 is said to have taken a goblet of poisoned wine which he had 
 prepared for one of his guests. This circumstance destroyed all 
 the brilliant projects of the house of Borgia, and occasioned the 
 sudden downfall of Valentino and his dependents. He was 
 succeeded by Julius the Second, whose wisdom and integrity 
 partly indemnified Christendom for the profligate enormities by 
 which his predecessor had disgraced the pontificate. The Pope's 
 death also speedily terminated Da Vinci's commission, as in 
 1503 we find him returned 'to Florence, and engaged to paint one 
 side of the council-hall in the Palazzo Vecchio, by the desire of 
 the Gonfaloniere Pietro Soderini. 
 
 This was the origin of all the jealousies and disputes between 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo Buonarroti, who had also 
 been employed to make designs for the same purpose; and 
 hence arose a rivalry between these two great men which caused 
 them to exert their utmost abilities in the cartoons they respect- 
 ively executed. As these paintings were intended as a sort of 
 national monument, it was necessary to select some trait in the 
 Florentine history which might at once serve to commemorate 
 the glory of the republic and the fame of the painter. From a 
 long memorandum in Leonardo's handwriting, we find that 
 he chose for his subject the defeat of Nicolo Picinino, the 
 Milanese General, near Anghiari, in Tuscany, and that he had 
 collected every circumstance of this battle, either real or fictitious, 
 in order to delineate it properly. We can easily perceive from 
 his remarks the labour he must have bestowed on collecting 
 materials for this picture, which, it is much to be regretted, was 
 never executed, as Vasari relates that having tried his prepara- 
 tions on the wall, for painting it in oil, he found it did not 
 
I 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 succeed, and therefore abandoned the undertaking altogether. 
 Here is another instance of his versatility of talent interfering 
 with his fame as a painter ; for, had he been entirely ignorant of 
 chemistry, he would necessarily have been obliged to content 
 himself with the ordinary rules of fresco painting, and he might 
 again have left a work that would have immortalized his name. 
 
 As these cartoons no longer exist, a description of them may 
 prove interesting. Yasari tells us that Leonardo represented a 
 combat of horsemen fighting for a standard, which group was 
 only intended as a part of the historical design just alluded to. 
 It was so wonderfully executed, that the horses themselves 
 seemed agitated with the same fury as their riders, and were 
 fighting as hard with their teeth as their riders with their 
 swords, to obtain possession of the contested flag. " Neither is 
 it possible," continues Vasari, " to describe Leonardo's designs, 
 in the soldiers' dresses so beautifully varied, as well as in the 
 incredible skill he showed in the forms and attitudes of the 
 horses, as no other artist could delineate the muscles and actions 
 of the horse with such uncommon beauty and fidelity."* 
 Michael Angelo's cartoon represented a troop of soldiers 
 suddenly called to arms when bathing, and the scene of his 
 picture was the siege of Pisa by the Florentines, and has been 
 so fully described by Mr. Duppaf in his Life of that great artist, 
 that it need not be here repeated. Both these cartoons were 
 shown in the Medici palace until the death of the Duke Giuliano, 
 when they disappeared without any person being able to 
 account for it. Yasari says that Michael Angelo's was torn in 
 pieces, and that in his time there was a small piece, remaining 
 in the hands of a dilettante at Mantua. It may be supposed in 
 what esteem they must have been held, when their fame was 
 sufficient to induce Eaphael to come to Florence for the sole 
 purpose of studying them. He was so much surprised and 
 
 * One part of Leonardo's cartoon was engraved by Marc Antonio, 
 the other by Agostino Veneziano. The former is called " Les 
 Grimpeurs," and both are exceedingly rare. An engraving by 
 Gerard Edelinck of the "Battle of the Standard," is well known. It 
 is said to have been taken from a drawing by Rubens. 
 
 f And more recently by Mr. Heath Wilson, in his " Life and 
 Works of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 1876." 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 li 
 
 delighted at their freedom of maimer and boldness of execution, 
 that from that moment he is said to have resolved to abandon 
 the stiffness and poverty of his master Pietro Perugino's style. 
 
 During his stay in Tuscany, Leonardo renewed his former 
 friendship with Giovan Francesco Kustici,* who had been his 
 fellow-student with Andrea Verocchio when they were both 
 young men. Eustici was a man of good family, and more an 
 artist from inclination than necessity. He had the good taste 
 to listen to Da Vinci's criticism, to whom he was particularly 
 attached; and was also well acquainted with the worth of his 
 observations. He was esteemed a good sculptor and architect 
 by his contemporaries, as well as by his friend Leonardo ; and 
 the three statues which he cast in bronze for the baptistery at 
 Florence, remain to this day memorials of his fame. 
 
 In 1504, Leonardo da Vinci lost his father, with whom he had 
 always continued on the most affectionate terms. Whatever 
 might have been his birth, he had made a point of keeping up a 
 constant correspondence and perfectly good understanding with 
 his family. It appears that soon after the Signore Piero's death, 
 he placed a considerable sum of money at interest with the 
 chamberlain of Santa Maria Nuova, as there are several memo- 
 randa among his papers of his having received small payments 
 at different times from this person, and he afterwards disposed 
 of this particular property in his will. From this we may 
 suppose that some of his works had been very liberally rewarded, 
 as this money could only have been acquired by his own 
 exertions. It is Ammoretti's opinion that he visited France in 
 1506, but there is not sufficient proof of his having undertaken 
 that journey in the several memoranda on which this gentleman 
 hazards his assertion ; for they might have as easily referred to 
 his subsequent residence in that country, although he certainly 
 considered himself in the service of the King of France as 
 sovereign of Milan. In whatever way he employed the inter- 
 mediate time, it is certain that Leonardo was again in Lombardy 
 in 1507, as there is the following memorandum in his own hand- 
 
 * Giovan Francesco Enstici was a man of a very extraordinary turn 
 of mind; he became the founder of a society or club called the 
 Pajuolo, of which the account, given by Vasari, is very illustrative of 
 the manners of the times. 
 
lii 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 writing: " Canonica di Vaprio, a dì 5 Luglio 1507, cara mia 
 diletta Madre et mia Sorella et mia Cognata avvissovi come sono 
 sano per la grazia di Dio/' etc. ; which sufficiently proves the 
 fact of his having been staying at that time with his friends 
 the Melzi. That he was frequently in the habit of residing with 
 them, not only at their house at Canonica, but also at their 
 palace at Vaprio, there remains a proof as glorious to the artist's 
 feelings as to his generous patrons', in the picture of the Madonna 
 and Child which he painted on the wall of his apartment in 
 their palace. The head of the Madonna is six palms in height, 
 and that of the Child four. This painting suffered considerably 
 in 1796, by some soldiers having made a fire close to the wall 
 on which it is executed; but the faces are still in tolerable 
 preservation. 
 
 In 1507, Louis the Twelfth of France, finding himself con- 
 tinually disturbed in the possession of his Lombard dominions 
 by the Venetians and the States of the Church, joined the famous 
 league of Cambray, that he might be at more liberty to invade 
 Italy with a sufficient force to establish his affairs on a firmer 
 basis of political security. At Agnadello, near the Adda, the 
 King gained a complete victory over the Venetians, and returned 
 to Milan to celebrate his triumphs and revive the drooping 
 spirits of its inhabitants by the presence of his splendid court. 
 These fetes and entertainments must have again called forth 
 Leonardo's exertions, for they are described with great pómp 
 by Arluno, in a manuscript now in the Ambrosian Library, who 
 talks of the triumphal arches and paintings executed by the first 
 masters in honour of the occasion. Although he does not men- 
 tion Leonardo da Vinci's name, he evidently alludes to him by 
 his making use of the phrase " pitture mollissime," which that 
 author was accustomed to apply to him alone. Besides which, 
 it is well known that he was in great favour with his Majesty 
 at that time, as he appointed him painter to the court of France, 
 and gave him twelve ounces of water from the canal of the Mar- 
 tesana, which was a sort of right of property extremely valuable 
 to its possessor. As far as this gift can be at present understood, 
 it appears that he was entitled to as much water as could be 
 drawn off by a tunnel that measured one foot in diameter, 
 which is equal to twelve ounces ; and that he had the right of 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 liii 
 
 applying this to whatever purpose he pleased. To an engineer 
 of his talents this was of the greatest value, as he might have 
 either applied it to hydraulical purposes or sold it to the pro- 
 prietors of the neighbouring lands to enrich the cultivation of 
 their soil by its irrigations. By his letters from Florence it 
 would appear that he intended making the former use of it, but 
 the latter would also have yielded him a handsome revenue. It 
 is not likely that he ever realized this property, but he showed 
 that he considered it belonged to him, by disposing of it in his 
 will. While in attendance on the French court at Milan, he 
 painted the portrait of Gian Jacopo Triulzio, which is mentioned 
 by Lomazzo, and is now in the Public Gallery at Dresden.* 
 
 The death of his uncle, Messer Francesco da Vinci, a share 
 in whose inheritance his brothers contested with him, on the 
 ground of his illegitimacy, determined him to go to Florence to 
 settle the dispute. It is not known how the affair was deter- 
 mined between them, but we may be allowed to conjecture that 
 it must have been in an amicable manner, from the circumstance 
 of his leaving his property in and near Florence to be equally 
 divided between his brothers at his death. In 1512 he returned 
 to Milan, where he principally employed himself in hydraulical 
 researches, in order to perfect the canal by which he had brought 
 the Adda to the walls of the city. But he was again destined 
 to be interrupted in his professional occupations; for he had 
 scarcely time to see his friends, and get settled in his habitation, 
 before the new government of Milan was broken up, and the 
 tranquility of Lombardy so much destroyed, that he was again 
 obliged to seek refuge in a more peaceful quarter. 
 
 The Princes of Italy, jealous of the presence of a foreign army, 
 whose power might become inimical to their interests, concluded 
 a league with the Emperor to replace the house of Sforza on 
 the throne of Lombardy. In a short time Maximilian, the 
 eldest son of II Moro, returned in triumph to take undisputed 
 possession of his paternal inheritance, escorted by the same 
 Swiss mercenaries who had so shortly before betrayed his father. 
 He was received with acclamations and rejoicings by the inhabi- 
 tants of Milan. Leonardo himself, although belonging, as he 
 
 * This is now known to be a portrait by Holbein, of Morett, 
 jeweller to Henry VIII. 
 
 e 
 
liv THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 conceived, to the court of France, was sufficiently attached to 
 the remembrance of his old patron, to paint two portraits 
 of the young Duke Maximilian, one of which is now in the 
 Gallery of Milan, and the other in the private collection of 
 the Melzi family. But the situation of Milan, and the disturbed 
 state of politics in Italy, were so extremely detrimental to Da 
 Vinci's projects, that he was almost unable to procure a sub- 
 sistence by his profession. Between the two governments 
 he had already lost what he considered as a provision for his 
 old age, as he was now more than sixty, and no longer possessed 
 that buoyant feeling and ardent disposition that carried him 
 through everything in youth. It was quite in vain for Leonardo, 
 or any of his followers, and companions in the Academy, to 
 think of remaining in a place where nothing was to be expected 
 but tumults and revenge. Literature and the fine arts are 
 nurtured by peace and tranquility alone ; where these cease to 
 exist, the artist who desires to increase his reputation had 
 better depart also. Accordingly, we find, by the following memo- 
 randum, that Leonardo at last set out for Eome, accompanied 
 by his principal friends and scholars: "Partii da Milano per 
 Boma ad dì 24 di Settembre 1514, con Giovanni, Francesco Melzi, 
 Salaj, Lorenzo ed il Fanfoia." * 
 
 Leonardo arrived in safety at Florence, where he found the 
 power of the house of Medici restored by the election of the 
 Cardinal Giovanni to the pontificate, under the name of Leo 
 the Tenth, after the decease of Julius the Second. The Pope's 
 brother, Giuliano de' Medici received him into his household 
 and took him to Borne. Every individual possessed of either 
 talents or reputation was then hastening to that capital to 
 recommend himself to the notice of Leo the Tenth; a pontiff 
 whose name must ever be respected in the annals of literature 
 and the arts, and whose princely liberality, by completing the 
 restoration of learning, made Borne once more mistress of the 
 civilized world. 
 
 Although advanced in years, and the ardour of feeling con- 
 
 * Probably this Giovanni means "Il Beltramo," but there is no 
 mention of any person called Fanfoia, unless it is a mistake for 
 Fojano, who is frequently spoken of by Lomazzo and others in their 
 manuscripts. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. lv 
 
 siderably abated by the experience which can only be acquired 
 from a knowledge of the world and its disappointments, Da 
 Vinci yet hoped to distinguish himself amongst those who 
 contended for the Pope's favour. 
 
 On his arrival he was well received by Leo, both from the 
 high reputation he enjoyed, and the circumstance of his being 
 presented to the Pontiff by his brother Giuliano, whose favour 
 da Vinci had completely gained. But his talents excited the 
 envy of all those who surrounded his Holiness's person and had 
 already secured his confidence, as they considered his approach 
 as a sort of invasion of what they had appropriated to themselves 
 as a right : so seldom can men of genius bear with any sort of 
 competition. No one was more free from this unworthy feeling 
 of envy than Leonardo himself; no one more anxious to do 
 ample justice to the merits of others ; but, most deservedly, ac- 
 customed to hold the first place at Milan, and conscious that 
 many of the improvements in the arts which he now saw brought 
 into use, were owing to his own inventions and to the improve- 
 ments which he himself had introduced, he could not avoid 
 feeling most acutely that he no longer possessed the same 
 superiority over others which he had done in his youth. If he 
 had given himself time to think, he would have been consoled 
 by the reflection that this was the natural consequence of the 
 progress of the arts, to which he, more than any other person, 
 had eminently contributed. Instead of feeling mortified at the 
 practice of the theory which he himself had first propagated, 
 he ought to have rejoiced at its having met with the success 
 which he had originally contemplated. But his bodily health 
 was no longer equal to the energy of his mind, and his increasing 
 infirmities made him more than usually irritable, for he had 
 naturally too much pride to indulge any feelings of vanity. 
 
 Under these circumstances it was not to be expected that 
 Da Vinci could have felt himself happily situated at Eome. 
 Harassed by disappointments, his genius was overcast by the 
 praises he heard on all sides bestowed on others, whom he 
 could not have considered in any way superior to himself. But 
 they enjoyed a greater share of his Holiness's favour, and kept 
 Leonardo in the back-ground by persuading the Pope that he 
 embraced too many branches of science to be able to succeed in 
 
Ivi 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 any, and that he was become mnch too speculative in his ideas 
 to execute any work of importance. By these and similar 
 calumnies, unworthy of their own fame, and prompted solely by 
 jealousy, they contrived to keep Da Yinci without any employ- 
 ment worthy of his talents. 
 
 Of all the celebrated persons who at that time ornamented the 
 court of Eome, Eafifaelle enjoyed the greatest share of the Pope's 
 confidence and esteem, although he was more considerably 
 indebted to his predecessor Pope Julius the Second. This 
 Pontiff first brought him into notice at the recommendation 
 of his kinsman, Bramante da Urbino, who was then in his 
 service, and employed him to paint a suite of rooms in the 
 Vatican. He executed this commission with such extraordinary 
 taste and skill, that the frescoes he then painted are generally 
 considered superior to any of his subsequent productions under 
 the reign of Leo the Tenth. 
 
 The great Michael Angelo, who was also at Borne at this 
 period, had not the good fortune to be so much distinguished 
 by Leo as he had been by Julius, who was his friend and 
 patron ; and it ought to be observed, in justice to the latter, that 
 many of the great works, the whole praise of which has been 
 unthinkingly bestowed on Leo, more properly belonged to his 
 predecessor, he having originally undertaken them, though Leo 
 had the liberality and generosity to carry them into effect. If 
 Leonardo da Yinci had enjoyed the advantage of the protection 
 of Julius the Second, he would, no doubt, have been in a much 
 better situation ; and had he employed that time in his service 
 which he lost during the disturbances at Milan, he would not 
 only have been at the head of his profession as an artist, but his 
 knowledge of military tactics, and his talents as an engineer, 
 would have made him an invaluable acquisition to that warlike 
 Pontiff. 
 
 The reign of Leo the Tenth forms so striking an era in 
 Italian literature, that one is too apt to confound him personally 
 with the age in which he lived. Without at all wishing to 
 deteriorate the good qualities which this magnificent Pontiff 
 undoubtedly possessed, it appears from the history of those 
 times, that the age contributed more to his elevation, than he 
 did individually to the advancement of learning. Had Julius 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. Ivii 
 
 lived a few years longer, we should have talked of the Julian 
 age of Koine, instead of "the golden days of Leo/' and the 
 advantages to mankind would have been much the same. The 
 ruling principle of Leo's policy was the aggrandizement of the 
 house of Medici ; and by simply following the taste of the age, 
 and acting up to the spirit of the times, he could most easily 
 attain his object, while he gratified his own taste for splendour 
 by becoming the liberal patron of men of letters. It is easy to 
 be generous, even to profusion, with what does not belong to 
 us; and few of St. Peter's representatives have ever made a 
 freer use of his patrimony. Circumstances made Leo what he 
 was, and unless he had abandoned the pontificate altogether he 
 must have been talked and flattered into virtues which he might 
 not have otherwise possessed. It is certainly no proof of his 
 discernment or good taste, that he either could not or did not 
 appreciate the talents of Leonardo da Vinci sufficiently to fix 
 him near his person ; while it is well known that he neglected 
 those of Michael Angelo Buonarroti. 
 
 Leonardo, however, during his short stay in Kome was not 
 altogether unemployed, as he painted a picture for Messer 
 Baldassare da Pescia, the Pope's datario (almoner), who seems 
 to have had more feeling for the artist's merits than his master. 
 This picture was painted on wood, and represented a Holy 
 Family, consisting of the Virgin and Child, with St. Joseph and 
 St. John behind, in which group was a portrait of a young lady 
 in full length, of singular beauty and noble features. De 
 Pagave, in speaking of this picture, observes that, "although 
 the Vincian style is perfectly discernible, it is evident that he 
 had imitated Eaffaelle in this composition ; " and for this reason 
 he probably chose to distinguish it by the monogram of his own 
 name, that it might not be taken for the work of any other 
 artist. The beautiful lady whose portrait he introduced in this 
 picture, is supposed to be the Pope's sister-in-law, as it is very 
 natural that Leonardo should have paid this compliment to his 
 patron's wife, Giuliano de' Medici having just married Filiberta 
 of Savoy. "Whoever the lady might have been, the picture was 
 so wonderfully executed that it attracted the Pope's attention 
 and occasioned him to employ Da Vinci, old as he was, in 
 preference to Eaffaelle and Michael Angelo, in the execution of 
 
Iviii THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 a work which afterwards became the cause of his disgrace and of 
 his departure from Eome. Vasari relates the story, that Leonardo, 
 with his usual love of experiments, began to distil different 
 herbs and oils to make a particular kind of varnish, and that 
 some ill-natured persons told this to the Pope, who exclaimed, 
 " Oh ! this man will never do anything, for he begins to think 
 of the end of his work, before the commencement." This hasty 
 remark was immediately repeated to Leonardo, who, already 
 disgusted with his Holiness for having sent for Michael Angelo 
 to Eome, with whom he was on bad terms, determined on 
 leaving it. 
 
 It is not to be wondered at, that so high-minded a man as 
 Leonardo should have been offended at such an observation. 
 Conscious of his own merits, and indignant at the neglect with 
 which he had been treated during his residence at the papal 
 court, he could not do otherwise than resolve to quit a place 
 where he had met with so many vexations, and seek another 
 patron in spite of his age and infirmities. There is nothing to 
 be collected, either from his notes or the manuscripts in the 
 Ambrosian Library, to prove that he undertook anything more 
 of consequence at Eome, except some improvements he intro- 
 duced in the mint for purifying and embellishing the Eoman 
 coin. Before his misunderstanding with the Pope, he had most 
 likely painted the fresco of the Virgin on the walls of St. Onofrio, 
 of which nothing now remains ; as well as several other pictures 
 for various individuals, who still cherished his name, and were 
 anxious to possess some specimen of his abilities. 
 
 It was most unworthy of Leo's character, as the great Maecenas 
 of the whole Christian world, to have treated Leonardo da Vinci 
 with so little consideration. If for no other reasons but his 
 former works, long experience, and great reputation, he should 
 have received him with kindness. The extreme amiability of 
 his manners towards all might have at least blunted the shafts 
 of envy and ill-nature. That he was himself superior to such 
 meanness, he had given a proof in the last picture he painted, 
 where he had, in a great measure, adopted the ease of Eaffaelle's 
 tyle, in addition to the exquisite softness and minute finishing 
 of his own. It was no small compliment to Eaffaelle that 
 Leonardo, even in his old age, should have condescended to 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 lix 
 
 imitate him ; for in such a man it was condescension to alter his 
 style in imitation of any one. Although it would be impossible 
 to deny that Eaffaelle excelled Da Vinci in painting nearly as 
 much as Michael Angelo did in sculpture, still it must be 
 generally allowed, that, if they were the greater artists, he was 
 the greater man, without derogating from the high character of 
 either. When we consider the state in which Leonardo da Vinci 
 found the arts when he first engaged in painting as a profession, 
 the improvements which he introduced, the scholars whom he 
 educated, and the prejudices which he annihilated, we are all 
 lost in admiration of his various merits. Even Michael Angelo 
 and Eaffaelle are obliged to him for a part of their glory ; because 
 they first became the great men they were from studying his 
 works. Eaffaelle borrowed from him that almost divine grace, 
 which Leonardo so well knew how to impart to the countenances 
 he painted ; Michael Angelo took from him that daring style of 
 drawing by which he astonished mankind; and if afterwards 
 both surpassed him, they were nevertheless infinitely indebted 
 to the advantages they derived from his original inventions. 
 Yet, such is the ungrateful reward of talent in all times, this 
 man was obliged to expatriate himself when more than seventy 
 years of age ! 
 
 The politics of Italy were now again becoming embroiled. 
 King Louis the Twelfth of France died on the first day of the 
 year 1515, and he was succeeded by Francis the First. It was 
 not to be supposed that a young King of only twenty-one years 
 of age would feel inclined to submit quietly to the loss of his 
 Italian dominions, particularly as he had assumed the title of 
 Duke of Milan on his accession to the throne, both in right of 
 his predecessor and of the Emperor's concession of that duchy 
 at the league of Cambray. Having concluded an advantageous 
 peace with the King of England and the Archduke of Austria, 
 afterwards Charles V., the young monarch advanced towards 
 Italy, determined to make light of every difficulty. His suc- 
 cesses induced Leo to incline towards an accommodation. 
 Francis was already in possession of Pavia; and his armies 
 were proceeding with rapid strides to reconquer the whole of 
 Lombardy. 
 
 These political events no sooner became public than Leonardo 
 
Ix 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 da Vinci resolved to profit by the successes of his former patrons, 
 the French, in whose service he still considered himself. He 
 therefore set out for Pavia, where he was received by Francis 
 with every mark of friendship. He soon became a great 
 favourite with his Majesty, who delighted in his society and 
 conversation ; and Da Vinci's spirits began to revive at again 
 finding himself in a situation where all his excellent qualities 
 were duly appreciated. He felt himself of the same consequence 
 he had formerly been ; and presiding over the revels and enter- 
 tainments of a magnificent court, he exerted his utmost taste 
 and skill to please his chivalrous patron and his nobles. 
 
 It is supposed that the Lion, spoken of by Lomazzo, was 
 contrived by Leonardo on this occasion to increase the pomp 
 of some of the fetes given in honour of the King's successes. 
 This piece of mechanism was so admirably contrived, that the 
 lion walked of itself up to the King's throne, and threw open its 
 body, which was filled with fleurs de lis, in compliment to his 
 Majesty. This pageant is frequently mentioned by the writers 
 of that period, when it was, no doubt, considered as a most 
 wonderful invention. 
 
 Both the Pope and the King of France were extremely desirous 
 of an interview, and Bologna was fixed upon as the place where 
 the congress should be held. The King came attended with 
 very little pomp, and only a small part of his brilliant court, but 
 among them was Leonardo da Vinci,* who must have been highly 
 gratified in being able to show himself to the Pope's followers as 
 the friend and favourite of a powerful monarch, after having 
 been almost compelled to quit Eome. To the young King his 
 experience was doubtless of the greatest use in treating with so 
 wary a politician as Leo ; and his general knowledge of Italy, 
 both in politics and literature, must have increased his favour 
 with Francis, to whose interest he was now most firmly attached, 
 and from that time Leonardo considered himself as belonging to 
 the French court. Conscious of his own deserts, Leonardo da 
 
 * Among Leonardo's papers was found a design for the portrait of 
 Signore Artus, under which is written, in his own handwriting, 
 " Ritratto di M. Artus, Maestro di Camera del Eè Francesco primo, nella 
 Giunta con Papa Leon decimo," which fully proves that Da Vinci was 
 present on that occasion. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Ixi 
 
 Vinci felt as an insult what was merely the effect of an envious 
 cabal ; but his sensitive mind was so deeply wounded, that he 
 determined to abandon his country for ever, and establish himself 
 at the Court of France for the rest of his days. If his pride could 
 have submitted to prove his superior merit by his works, instead 
 of showing that he was offended by leaving the court of Eome, 
 there is every probability that he must have triumphed over his 
 enemies and regained the Pontiff's favour. But most likely he 
 considered himself too old to begin the struggle anew, and he 
 was perhaps too proud to submit to a competition for fame in a 
 country where he had for so many years held the first place, 
 and which was so much indebted to his exertions for many of 
 the advantages which she possessed in the fine arts. Another 
 reason that must have naturally influenced him at his time of 
 life, was the instability of the Italian courts, the disadvantages 
 of which he had sufficiently experienced in the downfall of the 
 house of Sforza, and the continual changes of the government of 
 Milan. By these circumstances he had lost all the fruits of his 
 long services to that state during the best part of his life ; and 
 even his reputation had considerably suffered by it, in the 
 destruction of his works. The equestrian statue of Francesco 
 Sforza, which he was to have cast in bronze, and by which he 
 hoped to have established his fame as a sculptor, never proceeded 
 any further than the model, and even that was destroyed by the 
 brutality of the soldiery. The evils of war and the miseries of 
 civil dissension had dispersed his friends and scholars, and 
 nothing remained of the Academy which he had founded, but 
 the effects which it produced on the arts in laying a foundation 
 for the improvement of painting, by which all subsequent artists 
 have more or less benefited. The friends of his brighter days 
 were all either dead or no longer able to struggle against the 
 misfortunes which they had met with from the unsettled state of 
 their country; so that it was not to be wondered at that Da 
 Yinci should have preferred sheltering himself under the protec- 
 tion of a powerful monarch who promised to provide most 
 generously for the rest of his life, to the precarious subsistence 
 which Italy could afford him. 
 
 Previous to his departure from Milan, the King tried every 
 means in his power to remove the painting of The Last Supper, 
 
Ixii THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 in order to send it to France. Everything was done to deprive 
 Milan of this magnificent work which she has so badly taken 
 care of ; but it was found impracticable, although Francis would 
 have spared no expense to have succeeded in his designs, and 
 Leonardo did all in his power to gratify his new patron. How- 
 ever, all their efforts were ineffectual, and, as Vasari says, u the 
 picture having been done immediately on the wall, his Majesty 
 was obliged to depart with his wish ungratified, and leave the 
 painting to the Milanese." 
 
 About the end of January 1516 Leonardo accompanied Francis 
 the First to Paris, as painter to the court of France, with an 
 annual salary of 700 crowns, and a liberal provision for all his 
 wants ; where he met with a reception equal to his merits. The 
 King treated him with distinguished favour, and the courtiers 
 vied with each other in following his Majesty's example. 
 
 From the time of his arrival in France, his health began to 
 deteriorate, so much so, that he was incapable of applying him- 
 self to anything of consequence. It is known from the direction 
 of a letter found among his papers, "A Monsieur Lyonard 
 Peintre, par Amboise," that he must have been at that place ; 
 as also from the circumstance of his will being dated from 
 thence, in which he speaks of the furniture and valuables he 
 possessed at " Du Cloux/' about a mile from Amboise, where he 
 most likely resided. 
 
 It does not appear probable that he painted anything in 
 France, as Vasari tells us that the King himself could not prevail 
 on him to finish his cartoon of Santa Anna,* which he had 
 brought from Italy, and which was afterwards painted by some 
 of his scholars on his outlines. It is also most likely that Leo- 
 nardo, finding himself growing old, and much oppressed with 
 sickness, would not have wished to undertake any work that he 
 no longer felt himself able to complete without almost com- 
 promising his former reputation. We may therefore suppose 
 that the painting of Francis's mistress, " La belle Ferronnière," 
 is the work of some of his scholars.! 
 
 * Now in the Library of the Koyal Academy. 
 
 f It is now surmised that the portrait known as " La belle Ferron- 
 nière " is that of Isabel d'Bste, Marchioness of Mantua, whom 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Ixiii 
 
 Towards the latter end of his life, Leonardo's health was so 
 much broken, that his infirmities no longer permitted him to 
 take any part in the pleasures of the world, and he began to 
 prepare himself for that awful change which he expected to be 
 soon called upon to make. Vasari tells us, that believing himself 
 near death, Da Vinci devoted the remainder of his days to a more 
 strict observance of the precepts of the Catholic religion ; which 
 would almost imply that he had lived the greater part of his 
 life without any. But this inference is strongly contradicted by 
 the morality and propriety of his general conduct. For although 
 his person, talents, and accomplishments would have given him 
 every probability of success, particularly when united with the 
 example of a most libertine court, it is well known there was no 
 man of his time less addicted to gallantry and intrigue. His 
 writings, also, are all of a more serious nature than could have 
 been expected from the vivacity of his disposition in early life. 
 And even his paintings are entirely free from any sort of las- 
 civious or indecent ideas. He seldom painted naked figures; 
 but whenever he did undertake such subjects, they were always 
 remarkable for the purity and modesty of their attitudes ; as in 
 the Leda, which is mentioned by Lomazzo, where he painted the 
 eyes cast down from shame. Vasari must, therefore, have in- 
 tended to express a total abandonment of the present to fix his 
 mind exclusively on the future, rather than to insinuate any 
 want of religion in his youth. Naturally enthusiastic in his 
 feelings, he turned his thoughts to his Maker with the same 
 ardour which had distinguished him in all his actions ; and his 
 death was as glorious as his life had been virtuous and useful. 
 Having accompanied the court to Fontainbleau, he is stated by 
 Vasari to have expired in the arms of Francis the First, who 
 came to -visit him during his illness, and happened by accident 
 to be with him when he was seized with a mortal paroxysm that 
 speedily terminated his existence. "What a triumph to the arts ! 
 and what an honour to the King! who had the pleasing 
 remembrance of having comforted the last moments of one of 
 the greatest artists that had then enlightened the world; and 
 
 Leonardo is known to have painted in 1500. — See " Academy," vol. i., 
 page 123, " Two lost years in the Hfe of Leonardo da Vinci." 
 
Ixiv THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Francis must have looked back with .more real satisfaction and 
 self-approbation, to the recollection of his having supported 
 and soothed Leonardo da Yinci in the hour of death, than to 
 many of the more brilliant events of his reign. If at such a 
 moment, when all artificial distinctions are at an end, Leonardo 
 could have entertained one worldly thought, it must have 
 alleviated his sufferings and encouraged his hopes, to know 
 that he breathed out his soul in the arms of one of the greatest 
 monarchs in Europe, who, while living, regarded him with the 
 warmest admiration, and when dying lamented him with the 
 sincerest regret. 
 
 Such was the enviable fate of Leonardo da Vinci, who died at 
 the age of seventy- five (on the 2nd of May, 1519), universally 
 esteemed and as universally regretted. His whole life was spent 
 in advancing the happiness of his fellow-creatures by furthering 
 the progress of science. Few men have done more good in the 
 world : a generous patron, an affectionate friend, and a liberal- 
 minded man, he was as ready to promote the views of others as 
 he was to acknowledge their merit ; and he had scarcely a wish 
 beyond the advancement of general knowledge and the en- 
 couragement of the fine arts. 
 
 Several authors, and among others Ammoretti, attempt to 
 deprive Leonardo of the honour of having died in the arms of 
 Francis, which they treat as a fictitious story invented to amuse 
 the lovers of the marvellous; but it is too well confirmed by 
 contemporary writers and general tradition to be destroyed 
 by these sceptics. We have, moreover, the testimony of 
 Vasari, who relates the circumstance in these words : — " At 
 length, seeing himself near death, he confessed himself with 
 much contrition; and although he was unable to stand, he 
 desired his friends and servants to support him, that he might 
 receive the holy sacrament out of bed in a more reverent 
 posture. When fatigued with this exertion the King came 
 to visit him, and Leonardo, raising himself up in his bed out of 
 respect to his Majesty, began to relate the circumstances of his 
 illness, and the wrongs he had done both to God and man, by 
 not making better use of his talents. In the midst of this 
 conversation he was seized with a paroxysm, which proved the 
 messenger of death; on seeing which, the King hastened to 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Ixv 
 
 assist him, and supported him in his bed, in order to alleviate 
 his sufferings. But his divine spirit, knowing he could not 
 receive greater honour, expired in the King's arms in the 
 seventy-fifth year of his age." * 
 
 Leonardo's having made his will àt Amboise is no proof of 
 his having died at Cloux, particularly as it was written some 
 months f before his death. And as it is well known that 
 Fontainbleau was the favourite residence of Francis, there is 
 every reason to suppose that he would have desired Leonardo's 
 assistance in the embellishment of that place. As he was also 
 attached to the court and to the King personally, he would in all 
 probability have been wherever his master was. Another reason 
 Ammoretti gives for discrediting this anecdote, is the circum- 
 
 * " This circumstantial narrative, like many others related by Yasari, 
 has been found to be open to considerable doubt. In the first place 
 it has been proved that Leonardo died at Cloux on the 2nd of May, 
 1519 (nine days after he had made his will), while Francis I. was, it 
 would appear, at St. Germain-en-Laye at that date, awaiting the 
 accouchement of the Queen. It is true that the ordinance signed by 
 the King at St. Germain on the 1st of May, and quoted by Venturi 
 as a proof of his presence there on that day, is not conclusive, for it 
 appears that such ordinances might be signed in the absence of the 
 King by the secretary; but a journal of the time of Francis I., 
 preserved in the ' Bibliotheque Nationale ' at Paris, makes no 
 mention of any journey of the King at this date, and etiquette, it is 
 known, demanded his presence at that particular time at the court 
 of St. Germain. Moreover, Melai, in his letter, announcing the death 
 of Leonardo to his brothers, does not allude to the circumstance of 
 his dying in the King's arms, which he would most likely have done had 
 such been the case ; and Lomazzo, who also must have known some- 
 thing of the matter, expressly states that ' Francis, King of France, 
 wept when he heard from Melzi that Da Vinci was dead, who had 
 painted The Last Supper in Milan, a work beyond all others.' 
 
 " All these small facts combined form a strong argument against 
 Vasari, and have led to an almost universal disbelief in this pretty 
 story, especially as the hypothesis started by Dupresne, and adopted 
 by several writers, that Leonardo died at Fontainbleau, was proved 
 untenable. This mistake probably arose from a Flemish painter of 
 the name of Leonard being employed by II Rosso when he was 
 decorating the palace of Fontainbleau in 1530. In Leonardo's time 
 Fontainbleau was a mere hunting-box." — " Life of Leonardo da 
 Vinci," by Mrs. Charles fleaton. 
 
 f This is an error. Leonardo died nine days after he had made his 
 will. 
 
ixvi 
 
 THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCL 
 
 stance of Francesco Melzi's having written from Amboise to 
 inform Da Vinci's brothers of his death. But is it not possible, 
 and even probable, that Melzi, as his executor, should have 
 gone to the place where his effects were, and of which he had 
 also to give an account ? "At any rate, this story is too pleasing 
 a fiction, if it be one, to be slightly discredited ; and few would 
 wish to disbelieve what tradition has handed down to us, what 
 all the poets and painters who have since touched on the subject 
 have confirmed, and what is, besides, as glorious to Leonardo as it 
 is creditable to Francis.* 
 
 To a noble presence and beautiful countenance, Da Vinci 
 united uncommon strength both of body and mind. His 
 eloquence was so persuasive, that Vasari says, "Con le parole 
 sue volgeva al sì e al no ogn' indurata intentione;" and his 
 physical force was so great, that he could bend a horseshoe as if 
 it were lead. He was very magnificent in his attire, and rather 
 too fond of adorning his person in early life; but these foibles 
 were more than counterbalanced by the hospitality and liberality 
 of his disposition. The founder of an academy over which he 
 presided for some years, he may be supposed to have left a great 
 many literary works, which are most of them in manuscript, 
 and preserved in different public libraries throughout Europe. 
 Among these are a treatise on Hydraulics, with designs, 
 another on Anatomy, and another on the Anatomy of the Horse, 
 which is noticed by Vasari, Borghini, and Lomazzo; and a 
 treatise on Perspective and on Light and Shade. But his best- 
 known work is the " Trattato della Pittura," of which there are 
 several editions; an old one with etchings by Stefano della Bella, 
 and a more recent one printed at Paris by Du Fresne in 1651, 
 with figures by Nicolas Poussin. This was translated into 
 English and published in London by John Senex in 1721. The 
 ensuing translation, by Eigaud, was first published in London 
 in 1802. 
 
 As an engineer, the canal of the Martesana, by which he 
 
 * In the year 1863, M. Arsene Houssaye instituted a search for 
 the tomb of Leonardo at Cloux, and found two stones, one bearing 
 the letters LEO — the other INC — which M. Houssaj^e thinks are 
 conclusive evidence that they formed part of the inscription, LEO- 
 NARDO DA VINCI. 
 
THE LIFE OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 lxvii 
 
 conducted the waters Of the Adda to the walls of Milan, a 
 distance of nearly two hundred miles, would have been alone 
 sufficient to establish his reputation.* In this great work he 
 obliged the impediments of nature to give way to the efforts of 
 genius, and he succeeded to the admiration of all Italy. 
 
 As a painter, Leonardo da Vinci may be considered the first 
 who reconciled minute finishing with grandeur of design and 
 harmony of expression. His was the very poetry of painting. 
 His exquisite taste, by continually making him dissatisfied with 
 his works, urged him on to a nearer approach to perfection than 
 had ever been attained. For this reason his scholars were 
 superior to those of any other master, as he exacted from them 
 the same profound attention to nature, and laborious minuteness 
 of style, which distinguished himself. 
 
 It is to be remembered, to the immortal honour of Leonardo 
 da Vinci, that he first dissipated the film of ignorance which 
 impeded the progress of the arts ; and if Eaffaelle and Michael 
 Angelo afterwards surpassed him in his own line, it is to him 
 that justly belongs the merit of having first pointed out the road 
 which they so successfully followed. It is easier to improve 
 than to invent ; but to him who had the talents to imagine and 
 the courage to overcome the prejudices of ages, ought to belong 
 the gratitude of posterity, more than to those who, by following 
 his precepts, increased their own reputation. To no one, in 
 short, are the arts more largely indebted than to Leonardo da 
 Vinci, whose virtues endeared him to all who knew him, and 
 whose exertions so mainly contributed to the refinement and 
 civilization of future ages. 
 
 * The canal of Marfcesana -was executed in the time of Francesco 
 Sforza, the father of II Moro, long before Leonardo's arrival in 
 Milan. He probably, however, repaired and made improvements 
 in it. 
 
A TKEATISE ON PAINTING. 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 1. — What the young Student in Painting ought in the first 
 place to learn. 
 
 The young student should, in the first place, acquire a 
 knowledge of perspective, to enable him to give to every 
 object its proper dimensions : after which, it is requisite 
 that he be under the care of an able master, to accustom 
 him, by degrees, to a good style of drawing the parts. 
 Next, he must study Nature, in order to confirm and fix 
 in his mind the reason of those precepts which he has 
 learnt. He must also bestow some time in viewing the 
 works of various old masters, to form his eye and judgment, 
 in order that he may be able to put in practice all that he 
 has been taught.* 
 
 * This passage has been by some persons much misunderstood, and 
 supposed to require, that the student should be a deep proficient in 
 perspective before he commences the study of painting ; but it is a 
 knowledge of the leading principles only of perspective that the 
 author here means, and without such a knowledge, which is easily to 
 be acquired, the student will inevitably fall into errors, as gross as 
 those humorously pointed out by Hogarth, in his Frontispiece to 
 Kirby's Perspective. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 2. — Buie for a young Student in Painting. 
 
 The organ of sight is one of the quickest, and takes in 
 at a single glance an infinite variety of forms; notwith- 
 standing which, it cannot perfectly comprehend more than 
 one object at a time. For example, the reader, at one look 
 over this page, immediately perceives it full of different 
 characters ; "but he cannot at the same moment distinguish 
 each letter, much less can he comprehend their meaning. 
 He must consider it word by word, and line by line, if he 
 be desirous of forming a just notion of these characters. 
 In like manner, if we wish to ascend to the top of an 
 edifice, we must be content to advance step by step, 
 otherwise we shall never be able to attain it. 
 
 A young man, who has a natural inclination to the study 
 of this art, I would advise to act thus : In order to acquire 
 a true notion of the form of things, he must begin by 
 studying the parts which compose them, and not pass to a 
 second till he has well stored his memory, and sufficiently 
 practised the first; otherwise he loses his time, and will 
 most certainly protract his studies. And let him remember 
 to acquire accuracy before he attempts quickness. - 
 
 3. — How to discover a young Mail's Disposition for Painting. 
 
 Many are very desirous of learning to draw, and are 
 very fond of it, who are, notwithstanding, void of a proper 
 disposition for it. This may be known by their want of 
 perseverance ; like boys, who draw everything in a hurry, 
 never finishing, or shadowing. 
 
 4. — Of Painting, and its Divisions. 
 
 Painting is divided into two principal parts. The first 
 is the figure ; that is, the lines which distinguish the forms 
 of bodies and their component parts. The second is the 
 colour contained within those limits. 
 
PROPORTION. 
 
 3 
 
 5. — Division of the Figure. 
 
 The form of bodies is divided into two parts ; that is, 
 the proportion of the members to each other, which mnst 
 correspond with the whole ; and the motion, expressive of 
 what passes in the mind of the living figure. 
 
 6. — Proportion of Members. 
 
 The proportion of members is again divided into two 
 parts, viz., equality, and motion. By equality is meant 
 (besides the measure corresponding with the whole), that 
 you do not confound the members of a young subject with 
 those of old age, nor plump ones with those that are lean ; 
 and that, moreover, you do not blend the robust and firm 
 muscles of man with feminine softness ; that the attitudes 
 and motions of old age be not expressed with the quickness 
 and alacrity of youth, nor those of a female figure like 
 those of a vigorous young man. The motions and members 
 of a strong man should be such as to express his perfect 
 state of health. 
 
 7. — Of Dimensions in general. 
 
 In general, the dimensions of the human body are to be 
 considered in the length, and not in the breadth ; because 
 in the wonderful works of Nature, which we endeavour 
 to imitate, we cannot in any species find any one part in 
 one model precisely similar to the same part in another. 
 Let us be attentive, therefore, to the variation of forms, 
 and avoid all monstrosities of proportion; such as long 
 legs united to short bodies, and narrow chests with long 
 arms. Observe also attentively the measure of joints, in 
 which Nature is apt to vary considerably ; and imitate her 
 example by doing the same. 
 
 8. — Motion, Changes, and Proportion of Members. 
 
 The measures of the human body vary in each member, 
 according as it is more or less bent, or seen in different 
 
4 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 views, increasing on one side as much as they diminish 
 on the other. 
 
 9. — The Difference of Proportion between Children and grown 
 
 Men. 
 
 In men and children I find a great difference between 
 the joints of the one and the other, in the length of the 
 bones. A man has the length of two heads from the 
 extremity of one shoulder to the other, the same from 
 the shoulder to the elbow, and from the elbow to the 
 fingers ; but the child has only one, because Nature gives 
 the proper size first to the seat of the intellect, and after- 
 wards to the other parts. 
 
 10. — The Alterations in the Proportion of the human Body 
 
 from Infancy to full Age. 
 
 A man, in his infancy, has the breadth of his shoulders 
 equal to the length of the face, and to the length of the 
 arm from the shoulder to the elbow, when the arm is 
 bent.* It is the same again from the lower belly to the 
 knee, and fròm the knee to the foot. But, when a man 
 is arrived at the period of his full growth, every one of 
 these dimensions becomes double in length, except the face, 
 which, with the top of the head, undergoes but very little 
 alteration in length. A well-proportioned and full-grown 
 man, therefore, is ten times the length of his face; the 
 breadth of his shoulders will be two faces, and in like 
 manner all the above lengths will be double. The rest 
 will be explained in the general measurement of the 
 human body.f 
 
 11. — Of the Proportion of Members. 
 
 All the parts of any animal whatever must be corre- 
 spondent with the whole. So that, if the body be short 
 and thick, all the members belonging to it must be the 
 
 * See chap. 351. 
 
 f Not to be found in this work. 
 
PROPORTION. 
 
 5 
 
 same. One that is long and thin must have its parts of 
 the same kind ; and so of the middle size. Something of 
 the same may be observed in plants, when uninjured by 
 men or tempests : for, when thus injured, they bud and 
 grow again, making young shoots from old plants, and by 
 those means destroying their natural symmetry. 
 
 12. — That every Part be proportioned to its Wliole. 
 
 If a man be short and thick, be careful that all his 
 members be of the same nature, viz., short arms and thick, 
 large hands, short fingers, with broad joints ; and so of 
 the rest. 
 
 13. — Of the Proportion of the Members. 
 
 Measure upon yourself the proportion of the parts, and, 
 if you find any of them defective, note it down, and be 
 very careful to avoid it in drawing your own compositions. 
 For this is reckoned a common fault in painters, to delight 
 in the imitation of themselves. 
 
 14. — The Danger of forming an erroneous Judgment in regard 
 to the Proportion and Beauty of the Parts. 
 
 If the painter has clumsy hands, he will be apt to 
 introduce them into his works, and so of any other part 
 of his person, which may not happen to be so beautiful 
 as it ought to be. He must, therefore, guard particularly 
 against that self-love, or too good opinion of his own 
 person, and study by every means to acquire the knowledge 
 of what is most beautiful, and of his own defects, that he 
 may adopt the one and avoid the other. 
 
 15. — Another Precept. 
 
 The young painter must, in the first instance, accustom 
 his hand to copying the drawings of good masters; and 
 when his hand is thus formed and ready, he should, with 
 
6 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 the advice of his director, use himself also to draw from 
 relievos ; according to the rules we shall point out in the 
 treatise on drawing from relievos.* 
 
 16. — The Manner of drawing from Relievos, and rendering 
 Paper fit for it. 
 
 When you draw from relievos, tinge your paper of some 
 darkish demi-tint. And after you have made your outline, 
 put in the darkest shadows, and, last of all, the principal 
 lights, but sparingly, especially the smaller ones ; because 
 those are easily lost to the eye at a very moderate distance.f 
 
 17. — Of drawing from Casts or Nature. 
 
 In drawing from relievo, the draftsman must place him- 
 self in such a manner, as that the eye of the figure to be 
 drawn be level with his own. J 
 
 * From this, and many other similar passages, it is evident, that 
 the author intended at some future time to arrange his manuscript 
 collections, and to publish them as separate treatises. That he did 
 not do so is well known ; but it is also a fact, that, in selecting from 
 the whole mass of his collections the chapters of which the present 
 work consists, great care appears in general to have been taken to 
 extract also those to which there was any reference from any of the 
 chapters intended for this work, or which from their subject were 
 necessarily connected with them. Accordingly, the reader will find, 
 in the notes to this translation, that all such chapters in any other 
 part of the present work are uniformly pointed out, as have any 
 relation to the respective passages in the text. This, which has 
 never before been done, though indispensably necessary, will be 
 found of singular use, and it was thought proper here, once for all, to 
 notice it. 
 
 In the present instance the chapters, referring to the subject in 
 the text, are Chap. 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 26 ; and though these do not afford 
 complete information, yet it is to be remembered, that drawing from 
 relievos is subject to the very same rules as drawing from Nature ; 
 and that, therefore, what is elsewhere said on that subject is also 
 equally applicable to this. 
 
 f The meaning of this is, that the last touches of light, such as the 
 shining parts (which are always narrow), must be given sparingly. 
 In short, that the drawing must be kept in broad masses as much as 
 possible. 
 
 % This is not an absolute rule, but it is a very good one for drawing 
 of portraits. 
 
PROPORTION. 
 
 7 
 
 18. — To draw Figures from Nature. 
 
 Accustom yourself to hold a plummet in your hand, that 
 you may judge of the bearing of the parts. 
 
 19. — Of drawing from Nature. 
 
 When you draw from Nature, you must be at the 
 distance of three times the height of the object ; and when 
 you begin to draw, form in your own mind a certain 
 principal line (suppose a perpendicular) ; observe well the 
 bearing of the parts towards that line ; whether they 
 intersect it, are parallel to it, or oblique. 
 
 20. — Of drawing Academy Figures. 
 
 When you draw from a naked model, always sketch in 
 the whole of the figure, suiting all the members well to 
 each other ; and though you finish only that part which 
 appears the best, have a regard to the rest, that, whenever 
 you make use of such studies, all the parts may hang 
 together. 
 
 In composing your attitudes, take care not to turn the 
 head on the same side as the breast, nor let the arm go in 
 a line with the leg.* If the head turn towards the right 
 shoulder, the parts must be lower on the left side than on 
 the other : but if the chest come forward, and the head 
 turn towards the left, the parts on the right side are to 
 be the highest. 
 
 21. — Of studying in the Dark, on first waking in the Morning, 
 and before going to sleep. 
 
 I have experienced no small benefit, when in the dark 
 and in bed, by retracing in my mind the outlines of those 
 forms which I had previously studied, particularly such 
 
 * See chap. 101. 
 
PROPORTION. 
 
 as had appeared the most difficult to comprehend and 
 retain; by this method they will be confirmed and treasured 
 up in the memory. 
 
 22. — Observations on drawing Portraits. 
 
 The cartilage, which raises the nose in the middle of the 
 face, varies in eight different ways. It is equally straight, 
 equally concave, or equally convex, — which is the first sort. 
 Or, secondly, unequally straight, concave, or convex. Or, 
 thirdly, straight in the upper part, and concave in the 
 under. Or, fourthly, straight again in the upper part, 
 and convex in those below. Or, fifthly, it may be concave 
 above, and straight beneath. Or, sixthly, concave above, 
 and convex below. Or, seventhly, it may be convex in 
 the upper part, and straight in the lower. And in the 
 eighth and last place, convex above, and concave beneath. 
 
 The uniting of the nose with the brows is in two ways : 
 either it is straight, or concave. The forehead has three 
 different forms. It is straight, concave, or round. The 
 first is divided into two parts, viz., it is either convex in the 
 upper part, or in the lower, sometimes both ; or else flat 
 above and below. 
 
 23. — Tlie Method of retaining in the Memory the Likeness of 
 a Man, so as to draw his Profile, after having seen him only 
 once. 
 
 You must observe and remember well the variations of 
 the four principal features in the profile ; the nose, mouth, 
 chin, and forehead. And first of the nose, of which there 
 are three different sorts,* straight, concave, and convex. 
 Of the straight there are but four variations, short or long, 
 high at the end, or low. Of the concave there are three 
 sorts ; some have the concavity above, some in the middle, 
 and some at the end. The convex noses also vary three 
 ways ; some project in the upper part, some in the middle, 
 
 * See the preceding chapter. 
 
PROPORTION. 
 
 9 
 
 and others at the bottom. Nature, which seems to delight 
 in infinite variety, gives again three changes to those noses 
 which have a projection in the middle ; for some have it 
 straight, some concave, and some convex. 
 
 24. — How to remember the Form of a Face. 
 
 If yon wish to retain with facility the general look of a 
 face, yon must first learn how to draw well several faces, 
 mouths, eyes, noses, chins, throats, necks, and shoulders ; 
 in short, all those principal parts which distinguish one man 
 from another. For instance, noses are of ten different sorts : * 
 straight, bunched, concave, some raised above, some below 
 the middle, aquiline, flat, round, and sharp. These affect 
 the profile. In the front view there are eleven different 
 sorts. Even, thick in the middle, thin in the middle, thick 
 at the tip, thin at the beginning, thin at the tip, and thick 
 at the beginning. Broad, narrow, high, and low nostrils ; 
 some with a large opening, and some more shut towards 
 the tip. 
 
 The same variety will be found in the other parts of the 
 face, which must be drawn from Nature, and retained in 
 the memory. Or else, when you mean to draw a likeness 
 from memory, take with you a pocket-book, in which you 
 have marked all these variations of features, and after 
 having given a look at the face you mean to draw, retire 
 a little aside, and note down in your book which of the 
 features are similar to it ; that you may put it all together 
 at home. 
 
 25. — Tìiat a Fainter should take Pleasure in the Opinion of 
 everybody. 
 
 A painter ought not certainly to refuse listening to the 
 opinion of any one; for we know that, although a man 
 be not a painter, he may have just notions of the forms 
 of men — whether a man has a hump on his back, a thick 
 
 * See the two preceding chapters. 
 
10 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 leg, or a large hand ; whether he be lame, or have any 
 other defect. Now, if we know that men are able to judge 
 of the works of Nature, should we not think them more 
 able to detect our errors ? 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 26. — What is principally to be observed in Figures. 
 
 The principal and most important consideration required 
 in drawing figures, is to set the head well upon the shoulders, 
 the chest upon the hips, the hips and shoulders upon the 
 feet. 
 
 27. — Mode of Studying. 
 
 Study the science first, and then follow the practice 
 which results from that science. Pursue method in your 
 study, and do not quit one part till it be perfectly engraven 
 in the memory ; and observe what difference there is 
 between the members of animals and their joints.* 
 
 28. — Of being universal. 
 
 It is an easy matter for a man who is well versed in 
 the principles of his art, to become universal in the practice 
 of it, since all animals have a similarity of members, that 
 is, muscles, tendons, bones, etc. These only vary in length 
 or thickness, as will be demonstrated in the Anatomy, t 
 
 * Man being the highest of the animal creation, ought to be the 
 chief object of study. 
 
 f An intended treatise, as it seems, on anatomy, which, however, 
 never was published ; but there are several chapters in the present 
 work on the subject of anatomy, most of which will be found under 
 the present head of Anatomy ; and of such as could not be placed 
 there, because they also related to some other branch, the following 
 is a list by which they may be found : chapters 6, 7, 10, 11, 34, 35, 
 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 129. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 11 
 
 As for aquatic animals, of which there is great variety, 
 I shall not persuade the painter to take them as a rule, 
 having no connection with our purpose. 
 
 29. — A Precept for the Painter. 
 
 It reflects no great honour on a painter to be able to 
 execute only one thing well, such as a head, an academy 
 figure, or draperies, animals, landscape, or the like, con- 
 fining himself to some particular object of study ; because 
 there is scarcely a person so void of genius as to fail of 
 success, if he apply earnestly to one branch of study, and 
 practise it continually. 
 
 30. — Of the Measures of the human Body, and the bending of 
 
 Members. 
 
 It is very necessary that painters should have a knowledge 
 of the bones which support the flesh by which they are 
 covered, but particularly of the joints, which increase and 
 diminish the length of them in their appearance. As in 
 the arm, which does not measure the same when bent, as 
 when extended ; its difference between the greatest exten- 
 sion and bending, is about one eighth of its length. The 
 increase and diminution of the arm is effected by the bone 
 projecting out of its socket at the elbow ; which, as is seen 
 in figure A B, Plate I., is lengthened from the shoulder to 
 the elbow ; the angle it forms being less than a right angle. 
 It will appear longer as that angle becomes more acute, 
 and will shorten in proportion as it becomes more open or 
 obtuse. 
 
 31. — Of the small Bones in several Joints of the human Body. 
 
 There are in the joints of the human body certain small 
 bones, fixed in the middle of the tendons which connect 
 several of the joints. Such are the patellas of the knees 
 and the joints of the shoulders, and those of the feet. They 
 are eight in number — one at each shoulder, one at each 
 knee, and two at each foot under the first joint of the great 
 
12 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 toe towards the heel. These grow extremely hard as a 
 man advances in years. 
 
 32. — Memorandum to be observed by the Painter. 
 
 Note down which muscles and tendons are brought into 
 action by the motion of any member, and when they are 
 hidden. Remember that these remarks are of the greatest 
 importance to painters and sculptors, who profess to study 
 anatomy, and the science of the muscles. Do the same 
 with children, following the different gradations of age 
 from their birth even to decrepitude, describing the changes 
 which the members, and particularly the joints, undergo ; 
 which of them grow fat, and which lean. 
 
 33.— TJw Shoulders. 
 
 The joints of the shoulders, and other parts which bend, 
 shall be noticed in their places in the Treatise on Anatomy, 
 where the cause of the motions of all the parts which com- 
 pose the human body shall be explained.* 
 
 34. — The Difference of Joints between Children and grown 
 
 Men. 
 
 Young children have all their joints small, but they are 
 thick and plump in the spaces between them ; because there 
 is nothing upon the bones at the joints, but some tendons 
 to bind the bones together. The soft flesh, which is full 
 of fluids, is enclosed under the skin in the space between 
 the joints ; and as the bones are bigger at the joints than 
 in the space between them, the skin throws off in the 
 progress to manhood that superfluity, and draws nearer 
 to the bones, thinning the whole part together. But upon 
 the joints it does not lessen, as there is nothing but carti- 
 lages and tendons. For these reasons children are small 
 in the joints, and plump in the space between, as may be 
 observed in their fingers, arms, and narrow shoulders. 
 
 See chap. 87. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 13 
 
 Men, on the contrary, are large and full in the joints, in 
 the arms and legs ; and where children have hollows, men 
 are knotty and prominent. 
 
 35. — Of the Joints of the Fingers. 
 
 The joints of the fingers appear larger on all sides when 
 they bend ; the more they bend the larger they appear. 
 The contrary is the case when straight. It is the same 
 in the toes, and it will be more perceptible in proportion 
 to their fleshiness. 
 
 36. -0/ the Joint of the Wrist. 
 
 The wrist, or joint between the hand and arm, lessens 
 on closing the hand, and grows larger when it opens. The 
 contrary happens in the arm, in the space between the 
 elbow and the hand, on all sides ; because in opening the 
 hand the muscles are extended and thinned in the arm, 
 from the elbow to the wrist ; but when the hand is shut, 
 the same muscles swell and shorten. The tendons alone 
 start, being stretched by the clenching of the hand. 
 
 37. -0/ the Joint of the Foot. 
 
 The increase and diminution in the joint of the foot is 
 produced on that side where the tendons are seen, as D E F, 
 Fiate J., which increases when the angle is acute, and 
 diminishes when it becomes obtuse. It must be understood 
 of the joint in the front part of the foot ABC. 
 
 38. -0/ the Knee. 
 
 Of all the members which have pliable joints, the knee 
 is the only one that lessens in the bending and becomes 
 larger by extension. 
 
 39. -0/ the Joints. 
 
 All the joints of the human body become larger by bend- 
 ing, except that of the leg. 
 
14 
 
 .ANATOMY. 
 
 40.— Of the Naked. 
 
 When a figure is to appear nimble and delicate, its 
 muscles must never be too much marked, nor are any of 
 them to be much swelled ; because such figures are ex- 
 pressive of activity and swiftness, and are never loaded 
 with much flesh upon the bones. They are made light by 
 the want of flesh, and where there is but little flesh there 
 cannot be any thickness of muscles. 
 
 41 . — Of the Thickness of the Muscles. 
 
 Muscular men have large bones, and are in general thick 
 and short, with very little fat ; because the fleshy muscles 
 in their growth contract closer together, and the fat, which 
 in other instances lodges between them, has no room. The 
 muscles in such thin subjects, not being able to extend, 
 grow in thickness, particularly towards their middle, in 
 the parts most removed from the extremities. 
 
 42. — Fat Subjects have small Muscles. 
 
 Though fat people have this in common with muscular 
 men, that they are frequently short and thick, they have 
 thin muscles ; but their skin contains a great deal of spongy 
 and soft flesh full of air ; for that reason they are lighter 
 upon the water, and swim better than muscular people. 
 
 43. — Which of the Muscles disappear in the Motions of the 
 
 Body. 
 
 In raising or lowering the arm, the pectoral muscles 
 disappear, or acquire a greater relievo. A similar effect 
 is produced by the hips, when they bend either inwards 
 or outwards. It is to be observed, that there is more 
 variety of appearances in the shoulders, hips, and neck, 
 than in any other joint, because they are susceptible of the 
 greatest variety of motions. But of this subject I shall 
 make a separate treatise.* 
 
 * It does not appear that this intention was ever carried into 
 execution; but there are many chapters in this work on the subject 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 15 
 
 44. — Of the Muscles. 
 
 The muscles are not to be scrupulously marked all the 
 way, because it would be disagreeable to the sight, and 
 of very difficult execution. But on that side only where 
 the members are in action, they should be pronounced more 
 strongly ; for muscles that are at work naturally collect 
 all their parts together, to gain increase of strength, so 
 that some small parts of those muscles will appear, that 
 were not seen before. 
 
 45.— Of the Muscles. 
 
 The muscles of young men are not to be marked strongly, 
 nor too much swelled, because that would indicate full 
 strength and vigour of age, which they have not yet 
 attained. Nevertheless they must be more or less ex- 
 pressed, as they are more or less employed. For those 
 which are in motion are always more swelled and thicker 
 than those which remain at rest. The intrinsic and central 
 line of the members which are bent, never retains its 
 natural length. 
 
 46. — The Extension and Contraction of the Muscles. 
 
 The muscle at the back part of the thigh shows more 
 variety in its extension and contraction than any other 
 in the human body ; the second, in that respect, are those 
 which compose the buttocks ; the third, those of the back ; 
 the fourth, those of the neck ; the fifth, those of the 
 shoulders ; and the sixth, those of the Abdomen, which, 
 taking their rise under the breast, terminate under the 
 lower belly ; as I shall explain when I speak of each. 
 
 47. — Of the Muscle between the Chest and the lower Belly. 
 
 There is a muscle which begins under the breast at the 
 Sternum, and is inserted into, or terminates at the Os 
 
 of motion, where all that is necessary for a painter in this branch 
 will be found. 
 
16 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 pubis, under the lower belly. It is called the Rectus of 
 the Abdomen ; it is divided, lengthways, into three prin- 
 cipal portions, by transverse tendinous intersections or 
 ligaments, viz., the superior part, and a ligament; the 
 second part, with its ligaments ; and the third part, with 
 the third ligament ; which last unites by tendons to the Os 
 pubis. These divisions and intersections of the same 
 muscle are intended by nature to facilitate the motion 
 when the body is bent or distended. If it were made of 
 one piece, it would produce too much variety when ex- 
 tended, or contracted, and also would be considerably 
 weaker. When this muscle has but little variety in the 
 motion of the body, it is more beautiful.* 
 
 48. — Of a Maris complex Strength, hut first of the Arm. 
 
 The muscles which serve either to straighten or bend 
 the arm, arise from the different processes of the Scapula ; 
 some of them from the protuberances of the Humerus, 
 and others about the middle of the Os humeri. The 
 extensors of the arm arise from behind, and the flexors 
 from before. 
 
 That a man has more power in pulling than in pushing, 
 has been proved by the ninth proposition De Ponderibus,f 
 where it is said, that of two equal weights, that will have 
 the greatest power which is farthest removed from the 
 pole or centre of its balance. It follows then of course, 
 that the muscle ~N B, Plate IL, and the muscle N C, being 
 of equal power, the inner muscle IS" C will nevertheless be 
 stronger than the outward one N B, because it is inserted 
 into the arm at C, a point farther removed from the centre 
 of the elbow A than B, which is on the other side of such 
 
 * Anatomists have divided this muscle into four or five sections ; 
 but painters, following the ancient sculptors, show only the three 
 principal ones ; and, in fact, we find that a greater number of them 
 (as may often be observed in nature) gives a disagreeable meagreness 
 to the subject. Beautiful nature does not show more than three, 
 though there may be more hid under the skin. 
 
 f A treatise on weights, like many others, intended by this author, 
 but never published. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 17 
 
 centre, so that that question is determined. Bat this is a 
 simple power, and I thought it best to explain it before I 
 mentioned the complex power of the muscles, of which I 
 must now take notice. The complex power, or strength, 
 is, for instance, this — when the arm is going to act, a 
 second power is added to it (such as the weight of the 
 body and the strength of the legs, in pulling or pushing), 
 consisting in the extension of the parts, as when two men 
 attempt to throw down a column ; the one by pushing, and 
 the other by pulling.* 
 
 49. — In which of the two Actions, Pulling or Pushing, a Man 
 
 has the greatest Power. 
 (Plate 2.) 
 
 A man has the greatest power in pulling, for in that 
 action he has the united exertion of all the muscles of the 
 arm, while some of them must be inactive when he is 
 pushing ; because when the arm is extended for that 
 purpose, the muscles which move the elbow cannot act, 
 any more than if he pushed with his shoulders against the 
 column he means to throw down ; in which case only the 
 muscles that extend the back, the legs under the thigh, 
 and the calves of the legs, would be active. From which 
 we conclude, that in pulling there is added to the power of 
 extension the strength of the arms, of the legs, of the back, 
 and even of the chest, if the oblique motion of the body 
 require it. But in pushing, though all the parts were 
 employed, yet the strength of the muscles of the arms is 
 wanting ; for to push with an extended arm without 
 motion, does not help more than if a piece of wood were 
 placed from the shoulder to the column meant to be 
 pushed down. 
 
 50. — Of the bending of Members, and of the Flesh round the 
 
 • bending Joint. 
 
 The flesh which covers the bones near and at the joints, 
 swells or diminishes in thickness according to their 
 
 * See the next chapter. 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 bending or extension ; that is, it increases at the inside of 
 the angle formed by the bending, and grows narrow and 
 lengthened on the ontward side of the exterior angle. 
 The middle between the convex and concave angle parti- 
 cipates of this increase or diminution, but in a greater or 
 less degree as the parts are nearer to, or farther from, the 
 angles of the bending joints. 
 
 51. — Of the naked Body. 
 
 The members of naked men who work hard in different 
 attitudes, will show the muscles more strongly on that 
 side where they act forcibly to bring the part into action ; 
 and the other muscles will be more or less marked, in 
 proportion as they co-operate in the same motion. 
 
 52. — Of a Ligament without Muscles. 
 
 Where the arm joins with the hand, there is a ligament, 
 the largest in the human body, which is without muscles, 
 and is called the strong ligament of the Carpus ; it has a 
 square shape, and serves to bind and keep close together 
 the bones of the arm, and the tendons of the fingers, and 
 prevent their dilating, or starting out. 
 
 53. — Of Creases. 
 
 In bending the joints the flesh will always form a crease 
 on the opposite side to that where it is tight. 
 
 54. — How near behind the Bach one Arm can be brought to the 
 
 other. 
 (Plates 3 and 4.) 
 
 When the arms are carried behind the back, the elbows 
 can never be brought nearer than the length from the 
 elbow to the end of the longest finger; so that the fingers 
 will not be seen beyond the elbows ; and in that situation, 
 the arms with the shoulders form a perfect square. The 
 greatest extension of the arm across the chest is, when the 
 
Hate j. 
 
Rute 4- . 
 
 Chap.tf. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 19 
 
 elbow comes over the pit of the stomach. ; the elbow and 
 the shoulder in this position, will form an equilateral 
 triangle. 
 
 55. — Of the Muscles. 
 
 A naked figure being strongly marked, so as to give a 
 distinct view of all the muscles, will not express any 
 motion ; because it cannot move, if some of its muscles do 
 not relax while the others are pulling. Those which relax 
 cease to appear in proportion as the others pull strongly 
 and become apparent. 
 
 56. -0/ the Muscles. 
 
 The muscles of the human body are to be more or less 
 marked according to their degree of action. Those only 
 which act are to be shown, and the more forcibly they act, 
 the stronger they should be pronounced. Those that do 
 not act at all must remain soft and flat. 
 
 57. — Of the bending of the Body. 
 
 The bodies of men diminish as much on the side which 
 bends, as they increase on the opposite side. That 
 diminution may at last become double in proportion to the 
 extension on the other side. But of this I shall make a 
 separate treatise.* 
 
 58. — The same subject. 
 
 The body which bends, lengthens as much on one side 
 as it shortens on the other ; but the central line between 
 them will never lessen or increase. 
 
 59. — The Necessity of Anatomical Knowledge. 
 
 The painter who has obtained a perfect knowledge of 
 the nature of the tendons and muscles, and of those parts 
 
 It is believed that this treatise, like many others promised by 
 the author, was never written. 
 
20 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 which contain the most of them, will know to a certainty, 
 in giving a particular motion to any part of the body, 
 which, and how many of the muscles give rise and con- 
 tribute to it ; which of them, by swelling, occasion their 
 shortening, and which of the cartilages they surround. 
 
 He will not imitate those who, in all the different 
 attitudes they adopt, or invent, make use of the same 
 muscles, in the arms, back, or chest, or any other parts. 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE OF FIGURES. 
 
 60. — Of the Equipoise of a Figure standing still. 
 
 The non-existence of motion in any animal resting on its 
 feet, is owing to the equality of weight distributed on each 
 side of the line of gravity. 
 
 61. — Motion produced by the Loss of Equilibrium. 
 
 Motion is created by the loss of due equipoise, that is, by 
 inequality of weight ; for nothing can move of itself, 
 without losing its centre of gravity, and the farther that is 
 removed, the quicker and stronger will be the motion. 
 
 62. — Of the Equipoise of Bodies. 
 (Plate 5.) 
 
 The balance or equipoise of parts in the human body is 
 of two sorts, viz., simple and complex. Simple, when a 
 man stands upon his feet without motion: in that situation, 
 if he extends his arms at different distances from the 
 middle, or stoop, the centre of his weight will always be 
 in a perpendicular line upon the centre of that foot which 
 supports the body ; and if he rests equally upon both feet, 
 then the middle of the chest will be perpendicular to the 
 middle of the line which measures the space between the 
 centres of his feet. 
 
Plate fi. 
 
 Chaj>.6fi. 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 21 
 
 The complex balance is, when a man carries a weight 
 not his own, which he bears by different motions ; as in 
 the figure of Hercnles stifling Anteus, by pressing him 
 against his breast with his arms, after he has lifted him 
 from the ground. He must have as much of his own 
 weight thrown behind the central line of his feet, as the 
 weight of Anteus adds before. 
 
 63. — Of Positions. 
 
 The pit of the neck, between the two clavicles, falls 
 perpendicularly with the foot which bears the weight of 
 the body. If one of the arms be thrown forwards, this pit 
 will quit that perpendicular ; and if one of the legs goes 
 back, that pit is brought forwards, and so changes its 
 situation at every change of posture. 
 
 64. — Of balancing the Weight round the Centre of Gravity in 
 Bodies. 
 
 A figure standing upon its feet without motion, will 
 form an equipoise of all its members round the centre of 
 its support. 
 
 If this figure without motion, and resting upon its feet, 
 happens to move one of its arms forwards, it must 
 necessarily throw as much of its weight on the opposite 
 side, as is equal to that of the extended arm of the 
 accidental weight. And the same I say of every part 
 which is brought out beyond its usual balance. 
 
 65. — Of Figures that have to lift up, or carry, any Weight. 
 
 A weight can never be lifted up or carried by any man, 
 if he do not throw more than an equal weight of his own 
 on the opposite side. 
 
 66. — Tiie Equilibrium of a Man standing upon his Feet. 
 (Plate 6.) 
 
 The weight of a man resting upon one leg will always be 
 
22 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 equally divided on each side of the central or perpendicular 
 line of gravity, which supports him. 
 
 67.-0/ Walking. 
 (Plate 7.) 
 
 A man walking will always have the centre of gravity 
 over the centre of the leg which rests upon the ground. 
 
 68. — Of the Centre of Gravity in Men and Animals. 
 
 The legs, or centre of support, in men and animals, will 
 approach nearer to the centre of gravity, in proportion to 
 the slowness of their motion ; and, on the contrary, when 
 the motion is quicker, they will be farther removed from 
 that perpendicular line. 
 
 69.— Of the corresponding Thickness of Parts on each Side of 
 the Body. 
 
 The thickness or breadth of the parts in the human body 
 will never be equal on each side, if the corresponding 
 members do not move equally and alike. 
 
 70. — Of the Motions of Animals. 
 
 All bipeds in their motions lower the part immediately 
 over the foot that is raised, more than over that resting 
 on the ground, and the highest parts do just the contrary. 
 This is observable in the hips and shoulders of a man when 
 he walks : and also in birds in the head and rump. 
 
 71. — Of Quadrupeds and their Motions. 
 
 The highest parts of quadrupeds are susceptible of more 
 variation when they walk, than when they are still, in a 
 greater or less degree in proportion to their size. This 
 proceeds from the oblique position of their legs when 
 they touch the ground, which raise the animal when they 
 become straight and perpendicular upon the ground. 
 
Chap.Gj. 
 
Plate , 
 
 ilmp. 74 ■ 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 23 
 
 72. — Of the Quickness or Slowness of Motion. 
 
 The motion performed by a man, or any other animal 
 whatever, in walking, will have more or less velocity as 
 the centre of their weight is more or less removed from 
 the centre of that foot npon which they are supported. 
 
 73. — Of the Motion of Animals. 
 
 That figure will appear the swiftest in its course which 
 leans the most forwards. 
 
 Any body, moving of itself, will do it with more or less 
 velocity in proportion as the centre of its gravity is more 
 or less removed from the centre of its support. This is 
 mentioned chiefly in regard to the motion of birds, which, 
 without any clapping of their wings, or assistance of wind, 
 move themselves. This happens when the centre of their 
 gravity is out of the centre of their support, viz., out of 
 its usual residence, the middle between the two wings. 
 Because, if the middle of the wings be more backward 
 than the centre of the whole weight, the bird will move 
 forwards and downwards, in a greater or less degree as 
 the centre of its weight is more or less removed from the 
 middle of its wings. From which it follows, that if the 
 centre of gravity be far removed from the other centre, 
 the descent of the bird will be very oblique ; but if that 
 centre be near the middle of the wings, the descent will 
 have very little obliquity. 
 
 74. — Of a Figure moving against the Wind. 
 (Plate 8.) 
 
 A man moving against the wind in any direction, does 
 not keep his centre of gravity duly disposed upon the 
 centre of support.* 
 
 * See chap. 64. 
 
24 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 75. — Of the Balance of a Figure resting upon its Feet. 
 
 The man who rests upon his feet, either bears the weight 
 of his body upon them equally, or unequally. If equally, 
 it will be with some accidental weight, or simply with his 
 own ; if it be with an additional weight, the opposite ex- 
 tremities of his members will not be equally distant from 
 the perpendicular of his feet. But if he simply carries his 
 own weight, the opposite extremities will be equally distant 
 from the perpendicular of his feet : and on this subject of 
 gravity I shall write a separate book.* 
 
 76. — A Precept. 
 
 The navel is always in the central or middle line of the 
 body, which passes through the pit of the stomach to that 
 of the neck, and must have as much weight, either acci- 
 dental or natural, on one side of the human figure as on 
 the other. This is demonstrated by extending the arm, 
 the wrist of which performs the office of a weight at the 
 end of a steelyard ; and will require some weight to be 
 thrown on the other side of the navel, to counterbalance 
 that of the wrist. It is on that account that the heel is 
 often raised. 
 
 77. — Of a Man standing, but resting more upon one Foot than 
 the other. 
 
 After a man, by standing long, has tired the leg upon 
 which he rests, he sends part of his weight upon the other 
 leg. But this kind of posture is to be employed only for 
 old age, infancy, or extreme lassitude, because it expresses 
 weariness, or very little power in the limbs. For that 
 reason, a young man, strong and healthy, will always rest 
 upon one of his legs, and if he removes a little of his 
 weight upon the other, it is only a necessary preparative 
 to motion, without which it is impossible to move ; as we 
 have proved before, that motion proceeds from inequality, f 
 
 * See in this work from chap. 60 to 81. 
 f See chapters 61, 64. 
 
Plate q . 
 
 Chap. 78. 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 25 
 
 78. — Of the Balance of Figures. 
 (Plate 9.) 
 
 If the figure rests upon one foot, the shoulder on that 
 side will always be lower than the other ; and the pit of 
 the neck will fall perpendicularly over the middle of that 
 leg which supports the body. The same will happen in 
 whatever other view we see that figure, when it has not 
 the arm much extended, nor any weight on its back, in its 
 hand, or on its shoulder, and when it does not, either behind 
 or before, throw out that leg which does not support the 
 body. 
 
 79. — In what Manner extending one Arm alters the Balance. 
 
 The extending of the arm, which was bent, removes the 
 weight of the figure upon the foot which bears the weight 
 of the whole body : as is observable in rope-dancers, who 
 dance upon the rope with their arms open, without any 
 pole. 
 
 80. — Of a Man hearing a Weight on his Shoulders. 
 (Plate 10.) 
 
 The shoulder which bears the weight is always higher 
 than the other. This is seen in the figure opposite, in 
 which the centre line passes through the whole, with an 
 equal weight on each side, to the leg on which it rests. 
 If the weight were not equally divided on each side of this 
 central line of gravity, the whole would fall to the ground. 
 But Nature has provided, that as much of the natural 
 weight of the man should be thrown on one side, as of 
 accidental weight on the other, to form a counterpoise. 
 This is effected by the man's bending, and leaning on the 
 side not loaded, so as to form an equilibrium to the acci- 
 dental weight he carries ; and this cannot be done, unless 
 the loaded shoulder be raised, and the other lowered. This 
 is the resource with which Nature has furnished a man on 
 such occasions. 
 
26 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 81. — Of Equilibrium. 
 
 Any figure bearing an additional weight ont of the 
 central line, must throw as much natural or accidental 
 weight on the opposite side as is sufficient to form a 
 counterpoise round that line, which passes from the pit 
 of the neck, through the whole mass of weight, to that 
 part of the foot which rests upon the ground. We observe, 
 that when a man lifts a weight with one arm, he naturally 
 throws out the opposite arm ; and if that be not enough to 
 form an equipoise, he will add as much of his own weight, 
 by bending his body, as will enable him to resist such acci- 
 dental load. We see also, that a man ready to fall sideways 
 and backwards at the same time, always throws out the 
 arm on the opposite side. 
 
 82.-0/ Motion. 
 
 Whether a man moves with velocity or slowness, the 
 parts above the leg which sustains the weight will always 
 be lower than the others on the opposite side. 
 
 83. — The Level of the Shoulders. 
 
 The shoulders or sides of a man, or any other animal, 
 will preserve less of their level, in proportion to the slow- 
 ness of their motion ; and vice versa, those parts will lose 
 less of their level when the motion is quicker. This is 
 proved by the ninth proposition, treating of local motions, 
 where it is said, any weight will press in the direction of 
 the line of its motion ; therefore the whole moving towards 
 any one point, the parts belonging to it will follow the 
 shortest line of the motion of its whole, without giving 
 any of its weight to the collateral parts of the whole. 
 
 84. — Objection to the above answered. 
 (Plates 11 and 12.) 
 
 It has been objected, in regard to the first part of the 
 above proposition, that it does not follow that a man 
 
Viale i,. 
 
 chap. Si 
 
i 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
ite I?. 
 
 < Imp- 84 
 
Chap.S r ,- 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 27 
 
 standing still, or moving slowly, has his members always 
 in perfect balance npon the centre of gravity ; because we 
 do not find that Nature always follows that rule, but, on 
 the contrary, the figure will sometimes bend sideways, 
 standing upon one foot ; sometimes it will rest part of its 
 weight upon that leg which is bent at the knee, as is seen 
 in the figures B. C. But I shall reply thus, that what is 
 not performed by the shoulders in the figure C, is done by 
 the hip, as is demonstrated in another place. 
 
 85. — Of the Position of Figures. 
 (Plate 13.) 
 
 In the same proportion as that part of the naked figure 
 marked D A lessens in height from the shoulder to the 
 hip, on account of its position the opposite side increases. 
 And this is the reason : the figure resting upon one 
 (suppose the left) foot, that foot becomes the centre of 
 all the weight above ; and the pit of the neck, formed by 
 the junction of the two clavicles, quits also its natural 
 situation at the upper extremity of the perpendicular line 
 (which passes through the middle surface of the body), to 
 bend over the same foot ; and as this line bends with it, it 
 forces the transverse lines, which are always at right angles, 
 to lower their extremities on that side where the foot rests, 
 as appears in A B C. The navel and middle parts always 
 preserve their natural height. 
 
 86.-0/ the Joints. 
 
 In the bending of the joints it is particularly useful to 
 observe the difference and variety of shape they assume ; 
 how the muscles swell on one side, while they flatten on 
 the other ; and this is more apparent in the neck, because 
 the motion of it is of three sorts, two of which are simple 
 motions, and the other complex, participating also of the 
 other two. 
 
 The simple motions are, first, when the neck bends 
 towards the shoulder, either to the right or left, and when 
 it raises or lowers the head. The second is, when it twists 
 
28 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 to the right or left, without rising or bending, but straight, 
 with the head turned towards one of the shoulders. The 
 third motion, which is called complex, is, when to the 
 bending of it is added the twisting, as when the ear leans 
 towards one of the shoulders, the head turning the same 
 way, and the face turned upwards. 
 
 87. — Of the Slwulders. 
 
 Of those which the shoulders can perform, simple motions 
 "are the principal, such as moving the arm upwards and 
 downwards, backwards and forwards. Though one might 
 almost call those motions infinite, for if the arm can trace 
 a circle upon a wall, it will have performed all the motions 
 belonging to the shoulders. Every continued quantity 
 being divisible ad infinitum, and this circle being a con- 
 tinued quantity, produced by the motion of the arm going 
 through every part of the circumference, it follows, that 
 the motions of the shoulders may also be said to be infinite. 
 
 88.-0/ the Motions of a Man. 
 
 When you mean to represent a man removing a weight, 
 consider that the motions are various, viz., either a simple 
 motion, by bending himself to raise the weight from the 
 ground upwards, or when he drags the weight after him, 
 or pushes it before him, or pulls it down with a rope passing 
 through a pulley. It is to be observed, that the weight of 
 the man's body pulls the more in proportion as the centre 
 of his gravity is removed from the centre of his support. 
 To this must be added the strength of the effort that the 
 legs and back make when they are bent, to return to their 
 natural straight situation. 
 
 A man never ascends or descends, nor walks at all in any 
 direction, without raising the heel of the back foot. 
 
 89. — Of the Dispositions of Members preparing to act 
 ivith great Force. 
 (Plate 14.) 
 
 When a man prepares himself to strike a violent blow, 
 he bends and twists his body as far as he can to the side 
 
Itate is 
 
 Chap fio. 
 
Bate 16. 
 
 t'hap.Q-2 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 29 
 
 contrary to that which he means to 'strike, and collecting 
 all his strength, he by a complex motion, returns and falls 
 upon the point he has in view.* 
 
 90. — Of throiving Anything with Violence. 
 (Plate 15.) 
 
 A man throwing a dart, a stone, or anything else with 
 violence, may be represented, chiefly, two different ways ; 
 that is,- he may be preparing to do it, or the act may be 
 already performed. If you mean to place him in the act 
 of preparation, the inside of the foot upon which he rests 
 will be under the perpendicular line of the pit of the neck ; 
 and if it be the right foot, the left shoulder will be perpen- 
 dicular over the toes of the same foot. 
 
 91. — On the Motion of driving Anything into, or drawing it out 
 of, the Ground. 
 
 He who wishes to pitch a pole into the ground, or draw 
 one out of it, will raise the leg and bend the knee opposite 
 to the arm which acts, in order to balance himself upon 
 the foot that rests, without which he could neither drive in, 
 nor pull out anything. 
 
 92. — Of forcible Motions. 
 (Plate 16.) 
 
 Of the two arms, that will be most powerful in its effort, 
 which, having been farthest removed from its natural 
 situation, is assisted more strongly by the other parts to 
 bring it to the place where it means to go. As the man A, 
 who moves the arm with a club E, and brings it to the 
 opposite side B, assisted by the motion of the whole body. 
 
 93. — The Action of Jumping. 
 
 Nature will of itself, and without any reasoning in the 
 mind of a man going to jump, prompt him to raise his 
 
 * See chapters 104, 154. 
 
30 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 arms and shoulders by a sudden motion, together with a 
 great part of his body, and to lift them up high, till the 
 power of the effort subsides. This impetuous motion is 
 accompanied by an instantaneous extension of the body 
 which had bent itself, like a spring or bow, along the 
 back, the joints of the thighs, knees, and feet, and is let 
 off obliquely, that is upwards and forwards; so that the 
 disposition of the body tending forwards and upwards, 
 makes it describe a great arch when it springs up, which 
 increases the leap. 
 
 94. — Of the three Motions in jumping upwards. 
 
 When a man jumps upwards, the motion of the head is 
 three times quicker than that of the heel, before the 
 extremity of the foot quits the ground, and twice as quick 
 as that of the hips ; because three angles are opened and 
 extended at the same time :. the superior one is that formed 
 by the body at its joint with the thigh before, the second 
 is at the joint of the thighs and legs behind, and the third 
 is at the instep before.* 
 
 95. — Of the easy Motions of Members. 
 
 In regard to the freedom and ease of motions, it is very 
 necessary to observe, that when you mean to represent a 
 figure which has to turn itself a little round, the feet and 
 all the other members are not to move in the same direction 
 
 * The author here means to compare the different quickness of the 
 motion of the head and the heel, when employed in the same action 
 of jumping ; and he states the proportion of the former to be three 
 times that of the latter. The reason he gives for this is in substance, 
 that as the head has but one motion to make, while in fact the lower 
 part of the figure has three successive operations to perform at the 
 places he mentions, three times the velocity, or, in other words, three 
 times the degree of effort, is necessary in the head, the prime mover, 
 to give the power of influencing the other parts ; and the rule 
 deducible from this axiom is, that where two different parts of the 
 body concur in the same action, and one of them has to perform one 
 motion only, while the other is to have several, the proportion of 
 velocity or effort in the former must be regulated by the number of 
 operations necessary in the latter. 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 31 
 
 as the head. Bat you will divide that motion among four 
 joints, viz. the feet, the knees, the hips, and the neck. If 
 it rests upon the right leg, the left knee should be a little 
 bent inward, with its foot somewhat raised outward. The 
 left shoulder should be lower than the other, and the nape 
 of the neck turned on the same side as the outward ankle 
 of the left foot, and the left shoulder perpendicular over 
 the great toe of the right foot. And take it as a general 
 maxim, that figures do not turn their heads straight with 
 the chest, Nature having for our convenience formed the 
 neck so as to turn with ease on every side when the eyes 
 want to look round; and to this the other joints are in 
 some measure subservient. If the figure be sitting, and 
 the arms have some employment across the body, the breast 
 will turn over the joint of the hip. 
 
 96. — The greatest Twist which a Man can make, in turning to 
 look at himself behind. 
 (Plate 17.) 
 
 The greatest twist that the body can perform is when the 
 back of the heels and the front of the face are seen at the 
 same time. It is not done without difficulty, and is effected 
 by bending the leg and lowering the shoulder on that side 
 towards which the head turns. The cause of this motion, 
 and also which of the muscles move first and which last, I 
 shall explain in my treatise on anatomy.* 
 
 97. — Of turning the Leg without the Thigh. 
 
 It is impossible to turn the leg inwards or outwards 
 without turning the thigh by the same motion, because 
 the setting in of the bones at the knee is such, that they 
 have no motion but backwards and forwards, and no more 
 than is necessary for walking or kneeling ; never sideways, 
 because the form of the bones at the joint of the knee does 
 not allow it. If this joint had been made pliable on all 
 
 * It is explained in this work, or at least there is something 
 respecting it in the preceding chapter, and in chap. 151. 
 
32 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 sides, as that of the shoulder, or that of the thigh bone 
 with the hip, a man would have had his legs bent on each 
 side as often as backwards and forwards, and seldom or 
 never straight with the thigh. Besides, this joint can 
 bend only one way, so that in walking it can never go 
 beyond the straight line of the leg ; it bends only forwards, 
 for if it could bend backwards, a man could never get up 
 again upon his feet, if once he were kneeling ; as when he 
 means to get up from the kneeling posture (on both knees), 
 he gives the whole weight of his body to one of the knees 
 to support, unloading the other, which at that time feels 
 no other weight than its own, and therefore is lifted up 
 with ease, and rests his foot flat upon the ground ; 
 then returning the whole weight upon that foot, and 
 leaning his hand upon his knee, he at once extends the 
 other arm, raises his head, and straightening the thigh 
 with the body, he springs up, and rests upon the same foot, 
 while he brings up the other. 
 
 98. — Postures of Figures. 
 
 Figures that are set in a fixed attitude, are nevertheless 
 to have some contrast of parts. If one arm come before, 
 the other remains still or goes behind. If the figure rests 
 upon one leg, the shoulder on that side will be lower than 
 the other. This is observed by artists of .judgment, who 
 always take care to balance the figure well upon its feet, 
 for fear it should appear to fall. Because by resting upon 
 one foot, the other leg being a little bent, does not support 
 the body any more than if it were dead; therefore it is 
 necessary that the parts above that leg should transfer the 
 centre of their weight upon the leg which supports the 
 body. 
 
 99. — Of the Gracefulness of the Members. 
 
 The members are to be suited to the body in graceful 
 motions, expressive of the meaning which the figure is 
 intended to convey. If it had to give the idea of genteel 
 and agreeable carriage, the members must be slender and 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 33 
 
 well turned, but not lean ; the muscles very slightly marked, 
 indicating in a soft manner such as must necessarily 
 appear; the arms, particularly, pliant, and no member in 
 a straight line with any other adjoining member. If it 
 happen, on account of the motion of the figure, that the 
 right hip be higher than the left, make the joint of the 
 shoulder fall perpendicularly on the highest part of that 
 hip; and let that right shoulder be lower than the left. 
 The pit of the neck will always be perpendicular over the 
 middle of the instep of the foot that supports the body. 
 The leg that does not bear will have its knee a little lower 
 than the other, and near the other leg. 
 
 In regard to the positions of the head and arms, they 
 are infinite, and for that reason I shall not enter into any 
 detailed rule concerning them ; suffice it to say, that they 
 are to be easy and free, graceful, and varied in their 
 bendings, so that they may not appear stiff like pieces of 
 wood. 
 
 100. — That it is impossible for any Memory to retain the 
 Aspects and Changes of the Members. 
 
 It is impossible that any memory can be able to retain 
 all the aspects or motions of any member of any animal 
 
 whatever. This case we shall exemplify by the appearance 
 of the hand. And because any continued quantity is 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 divisible ad infinitum, the motion of the eye which looks 
 at the hand, and moves from A to B, moves by a space 
 A B, which is also a continued quantity and consequently 
 divisible ad infinitum, and in every part of the motion 
 varies to its view the aspect and figure of the hand; and 
 so it will do if it move round the whole circle. The same 
 will the hand do which is raised in its motion ; that is, it 
 will pass over a space, which is a continued quantity.* 
 
 101. — The Motions of Figures. 
 
 Never put the head straight upon the shoulders, but a 
 little turned sideways to the right or left, even though the 
 figures should be looking up or down or straight, because 
 it is necessary to give them some motion of life and spirit. 
 Nor ever compose a figure in such a manner, either in a 
 front or back view, as that every part falls straight upon 
 another from the top to the bottom. But if you wish to 
 introduce such a figure, use it for old age. Never repeat 
 the same motions of arms or of legs, not only not in the 
 same figure, but in those which are standing by or near, if 
 the necessity of the case, or the expression of the subject 
 you represent, do not oblige you to it.f 
 
 102. — Of common Motions. 
 
 The variety of motions in man are equal to the variety 
 of accidents or thoughts affecting the mind, and each of 
 these thoughts, or accidents, will operate more or less, 
 according to the temper and age of the subject ; for the 
 same cause will in the actions of youth, or of old age, 
 produce very different effects. 
 
 # The eyeball moving up and down to look at the hand, describes 
 a part of a circle, from every point of which it sees it in an infinite 
 variety of aspects. The hand also is movable ad infinitum (for it 
 can go round the whole circle — see chap. 87), and consequently show 
 itself in an infinite variety of aspects, which it is impossible for any 
 memory to retain. 
 
 f See chapters 20, 155. 
 
MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 35 
 
 103. — Of simple Motion. 
 
 Simple motion is that which a man performs in merely 
 bending backwards or forwards. 
 
 104. — Complex Motion. 
 
 Complex motion is that which, to produce some par- 
 ticular action, requires the body to bend downwards and 
 sideways at the same time. The painter must be careful 
 in his compositions to apply these complex motions accord- 
 ing to the nature of the subject, and not to weaken or 
 destroy the effect of it by introducing figures with simple 
 motions, without any connection with the subject. 
 
 105. — Motions appropriated to the Subject. 
 
 The motions of your figures are to be expressive of the 
 quantity of strength requisite to the force of the action. 
 Let not the same effort be used to take up a stick as would 
 easily raise a piece of timber. Therefore show great 
 variety in the expression of strength, according to the 
 quality of the load to be managed. 
 
 106 . — Appropriate Motions. 
 
 There are some emotions of the mind which are not 
 expressed by any particular motion of the body, while in 
 others, the expression cannot be shown without it. In the 
 first, the arms fall down, the hands and all the other parts 
 which in general are the most active, remain at rest. But 
 such emotions of the soul as produce bodily action, must 
 put the members into such motions as are appropriated to 
 the intention of the mind. This, however, is an ample 
 subject, and we have a great deal to say upon it. There 
 is a third kind of motion, which participates of the two 
 already described ; and a fourth, which depends neither on 
 the one nor the other. This last belongs to insensibility 
 or fury, and should be ranked with madness or stupidity ; 
 and so adapted only to grotesque or Moresco work. 
 
80 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE. 
 
 107. — Of the Postures of Women and young People. 
 
 It is not becoming in women and young people to have 
 their legs too much asunder, because it denotes boldness ; 
 while the legs close together show modesty. 
 
 108. — Of the Postures of Children. 
 
 Children and old people are not to express quick motions, 
 in what concerns their legs. 
 
 109.— Of the Motion of the Members. 
 
 Let every member be employed in performing its proper 
 functions. For instance, in a dead body, or one asleep, no 
 member should appear alive or awake. A foot bearing the 
 weight of the whole body, should not be playing its toes up 
 and down, but flat upon the ground ; except when it rests 
 entirely upon the heel. 
 
 110. — Of mental Motions. 
 
 A mere thought, or operation of the mind, excites only 
 simple and easy motions of the body ; not this way, 
 and that way, because its object is in the mind, which 
 does not affect the senses when it is collected within itself. 
 
 111. — Effect of the Mind upon the Motions of the Body, 
 occasioned by some outward Object. 
 
 When the motion is produced by the presence of some 
 object, either the cause is immediate or not. If it be 
 immediate, the figure will first turn towards it the organs 
 most necessary, the eyes; leaving its feet in the same 
 place; and will only move the thighs, hips, and knees 
 a little towards the same side to which the eyes are 
 directed. 
 
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 37 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 112. — Of those who apply themselves to the Practice, without 
 having learnt the Theory of the Art. 
 
 Those who become enamoured of the practice of the art, 
 without having previously applied to the diligent study of 
 the scientific part of it, may be compared to mariners, who 
 put to sea in a ship without rudder or compass, and there- 
 fore cannot be certain of arriving at the wished-for port. 
 
 Practice must always be founded on good theory; to 
 this, Perspective is the guide and entrance, without which 
 nothing can be well done. 
 
 113. — Precepts in Painting. 
 
 Perspective is to Painting what the bridle is to a horse, 
 and the rudder to a ship. 
 
 The size of a figure should denote the distance at which 
 it is situated. 
 
 If a figure be seen of the natural size, remember that it 
 denotes its being near to the eye. 
 
 114. — Of the Boundaries of Objects, called Outlines or 
 Contours. 
 
 The outlines or contours of bodies are so little perceivable, 
 that at any small distance between that and the object, the 
 eye will not be able to recognize the features of a friend 
 or relation, if it were not for their clothes and general 
 appearance. So that by the knowledge of the whole it 
 comes to know the parts. 
 
 115. — Of linear Perspective. 
 
 Linear Perspective consists in giving, by established 
 rules, the true dimensions of objects, according to their 
 respective distances ; so that the second object be less than 
 
38 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 the first, the third than the second, and by degrees at last 
 they become invisible. I find by experience, that, if the 
 second object be at the same distance from the first, as the 
 first is from the eye, thongh they be of the same size, 
 the second will appear half the size of the first; and, if 
 the third be at the same distance behind the second, it 
 will diminish two- thirds ; and so on, by degrees, they will 
 at equal distances, diminish in proportion; provided that 
 the interval be not more than twenty cubits ; * at which 
 distance it will lose two-fourths of its size ; at forty it will 
 diminish three-fourths ; and at sixty it will lose five-sixths, 
 and so on progressively. But you must be distant from 
 your picture twice the size of it ; for, if you be only once 
 the size, it will make a great difference in the measure 
 from the first to the second. 
 
 116. — What Parts of Objects disappear first by Distance. 
 
 Those parts which are of less magnitude will first vanish 
 from the sight.f This happens, because the shape of 
 small objects, at an equal distance, comes to the eye under 
 a more acute angle than the large ones, and the perception 
 is less, in proportion as they are less in magnitude. It 
 follows then, that if the large objects, by being removed 
 to a great distance, and consequently coming to the eye 
 by a small angle, are almost lost to the sight, the small 
 objects will entirely disappear. 
 
 117. — Of remote Objects. 
 
 The outlines of objects will be less seen, in proportion 
 as they are more distant from the eye. 
 
 118.— Of the Point of Sight. 
 
 The point of sight must be on a level with the eyes of 
 a common-sized man, and placed upon the horizon, which 
 
 # About thirteen yards of our measure ; the Florentine braccia, 
 or cubit, by which the author measures, being 1 foot 10 inches 
 7-8ths English measure. f See chapters 121 and 305. 
 
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 39 
 
 is the line formed by a flat country terminating with the 
 sky. An exception must be made as to mountains, which 
 are above that line. 
 
 119. — A Picture is to be viewed from one Point only. 
 
 This will be proved by one single example. If you 
 mean to represent a round ball very high up, on a flat and 
 perpendicular wall, it will be necessary to make it oblong, 
 like the shape of an egg, and to place yourself (that is, the 
 eye, or point of view) so far back, as that its outline or 
 circumference may appear round. 
 
 120. — Of the Dimensions of the first Figure in an historical 
 
 Painting. 
 
 The first figure in your picture will be less than Nature, 
 in proportion as it recedes from the front of the picture, 
 or the bottom line ; and by the same rule the others behind 
 it will go on lessening in an equal degree.* 
 
 121. — Of Objects that are lost to the Sight in Proportion to 
 
 their Distance. 
 
 The first things that disappear, by being removed to 
 some distance, are the outlines or boundaries of objects. 
 The second, as they remove farther, are the shadows which 
 divide contiguous bodies. The third are the thickness of 
 legs and feet ; and so in succession the small parts are lost 
 to the sight, till nothing remains but a confused mass, 
 without any distinct parts. 
 
 * It is supposed that the figures are to appear of the natural size, 
 and not bigger. In that case, the measure of the first, to be of the 
 exact dimension, should have its feet resting upon the bottom line ; 
 but as you remove it from that, it should diminish. 
 
 No allusion is here intended to the distance at which a picture is to 
 be placed from the eye. 
 
40 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 122. — Errors not so easily seen in small Objects as in large 
 
 ones. 
 
 Supposing this small object to represent a man, or any 
 other animal, although the parts, by being so much 
 diminished or reduced, cannot be executed with the same 
 exactness of proportion, nor finished with the same accuracy, 
 as if on a larger scale, yet on that very account the faults 
 will be less conspicuous. For example, if you look at a 
 man at the distance of two hundred yards, and with all 
 due attention mean to form a judgment, whether he be 
 handsome or ugly, deformed or well made, you will find 
 that, with all your endeavours, you can hardly venture to 
 decide. The reason is, that the man diminishes so much 
 by the distance, that it is impossible to distinguish the 
 parts minutely. If you wish to know by demonstration 
 the diminution of the above figure, hold your finger up 
 before your eye at about nine inches distance, so that the 
 top of your finger corresponds with the top of the head 
 of the distant figure : you will perceive that your finger 
 covers, not only its head, but part of its body; which is 
 an evident proof of the apparent diminution of that object. 
 Hence it often happens that we are doubtful, and can 
 scarcely, at some distance, distinguish the form of even 
 a friend. 
 
 123. — Historical Subjects one above another on the same Wall 
 to be avoided. 
 
 This custom, which has been generally adopted by 
 painters on the front and sides of chapels, is much to 
 be condemned. They begin with an historical picture, 
 its landscape and buildings, in one compartment. After 
 which, they raise another compartment, and execute 
 another history with other buildings upon another level; 
 and from thence they proceed to a third and fourth, vary- 
 ing the point of sight, as if the beholder was going up 
 steps, while, in fact, he must look at them all from below, 
 which is very ill-judged in those matters. 
 
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 41 
 
 We know that the point of sight is the eye of the 
 spectator ; and if you ask, How is a series of subjects, such 
 as the life of a saint, to be represented, in different 
 compartments on the same wall ? I answer, that you are 
 to place the principal event in the largest compartment, 
 and make the point of sight as high as the eye of the 
 spectator. Begin that subject with large figures ; and as 
 you go up, lessen the objects, as well the figures as build- 
 ings, varying the plans according to the effect of per- 
 spective ; but never varying the point of sight : and so 
 complete the series of subjects, till you come to a certain 
 height, where terrestrial objects can be seen no more, except 
 the tops of trees, or clouds and birds ; or if you introduce 
 figures, they must be aerial, such as angels, or saints in 
 glory, or the like, if they suit the purpose of your history. 
 If not, do not undertake this kind of painting, for your 
 work will be faulty, and justly reprehensible.* 
 
 124. — Why Objects in Painting can never detach, as natural 
 Objects do. 
 
 Painters often despair of being able to imitate Nature, 
 from observing, that their pictures have not the same relief, 
 nor the same life, as natural objects have in a looking-glass, 
 though they both appear upon a plain surface. They say, 
 they have colours which surpass in brightness the quality 
 of the lights, and in darkness the quality of the shades of 
 the objects seen in the looking-glass; but attribute this 
 circumstance to their own ignorance, and not to the true 
 cause, because they do not know it. It is impossible that 
 
 * The author does not mean here to say, that one historical picture 
 cannot be hung over another. It certainly may, because in viewing 
 each, the spectator is at liberty (especially if they are subjects 
 independent of each other) to shift his place so as to stand at the 
 true point of sight for viewing every one of them ; but in covering a 
 wall with a succession of subjects from the same history, the author 
 considers the whole as in fact but one picture, divided into compart- 
 ments, and to be seen at one view, and which cannot therefore admit 
 more than one point of sight. In the former case the pictures are, in 
 fact, so many distinct subjects unconnected with each other. 
 
42 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 objects in painting should appear with the same relief as 
 those in the looking-glass, unless we look at them with 
 only one eye. 
 
 The reason is this. The two eyes A B looking at objects 
 one behind another, as M and N, see them both : because 
 M cannot entirely occupy the space of N, by reason that 
 the base of the visual rays is so broad that the second 
 object is seen behind the first. But if one eye be shut, 
 and you look with the other S, the body F will entirely 
 coyer the body R, because the visual rays beginning at one 
 point, form a triangle, of which the body F is the base, 
 and being prolonged, they form two diverging tangents 
 at the two extremities of F, which cannot touch the body 
 R behind it, therefore can never see it.* 
 
 * See chap. 348. 
 
 This chapter is obscure, and may probably be made clear by 
 merely stating it in other words. Leonardo objects to the use of 
 both eyes, because, in viewing in that manner the objects here 
 montioned, two balls, oue behind the other, the second is seen, which 
 would not be the case, if the angle of the visual rays were not too 
 big for the first object. Whoever is at all acquainted with optics, 
 need not be told, that the visual rays commence in a single point in 
 the^centre, or nearly the centre of each eye, and continue diverging. 
 But, in using both eyes, the visual rays proceed not from one and 
 the same centre, but from a different centre in each eye, and inter- 
 secting each other, as they do a little before passing the first object, 
 they become together broader than the extent of the first object, and 
 consequently give a view of part of the second. On the contrary, in 
 using but one eye, the visual rays proceed but from one centre ; and 
 as, therefore, there cannot be any intersection, the visual rays, 
 when they reach the first object are not broader than the first object, 
 and the second is completely hidden. Properly speaking, therefore, 
 
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 43 
 
 125. — How to give the proper Dimension to Objects in Painting. 
 
 In order to give the appearance of the natural size, if 
 the piece be small (as miniatures), the figures on the fore- 
 ground are to be finished with as much precision as those 
 of any large painting, because being small they are to be 
 brought up close to the eye. But large paintings are seen 
 at some distance; whence it happens, that though the 
 figures in each are so different in size, in appearance they 
 will be the same. This proceeds from the eye receiving 
 those objects under the same angle ; and it is proved thus : 
 Let the large painting be B C, the eye A, and D E a pane 
 of glass, through which are seen the figures situated at 
 
 in using both eyes we introduce more than one point of sight, which 
 renders the perspective false in the painting 5 but in using one eye 
 only, there can be, as there ought, but one point of sight. There is, 
 however, this difference between viewing real objects and those 
 represented in painting, that in looking at the former, whether we 
 use one or both eyes, the objects, by being actually detached from 
 the back ground, admit the visual rays to strike on them, so as to 
 form a correct perspective, from whatever point they are viewed, 
 and the eye accordingly forms a perspective of its own ; but in view- 
 ing the latter, there is no possibility of varying the perspective ; and, 
 unless the picture is seen precisely under the same angle as it was 
 painted under, the perspective in all other views must be false. This 
 is observable in the perspective views painted for scenes at the play- 
 house. If the beholder is seated in the central line of the house, 
 whether in the boxes or pit, the perspective is correct; but, in 
 proportion as he is placed at a greater or less distance to the right or 
 left of that line, the perspective appears to him more or less faulty. 
 And hence arises the necessity of using but one eye in viewing a 
 painting, in order thereby to reduce it to one point of sight. 
 
44 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 B C. I say that the eye being fixed, the figures in the 
 copy of the painting B C are to be smaller, in proportion 
 as the glass D E is nearer the eye A, and are to be as 
 precise and finished. But if you will execute the picture 
 B C upon the glass D E, this ought to be less finished than 
 the picture B C, and more so than the figure M N trans- 
 ferred upon the glass E Gr ; because, supposing the figure 
 0 P to be as much finished as the natural one in B C, the 
 perspective of O P would be false, since, though in regard 
 to the diminution of the figure it would be right, B C 
 being diminished in 0 P, the finishing would not agree with 
 the distance, because in giving it the perfection of the 
 natural B C, B C would appear as near as 0 P; but, if 
 you search for the diminution of 0 P, 0 P will be found 
 at the distance B C, and the diminution of the finishing 
 as at F Gr. 
 
 126. — How to draw accurately any particular Spot. 
 
 Take a glass as large as your paper, fasten it well between 
 your eye and the object you mean to draw, and fixing your 
 head in a frame (in such a manner as not to be able to 
 move it) at the distance of two feet from the glass ; shut 
 one eye, and draw with a pencil accurately upon the glass 
 all that you see through it. After that, trace upon paper 
 what you have drawn on the glass, which tracing you may 
 paint at pleasure, observing the aerial perspective. 
 
 127. — Disproportion to he avoided, even in the accessory Parts. 
 
 A great fault is committed by many painters, which is 
 highly to be blamed, that is, to represent the habitations 
 of men, and other parts of their compositions, so low, that 
 the doors do not reach as high as the knees of their 
 inhabitants, though, according to their situation, they are 
 nearer to the eye of the spectator, than the men who seem 
 willing to enter them. I have seen some pictures with 
 porticos, supported by columns loaded with figures ; one 
 grasping a column against which it leans, as if it were 
 a walking stick, and other similar errors, which are to be 
 avoided with the greatest care. 
 
( 45 ) 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 128. — Precept for avoiding a bad Choice in the Style or Pro- 
 portion of Figures. 
 
 The painter ought to form his style upon the most pro- 
 portionate model in Nature ; and after having measured 
 that, he ought to measure himself also, and be perfectly 
 acquainted with his own defects or deficiencies ; and having 
 acquired this knowledge, his constant care should be to 
 avoid conveying into his work those defects which he has 
 found in his own person ; for these defects, becoming 
 habitual to his observation, mislead his judgment, and he 
 perceives them no longer. We ought, therefore, to struggle 
 against such a prejudice, which grows up with us ; for the 
 mind, being fond of its own habitation, is apt to represent 
 it to our imagination as beautiful. From the same motive 
 it may be, that there is not a woman, however plain in her 
 person, who may not find her admirer, if she be not a 
 monster. Against this bent of the mind you ought very 
 cautiously to be on your guard. 
 
 129. — Variety in Figures. 
 
 A painter ought to aim at universal excellence ; for he 
 will be greatly wanting in dignity, if he do one thing well 
 and another badly, as many do, who study only the naked 
 figure, measured and proportioned by a pair of compasses 
 in their hands, and do not seek for variety. A man may be 
 
46 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 well proportioned, and yet be tall or short, large or lean, or 
 of a middle size ; and whoever does not make great use of 
 these varieties, which are all existing in Nature in its most 
 perfect state, will produce figures as if cast in one and the 
 same mould, which is highly reprehensible. 
 
 130. — How a Painter ought to proceed in his Studies. 
 
 The painter ought always to form in his mind a kind of 
 system of reasoning or discussion within himself on any 
 remarkable object before him. He should stop, take notes, 
 and form some rule upon it ; considering the place, the 
 circumstances, the lights and shadows. 
 
 131. — Of sketching Histories and Figures. 
 
 Sketches of historical subjects must be slight, attending 
 only to the situation of the figures, without regard to the 
 finishing of particular members, which may be done after- 
 wards at leisure, when the mind is so disposed. 
 
 132. — How to study Composition. 
 
 The young student should begin by sketching slightly 
 some single figure, and turn that on all sides, knowing 
 already how to contract, and how to extend the members ; 
 after which, he may put two together in various attitudes, 
 v we will suppose in the act of fighting boldly. This com- 
 position also he must try on all sides, and in a variety of 
 ways, tending to the same expression. Then he may 
 imagine one of them very courageous, while the other is 
 a coward. Let these attitudes, and many other accidental 
 affections of the mind, be with great care studied, examined, 
 and dwelt upon. 
 
 133. — Of the Attitudes of Men. 
 
 The attitudes and all the members are to be disposed in 
 such a manner, that by them the intentions of the mind 
 may be easily discovered. 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 47 
 
 134. — Variety of Positions. 
 
 The positions of the human figure are to be adapted to 
 the age and rank ; and to be varied according to the dif- 
 ference of the sexes, men or women. 
 
 135. — Of Studies from Nature for Ristory. 
 
 It is necessary to consider well the situation for which 
 the history is to be painted, particularly the height ; and 
 let the painter place accordingly the model from which he 
 means to make his studies for that historical picture ; and 
 set himself as much below the object, as the picture is to 
 be above the eye of the spectator, otherwise the work will 
 be faulty. 
 
 136. — Of the Variety of Figures in History Painting. 
 
 History painting must exhibit variety in its fullest extent. 
 In temper, size, complexion, actions, plumpness, leanness, 
 thick, thin, large, small, rough, smooth, old age and youth, 
 strong and muscular, weak, with little appearance of mus- 
 cles, cheerfulness, and melancholy. Some should be with 
 curled hair, and some with straight; some short, some 
 long, some quick in their motions, and some slow, with a 
 variety of dresses and colours, according as the subject may 
 require. 
 
 137. — Of Variety in History. 
 
 A painter should delight in introducing great variety 
 into his compositions, avoiding repetition, that by this 
 fertility of invention he may attract and charm the eye of 
 the beholder. If it be requisite, according to the subject 
 meant to be represented, that there should be a mixture of 
 men differing in their faces, ages, and dress, grouped with 
 women, children, dogs, and horses, buildings, hills, and flat 
 country ; observe dignity and decorum in the principal 
 figure ; such as a king, magistrate, or philosopher, separat- 
 ing them from the low classes of the people. Mix not afflicted 
 
48 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 or weeping figures with joyful and laughing ones ; for 
 Nature dictates that the cheerful be attended by others of 
 the same disposition of mind. Laughter is productive of 
 laughter, and vice versa. 
 
 138 — Of the Age of Figures. 
 
 Do not bring together a number of boys with as many 
 old men, nor young men with infants, nor women with 
 men ; if the subject you mean to represent does not oblige 
 you to it. 
 
 139. -0/ Variety of Faces. 
 
 The Italian painters have been accused of a common 
 fault, that is, of introducing into their compositions the 
 faces, and even the whole figures, of Roman emperors, which 
 they take from the antique. To avoid such an error, let 
 no repetition take place, either in parts, or the whole of a 
 figure ; nor let there be even the same face in another 
 composition ; and the more the figures are contrasted, viz. 
 the deformed opposed to the beautiful, the old to the young, 
 the strong to the feeble, the more the picture will please 
 and be admired. These different characters, contrasted 
 with each other, will increase the beauty of the whole. 
 
 It frequently happens that a painter, while he is com- 
 posing, will use any little sketch or scrap of drawing he 
 has by him, and endeavour to make it serve his purpose ; 
 but this is extremely injudicious, because he may very 
 often find that the members he has drawn have not the 
 motion suited to what he means to express ; and after he 
 has adopted, accurately drawn, and even well finished them, 
 he will be loth to rub out and change them for others. 
 
 140. — A Fault in Painters. 
 
 ■It is a very great fault in a painter to repeat the same 
 motions in figures, and the same folds in draperies in the 
 same composition, as also to make all the faces alike. 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 49 
 
 141. — How you may learn to compose Groups for History 
 Painting. 
 
 When you are well instructed in perspective, and know 
 perfectly how to draw the anatomy and forms of different 
 bodies or objects, it should be your delight to observe and 
 consider in your walks the different actions of men, when 
 they are talking, or quarrelling ; when they laugh, and 
 when they fight. Attend to their positions, and to those 
 of the spectators ; whether they are attempting to separate 
 those who fight, or merely lookers-on. Be quick in sketch- 
 ing these with slight strokes in your pocket-book, which 
 should always be about you, and made of stained paper, as 
 you ought not to rub out. When it is full, take another, 
 for these are not things to be rubbed out, but kept with 
 the greatest care ; because forms and motions of bodies are 
 so infinitely various, that the memory is not able to retain 
 them ; therefore preserve these sketches as your assistants 
 and masters. 
 
 142. — How to study the Motions of the human Body. 
 
 The first requisite towards a perfect acquaintance with 
 the various motions of the human body, is the knowledge 
 of all the parts, particularly the joints, in all the attitudes 
 in which it may be placed. Then make slight sketches in 
 your pocket-book as opportunities occur, of the actions of 
 men, as they happen to meet your eye, without being 
 perceived by them ; because, if they were to observe you, 
 they would be disturbed from that freedom of action, which 
 is prompted by inward feeling ; as when two men are 
 quarrelling and angry, each of them seeming to be in the 
 right, and with great vehemence move their eyebrows, 
 arms, and all the other members, using motions appro- 
 priated to their words and feelings. This they could not 
 do, if you wanted them to imitate anger, or any other acci- 
 dental emotion, such as laughter, weeping, pain, admira- 
 tion, fear and the like. For that reason take care never to 
 be without a little book, for the purpose of sketching those 
 various motions, and also groups of people standing by. 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 This will teach you how to compose history. Two things 
 demand the principal attention of a good painter. One is 
 the exact outline and shape of the figure ; the other, the 
 true expression of what passes in the mind of that figure, 
 which he must feel, and that is very important. 
 
 143. — Of Dresses, and of Draperies and Folds. 
 
 The draperies with which you dress figures ought to have 
 their folds so accommodated as to surround the parts they 
 are intended to cover ; that in the mass of light there be not 
 any dark fold, and in the mass of shadows none receiving 
 too great a light. They must go gently over, describing 
 the parts ; but not with lines across, cutting the members 
 with hard notches, deeper than the part can possibly be ; at 
 the same time, it must fit the body, and not appear like an 
 empty bundle of cloth : a fault of many painters, who, 
 enamoured of the quantity and variety of folds, have encum- 
 bered their figures, forgetting the intention of clothes, 
 which is to dress and surround the parts gracefully wher- 
 ever they touch ; and not to be filled with wind, like bladders 
 puffed up where the parts project. I do not deny that we 
 ought not to neglect introducing some handsome folds 
 among these draperies, but it must be done with great 
 judgment, and suited to the parts, where, by the actions of 
 the limbs and position of the whole body, they gather 
 together. Above all, be careful to vary the quality and 
 quantity of your folds in compositions of many figures ; so 
 that, if some have large folds, produced by thick woollen 
 cloth, others, being dressed in thinner stuff, may have them 
 narrower ; some sharp and straight, others soft and undu- 
 lating. 
 
 144. — Of the Nature of Folds in Draperies. 
 
 Many painters prefer making the folds of their draperies 
 with acute angles, deep and precise; others with angles 
 hardly perceptible ; and some with none at all : but 
 instead of them, certain curved lines. 
 
Hate ifi. 
 
 Ckap.ur. . 
 
\ 
 
Chap. a]. 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 51 
 
 145. — Hoio the Folds of Draperies ought to be represented. 
 (Plate 18.) 
 
 That part of the drapery which is the farthest from 
 the place where it is gathered will appear more approach- 
 ing its natural state. Everything naturally inclines to 
 preserve its primitive form. Therefore a stuff or cloth, 
 which is of equal thickness on both sides, will always 
 incline to remain flat. For that reason, when it is con- 
 strained by some fold to relinquish its flat situation, it 
 is observed that, at the part of its greatest restraint, it 
 is continually making efforts to return to its natural 
 shape ; and the parts most distant from it re-assume more 
 of their primitive state by ample and distended folds. For 
 example, let A B 0 be the drapery mentioned above ; A B 
 the place where it is folded or restrained. I have said 
 that the part, which is farthest from the place of its 
 restraint, would return more toward its primitive shape. 
 Therefore C being the farthest, will be broader and more 
 extended than any other part. 
 
 146. — How the Folds in Draperies ought to be made. 
 
 Draperies are not to be encumbered with many folds : 
 on the contrary, there ought to be some only where they 
 are held up with the hands or arms of the figures, and 
 the rest left to fall with natural simplicity. They ought 
 to be studied from nature ; that is to say, if a woollen 
 cloth be intended, the folds ought to be drawn after such 
 cloth ; if it be of silk, or thin stuff, or else very thick for 
 labourers, let it be distinguished by the nature of the folds. 
 But never copy them, as some do, after models dressed 
 in paper, or thin leather, for it greatly misleads. 
 
 147. — Fore-shortening of Folds. 
 (Plate 19.) 
 
 Where the figure is fore- shortened, there ought to 
 appear a greater number of folds than on the other parts, 
 all surrounding it in a circular manner. Let E be the 
 
52 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 situation of the eye. M N will have the middle of every 
 circular fold successively removed farther from its outline, 
 in proportion as it is more distant from the eye. In M 0 
 of the other figure the outlines of these circular folds 
 will appear almost straight, because it is situated opposite 
 the eye ; but in P and Q A quite the contrary, as in 1ST and M. 
 
 148.— Of Folds. 
 
 The folds of draperies, whatever be the motion of the 
 figure, ought always to show, by the form of their outlines, 
 the attitude of such figure ; so as to leave, in the mind 
 of the beholder, no doubt or confusion in regard to the 
 true position of the body ; and let there be no fold, which, 
 by its shadow, breaks through any of the members ; that 
 is to say, appearing to go in deeper than the surface of 
 the part it covers. And if you represent the figure clothed 
 with several garments, one over the other, let it not appear 
 as if the upper one covered only a mere skeleton ; but let 
 it express that it is also well furnished with flesh, and a 
 thickness of folds, suitable to the number of its under 
 garments. 
 
 The folds surrounding the members ought to diminish 
 in thickness near the extremities of the part they surround. 
 
 The length of the folds, which are close to the members, 
 ought to produce other folds on that side where the 
 member is diminished by fore-shortening, and be more 
 extended on the opposite side. 
 
 149. — Of Decorum. 
 
 Observe decorum in everything you represent ; that is, 
 fitness of action, dress, and situation, according to the 
 dignity or meanness of the subject to be represented. Be 
 careful that a king, for instance, be grave and majestic 
 in his countenance and dress ; that the place be well deco- 
 rated ; and that his attendants, or the bystanders, express 
 reverence and admiration, and appear as noble, in dresses 
 suitable to a royal court. 
 
INVENTION, Oli COMPOSITION. 
 
 53 
 
 On the contrary, in the representation of a mean subject, 
 let the figures appear low and despicable ; those about 
 them with similar countenances and actions, denoting base 
 and presumptuous minds, and meanly clad. In short, in 
 both cases, the parts must correspond with the general 
 sentiment of the composition. 
 
 The motions of old age should not be similar to those 
 of youth ; those of a woman to those of a man ; nor should 
 the latter be the same as those of a boy. 
 
 150. — The Character of Figures in Composition. 
 
 In general, the painter ought to introduce very few 
 old men in the ordinary course of historical subjects, and 
 those few separated from young people; because old 
 people are few, and their habits do not agree with those 
 of youth. Where there is no conformity of custom, there 
 can be no intimacy, and, without it, a company is soon 
 separated. But if the subject require an appearance of 
 gravity, a meeting on important business, as a council, 
 for instance, let there be few young men introduced, for 
 youth willingly avoids such meetings. 
 
 151. — The Motion of the Muscles, when the Figures are in 
 natural Positions. 
 
 A figure which does not express by its position the 
 sentiments and passions by which we suppose it animated, 
 will appear to indicate that its muscles are not obedient 
 to its will, and the painter very deficient in judgment. 
 For that reason, a figure is to show great eagerness and 
 meaning; and its position is to be so well appropriated 
 to that meaning, that it cannot be mistaken, nor made 
 use of for any other. 
 
 152. — A Precept in Painting. 
 
 The painter ought to notice those quick motions, which 
 men are apt to make without thinking, when impelled by 
 strong and powerful affections of the mind. He ought to 
 
54 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 take memorandums of them, and sketch them in his pocket- 
 book, in order to make use of them when they may answer 
 his purpose ; and then to put a living model in the same 
 position, to see the quality and aspect of the muscles 
 which are in action. 
 
 153.-0/ the Motion of Man. 
 (Plates 20 and 21.) 
 
 The first and principal part of the art is composition 
 of any sort, or putting things together. The second 
 relates to the expression and motion of the figures, and 
 requires that they be well appropriated, and seeming 
 attentive to what they are about; appearing to move 
 with alacrity and spirit, according to the degree of ex- 
 pression suitable to the occasion ; expressing slow and 
 tardy motions, as well as those of eagerness in pursuit : 
 and that quickness and ferocity be expressed with such 
 force as to give an idea of the sensations of the actors. 
 When a figure is to throw a dart, stones, or the like, let 
 it be seen evidently by the attitude and disposition of all 
 the members, that such is its intention; of which there 
 are two examples in the opposite plates, varied both in 
 action and power. The first in point of vigour is A. The 
 second is B. But A will throw his weapon farther than 
 B, because, though they seem desirous of throwing it to 
 the same point, A having turned his feet towards the 
 object, while his body is twisted and bent back the con- 
 trary way, to increase his power, returns with more velocity 
 and force to the point to which he means to throw. But 
 the figure B having turned his feet the same way as his 
 body, it returns to its place with great inconvenience, and 
 consequently with weakened powers. For in the expression 
 of great efforts, the preparatory motions of the body must 
 be strong and violent, twisting and bending, so that it 
 may return with convenient ease, and by that means have 
 a great effect. In the same manner, if a cross-bow be not 
 strung with force, the motion of whatever it shoots will 
 be short and without effect; because, where there is no 
 impulse, there can be no motion ; and, if the impulse be 
 
Plats ve. 
 
 Chaf>.iS2> 
 
Chap.i£3. 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 55 
 
 not violent, the motion is but tardy and feeble. So a bow 
 which is not strung has no motion ; and if it be strung, 
 it will remain in that state till the impulse be given by 
 another power which puts it in motion, and it will shoot 
 with a violence equal to that which was employed in 
 bending it. In the same manner, the man who does not 
 twist and bend his body will have acquired no power. 
 Therefore, after A has thrown his dart, he will find himself 
 twisted the contrary way, viz., on the side where he has 
 thrown; and he will have acquired only power sufficient 
 to serve him to return to where he was at first. 
 
 154. — Of Attitudes and the Motions of the Members: 
 
 The same attitude is not to be repeated in the same 
 picture, nor the same motion of members in the same 
 figure, nay, not even in the hands or fingers. 
 
 And if the history requires a great number of figures, 
 such as a battle, or a massacre of soldiers, in which there 
 are but three ways of striking, viz., thrusting, cutting, or 
 back-handed; in that case you must take care, that all 
 those who are cutting be expressed in different views; 
 some turning their backs, some their sides, and others 
 be seen in front; varying in the same manner the three 
 different ways of fighting, so that all the actions may have 
 a relation to those three principles. In battles, complex 
 motions display great art, giving spirit and animation to 
 the whole. By complex motion is meant, for instance, 
 that of a single figure showing the front of the legs, and 
 the same time the profile of the shoulder. But of this I 
 I shall treat in another place.* 
 
 155. — Of a single Figure separate from an historical Group. 
 
 The same motion of members should not be repeated in 
 a figure which you mean to be alone ; for instance, if the 
 figure be represented running it must not throw both 
 hands forward , but one forward and the other backward, 
 
 * Chapters 96 and 104. 
 
56 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 or else it cannot run. If the right foot come forward, the 
 right arm must go backward and the left forward, because, 
 without such disposition and contrast of parts, it is im- 
 possible to run well. If another figure be supposed to 
 follow this, one of its legs should be brought somewhat 
 forward, and the other be perpendicular under the head ; 
 the arm on the same side should pass forward. But of 
 this we shall treat more fully in the book on motion.* 
 
 156. — On the Attitudes of the human Figure. 
 
 A painter is to be attentive to the motions and actions 
 of men, occasioned by some sudden accident. He must 
 observe them on the spot, take sketches, and not wait till 
 he wants such expression, and then have it counterfeited 
 for him ; for instance, setting a model to weep when there 
 is no cause; such an expression without a cause will be 
 neither quick nor natural. But it will be of great use 
 to have observed every action from nature as it occurs, 
 and then to have a model set in the same attitude to help 
 the recollection, and find out something to the purpose, 
 according to the subject in hand. 
 
 157. — How to represent a Storm. 
 
 To form a just idea of a storm, you must consider it 
 attentively in its effects. When the wind blows violently 
 over the sea or land, it removes and carries off with it 
 everything that is not firmly fixed to the general mass. 
 The clouds must appear straggling and broken, carried 
 according to the direction and the force of the wind, and 
 blended with clouds of dust raised from the sandy shore. 
 Branches and leaves of trees must be represented as carried 
 along by the violence of the storm, and together with 
 numberless other light substances, scattered in the air. 
 Trees and grass must be bent to the ground, as if yielding 
 to the course of the wind. Boughs must be twisted out 
 of their natural form, with their leaves reversed and 
 
 * See the Life of the Author ; also chapters 20 and 101 of the 
 present work. 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 57 
 
 entangled. Of the figures dispersed in the picture, some 
 should appear thrown on the ground, so wrapped up in 
 their cloaks and covered with dust, as to be scarcely dis- 
 tinguishable. Of those who remain on their feet, some 
 should be sheltered by, and holding fast behind, some great 
 trees, to avoid the same fate : others bending to the ground, 
 their hands over their faces to ward olì thè dust ; their hair 
 and their clothes flying straight up at the mercy of the 
 wind. 
 
 The high tremendous waves of the stormy sea will be 
 covered with foaming froth ; the most subtle parts of 
 which, being raised by the wind, like a thick mist, mix 
 with the air. What vessels are seen should appear with 
 broken cordage, and torn sails, fluttering in the wind ; 
 some with broken masts fallen across the hulk, already on 
 its side amidst the tempestuous waves. Some of the crew 
 should be represented as if crying aloud for help, and 
 clinging to the remains of the shattered vessel. Let the 
 clouds appear as driven by tempestuous winds against the 
 summits of lofty mountains, enveloping those mountains, 
 and breaking and recoiling with redoubled force, like 
 waves against a rocky shore. The air should be rendered 
 awfully dark, by the mist, dust, and thick clouds. 
 
 158. — How to compose a Battle. 
 
 First, let the air exhibit a confused mixture of smoke, 
 arising from the discharge of artillery and musketry, and 
 the dust raised by the horses of the combatants; and 
 observe that dust, being of an earthy nature, is heavy ; 
 but yet, by reason of its minute particles, it is easily 
 impelled upwards, and mixes with the air ; nevertheless, 
 it naturally falls downwards again, the most subtle parts 
 of it alone gaining any considerable degree of elevation, 
 and at its utmost height it is so thin and transparent, as 
 to appear nearly of the colour of the air. The smoke, thus 
 mixing with the dusty air, forms a kind of dark cloud, at 
 the top of which it is distinguished from the dust by a 
 bluish cast, the dust retaining more of its natural colour. 
 On that part from which the light proceeds, this mixture of 
 
53 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 air, smoke, and dust, will appear much brighter than on 
 the opposite side. The more the combatants are involved 
 in this turbulent mist, the less distinctly they will be seen, 
 and the more confused will they be in their lights and 
 shades. Let the faces of the musketeers, their bodies, and 
 every object near them, be tinged with a reddish hué, even 
 the air or cloud of dust ; in short, all that surrounds them. 
 This red tinge you will diminish, in proportion to their 
 distance from the primary cause. The group of figures, 
 which appear at a distance between the spectator and the 
 light, will form a dark mass upon a light ground ; and 
 their legs will be more undetermined and lost as they 
 approach nearer to the ground; because there the dust is 
 heavier and thicker. 
 
 If you mean to represent some straggling horses running 
 out of the main body, introduce also some small clouds of 
 dust, as far distant from each other as the leap of the 
 horse, and these little clouds will become fainter, more 
 scanty, and diffused, in proportion to their distance from 
 the horse. That nearest to his feet will consequently be 
 the most determined, smallest, and the thickest of all. 
 
 Let the air be full of arrows, in all directions ; some 
 ascending, some falling down, and some darting straight 
 forwards. The bullets of the musketry, though not seen, 
 will be marked in their course by a train of smoke, which 
 breaks through the general confusion. The figures in the 
 foreground should have their hair covered with dust, as 
 also their eyebrows, and all parts liable to receive it. 
 
 The victorious party will be running forwards, their 
 hair and other light parts flying in the wind, their eye- 
 brows lowered, and the motion of every member properly 
 contrasted; for instance, in moving the right foot forwards, 
 the left arm must be brought forward also. If you make 
 any of them fallen down, mark the trace of his fall on the 
 slippery, gore-stained dust ; and where the ground is less 
 impregnated with blood, let the print of men's feet and of 
 horses, that have passed that way, be marked. Let there 
 be some horses dragging the bodies of their riders, and 
 leaving behind them a furrow, made by the body thus 
 trailed along. 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 59 
 
 The countenances of the vanquished will appear pale 
 and dejected. Their eyebrows raised, and much wrinkled 
 about the forehead and cheeks. The tip of their noses 
 somewhat divided from the nostrils by arched wrinkles 
 terminating at the corner of the eyes, those wrinkles being 
 occasioned by the opening and raising of the nostrils. The 
 upper lips turned up, discovering the teeth. Their mouths 
 wide open, and expressive of violent lamentation. One 
 may be seen fallen wounded on the ground, endeavouring 
 with one hand to support his body, and covering his eyes 
 with the other, the palm of which is turned towards the 
 enemy. Others running away, and with open mouths 
 seeming to cry aloud. Between the legs of the com- 
 batants let the ground be strewed with all sorts of arms ; 
 as broken shields, spears, swords, and the like. Many dead 
 bodies should be introduced, some entirely covered with 
 dust, others in part only ; let the blood, which seems to 
 issue immediately from the wound, appear of its natural 
 colour, and running in a winding course, till, mixing with 
 the dust, it forms a reddish kind of mud. Some should be 
 in the agonies of death ; their teeth shut, their eyes wildly 
 staring, their fists clenched, and their legs in a distorted 
 position. Some may appear disarmed, and beaten down 
 by the enemy, still fighting with their fists and teeth, 
 and endeavouring to take a passionate, though unavailing 
 revenge. There may be also a straggling horse without a 
 rider, running in wild disorder ; his mane flying in the. 
 wind, beating down with his feet all before him and doing 
 a deal of damage. A wounded soldier may also be seen 
 falling to the ground, and attempting to cover himself 
 with his shield, while an enemy bending over him endea- 
 vours to give him the finishing stroke. Several dead 
 bodies should be heaped together under a dead horse. 
 Some of the conquerors, as having ceased fighting, may 
 be wiping their faces from the dirt, collected on them by 
 the mixture of dust with the water from their eyes. 
 
 The corps de reserve will be seen advancing gaily, but 
 cautiously, their eyebrows directed forwards, shading their 
 eyes with their hands to observe the motions of the enemy, 
 amidst clouds of dust and smoke, and seeming attentive to 
 
60 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 the orders of their chief. You may also make their com- 
 mander holding up his staff, pushing forwards, and pointing 
 towards the place where they are wanted. A river may 
 likewise be introduced, with horses fording it, dashing the 
 water about between their legs, and in the air, covering all 
 the adjacent ground with water and foam. Not a spot is to 
 be left without some marks of blood and carnage. 
 
 159. — The 'Representation of an Orator and Ms Audience. 
 
 If you have to represent a man who is speaking to a 
 large assembly of people, you are to consider the subject 
 matter of his discourse, and to adapt his attitude to such 
 subject. If he means to persuade, let it be known by his 
 gesture. If he is giving an explanation, deduced from 
 several reasons, let him put two fingers of the right hand 
 within one of the left, having the other two bent close, his 
 face turned towards the audience, with the mouth half 
 open, seeming to speak. If he is sitting, let him appear 
 as going to raise himself up a little, and his head be 
 forward. But if he is represented standing, let him bend 
 his chest and his head forward towards the people. 
 
 The auditory are to appear silent and attentive, with 
 their eyes upon the speaker, in the act of admiration. 
 There should be some old men, with their mouths close 
 shut, in token of approbation, and their lips pressed 
 together, so as to form wrinkles at the corners of the 
 mouth and about the cheeks, and forming others about 
 the forehead, by raising the eyebrows, as if struck with 
 astonishment. Some others of those sitting by should be 
 seated with their hands within each other, round one of 
 their knees ; some with one knee upon the other, and upon 
 that, one hand receiving the elbow, the other supporting 
 the chin, covered with a venerable beard. 
 
 160. — Of demonstrative Gestures. 
 
 The action by which a figure points at anything near, 
 either in regard to time or situation, is to be expressed by 
 the hand very little removed from the body. But if 
 
INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 61 
 
 the same thing is far distant, the hand must also be far 
 removed from the body, and the face of the figure pointing 
 must be turned towards those to whom he is pointing 
 it out. 
 
 161. — Of the Attitudes of the Bystanders at some remarkable 
 
 Event. 
 
 All those who are present at some event deserving 
 notice express their admiration, but in various manners : 
 as when the hand of justice punishes some malefactor. If 
 the subject be an act of devotion, the eyes of all present 
 should be directed towards the object of their adoration, 
 aided by a variety of pious actions with the other members : 
 as at the elevation of the host at mass, and other similar 
 ceremonies. If it be a laughable subject, or one exciting 
 compassion and moving to tears, in those cases it will not 
 be necessary for all to have their eyes turned towards the 
 object, but they will express their feelings by different 
 actions ; and let there be several assembled in groups, to 
 rejoice or lament together. If the event be terrific, let the 
 faces of those who run away from the sight, be strongly 
 expressive of fright, with various motions ; as shall be 
 described in the tract on motion. 
 
 162. — How to represent Night. 
 
 Those objects which are entirely deprived of light, are 
 lost to the sight, as in the night ; therefore if you mean to 
 paint a history under those circumstances, you must suppose 
 a large fire, and those objects that are near it to be tinged 
 with its colour, and the nearer they are the more they will 
 partake of it. The fire being red, all those objects which 
 receive light from it will appear of a reddish colour, and 
 those that are most distant from it will partake of the 
 darkness that surrounds them. The figures which are 
 represented before the fire will appear dark in proportion 
 to the brightness of the fire, because those parts of them 
 which we see, are tinged by that darkness of the night, 
 and not by the light of the fire, which they intercept. 
 
62 
 
 INVENTION, OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 Those that are on either side of the fire, will be half in 
 the shade of night, and half in the red light. Those seen 
 beyond the extent of the flames, will be all of a reddish 
 light npon a black ground. In regard to their attitudes, 
 let those who are nearest the fire, make screens of their 
 hands and cloaks, against the scorching heat, with their 
 faces turned on the contrary side, as if ready to run away 
 from it. The most remote will only be shading their eyes 
 with their hands, as if hurt by the too great glare. 
 
 163. — The Method of aivalcening the Mind to a Variety of 
 Inventions. 
 
 I will not omit to introduce among these precepts a new 
 kind of speculative invention, which though apparently 
 trifling, and almost laughable, is nevertheless of great 
 utility in assisting the genius to find variety for com- 
 position. 
 
 By looking attentively at old and smeared walls, or stones 
 and veined marble of various colours, you may fancy that 
 you see in them several compositions, landscapes, battles, 
 figures in quick motion, strange countenances, and dresses, 
 with an infinity of other objects. By these confused lines 
 the inventive genius is excited to new exertions. 
 
 164. — Of Composition in History. 
 
 When the painter has only a single figure to represent, 
 he must avoid any shortening whatever, as well of any 
 particular member, as of the whole figure, because he 
 would have to contend with the prejudices of those who 
 have no knowledge in that branch of the art. But in 
 subjects of history, composed of many figures, shortenings 
 may be introduced with great propriety; nay, they are 
 indispensable, and ought to be used without reserve, as 
 the subject may require ; particularly in battles, where, of 
 course, many shortenings and contortions of figures happen, 
 amongst such an enraged multitude of actors, possessed, as 
 it were, of a brutal madness. 
 
EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 03 
 
 EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 165. — Of expressive Motions. 
 
 Let your figures have actions appropriated to what they 
 are intended to think or say, and these will be well learnt 
 by imitating the deaf, who by the motion of their hands, 
 eyes, eyebrows, and the whole body, endeavour to express 
 the sentiments of their mind. Do not ridicule the thought 
 of a master without a tongue teaching you an art he does 
 not understand ; he will do it better by his expressive 
 motions, than all the rest by their words and examples. 
 Let then the painter, of whatever school, attend well to 
 this maxim, and apply it to the different qualities of the 
 figures he represents, and to the nature of the subject in 
 which they are actors. 
 
 166. — How to paint Children. 
 
 Children are to be represented with quick and contorted 
 motions, when they are sitting ; but when standing, with 
 fearful and timid motions. 
 
 167. — How to represent old Men. 
 
 Old men must have slow and heavy motions ; their legs 
 and knees must be bent when they are standing, and their 
 ( feet placed parallel and wide asunder. Let them be 
 bowed downwards, the head leaning much forward, and 
 their arms very little extended. 
 
 168. — How to paint old Women. 
 
 Old women, on the contrary, are to be represented bold 
 and quick, with passionate motions, like furies.* But the 
 
 * The author here speaks of unpolished nature ; and indeed it is ■ 
 from such subjects only, that the genuine and characteristic opera- 
 tions of nature are to be learnt. It is the effect of education to 
 correct the natural peculiarities and defects, and, by so doing, to 
 assimilate one person to the rest of the world. 
 
64 
 
 EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 motions are to appear a great deal quicker in their arms 
 than in their legs. 
 
 169.— -How to paint Women. 
 
 Women are to be represented in modest and reserved 
 attitudes, with their knees rather close, their arms drawing 
 near each other, or folded about the body; their heads 
 looking downwards, and leaning a little on one side. 
 
 1 70. — Of the Variety of Faces. 
 
 The countenances of your figures should be expressive 
 of their different situations : men at work, at rest, weeping, 
 laughing, crying out, in fear, or joy, and the like. The 
 attitudes also, and all the members, ought to correspond 
 with the sentiment expressed in the faces. 
 
 171. — The Parts of the Face and their Motions. 
 
 The motions of the different parts of the face, occasioned 
 by sudden agitations of the mind, are many. The principal 
 of these are Laughter, Weeping, Calling out, Singing, 
 either in a high or low pitch, Admiration, Anger, Joy, 
 Sadness, Fear, Pain, and others, of which I propose to 
 treat. First, of Laughing and Weeping, which are very 
 similar in the motion of the mouth, the cheeks, the 
 shutting of the eyebrows, and the space between them ; as 
 we shall explain in its place, in treating of the changes 
 which happen in the face, hands, fingers, and all the other 
 parts of the body, as they are affected by the different 
 emotions of the soul ; the knowledge of which is absolutely 
 necessary to a painter, or else his figures may be said to be 
 twice dead. But it is very necessary also that he be 
 careful not to fall into the contrary extreme ; giving 
 extraordinary motions to his figures, so that in a quiet and 
 peaceable subject, he does not seem to represent a battle, 
 or the revellings of drunken men. But, above all, the 
 actors in any point of history must be attentive to what 
 
EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 05 
 
 they are about, or to what is going forward ; with actions 
 that denote admiration, respect, pain, suspicion, fear, and 
 joy, according as the occasion for which they are brought 
 together, may require. Endeavour that different points of 
 history be not placed one above the other on the same 
 canvas, nor walls with different horizons,* as if it were a 
 jeweller's shop, showing the goods in different square 
 caskets. 
 
 172. — Laughing and Weeping. 
 
 Between the expression of laughter and that of weeping 
 there is no difference in 1 the motion of the features, either 
 in the eyes, mouth, or cheeks ; only in the ruffling of the 
 brows, which is added when weeping, but more elevated 
 and extended in laughing. One may represent the figure 
 weeping, as tearing his clothes, or some other expression, 
 as various as the cause of his feeling maybe; because some 
 weep for anger, some through fear, others for tenderness 
 and joy, or for suspicion ; some for real pain and torment ; 
 whilst others weep through compassion, or regret at the 
 loss of some friend and near relation. These different 
 feelings will be expressed by some with marks of despair, 
 by others with moderation ; some only shed tears, others 
 cry, aloud, while another has his face turned towards 
 heaven, with his hand depressed, and his fingers twisted. 
 Some again will be full of apprehension, with their 
 shoulders raised up to their ears ; and so on, according to 
 the above causes. 
 
 Those who weep, raise the brows, and bring them close 
 together above the nose, forming many wrinkles on the 
 forehead, and the corners of the mouth are turned down- 
 wards. Those who laugh have them turned upwards, and 
 the brows open and extended. 
 
 173.— Of Anger. 
 
 If you represent a man in a violent fit of anger, make 
 him seize another by the hair, holding his head writhed 
 
 * See chap. 123. 
 
 F 
 
60 
 
 EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 down against the grouud, with his knee fixed upon the ribs 
 of his antagonist ; his right arm up, and his fist ready to 
 strike; his hair standing on end, his eyebrows low and 
 straight; his teeth close, and seen at the corner of the 
 month ; his neck swelled, and his body covered in the 
 abdomen with cresses, occasioned by his bending over his 
 enemy, and the excess of his passion. 
 
 174. — Despair. 
 
 The last act of despondency is, when a man is in the act 
 of putting a period to his own existence. He should be 
 represented with a knife in one hand, with which he has 
 already inflicted the wound, and tearing it open with the 
 other. His garments and hair should be already torn. 
 He will be standing with his feet asunder, his knees a 
 little bent, and his body leaning forward, as if ready to fall 
 to the ground. 
 
( 67 ) 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 175. — The Course of Study to he pursued. 
 
 The student who is desirous of making great proficiency 
 in the art of imitating the works of Nature, should not 
 only learn the shape of figures or other objects, and be 
 able to delineate them with truth and precision, but he 
 must also accompany them with their proper lights and 
 shadows, according to the situation in which those objects 
 appear. 
 
 176. — Which of the two is the most useful Knowledge, the Out- 
 
 lines of Figures, or that of Light and Shadow. 
 
 The knowledge of the outline is of most consequence, 
 and yet may be acquired to great certainty by dint of 
 study; as the outlines of the human figure, particularly 
 those which do not bend, are invariably the same. But 
 the knowledge of the situation, quality, and quantity of 
 shadows, being infinite, requires the most extensive study. 
 
 177. — Which is the most important, the Shadows or Outlines in 
 
 Painting. 
 
 It requires much more observation and study to arrive 
 at perfection in the shadowing of a picture, than in merely 
 drawing the lines of it. The proof of this is, that the 
 lines may be traced upon a veil or a flat glass placed 
 
68 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 between the eye and the object to be imitated. But that 
 cannot be of any nse in shadowing, on account of the 
 infinite gradation of shades, and the blending of them, 
 which does not allow of any precise termination ; and most 
 frequently they are confused, as will be demonstrated in 
 another place.* 
 
 178. — What is a Painter's first Aim and Object. 
 
 The first object of a painter is to make a simple flat 
 surface appear like a relievo, and some of its parts detached 
 from the ground ; he who excels all others in that part of 
 the art, deserves the greatest praise. This perfection of 
 the art depends on the correct distribution of lights and 
 shades, called Chiaro- scuro. If the painter, then, avoids 
 shadows, he may be said to avoid the glory of the art, and 
 to render his work despicable to real connoisseurs, for the 
 sake of acquiring the esteem of vulgar and ignorant 
 admirers of fine colours, who never have any knowledge of 
 relievo. 
 
 179. — The Difference of Superficies, in regard to Painting. 
 
 Solid bodies are of two sorts : the one has the surface 
 curvilinear, oval, or spherical; the other has several 
 surfaces, or sides producing angles, either regular or 
 irregular. Spherical, or oval bodies, will always appear 
 detached from their ground, though they are exactly of 
 the same colour. Bodies also of different sides and angles 
 will always detach, because they are always disposed so as 
 to produce shades on some of their sides, which cannot 
 happen to a plain superficies. f 
 
 180. — How a Painter may become universal. 
 
 The painter who wishes to be universal, and please a 
 variety of judges, must unite in the same composition, 
 objects susceptible of great force in the shadows, and great 
 
 * See chaD. 264. 
 
 f See chap. 267. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 69 
 
 sweetness in the management of them ; accounting, how- 
 ever, in every instance, for such boldness and softenings. 
 
 181. — Accuracy ought to be learnt before Despatch in the 
 
 Execution. 
 
 If you wish to make good and useful studies, use great 
 deliberation in your drawings, observe well among the 
 lights, which, and how many, hold the first rank in point 
 of brightness ; and so among the shadows, which are 
 darker than others, and in what manner they blend together ; 
 compare the quality and quantity of one with the other, 
 and observe to what part they are directed. Be careful 
 also in your outlines, or divisions of the members. Remark 
 well what quantity of parts are to be on one side, and what 
 on the other ; and where they are more or less apparent, 
 or broad, or slender. Lastly, take care that the shadows 
 and lights be united, or lost in each other; without any 
 hard strokes or lines ; as smoke loses itself in the air, so 
 are your lights and shadows to pass from the one to the 
 other, without any apparent separation. 
 
 When you have acquired the habit, and formed your 
 hand to accuracy, quickness of execution will come of 
 itself* 
 
 182. — How the Painter is to place himself in regard to the 
 
 Light and his Model. 
 
 inininmiuimmiJimTTiiiminiBiniimiiTi]m|jj ^^^mmMMMMMMmmw 
 
 
 
 
 
 'uiuiuuimiunWAiiuiuHiutawimiii'iin^iiuiiiVi'i?)!! 
 
 
 Let A B be the window, M the centre of it, C the model. 
 
 * Sir Joshua Reynolds frequently inculcated these precepts in his 
 lectures, and indeed they cannot be too often enforced. 
 
70 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 The best situation for the painter will be a little sideways, 
 between the window and his model, as D, so that he 
 may see his object partly in the light and partly in the 
 shadow. 
 
 183.— Of the best Light. 
 
 The light from on high, and not too powerful, will be 
 found the best calculated to show the parts to advantage. 
 
 184. — Of Drawing by Candle-light. 
 
 To this artificial light apply a paper blind, and you will 
 see the shadows undetermined and soft. 
 
 185. — Of those Painters who draw at Home from one Light, 
 and afterwards adapt their studies to another Situation in 
 the Country, and a different Light. 
 
 It is a great error in some painters who draw a figure 
 from nature at home, by any particular light, and after- 
 wards make use of that drawing in a picture representing 
 an open country, which receives the general light of the 
 sky, where the surrounding air gives light on all sides. 
 This painter would put dark shadows, where Nature 
 would either produce none, or, if any, so very faint as to 
 be almost imperceptible; and he would throw reflected 
 lights where it is impossible there should be any. 
 
 186. — Sow high the Light should be in drawing from Nature. 
 
 To paint well from Nature, your window should be to 
 the North, that the lights may not vary. If it be to the 
 South, you must have paper blinds, that the sun, in going 
 round, may not alter the shadows. The situation of the 
 light should be such as to produce upon the ground a 
 shadow from your model as long as that is high. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 71 
 
 187. — What Light thè Painter must make Use of to give most 
 Belief to his Figures. 
 
 The figures which receive a particular light show more 
 relief than those which receive an universal one ; because 
 the particular light occasions some reflexes, which proceed 
 from the light of one object upon the shadows of another, 
 and help to detach it from the dark ground. But a figure 
 placed in front of a dark and large space, and receiving a 
 particular light, can receive no reflection from any other 
 objects, and nothing is seen of the figure but what the 
 light strikes on, the rest being blended and lost in the 
 darkness of the back ground. This is to be applied only to 
 the imitation of night subjects with very little light. 
 
 188. — Advice to Painters. 
 
 Be very careful, in painting, to observe, that between the 
 shadows there are other shadows, almost imperceptible, both 
 for darkness and shape ; and this is proved by the third 
 proposition,* which says, that the surfaces of globular or 
 convex bodies have as great a variety of lights and shadows 
 as the bodies that surround them have. 
 
 189.— Of Shadows* 
 
 Those shadows which in Nature are undetermined, and 
 the extremities of which can hardly be perceived, are to be 
 copied in your painting in the same manner, never to be 
 precisely finished, but left confused and blended. This 
 apparent neglect will show great judgment, and be the 
 ingenious result of your observation of Nature. 
 
 190. — Of the Kind of Light proper for drawing from Relievos, 
 or from Nature. 
 
 Lights separated from the shadows with too much pre- 
 cision, have a very bad effect. In order, therefore, to avoid 
 
 * Probably this would Lave formed a part of his intended treatise 
 on light and shadow, but no such proposition occurs in the present 
 work. 
 
72 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 this inconvenience, if the object be in the open country, 
 yon need not let your figures be illumined by the sun ; 
 but may suppose some transparent clouds interposed, so 
 that the sun not being visible, the termination of the 
 shadows will be also imperceptible and soft. 
 
 191. — Whether the Light should be admitted in Front or Side- 
 ways ; and which is most pleasing and graceful. 
 
 The light admitted in front of heads situated opposite to 
 •side walls that are dark, will cause them to have great 
 relievo, particularly if the light be placed high ; and the 
 reason is, that the most prominent parts of those faces are 
 illumined by the general light striking them in front, which 
 light produces very faint shadows on the part where it 
 strikes ; but as it turns towards the sides, it begins to 
 participate of the dark shadows of the room, which grow 
 darker in proportion as it sinks into them. Besides, when 
 the light comes from on high, it does not strike on every 
 part of the face alike, but one part produces great shadows 
 upon another ; as the eyebrows, which deprive the whole 
 sockets of the eyes of light. The nose keeps it olì from 
 great part of the mouth, and the chin from the neck, and 
 such other parts. This, by concentrating the light upon 
 the most projecting parts, produces a very great relief. 
 
 192. — Of the Difference of Lights according to the Situation. 
 
 A small light will cast large and determined shadows 
 upon the surrounding bodies. A large light, on the con- 
 trary, will cast small shadows on them, and they will be 
 much confused in their termination. When a small but 
 strong light is surrounded by a broad but weaker light, 
 the latter will appear like a demi- tint to the other, as the 
 sky round the sun. And the bodies which receive the light 
 from the one, will serve as demi-tints to those which receive 
 the light from the other. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 73 
 
 193. — Sow to distribute the Light on Figures. 
 
 The lights are to be distributed according to the natural 
 situation you mean your figures should occupy. If you 
 suppose them in sunshine, the shades must be dark, the 
 lights broad and extended, and the shadows of all the 
 surrounding objects distinctly marked upon the ground. 
 If seen in a gloomy day, there will be very little difference 
 between the lights and shades, and no shadows at the feet. 
 If the figures be represented within doors, the lights and 
 shadows will again be distinctly divided, and produce 
 shadows on the ground. But if you suppose a paper blind 
 at the window, and the walls painted white, the effect will 
 be the same as in a gloomy day, when the lights and shadows 
 have little difference. If the figures are enlightened by the 
 fire, the lights must be red and powerful, the shadows dark, 
 and the shadows upon the ground and upon the walls must 
 be precise ; observing that they spread wider as they go off 
 from the body. If the figures be enlightened, partly by the 
 sky and partly by the fire, that side which receives the 
 light from the sky will be the brightest, and on the other 
 side it will be reddish, somewhat of the colour of the fire. 
 Above all, contrive that your figures receive a broad light, 
 and that from above ; particularly in portraits, because the 
 people we see in the street receive all the light from above ; 
 and it is curious to observe, that there is not a face ever so 
 well known amongst your acquaintance, but would be 
 recognised with difficulty, if it were enlightened from 
 beneath. 
 
 194. — Of the Beauty of Faces. 
 
 You must not mark any muscles with hardness of line, 
 but let the soft light glide upon them, and terminate imper- 
 ceptibly in delightful shadows ; from this will arise grace 
 and beauty to the face. 
 
 195. — How, in drawing a Face, to give it Grace, by the 
 Management of Light and Shade. 
 
 A face placed in the dark part of a room, acquires great 
 
74 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 additional grace by means of light and shadow. The 
 shadowed part of the face blends with the darkness of the 
 ground, and the light part receives an increase of bright- 
 ness from the open air, the shadows on this side becoming 
 almost insensible ; and from this augmentation of light and 
 shadow, the face has much relief, and acquires great 
 beauty. 
 
 196. — How to give Grace and Belief to Faces. 
 
 In streets running towards the west, when the sun is in 
 the meridian, and the walls on each side so high that they 
 cast no reflections on that side of the bodies which is in 
 shade, and the sky is not too bright, we find the most 
 advantageous situation for giving relief and grace to 
 figures, particularly to faces ; because both sides of the 
 face will participate of the shadows of the walls. The 
 sides of the nose and the face towards the west, will be 
 light, and the man whom we supposed placed at the 
 entrance, and in the middle of the street, will see all the 
 parts of that face, which are before him, perfectly 
 illumined, while both sides of it, towards the walls, will 
 be in shadow. What gives additional grace is, that these 
 shades do not appear cutting, hard, or dry, but softly 
 blended and lost in each other. The reason of it is, that 
 the light which is spread all over in the air, strikes also 
 the pavement of the street, and reflecting upon the shady 
 part of the face, it tinges that slightly with the same hue : 
 while the great light which comes from above being confined 
 by the tops of houses, strikes on the face with different 
 points, almost to the very beginning of the shadows under 
 the projecting parts of the face. It diminishes by degrees 
 the strength of {.hem, increasing the light till it comes 
 upon the chin, where it terminates, and loses itself, blend- 
 ing softly into the shades on all sides. For instance, if 
 such light were A E, the line F E would give light even to 
 the bottom of the nose. The line C F will give light only 
 to the under lip ; but the line A H would extend the 
 shadow to all the under parts of the face, and under the 
 chin. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 75 
 
 In this situation the nose receives a very strong light 
 from all the points ABODE. 
 
 E D C A 
 
 197. — Of the Termination of Bodies upon each other. 
 
 When a body, of a cylindrical or convex surface, ter- 
 minates upon another body of the same colour, it will 
 appear darker on the edge than the body upon which it 
 terminates. And any flat body, adjacent to a white sur- 
 face, will appear very dark; but upon a dark ground it 
 will appear lighter than any other part, though the lights 
 be equal. 
 
 198. — Of the Backgrounds of painted Objects. 
 
 The ground which surrounds the figures in any painting, 
 ought to be darker than the light part of those figures, and 
 lighter than the shadowed part. 
 
 199. — How to detach and bring forward Figures out of their 
 Background. 
 
 If your figure be dark, place it on a light ground ; if it 
 be light, upon a dark ground ; and if it be partly light and 
 partly dark, as is generally the case, contrive that the dark 
 
76 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 part of the figure be upon the light part of the ground, and 
 the light side of it against the dark.* 
 
 200. — Of proper Backgrounds. 
 
 It is of the greatest importance to consider well the 
 nature of backgrounds, upon which any opaque body is 
 to be placed. In order to detach it properly, you should 
 place the light part of such opaque body against the dark 
 part of the background, and the dark parts on a light 
 ground ; f as in the cut. X 
 
 * See chapters 200 and 219. 
 f See chapter 209. 
 
 X This cannot be taken as an absolute rule ; it must be left in a 
 great measure to the judgment of the painter. For much graceful 
 softness and grandeur is acquired, sometimes, by blending the lights 
 of the figures with the light part of the ground ; and so of the 
 shadows ; as Leonardo himself has observed in chapters 194, 195, and 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds has often put in practice with success. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 77 
 
 201. — Of the general Light diffused over Figures. 
 
 In compositions of many figures and animals, observe, 
 that the parts of these different objects ought to be darker 
 in proportion as they are lower, and as they are nearer the 
 middle of the groups, though they are all of an uniform 
 colour. This is necessary, because a smaller proportion of 
 the sky (from which all bodies are illuminated) can give 
 light to the lower spaces between these different figures, 
 than to the upper parts of the spaces. It is proved thus : 
 
 \\S T 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 V 
 
 N 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 H 
 
 11 
 
 A B C D is that portion of the sky which gives light to all 
 the objects beneath ; M and N" are the bodies which occupy 
 the space S T R H, in which it is evidently perceived, 
 that the point F, receiving the light only from the portion 
 of the sky C D, has a smaller quantity of it than the point 
 E which receives it from the whole space A B (a larger 
 portion than CD); therefore it will be lighter in E than 
 in F. 
 
78 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 202. — Of those Parts in Shadows which appear the darkest at 
 a Distance. 
 
 The neck, or any other part which is raised straight 
 upwards, and has a projection over it, will be darker than 
 the perpendicular front of that projection ; and this pro- 
 jecting part will be lighter, in proportion as it presents a 
 larger surface to the light. 
 
 J? 
 
 For instance, the recess A receives no light from any 
 part of the sky Gr K, but B begins to receive the light from 
 the part of the sky H K, and C from G K ; and the point 
 D receives the whole of F K. Therefore the chest will be 
 as light as the forehead, nose, and chin. But what I have 
 particularly to recommend, in regard to faces, is, that you 
 observe well those different qualities of shades which are 
 lost at different distances (while there remain only the first 
 and principal spots or strokes of shades, such as those of 
 the sockets of the eyes, and other similar recesses, which 
 are always dark), and at last the whole face becomes 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 79 
 
 obscured ; because the greatest lights (being small in pro- 
 portion to the demi-tints) are lost. The quality, therefore, 
 and quantity of the principal lights and shades are by 
 means of great distance blended together into a general 
 half-tint ; and this is the reason why trees and other objects 
 are found to be in appearance darker at some distance than 
 they are in reality, when nearer to the eye. But then the 
 air, which interposes between the objects and the eye, will 
 render them light again by tinging them with azure, rather 
 in the shades than in the lights ; for the lights will preserve 
 the truth of the different colours much longer. 
 
 203. — Of the Eye viewing the Folds of Draperies surrounding 
 a Figure. 
 
 The shadows between the folds of a drapery surrounding 
 the parts of the human body will be darker as the deep 
 hollows where the shadows are generated are more directly 
 opposite the eye. This is to be observed only when the 
 eye is placed between the light and the shady part of the 
 figure. 
 
 204. — Of the Belief of Figures remote from the Eye. 
 
 Any opaque body appears less relieved in proportion as it 
 is farther distant from the eye ; because the air, interposed 
 between the eye and such body, being lighter than the 
 shadow of it, it tarnishes and weakens that shadow, lessens 
 its power, and consequently lessens also its relief. 
 
 205. — Of Outlines of Objects on the Side towards the Light. 
 
 The extremities of any object on the side which receives 
 the light, will appear darker if upon a lighter ground, and 
 lighter if seen upon a darker ground. But if such body 
 be flat, and seen upon a ground equal in point of light with 
 itself and of the same colour, such boundaries, or outlines, 
 will be entirely lost to the sight.* 
 
 * See chap. 265. 
 
80 
 
 CONTRAST AND EFFECT. 
 
 206. — Hoiv to make Objects detach from their Ground, that is 
 to say, from the Surface on which they are painted. 
 
 Objects contrasted with a light ground will appear much 
 more detached than those which are placed against a dark 
 one. The reason is, that if you wish to give relief to your 
 figures, you will make those parts which are the farthest 
 from the light, participate the least of it ; therefore they 
 will remain the darkest, and every distinction of outline 
 would be lost in the general mass of shadows. But to give 
 it grace, roundness, and effect, those dark shades are always 
 attended by reflexes, or else they would either cut too hard 
 upon the ground; or stick to it, by the similarity of shade, 
 and relieve the less as the ground is darker ; for at some 
 distance nothing would be seen but the light parts, there- 
 fore your figures would appear mutilated of all that remains 
 lost in the background. 
 
 CONTRAST AND EFFECT. 
 
 207.— A Precept. 
 
 Figures will have more grace, placed in the open and 
 general light, than in any particular or small one ; because 
 the powerful and extended light will surround and embrace 
 the objects : and works done in that kind of light appear 
 pleasant and graceful when placed at a distance,* while 
 those which are drawn in a narrow light will receive great 
 force of shadow, but will never appear at a great distance, 
 but as painted objects. 
 
 208. — Of the Interposition of transparent Bodies between the 
 Eye and the Object. 
 
 The greater the transparent interposition is between the 
 eye and the object, the more the colour of that object 
 
 * See chap. 196. 
 
REFLEXES. 
 
 81 
 
 will participate of, or be changed into, that of the trans- 
 parent medium.* 
 
 When an opaque body is situated between the eye and 
 the luminary, so that the central line of the one passes also 
 through the centre of the other, that object will be entirely 
 deprived of light. 
 
 209. — Of proper Backgrounds for Figures. 
 
 As we find by experience that all bodies are surrounded 
 by lights and shadows, I would have the painter to accom- 
 modate that part which is enlightened, so as to terminate 
 upon something dark ; and to manage the dark parts so 
 that they may terminate on a light ground. This will be 
 of great assistance in detaching and bringing out his 
 figures, f 
 
 210. — Of Backgrounds. 
 
 To give a great effect to figures, you must oppose to a 
 light one a dark ground, and to a dark figure a light 
 ground, contrasting white with black, and black with 
 white. In general, all contraries give a particular force 
 and brilliancy of effect by their opposition. % 
 
 REFLEXES. 
 
 211. — Of Objects placed on a light Ground, and why such a 
 Practice is useful in Painting. 
 
 When a darkish body terminates upon a light ground, it 
 will appear detached from that ground ; because all opaque 
 
 * He means here to say, that in proportion as the body interposed 
 between the eye and the object is more or less transparent, the 
 greater or less quantity of the colour of the body interposed will be 
 communicated to the object. 
 
 f See the note to chap. 100. 
 
 X See the preceding chapter, and chap. 200. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 REFLEXES. 
 
 bodies of a curved surface are not only dark on that side 
 which receives no light, and consequently very different 
 from the ground, but even that side of the curved surface 
 which is enlightened will not carry its principal light to 
 the extremities, but have between the ground and the prin- 
 cipal light a certain demi-tint, darker than either the 
 ground or that light. 
 
 212. — Of the different Effects of WJiite, according to the 
 Difference of Backgrounds. 
 
 Anything white will appear whiter by being opposed 
 to a dark ground; and, on the contrary, darker upon a 
 light ground. This we learn from observing snow as it 
 falls ; while it is descending it appears darker against the 
 sky than when we see it against an open window, which 
 (owing to the darkness of the inside of the house) makes 
 it appear very white. Observe also, that snow appears to 
 fall very quick and in a great quantity when near the eye ; 
 but when at some distance, it seems to come down slowly, 
 and in a smaller quantity.* 
 
 213. — Of Reverberation. 
 
 Reverberations are produced by all bodies of a bright 
 nature, that have a smooth and tolerably hard surface, 
 which, repelling the light it receives, makes it rebound like 1 
 a foot-ball against the first object opposed to it. 
 
 214. — Where there cannot he any Reverberation of Light. 
 
 The surfaces of hard bodies are surrounded by various I 
 
 qualities of light and shadow. The lights are of two I 
 
 sorts; one is called original, the other derivative. The I 
 
 original light is that which comes from the sun, or the I 
 
 brightness of fire, or else from the air. The derivative is I 
 
 a reflected light. But to return to our definition, I say, I 
 
 * The appearance of motion is lessened according to the distance, I 
 in the same proportion as objects diminish in size. 
 
REFLEXES. 
 
 83 
 
 there can be no reflection on that side which is turned 
 towards any dark body — such as roofs either high or low, 
 shrubs, grass, wood, either dry or green — because, though, 
 every individual part of those objects be turned towards 
 the original light, and struck by it, yet the quantity of 
 shadow which every one of these parts produces upon the 
 others is so great that, upon the whole, the light, not 
 forming a compact mass, loses its effect, so that those 
 objects cannot reflect any light upon the opposite bodies. 
 
 215. — In what Part the Reflexes have more or less Brightness. 
 
 The reflected lights will be more or less apparent or 
 bright, in proportion as they are seen against a darker or 
 fainter ground ; because if the ground be darker than the 
 reflex, then this reflex will appear stronger on account of 
 the great difference of colour. But, on the contrary, if this 
 reflection has behind it a ground lighter than itself, it will 
 appear dark, in comparison to the brightness which is close 
 to it, and therefore it will be hardly perceptible.* 
 
 216. — Of the reflected Lights which surround the Shadows. 
 
 The reflected lights which strike upon the midst of 
 shadows, will brighten up or lessen their obscurity in 
 proportion to the strength of those lights, and their 
 proximity to those shadows. Many painters neglect this 
 observation, while others attend to and deduce their prac- 
 tice from it. This difference of opinion and practice 
 divides the sentiments of artists, so that they blame each 
 other for not thinking and acting as they themselves do. 
 The best way is to steer a middle course, and not to admit 
 of any reflected light, but when the cause of it is evident 
 to every eye ; and vice versa, if you introduce none at all, 
 let it appear evident that there was no reasonable cause for 
 it. In doing so, you will neither be totally blamed nor 
 praised by the variety of opinion, which, if not proceeding 
 from entire ignorance, will insure to you the approbation 
 of both parties. 
 
 * See chapters 217 and 219. 
 
84 
 
 REFLEXES. 
 
 217. — Where Reflexes are to be most apparent. 
 
 Of all reflected lights, that is to be the most apparent, 
 bold, and precise, which detaches from the darkest ground ; 
 and, on the contrary, that which is upon a lighter ground 
 will be less apparent. And this proceeds from the con- 
 trast of shades, by which the faintest makes the dark ones 
 appear still darker ; so in contrasted lights, the brightest 
 cause the others to appear less bright than they really 
 are.* 
 
 218. — What Part of a Reflex is to be the lightest. 
 
 That part will be the brightest which receives the re- 
 flected light between angles the most nearly equal. For 
 
 example, let N be the luminary, and A B the illuminated 
 part of the object, reflecting the light over all the shady 
 part of the concavity opposite to it. The light which 
 reflects upon F will be placed between equal angles. But 
 E at the base will not be reflected by equal angles, as it is 
 evident that the angle E A B is more obtuse than the angle 
 E B A. The angle A F B, however, though it is between 
 angles of less quality than the angle E, and has a common 
 base B A, is between angles more nearly equal than E, 
 therefore it will be lighter in F than in E ; and it will also 
 be brighter, because it is nearer to the part which gives 
 * See chapters 215 and 219. 
 
REFLEXES. 
 
 85 
 
 them light. According to the 6th rule,* which says, that 
 part of the body is to be the lightest which is nearest to the 
 luminary. 
 
 219. — Of the Termination of Beflexes on their Grounds. 
 
 The termination of a reflected light on a ground lighter 
 than that reflex, will not be perceivable; but if such a 
 reflex terminates upon a ground darker than itself, it will 
 be plainly seen ; and the more so in proportion as that 
 ground is darker, and vice versd.f 
 
 220. — Of double and treble Reflections of Light. 
 
 Double reflexes are stronger than single ones, and the 
 shadows which interpose between the common light and 
 
 these reflexes' are very faint. For instance, let A be the 
 luminous body, A N, A S, are the direct rays, and S N 
 the parts which receive the light from them. 0 and E are 
 the places enlightened by the reflection of that light in 
 
 * This was intended to constitute a part of some hook of per. 
 spective, which we have not ; hut the rule here referred to will be 
 found in chap. 310 of the present work. 
 
 f See chapters 215 and 217. 
 
86 
 
 REFLEXES. 
 
 those parts. A N E is a single reflex, but ANO,A SO 
 is the double reflex. The single reflex is that which 
 proceeds from a single light, but the double reflection is 
 produced by two different lights. The single one E is 
 produced by the light striking on B D, while the double 
 one 0 proceeds from the enlightened bodies B D and D B 
 co-operating together ; and the shadows which are between 
 N" 0 and S 0 will be very faint. 
 
 221. — Reflexes in the Water, and particularly those of the Air. 
 
 The only portion of air that will be seen reflected in the 
 water, will be that which is reflected by the surface of 
 the water to the eye between equal angles ; that is to 
 say, the angle of incidence must be equal to the angle of 
 reflection. 
 
C 87 ) 
 
 COLOURS AND COLOURING. 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 222. — What Surface is best calculated to receive most Colours. 
 
 White is more capable of receiving all sorts of colours 
 than the surface of any body whatever that is not trans- 
 parent. To prove it, we shall say, that any void space is 
 capable of receiving what another space, not void, cannot 
 receive. In the same manner, a white surface, like a void 
 space, being destitute of any colour, will be fittest to receive 
 such as are conveyed to it from any other enlightened 
 body, and will participate more of the colour than black 
 can do ; which latter, like a broken vessel, is not able to 
 contain anything. 
 
 223. — What Surface will show most perfectly its true Colour. 
 
 That opaque body will show its colour more perfect and 
 beautiful which has near it another body of the same 
 colour. 
 
 224. — On what Surfaces the true Colour is least apparent. 
 
 Polished and glossy surfaces show least of their genuine 
 colour. This is exemplified in the grass of the fields, and 
 the leaves of trees, which, being smooth and glossy, will 
 reflect the colour of the sun, and the air, where they strike, 
 
88 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 so that the parts which receive the light do not show their 
 natural colour. 
 
 225. — Wliat Surfaces shoiv most of their true and genuine 
 Colour. 
 
 Those objects that are the least smooth and polished 
 show their natural colours best; as we see in cloth, and 
 in the leaves of such grass or trees as are of a woolly 
 nature ; which, having no lustre, are exhibited to the eye 
 in their true natural colour ; unless that colour happen to 
 be confused by that of another body casting on them 
 reflections of an opposite colour, such as the redness of the 
 setting sun, when all the clouds are tinged with its colour. 
 
 226.-0/ the Mixture of Colours. 
 
 Although the mixture of colours may be extended to an 
 infinite variety, almost impossible to be described, I will 
 not omit touching slightly upon it, setting down at first 
 a certain number of simple colours to serve as a foundation, 
 and with each of these mixing one of the others ; one with 
 one, then two with two, and three with three, proceeding 
 in this manner to the full mixture of all the colours 
 together; then I would begin again, mixing two of these 
 colours with two others, and three with three, four with 
 four, and so on to the end. To these two colours we shall 
 put three ; to these three add three more, and then six, 
 increasing always in the same proportion. 
 
 I call those simple colours, which are not composed, 
 and cannot be made or supplied by any mixture of other 
 colours. Black and white are not reckoned among colours ; 
 the one is the representative of darkness, the other of light: 
 that is, one is a simple privation of light, the other is light 
 itself. Yet I will not omit mentioning them, because there 
 is nothing in painting more useful and necessary; since 
 painting is but an effect produced by lights and shadows, 
 viz., chiaroscuro. After black and white come blue and 
 yellow, then green and tawny or umber, and then purple 
 and red. These eight colours are all that Nature produces. 
 
COLOURS. 
 
 89 
 
 With these I begin my mixtures, first black and white, 
 black and yellow, black and red ; then yellow and red : 
 but I shall treat more at length of these mixtures, in a 
 separate work,* which will be of great utility, nay very 
 necessary. I shall place this subject between theory and 
 practice. 
 
 227. — Of the Colours produced by the Mixture of other Colours, 
 called secondary Colours. 
 
 The first of all simple colours is white, though philoso- 
 phers will not acknowledge either white or black to be 
 colours; because the first is the cause, or the receiver 
 of colours, the other totally deprived of them. But as 
 painters cannot do without either, we shall place them 
 among the others ; and according to this order of things, 
 white will be the first, yellow the second, green the 
 third, blue the fourth, red the fifth, and black the sixth. 
 We shall set down white for the representative of light, 
 without which no colour can be seen; yellow for the 
 earth ; green for water ; blue for air ; red for fire ; and 
 black for total darkness. 
 
 If you wish to see by a short process the variety of all 
 the mixed or composed colours, take some coloured glasses, 
 and, through them, look at all the country round : you will 
 find that the colour of each object will be altered and 
 mixed with the colour of the glass through which it is 
 seen. Observe which colour is made better, and which is 
 hurt by the mixture. If the glass be yellow, the colour of 
 the objects may either be improved, or greatly impaired by 
 it. Black and white will be most altered, while green and 
 yellow will be meliorated. In the same manner you may 
 go through all the mixtures of colours, which are infinite. 
 Select those which are new and agreeable to the sight; 
 and following the same method, you may go on with two 
 glasses, or three, till you have found what will best answer 
 your purpose. 
 
 * No such work was ever published, nor, for anything that 
 appears, ever written by Leonardo. 
 
90. 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 228.-0/ Verdigris. 
 
 This green, which, is made of copper, though it be mixed 
 with oil, will lose its beauty, if it be not varnished 
 immediately. It not only fades, but, if washed with a 
 sponge and pure water only, it will detach from the ground 
 upon which it is painted, particularly in damp weather ; 
 because verdigris is produced by the strength of salts, 
 which easily dissolve in rainy weather, but still more if 
 washed with a wet sponge. 
 
 229. — How to increase the Beauty of Verdigris. 
 
 If you mix with the verdigris some caballine aloe, 
 it will add to it a great degree of beauty. It would 
 acquire still more from saffron, if it did not fade. The 
 quality and goodness of this aloe will be proved by 
 dissolving it in warm brandy. Supposing the verdigris 
 has already been used, and the part finished, you may then 
 glaze it thinly with this dissolved aloe, and it will produce 
 a very fine colour. This aloe may be ground also in oil 
 by itself, or with the verdigris, or any other colour, at 
 pleasure. 
 
 230. — How to paint a Picture that will last almost for ever. 
 
 After you have made a drawing of your intended picture, 
 prepare a good and thick priming with pitch and brickdust 
 well pounded ; after which give it a second coat of white 
 lead and Naples yellow ; then, having traced your drawing 
 upon it, and painted your picture, varnish it with clear and 
 thick old oil, and stick it to a flat glass, or crystal, with a 
 clear varnish. Another method, which may be better, is, 
 instead of the priming of pitch and brickdust, take a flat 
 tile well vitrified, then apply the coat of white and Naples 
 yellow, and all the rest as before. But before the glass is 
 applied to it, the painting must be perfectly dried in a 
 
COLOURS. 
 
 91 
 
 stove, and varnished with nut oil and amber, or else with 
 purified nut oil alone, thickened in the sun.* 
 
 231. — The Mode of painting on Canvas, or Linen Cloth.^ 
 
 Stretch jour canvas upon a frame, then give it a coat of 
 weak size, let it dry, and draw your outlines upon it. Paint 
 the flesh colours first ; and while it is still fresh or moist, 
 paint also the shadows, well softened and blended together. 
 The flesh colour may be made with white, lake, and Naples 
 yellow. The shades with black, umber, and a little lake ; 
 you may, if you please, use black chalk. After you have 
 softened this first coat, or dead colour, and let it dry, you 
 may retouch over it with lake and other colours, and gum 
 water that has been a long while made and kept liquid, 
 because in that state it becomes better, and does not leave 
 any gloss. Again, to make the shades darker, take the 
 lake and gum as above, and ink ; % and with this you may 
 shade or glaze many colours, because it is transparent; 
 such as azure, lake, and several others. As for the lights, 
 you may retouch or glaze them slightly with gum water 
 and pure lake, particularly vermilion. 
 
 * The French translation of 1716 has a note on this chapter, 
 saying, that the invention of enamel painting found out since the 
 time of Leonardo da Vinci, would better answer to the title of this 
 chapter, and also be a better method of painting. I must beg leave, 
 however, to dissent from this opinion, as the two kinds of painting 
 are so different that they cannot be compared. Leonardo treats of 
 oil painting, but the other is vitrification. Leonardo is known to 
 have spent a great deal of time in experiments, of which this is a 
 specimen ; and it may appear ridiculous to the practitioners of more 
 modern date, as he does not enter more fully into a minute descrip- 
 tion of the materials, or the mode of employing them. The principle 
 laid down in the text appears to me to be simply this : to make the 
 oil entirely evaporate from the colours by the action of fire, and after- 
 wards to prevent the action of the air by the means of a glass : which 
 in itself is an excellent principle, but not applicable, any more than 
 enamel painting, to large works. 
 
 f It is evident that distemper or size painting is here meant. 
 
 X Indian ink. 
 
92 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 232. — Of lively and beautiful Colours. 
 
 For those colours which yon mean shonld appear beau- 
 tiful, prepare a ground of pure white. Tbis is meant only 
 for transparent colours : as for those that have a body, and 
 are opaque, it matters not what ground they have, and a 
 white one is of no use. This is exemplified by painted 
 glasses; when placed between the eye and clear air, they 
 exhibit most excellent and beautiful colours, which is not 
 the case when they have thick air, or some opaque body, 
 behind them. 
 
 233. — Of transparent Colours. 
 
 When a transparent colour is laid upon another of a 
 different nature, it produces a mixed colour, different from 
 either of the simple ones which compose it. This is 
 observed in the smoke coming out of a chimney, which, 
 when passing before the black soot, appears bluish, but as 
 it ascends against the blue of the sky, it changes its 
 appearance into a reddish brown. So the colour lake laid 
 on blue will turn it to a violet colour ; yellow upon blue 
 turns to green ; saffron upon white becomes yellow ; white 
 scumbled upon a dark ground appears blue, and is more 
 or less beautiful as the white and the ground are more or 
 less pure. 
 
 234. — In what Part a Colour will appear in its greatest 
 Beauty. 
 
 We are to consider here in what part any colour will 
 show itself in its most perfect purity; whether in the 
 strongest light or deepest shadow, in the demi-tint, or in 
 the reflex. It would be necessary to determine first, of 
 what colour we mean to treat, because different colours 
 differ materially in that respect. Black is most beautiful 
 in the shades ; white in the strongest light ; blue and green 
 in the half -tint; yellow and red in the principal light; 
 gold in the reflexes ; and lake in the half -tint. 
 
COLOURS. 
 
 93 
 
 235. — How any Colour without a Gloss, is more beautiful in the 
 Lights than in the Shades. 
 
 All objects which have no gloss, show their colours 
 better in the light than in the shadow, because the light 
 vivifies and gives a true' knowledge of the nature of the 
 colour, while the shadows lower and destroy its beauty, 
 preventing the discovery of its nature. If, on the contrary, 
 black be more beautiful in the shadows, it is because black 
 is not a colour. 
 
 236. — Of the Appearance of Colours. 
 
 The lighter a colour is in its nature, the more so it will 
 appear when removed to some distance ; but with dark 
 colours it is quite the reverse. 
 
 237. — What Part of a Colour is to be the most beautiful. 
 
 If A be the light, and B the object receiving it in a direct 
 line, E cannot receive that light, but only the reflection from 
 
 E, which we shall suppose to be red. In that case, the 
 light it produces being red, it will tinge with red the object 
 E ; and if E happen to be also red before, you will see that 
 colour increase in beauty, and appear redder than B ; but 
 if E were yellow, you will see a new colour, participating 
 of the red and the yellow. 
 
94 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 238. — That the Beauty of a Colour is to he found in the Lights. 
 
 As the quality of colours is discovered to the eye by the 
 light, it is natural to conclude, that where there is most 
 light, there also the true quality of the colour is to be seen ; 
 and where there is most shadow, the colour will participate 
 of, and be tinged with, the colour of that shadow. 
 Remember, then, to show the true quality of the colour 
 in the light parts only.* 
 
 239.-0/ Colours. 
 
 The colour which is between the light and the shadow 
 will not be so beautiful as that which is in the full light. 
 Therefore the chief beauty of colours will be found in the 
 principal lights. f 
 
 240. — No Object appears in its true Colour, unless the Light 
 which strikes upon it be of the same Colour. 
 
 This is very observable in draperies, where the light 
 folds casting a reflection, and throwing a light on other 
 folds opposite to them, make them appear in their natural 
 colour. The same effect is produced by gold leaves casting 
 their light reciprocally on each other. The effect is quite 
 contrary if the light be received from an object of a different 
 colour. J 
 
 241. — Of the Colour of Shadows. 
 
 The colour of the shadows of an object can never be pure 
 if the body which is opposed to these shadows be not of 
 the same colour as that on which they are produced. For 
 instance, if in a room, the walls of which are green, I place 
 
 * This rule is not without exception : see chap. 234. 
 f See chap. 238. 
 X See chap. 237. 
 
COLOURS. 
 
 95 
 
 a figure clothed in blue, and receiving the light from 
 another blue object, the light part of that figure will be of 
 a beautiful blue, but the shadows of it will become dingy, 
 and not like a true shade of that beautiful blue, because it 
 will be corrupted by the reflections from the green wall ; 
 and it would be still worse if the walls were of a darkish 
 brown. 
 
 242.-0/ Colours. 
 
 Colours placed in shadow will preserve more or less of 
 their original beauty, as they are more or less immersed in 
 the shade. But colours situated in a light space will show 
 their natural beauty in proportion to the brightness of that 
 light. Some say, that there is as great variety in the 
 colours of shadows, as in the colours of objects shaded by 
 them. It may be answered, that colours placed in shadow 
 will show less variety amongst themselves as the shadows 
 are darker. We shall soon convince ourselves of this truth, 
 if, from a large square, we look through the open door of 
 a church, where pictures, though enriched with a variety 
 of colours, appear all clothed in darkness. 
 
 243. — Whether it be possible for all Colours to appear alike by 
 means of the same Shadow. 
 
 It is very possible that all the different colours may be 
 changed into that of a general shadow ; as is manifest in 
 the darkness of a cloudy night, in which neither the shape 
 nor colour of bodies is distinguished. Total darkness 
 being nothing but a privation of the primitive and reflected 
 lights by which the form and colour of bodies are seen, it 
 is evident that the cause being removed the effect ceases, 
 and the objects are entirely lost to the sight. 
 
 244. — Why White is not reckoned among the Colours. 
 
 White is not a colour, but has the power of receiving all 
 the other colours. When it is placed in a high situation 
 
96 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 in the country, all its shades are azure ; according to the 
 fourth proposition,* which says, that the surface of any 
 opaque body participates of the colour of any other body 
 sending the light to it. Therefore white, being deprived 
 of the light of the sun by the interposition of any other 
 body, will remain white ; if exposed to the sun on one side, 
 and to the open air on the other, it will participate both of 
 the colour of the sun and of the air. That side which is 
 not opposed to the sun, will be shaded of the colour of the 
 air. And if this white were not surrounded by green fields 
 all the way to the horizon, nor could receive any light from 
 that horizon, without doubt it would appear of one simple 
 and uniform colour, viz., that of the air. 
 
 245.-0/ Colours. 
 
 The light of the fire tinges everything of a reddish 
 yellow ; but this will hardly appear evident, if we do not 
 make the comparison with the daylight. Towards the close 
 of the evening this is easily done ; but more certainly after 
 the morning twilight ; and the difference will be clearly 
 distinguished in a dark room, when a little glimpse of day- 
 light strikes upon any part of the room, and there still 
 remains a candle burning. Without such a trial the 
 difference is hardly perceivable, particularly in those colours 
 which have most similarity — such as white and yellow, light 
 green and light blue ; because the light which strikes the 
 blue, being yellow, will naturally turn it green ; as we have 
 said in another place, f that a mixture of blue and yellow 
 produces green. And if to a green colour you add some 
 yellow, it will make it of a more beautiful green. 
 
 246. — Of the Colouring of remote Objects. 
 
 The painter who is to represent objects at some distance 
 from the eye, ought merely to convey the idea of general 
 
 * See chapters 247 and 274, in the present work. Probably they were 
 intended to form a part of a distinct treatise, and to have been ranged 
 as propositions in that, but at present they are not so placed. 
 
 f See chap. 248. 
 
COLOURS. 
 
 97 
 
 undetermined masses, making choice, for that purpose, of 
 cloudy weather, or towards the evening, and avoiding, as 
 was said before, to mark the lights and shadows too strong 
 on the extremities ; because they would in that case appear 
 like spots of difficult execution, and without grace. He 
 ought to remember, that the shadows are never to be of 
 such a quality as to obliterate the proper colour in which 
 they originated, if the situation of the coloured body be 
 not in total darkness. He ought to mark no outline, not 
 to make the hair stringy, and not to touch with pure white 
 any but those things which in themselves are white ; in 
 short, the lightest touch upon any particular object ought 
 to denote the beauty of its proper and natural colour. 
 
 247. — The Surface of all opaque Bodies participates of the 
 Colour of the surrounding Objects. 
 
 The painter ought to know, that if any white object is 
 placed between two walls, one of which is also white, and 
 the other black, there will be found between the shady 
 side of that object and the light side, a similar proportion 
 to that of the two walls ; and if that object be blue, the 
 effect will be the same. Having therefore to paint this 
 object, take some black, similar to that of the wall from 
 which the reflexes come ; and to proceed by a certain and 
 scientific method, do as follows : When you paint the 
 wall, take a small spoon to measure exactly the quantity of 
 colour you mean to employ in mixing your tints ; for 
 instance, if you have put in the shading of this wall three 
 spoonfuls of pure black and one of white, you have, 
 without any doubt, a mixture of a certain and precise 
 quality. Now, having painted one of the walls white, and 
 the other dark, if you mean to place a blue object between 
 them with shades suitable to that colour, place first on 
 your pallet the light blue, such as you mean it to be, 
 without any mixture of shade, and it will do for the lightest 
 part of your object. After which take three spoonfuls of 
 black, and one of this light blue, for your darkest shades. 
 Then observe whether your object be round or square : if 
 it be square, these two extreme tints of light and shade 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 will be close to each other, cutting sharply at the angle ; 
 but if it be round, draw lines from the extremities of the 
 walls to the centre of the object, and put the darkest shade 
 between equal angles, where the lines intersect upon the 
 superficies of it; then begin to make them lighter and 
 lighter gradually to the point N O, lessening the strength 
 of the shadows as much as that place participates of the 
 light A D, and mixing that colour with the darkest shade 
 A B in the same proportion. 
 
 248. — General Remarks on Colours. 
 
 Blue and green are not simple colours in their nature, 
 for blue is composed of light and darkness; such is the 
 azure of the sky, viz., perfect black and perfect white. 
 Green is composed of a simple and a mixed colour, being 
 produced by blue and yellow. 
 
 Any object seen in a mirror, will participate of the 
 colour of that body which serves as a mirror; and the 
 mirror in its turn is tinged in part by the colour of the 
 object it represents ; they partake more or less of each 
 
COLOUKS. 
 
 99 
 
 other as the colour of the object seen is more or less strong 
 than the colour of the mirror. That object will appear of 
 the strongest and most lively colour in the mirror, which 
 has the most affinity to the colour of the mirror itself. 
 
 Of coloured bodies, the purest white will be seen at the 
 greatest distance, therefore the darker the colour, the less 
 it will bear distance. 
 
 Of different bodies equal in whiteness, and in distance 
 from the eye, that which is surrounded by the greatest 
 darkness will appear the whitest; and on the contrary, 
 that shadow will appear the darkest which has the 
 brightest white round it. 
 
 Of different colours equally perfect, that will appear 
 most excellent which is seen near its direct contrary : a 
 pale colour against red; a black upon white (though 
 neither the one nor the other are colours) ; blue near a 
 yellow ; green near red : because each colour is more 
 distinctly seen, when opposed to its contrary, than to any 
 other similar to it. 
 
 Anything white seen in a dense air full of vapours, will 
 appear larger than it is in reality. 
 
 The air between the eye and the object seen will 
 change the colour of that object into its own ; so will the 
 azure of the air change the distant mountains into blue 
 masses. Through a red glass everything appears red ; 
 the light round the stars is dimmed by the darkness of the 
 air, which fills the space between the eye and the planets. 
 
 The true colour of any object whatever will be seen in 
 those parts which are not occupied by any kind of shade, 
 and have not any gloss (if it be a polished surface). 
 
 I say, that white terminating abruptly upon a dark 
 ground, will cause that part where it terminates to appear 
 darker, and the white whiter. 
 
100 
 
 COLOURS IN REGARD TO 
 
 COLOURS IN REGARD TO LIGHT AND 
 SHADOW. 
 
 249. — Of the Light proper for painting Flesh Colour from 
 Nature. 
 
 Your window must be open to the sky, and the walls 
 painted of a reddish colour. The summer-time is the best 
 when the clouds conceal the sun, or else your walls on the 
 south side of the room must be so high, as that the sun- 
 beams cannot strike on the opposite side, in order that the 
 reflection of those beams may not destroy the shadows. 
 
 250. — Of the Painter's Window. 
 
 The window which gives light to a painting room, 
 ought to be made of oiled paper, without any cross bar, or 
 projecting edge at the opening, or any sharp angle in the 
 inside of the wall, but should be slanting by degrees 
 the whole thickness of it ; and the sides be painted black. 
 
 251. — The Shadows of Colours. 
 
 The shadows of any colour whatever must participate of 
 that colour more or less, as it is nearer to, or more remote 
 from, the mass of shadows; and also in proportion to its 
 distance from, or proximity to, the mass of light. 
 
 252. -0/ the Shadows of White. 
 
 To any white body receiving the light from the sun, or 
 the air, the shadows should be of a bluish cast ; because 
 white is no colour, but a receiver of all colours ; and as by 
 the fourth proposition * we learn that the surface of any 
 object participates of the colours of other objects near it, it 
 is evident that a white surface will participate of the 
 colour of the air by which it is surrounded. 
 
 * See chap. 274. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 101 
 
 253. — Wliich of the Colours will produce the darkest Shade. 
 
 That shade will be the darkest which is produced by the 
 whitest surface ; this also will have a greater propensity to 
 variety than any other surface ; because white is not 
 properly a colour, but a receiver of colours, and its surface 
 will participate strongly of the colour of surrounding 
 objects, but principally of black or any other dark colour, 
 which being the most opposite to its nature, produces the 
 most sensible difference between the shadows and the lights. 
 
 254. — How to manage when a White terminates upon another 
 
 White. 
 
 When one white body terminates on another of the same 
 colour, the white of these two bodies will be either alike or 
 not. If they be alike, that object which of the two is 
 nearest to the eye, should be made a little darker than the 
 other, upon the rounding of the outline ; but if the object 
 which serves as a ground to the other be not quite so white, 
 the latter will detach of itself, without the help of any 
 darker termination. 
 
 255. — On the Backgrounds of Figures. 
 
 Of two objects equally light, one will appear less so if 
 seen upon a whiter ground ; and, on the contrary, it will 
 appear a great deal lighter if upon a space of a darker 
 shade. So flesh colour will appear pale upon a red ground 
 and a pale colour will appear redder upon a yellow ground. 
 In short, colours will appear what they are not, according 
 to the ground which surrounds them. 
 
 256. — The Mode of composing History. 
 
 Amongst the figures which compose an historical picture, 
 those which are meant to appear the nearest to the eye 
 must have the greatest force ; according to the second 
 
102 
 
 COLOURS IN REGARD TO 
 
 proposition* of the third book, which says, that colour 
 will be seen in the greatest perfection which has less air 
 interposed between it and the eye of the beholder ; and for 
 that reason the shadows (by which we express the relievo 
 of bodies) appear darker when near than when at a distance, 
 being then deadened by the air which interposes. This 
 does not happen to those shadows which are near the eye, 
 where they will produce the greatest relievo when they are 
 darkest. 
 
 257. — Remarks concerning Lights and Shadows. 
 
 Observe, that where the shadows end, there be always a 
 kind of half-shadow to blend them with the lights. The 
 shadow derived from any object will mix more with the 
 light at its termination, in proportion as it is more distant 
 from that object. But the colour of the shadow will 
 never be simple ; this is proved by the ninth proposition, f 
 which says, that the superficies of any object participates 
 of the colours of other bodies, by which it is surrounded, 
 although it were transparent, such as water, air, and the 
 like : because the air receives its light from the sun, and 
 darkness is produced by the privation of it. But as the 
 air has no colour in itself, any more than water, it receives 
 all the colours that are between the object and the eye. 
 The vapours mixing with the air in the lower regions near 
 the earth, render it thick, and apt to reflect the sun's rays 
 on all sides, while the air above remains dark ; and because 
 light (that is, white) and darkness (that is, black), mixed 
 
 * Although the author seems to have designed that this, and many 
 other propositions to which he refers, should have formed a part of 
 some regular work, and he has accordingly referred to them when- 
 ever he has mentioned them, by their intended numerical situation in 
 that work, whatever it might be, it does not appear that he ever 
 carried this design into execution. There are, however, several 
 chapters in the present work, viz., 293, 289, 285, 295, in which the 
 principle in the text is recognised, and which probably would have 
 been transferred into the projected treatise, if he had ever drawn 
 it up. 
 
 f The note on the preceding chapter is in a great measure appli- 
 cable to this, and the proposition mentioned in the text is also to be 
 found in chapter 247 of the present work. 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 103 
 
 together, compose the azure, that becomes the colour of the 
 sky, which is lighter or darker in proportion as the air is 
 more or less mixed with damp vapours. 
 
 258. — WIty the Shadows of Bodies upon a white Wall are 
 bluish towards Evening. 
 
 The shadows of bodies produced by the redness of the 
 setting sun, will always be bluish. This is accounted for 
 by the eleventh proposition,* which says, that the super- 
 
 ficies of any opaque body participates of the colour of the 
 object from which it receives the light ; therefore the white 
 wall, being deprived entirely of colour, is tinged by the 
 colour of those bodies from which it receives the light, 
 which in this case are the sun and sky. But because the 
 sun is red towards the evening, and the sky is blue, the 
 shadow on the wall not being enlightened by the sun, 
 receives only the reflection of the sky, and therefore will 
 appear blue ; and the rest of the wall, receiving light 
 immediately from the sun, will participate of its red 
 colour. 
 
 * See the note on the chapter next but one preceding. The 
 proposition in the text occurs in chap. 247 of the present work. 
 
104 
 
 COLOURS IN REGARD TO 
 
 259.— Of the Colour of Faces. 
 
 The colour of any object will appear more or less distinct 
 in proportion to the extent of its surface. This proposition 
 is proved, by observing that a face appears dark at a small 
 distance, because, being composed of many small parts, it 
 produces a great number of shadows ; and the lights being 
 the smallest part of it, are soonest lost to the sight, leaving 
 only the shadows, which being in a greater quantity, the 
 whole of the face appears dark, and the more so if that 
 face has on the head, or at the back, something whiter. 
 
 260. — A Precept relating to Painting. 
 
 Where the shadows terminate upon the lights, observe 
 well what parts of them are lighter than the others, and 
 where they are more or less softened and blended; but 
 above all, remember, that young people have no sharp 
 shadings : their flesh is transparent, something like what 
 we observe when we put our hand between the sun and our 
 eyes ; it appears reddish, and of a transparent brightness. 
 If you wish to know what kind of shadow will suit the 
 flesh colour you are painting, place one of your fingers 
 close to your picture, so as to cast a shadow upon it, and 
 according as you wish it either lighter or darker, put it 
 nearer or farther from it, and imitate it. 
 
 261. — Of Colours in Shadow. 
 
 It happens very often that the shadows of an opaque body 
 do not retain the same colour as the lights. Sometimes 
 they will be greenish, while the lights are reddish, although 
 this opaque body be all over of one uniform colour. This 
 happens when the light falls upon the object (we will 
 suppose from the east), and tinges that side with its own 
 colour. In the west we will suppose another opaque body 
 of a colour different from the first, but receiving the same 
 light. This last will reflect its colour towards the East, 
 and strike the first with its rays on the opposite side, 
 where they will be stopped, and remain with their full 
 
LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 105 
 
 colour and brightness. We often see a white object with 
 red lights, and the shades of a bluish cast ; this we observe 
 particularly in mountains covered with snow, at sunset, 
 when the effulgence of its rays makes the horizon appear 
 all on fire. 
 
 262. — Of the Choice of Lights. 
 
 Whatever object you intend to represent is to be supposed 
 situated in a particular light, and that entirely of your own 
 choosing. If you imagine such objects to be in the country, 
 and the sun be overcast, they will be surrounded by a great 
 quantity of general light. If the sun strikes upon those 
 objects, then the shadows will be very dark, in proportion 
 to the lights, and will be determined and sharp ; the primi- 
 tive as well as the secondary ones. These shadows will 
 vary from the lights in colour, because on that side the 
 object receives a reflected light hue from the azure of the 
 air, which tinges that part ; and this is particularly 
 observable in white objects. That side which receives 
 the light from the sun, participates also of the colour of 
 that. This may be particularly observed in the evening, 
 when the sun is setting between the clouds, which it 
 reddens ; those clouds being tinged with the colour of the 
 body illuminating them, the red colour of the clouds, with 
 that of the sun, casts a hue on those parts which receive 
 the light from them. On the contrary, those parts which 
 are not turned towards that side of the sky, remain of the 
 colour of the air, so that the former and the latter are of 
 two different colours. This we must not lose sight of, that, 
 knowing the cause of those lights and shades, it be made 
 apparent in the effect, or else the work will be false and 
 absurd. But if a figure be situated within a house, and 
 seen from without, such figure will have its shadows very 
 soft ; and if the beholder stands in the line of the light, it 
 will acquire grace, and do credit to the painter, as it will 
 have great relief in the lights, and soft and well-blended 
 shadows, particularly in those parts where the inside of the 
 room appears less obscure, because there the shadows are 
 almost imperceptible : the cause of which we shall explain 
 in its proper place. 
 
106 
 
 COLOURS IN REGARD TO BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 COLOURS m REGARD TO BACKGROUNDS. 
 263. — Of avoiding Jiard Outlines. 
 
 Do not make the boundaries of your figures with any 
 other colour than that of the background on which they 
 are placed ; that is, avoid making dark outlines. 
 
 264.-0/ Outlines. 
 
 The extremities of objects which are at some distance, 
 are not seen so distinctly as if they were nearer. There- 
 fore the painter ought to regulate the strength of his out- 
 lines, or extremities, according to the distance. 
 
 The boundaries which separate one body from another, 
 are of the nature of mathematical lines, but not of real 
 lines. The end of any colour is only the beginning of 
 another, and it ought not to be called a line, for nothing 
 interposes between them, except the termination of the one 
 against the other, which being nothing in itself, cannot be 
 perceivable ; therefore the painter ought not to pronounce 
 it in distant objects. 
 
 265. — Of Backgrounds. 
 
 One of the principal parts of painting is the nature and 
 quality of backgrounds, upon which the extremities of any 
 convex or solid body will always detach and be distinguished 
 in nature, though the colour of such objects, and that of 
 the ground, be exactly the same. This happens, because 
 the convex sides of solid bodies do not receive the light 
 in the same manner with the ground, for such sides or 
 extremities are often lighter or darker than the ground. 
 But if such extremities were to be of the same colour as 
 the ground, and in the same degree of light, they certainly 
 could not be distinguished. Therefore such a choice in 
 painting ought to be avoided by all intelligent and judicious 
 painters ; since the intention is to make the object appear 
 
COLOURS IN REGARD TO BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 107 
 
 as it were out of the ground. The above case would pro- 
 duce the contrary effect, not only in painting, but also in 
 objects of real relievo. 
 
 266. — How to detach Figures from the Ground. 
 
 All solid bodies will appear to have a greater relief, and 
 to come more out of the canvas, on a ground of an un- 
 determined colour, with the greatest variety of lights and 
 shades against the confines of such bodies (as will be 
 demonstrated in its place), provided a proper diminution 
 of lights in the white tints, and of darkness in the shades, 
 be judiciously observed. 
 
 267. — Of Uniformity and Variety of Colours upon plain 
 Surfaces. 
 
 The backgrounds of any flat surfaces which are uniform 
 in colour and quantity of light, will never appear separated 
 from each other ; vice versa, they will appear separated if 
 they are of different colours or lights. 
 
 268. — Of Backgrounds suitable both to Shadows and Lights. 
 
 The shadows or lights which surround figures, or any 
 other objects, will help the more to detach them the more 
 they differ from the objects ; that is, if a dark colour does 
 not terminate upon another dark colour, but upon a very 
 different one ; as white, or partaking of white, but lowered, 
 and approximated to the dark shade. 
 
 269. — The apparent Variation of Colours, occasioned by the 
 Contrast of the Ground upon ivhich they are placed. 
 
 No colour appears uniform and equal in all its parts, 
 unless it terminate on a ground of the same colour. This 
 is very apparent when a black terminates on a white 
 ground, where the contrast of colour gives more strength 
 and richness to the extremities than to the middle. 
 
108 
 
 CONTRAST, HA.RMONY, AND REFLEXES. 
 
 CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES, IN 
 REGARD TO COLOURS. 
 
 270. — Gradation in Painting. 
 
 What is fine is not always beautiful and good : I address 
 this to such painters as are so attached to the beauty of 
 colours, that they regret being obliged to give them almost 
 imperceptible shadows, not considering the beautiful relief 
 which figures acquire by a proper gradation and strength 
 of shadows. Such persons may be compared to those 
 speakers who in conversation make use of many fine words 
 without meaning, which altogether scarcely form one good 
 sentence. 
 
 271. — How to assort Colours in such a Manner as that they 
 may add Beauty to each other. 
 
 If you mean that the proximity of one colour should give 
 beauty to another that terminates near it, observe the rays 
 of the sun in the composition of the rainbow, the colours of 
 which are generated by the falling rain, when each drop in 
 its descent takes every colour of that bow, as is demon- 
 strated in its place.* 
 
 If you mean to represent great darkness, it must be done 
 by contrasting it with great light ; on the contrary, if you 
 want to produce great brightness, you must oppose to it a 
 very dark shade : so a pale yellow will cause red to appear 
 more beautiful than if opposed to a purple colour. 
 
 There is another rule, by observing which, though you 
 do not increase the natural beauty of the colours, yet by 
 bringing them together they may give additional grace to 
 each other, as green placed near red, while the effect would 
 be quite the reverse, if placed near blue. 
 
 Harmony and grace are also produced by a judicious 
 arrangement of colours, such as blue with pale yellow or 
 white, and the like ; as will be noticed in its place. 
 
 * Not in this work. 
 
CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES. 
 
 109 
 
 272. — Of detaching the Figures. 
 
 Let the colours of which the draperies of your figures 
 are composed, be such as to form a pleasing variety, to 
 distinguish one from the other ; and although, for the sake 
 of harmony, they should be of the same nature,* they must 
 not stick together, but vary in point of light, according to 
 the distance and interposition of the air between them. By 
 the same rule, the outlines are to be more precise, or lost, 
 in proportion to their distance or proximity. 
 
 273. — Of the Colour of Beflexes. 
 
 All reflected colours are less brilliant and strong than 
 those which receive a direct light, in the same proportion 
 as there is between the light of a body and the cause of that 
 light. 
 
 274. — What Body will be the most strongly tinged with the 
 Colour of any other Object. 
 
 An opaque surface will partake most of the genuine 
 colour of the body nearest to it, because a great quantity of 
 the species of colour will be conveyed to it ; whereas such 
 colour would be broken and disturbed if coming from a 
 more distant object. 
 
 275.— Of Beflexes. 
 
 Reflexes will partake, more or less, both of the colour of 
 the object which produces them, and of the colour of that 
 
 * I do not know a better comment on this passage than Felibien's 
 Examination of Le Brun's Picture of the Tent of Darius. From this 
 (which has been reprinted, with an English translation by Colonel 
 Parsons, in 1700, in folio,) it will clearly appear, what the chain of 
 connection is between every colour there used and its nearest neigh- 
 bour, and consequently a rule may be formed from it with more 
 certainty and precision than where the student is left to develop it 
 for himself, from the mere inspection of different examples of 
 colouring. 
 
110 
 
 CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES. 
 
 object on which they are produced, in proportion as this 
 latter body is of a smoother or more polished surface than 
 that by which they are produced. 
 
 276. — Of the Surface of all shadowed Bodies. 
 
 The surface of any opaque body placed in shadow, will 
 participate of the colour of any other object which reflects 
 the light upon it. This is very evident ; for if such bodies 
 were deprived of light in the space between them and the 
 other bodies, they could not show either shape or colour. 
 We shall conclude then, that if the opaque body be yellow, 
 and that which reflects the light blue, the part reflected 
 will be green, because green is composed of blue and 
 yellow. 
 
 277. — That no reflected Colour is simple, but is mixed with the 
 nature of the other Colours. 
 
 No colour reflected upon the surface of another body, 
 will tinge that surface with its own colour alone, but will 
 be mixed by the concurrence of other colours also reflected 
 
 on the same spot. Let us suppose A to be of a yellow colour, 
 which is reflected on the convex C O É, and that the blue 
 colour B be reflected on the same place. I say that a 
 mixture of the blue and yellow colours will tinge the 
 
CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES. Ill 
 
 convex surface ; and that, if the ground be white, it will 
 produce a green reflection, because it is proved that a 
 mixture of blue and yellow produces a very fine green. 
 
 278. — Of the Colour of Lights and Beflexes. 
 
 When two lights strike upon an opaque body, they can 
 vary only in two ways ; either they are equal in strength, 
 or they are not. If they be equal, they may still vary in 
 two other ways, that is, by the equality or inequality of their 
 brightness : they will be equal, if their distance be the 
 same ; and unequal, if it be otherwise. The object placed 
 at an equal distance, between two equal lights, in point 
 both of colour and brightness, may still be enlightened by 
 them in two different ways, either equally on each side, or 
 unequally. It will be equally enlightened by them, when the 
 space which remains round the lights shall be equal in colour, 
 in degree of shade, and in brightness. It will be unequally 
 enlightened by them when the spaces happen to be of dif- 
 ferent degrees of darkness. 
 
 279. — Why reflected Colours seldom partake of the Colour of 
 the Body where they meet. 
 
 It happens very seldom that the reflexes are of the same 
 oclour with the body from which they proceed, or with that 
 
112 
 
 CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES. 
 
 upon which they meet. To exemplify this, let the convex 
 body D F Gr E be of a yellow colour, and the body B C, 
 which reflects its colour on it, blue ; the part of the convex 
 surface which is struck by that reflected light will take a 
 green tinge, being B C, acted on by the natural light of 
 the air or the sun. 
 
 280. — The Reflexes of Flesh Colours. 
 
 The lights upon the flesh colours, which are reflected by 
 the light striking upon another flesh-coloured body, are 
 redder and more lively than any other part of the human 
 figure; and that happens according to the third proposition 
 of the second book,* which says, the surface of any opaque 
 body participates of the colour of the object which reflects 
 that light in proportion as it is near to or remote from it, 
 and also in proportion to the size of it ; because, being 
 large, it prevents the variety of colours in smaller objects 
 round it, from interfering with, and discomposing the 
 principal colour, which is nearer. Nevertheless, it does 
 not prevent its participating more of the colour of a small 
 object near it, than of a large one more remote. See the 
 sixth proposition f of perspective, which says, that large 
 objects may be situated at such a distance as to appear less 
 than small ones that are near. 
 
 281. — Of the Nature of Comparison. 
 
 Black draperies will make the flesh of the human figure 
 appear whiter than in reality it is ; X and white draperies, 
 on the contrary, will make it appear darker. Yellow will 
 render it higher coloured, while red will make it pale. 
 
 * See chapters 223, 237, 274, 282, of the present work. We have 
 before remarked, that the propositions so frequently referred to by 
 the author, were never reduced into form, though apparently he 
 intended a regular work in which they were to be included. 
 
 f Nowhere in this work. 
 
 X This is evident in many of Vandyke's portraits, particularly of 
 ladies, many of whom are dressed in black velvet ; and this remark 
 will in some measure account for the delicate fairness which he 
 frequently gives to the female complexion. 
 
CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES. 
 
 113 
 
 282. — Where the Reflexes are seen. 
 
 Of all reflections of the same shape, size, and strength, 
 that will be more or less strong which terminates on a 
 ground more or less dark. 
 
 The surface of those bodies will partake most of the 
 colour of the object that reflects it, which receive that 
 reflection by the most nearly equal angles. 
 
 Of the colours of objects reflected upon any opposite 
 surface by equal angles, that will be the most distinct 
 which has its reflecting ray the shortest. 
 
 Of all colours, reflected under equal angles, and at equal 
 distance upon the opposite body, those will be the strongest 
 which come reflected by the lightest coloured body. 
 
 The object will reflect its own colour most precisely on 
 the opposite object, which has not round it any colour that 
 clashes with its own ; and consequently that reflected 
 colour will be most confused which takes its origin from 
 a variety of bodies of different colours. 
 
 That colour which is nearest the opposed object will 
 tinge it the most strongly ; and vice versa : let the painter, 
 therefore, in his reflexes on the human body, particularly 
 on the flesh colour, mix some of the colour of the drapery 
 which comes nearest to it ; but not pronounce it too dis- 
 tinctly, if there be not good reason for it. 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 283. — A Precept of Perspective in regard to Painting. 
 
 When, on account of some particular quality of the air, 
 you can no longer distinguish the difference between the 
 lights and shadows of objects, you may reject the per- 
 spective of shadows, and make use only of the linear 
 perspective, and the diminution of colours, to lessen the 
 knowledge of the objects opposed to the eye ; and this, 
 that is to say, the loss of the knowledge of the figure of 
 each object, will make the same object appear more 
 remote. 
 
 The eye can never arrive at a perfect knowledge of the 
 interval between two objects variously distant by means 
 of the linear perspective alone, if not assisted by the per- 
 spective of colours. 
 
 284. — Of the Perspective of Colours. 
 
 The air will participate less of the azure of the sky, in 
 proportion as it comes nearer to the horizon, as it is proved 
 by the third and ninth proposition,* that pure and subtile 
 bodies (such as compose the air) will be less illuminated 
 by the sun than those of thicker and grosser substance : 
 and as it is certain that the air which is remote from the 
 earth is thinner than that which is near it, it will follow, 
 that the latter will be more impregnated with the rays of 
 the sun, which giving light at the same time to an infinity 
 of atoms floating in this air, renders it more sensible to 
 the eye. So that the air will appear lighter towards the 
 horizon, and darker as well as bluer in looking up to the 
 sky ; because there is more of the thick air between our 
 eyes and the horizon, than between our eyes and that part 
 of the sky above our heads. 
 
 * These propositions, any more than the others mentioned in 
 different parts of this work, were never digested into a regular 
 treatise, as was evidently intended by the author, and consequently 
 are not to be found, except perhaps in some of the volumes of the 
 author's manuscript collections. 
 
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 115 
 
 For instance : if the eye placed in P looks through the 
 air along the line P R, and then lowers itself a little along 
 
 P S, the air will begin to appear a little whiter, because 
 there is more of the thick air in this space than in the first. 
 And if it be still removed lower, so as to look straight at 
 the horizon, no more of that bine sky will v be perceived 
 which was observable along the first line P R, because 
 there is a much greater quantity of thick air along the 
 horizontal line P D, than along the oblique P S, or the 
 perpendicular P R. 
 
 285. — The Cause of the Diminution of Colours. 
 
 The natural colour of any visible object will be 
 diminished in proportion to the density of any other 
 substance which interposes between that object and the 
 eye. 
 
 286. — Of the Diminution of Colours and Objects. 
 
 Let the colours vanish in proportion as the objects 
 diminish in size, according to the distance. 
 
116 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 287. — Of the Variety observable in Colours, according to their 
 Distance or Proximity. 
 
 The local colour of such objects as are darker than the 
 air, will appear less dark as they are more remote ; and, on 
 the contrary, objects lighter than the air will lose their 
 brightness in proportion to their distance from the eye. 
 In general, all objects that are darker or lighter than the 
 air, are discoloured by distance, which changes their 
 quality so that the lighter appears darker, and the darker 
 lighter. 
 
 288. — At what Distance Colours are entirely lost. 
 
 Local colours are entirely lost at a greater or less distance, 
 according as the eye and the object are more or less elevated 
 from the earth. This is proved by the seventh proposition,* 
 which says the air is more or less pure, as it is near to, or 
 remote from the earth. If the eye, then, and the object 
 are near the earth, the thickness of the air which inter- 
 poses, will in a great measure confuse the colour of that 
 object to the eye. But if the eye and the object are placed 
 high above the earth, the air will disturb the natural colour 
 of that object very little. In short, the various gradations 
 of colour depend not only on the various distances, in 
 which they may be lost ; but also on the variety of lights, 
 which change according to the different hours of the day, 
 and the thickness or purity of the air through which the 
 colour of the object is conveyed to the eye. 
 
 289. — Of the Change observable in the same Colour, according 
 to its Distance from the Eye. 
 
 Among several colours of the same nature, that which 
 is the nearest to the eye will alter the least; because the 
 air which interposes between the eye and the object seen, 
 envelopes, in some measure, that object. If the air which 
 interposes be in great quantity, the object seen will be 
 
 * See chapters 293, 307, 303. 
 
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 117 
 
 strongly tinged with the colour of that air ; but if the air 
 be thin, then the view of that object, and its colour, will 
 be very little obstructed. 
 
 290. — Of the bluish Appearance of remote Objects in a Land- 
 scape. 
 
 Whatever be the colour of distant objects, the darkest, 
 whether natural or accidental, will appear the most tinged 
 with azure. By the natural darkness is meant the proper 
 colour of the object ; the accidental one is produced by the 
 shadow of some other body. 
 
 291. — Of the Qualities in the Surface which first lose themselves 
 by Distance. 
 
 The first part of any colour which is lost by the distance 
 is the gloss, being the smallest part of it, as a light within 
 a light. The second that diminishes by being farther 
 removed, is the light, because it is less in quantity than 
 the shadow. The third is the principal shadows, nothing 
 remaining at last but a kind of middling obscurity. 
 
 292. — From what Cause the Azure of the Air proceeds. 
 
 The azure of the sky is produced by the transparent 
 body of the air, illumined by the sun, and interposed 
 between the darkness of the expanse above, and the earth 
 below. The air in itself has no quality of smell, taste, or 
 colour, but is easily impregnated with the quality of other 
 matter surrounding it ; and will appear bluer in proportion 
 to the darkness of the space behind it, as may be observed 
 against the shady sides of mountains, which are darker 
 than any other object. In this instance the air appears of 
 the most beautiful azure; while on the other side, that 
 receives the light, it shows through that more of the 
 natural colour of the mountain. 
 
118 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 293. — Of the Perspective of Colours. 
 
 The same colour being placed at various distances and 
 equal elevation, the force and effect of its colouring will 
 be according to the proportion of the distance which there 
 is from each of these colours to the eye. It is proved thus : 
 
 let A B E D be one and the same colour. The first, E, 
 is placed at two degrees of distance from the eye A ; the 
 second, B, shall be four degrees ; the third, C, six degrees ; 
 and the fourth, D, eight degrees ; as appears by the circle 
 which terminate upon and intersect the line A R. Let us 
 suppose that the space A R, S P, is one degree of thin air, 
 and S P E T another degree of thicker air. It will follow, 
 that the first colour, E, will pass to the eye through one 
 degree of thick air, E S, and through another degree, S A, 
 of thinner air. And B will send its colour to the eye in A, 
 through two degrees of thick air, and through two others 
 of the thinner sort. C will send it through three degrees 
 of the thin, and three of the thick sort, while D goes 
 through four degrees of the one, and four of the other. 
 This demonstrates, that the gradation of colours is in 
 proportion to their distance from the eye.* But this 
 happens only to those colours which are on a level with 
 
 A 
 
 4 2 3 4-5 6 7 % 
 
 E 
 
 8 
 
 * See chap. 287. 
 
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 119 
 
 the eye ; as for those which happen to be at unequal eleva- 
 tions, we cannot observe the same rule, because they are in 
 that case situated in different qualities of air, which alter 
 and diminish these colours in various manners. 
 
 294. — Of the Perspective of Colours in dark Places. 
 
 In any place where the light diminishes in a gradual 
 proportion, till it terminates in total darkness, the colours 
 also will lose themselves and be dissolved in proportion as 
 they recede from the eye. 
 
 295. — Of the Perspective of Colours. 
 
 The principal colours, or those nearest to the eye, should 
 be pure and simple ; and the degree of their diminution 
 should be in proportion to their distance, viz., the nearer 
 they are to the principal point, the more they will possess 
 of the purity of those colours, and they will partake of the 
 colour of the horizon in proportion as they approach to it. 
 
 , 296.-0/ Colours. 
 
 Of all the colours which are not blue, those that are 
 nearest to black will, when distant, partake most of the 
 azure; and, on the contrary, those will preserve their 
 proper colour at the greatest distance, that are most 
 dissimilar to black. 
 
 The green, therefore, of the fields will change sooner into 
 blue than yellow or white, which will preserve their 
 natural colour at a greater distance than that, or even red. 
 
 297. — How it happens that Colours do not change, though placed 
 in different Qualities of Air. 
 
 The colour will not be subject to any alteration when the 
 distance and the quality of air have a reciprocal proportion. 
 What it loses by the distance it regains by the purity of 
 the air, viz., if we suppose the first or lowest air to have 
 four degrees of thickness, and the colour to be at one 
 
120 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 degree from tlie eye ; and the second air above to have 
 three degrees ; the air having lost one degree of thick- 
 ness, the colour will acquire one degree upon the distance. 
 And when the air still higher shall have lost two degrees 
 of thickness, the colour will acquire as many upon the 
 distance ; and in that case the colour will be the same at 
 three degrees as at one. But to be brief, if the colour be 
 raised so high as to enter that quality of air which has lost 
 three degrees of thickness, and acquired three degrees of 
 distance, then you may be certain that that colour which 
 is high and remote, has lost no more than the colour which 
 is below and nearer; because in rising it has acquired 
 those three degrees which it was losing by the same 
 distance from the eye; and this is what was meant to be 
 proved. 
 
 298. — Why Colours experience no apparent Cliange, though 
 placed in different Qualities of Air. 
 
 It may happen that a colour does not alter, though 
 placed at different distances, when the thickness of the air 
 and the distance are in the same inverse proportion. It is 
 proved thus : — let A be the eye, and H any colour what- 
 
 12 3 degrees of distance. 
 
 ever, placed at one degree of distance from the eye, in a 
 quality of air of four degrees of thickness ; but because the 
 
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 121 
 
 second degree above, AMNL, contains a thinner air by 
 one-half, which air conveys this colour, it follows that this 
 colour will appear as if removed double the distance it was- 
 at before, viz., at two degrees of distance, A F and F G, 
 from the eye ; and it will be placed in G. If that is raised 
 to the second degree of air A M ]ST L, and to the degree 
 O M, P N, it will necessarily be placed at E, and will be 
 removed from the eye the whole length of the line A E, 
 which will be proved in this manner to be equal in thick- 
 ness to the distance A G. If in the same quality of air 
 the distance A Gr interposed between the eye and the colour 
 occupies two degrees and a half, it is sufficient to preserve 
 the colour G, when raised to E, from any change, because 
 the degree A C and the degree A E being the same in 
 thickness, are equal and alike, and the degree C D, though 
 equal in length to the degree E G, is not alike in point of 
 thickness of air ; because half of it is situated in a degree 
 of air of double the thickness of the air above : this half 
 degree of distance occupies as much of the colour as one 
 whole degree of the air above would, which air above 
 is twice as thin as the air below, with which it terminates ; 
 so that by calculating the thickness of the air, and the 
 distances, you will find that the colours have changed 
 places without undergoing any alteration in their beauty. 
 And we shall prove it thus : reckoning first the thickness 
 of the air, the colour H is placed in four degrees of thick- 
 ness, the colour G in two degrees, and E at one degree. 
 Now let us see whether the distances are in an equal 
 inverse proportion; the colour E is at two degrees and a 
 half of distance, G at two degrees, and H at one degree. 
 But as this distance has not an exact proportion with the 
 thickness of the air, it is necessary to make a third calcula- 
 tion in this manner: A C is perfectly like and equal to 
 A E; the half degree C B, is like but not equal to A E, 
 because it is only half a degree in length, which is equal 
 to a whole degree of the quality of the air above ; so that 
 by this calculation we shall solve the question. For A C 
 is equal to two degrees of thickness of the air above, and 
 the half degree C B is equal to a whole degree of the same 
 air above ; and one degree more is to be taken in, viz., B E, 
 
122 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 which makes the fourth. A H has four degrees of thick- 
 ness of air, A G also four, viz., A F two in value, and F G 
 also two, which taken together make four. A E has also 
 four, because A C contains two, and C D one, which is the 
 half of A C, and in the same quality of air ; and there is 
 a whole degree above in the thin air, which altogether 
 make four. So that if A E is not double the distance A G-, 
 nor four times the distance A H, it is equivalent by the 
 half degree C B of thick air, which is equal to a whole 
 degree of thin air above. This proves the truth of the 
 proposition, that the colour H G E does not undergo any 
 alteration by these different distances. 
 
 299. — Contrary Opinions in regard to Objects seen afar off. 
 
 Many painters will represent the objects darker, in 
 proportion as they are removed from the eye; but this 
 cannot be true, unless the objects seen be white ; as shall 
 be examined in the next chapter. 
 
 300. — Of the Colour of Objects remote from the Eye. 
 
 The air tinges objects with its own colour more or less in 
 proportion to the quantity of intervening air between it 
 and the eye, so that a dark object at the distance of two 
 miles (or a density of air equal to such distance), will be 
 more tinged with its colour than if only one mile distant. 
 
 It is said, that, in a landscape, trees of the same species 
 appear darker in the distance than near; this cannot be 
 true, if they be of equal size, and divided by equal spaces. 
 But it will be so if the first trees are scattered, and the light 
 of the fields is seen through and between them, while the 
 others which are farther off, are thick together, as is often 
 the case near some river or other piece of water : in this 
 case no space of light fields can be perceived, but the trees 
 appear thick together, accumulating the shadow on each 
 other. It also happens, that as the shady parts of plants 
 are much broader than the light ones, the colour of the 
 plants, becoming darker by the multiplied shadows, is 
 preserved, and conveyed to the eye more strongly than that 
 of the other parts ; these masses, therefore, will carry the 
 strongest parts of their colour to a greater distance. 
 
PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 123 
 
 301. — Of the Colour of Mountains. 
 
 The darker the mountain is in itself, the bluer it will 
 appear at a great distance. The highest part will be the 
 darkest, as being more woody ; because woods cover a great 
 many shrubs, and other plants, which never receive any 
 light. The wild plants of those woods are also natnrally of 
 a darker hue than cultivated plants ; for oak, beech, fir, 
 cypress, and pine trees are mnch darker than olive and 
 other domestic plants. Near the top of these mountains, 
 where the air is thinner and purer, the darkness of the 
 woods will make it appear of a deeper azure than at the 
 bottom, where the air is thicker. A plant will detach very 
 little from the ground it stands upon, if that ground be of 
 a colour something similar to its own ; and, vice versa, that 
 part of any white object which is nearest to a dark one, 
 will appear the whitest, and the less so as it is removed 
 from it ; and any dark object will appear darker, the nearer 
 it is to a white one ; and less so, if removed from it. 
 
 302. — Why the Colour and Shape of Objects are lost in some 
 Situations apparently dark, though not so in Heality. 
 
 There are some situations which, though light, appear 
 dark, and in which objects are deprived both of form and 
 colour. This is caused by the great light which pervades 
 the intervening air ; as is observable by looking in through 
 a window at some distance from the eye, when nothing is 
 seen but a uniform darkish shade ; but if we enter the 
 house, we shall find that room to be full of light, and soon 
 distinguish every small object contained within that window. 
 This difference of effect is produced by the great brightness 
 of the air, which contracts considerably the pupil of the 
 eye, and by so doing diminishes its power. But in dark 
 places the pupil is enlarged, and acquires as much in 
 strength as it increases in size. This is proved in my 
 second proposition of perspective.* 
 
 * This book on perspective was never drawn up. 
 
124 , 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 303. — Various Precepts in Painting. 
 
 The termination and shape of the parts in general are 
 very little seen, either in great masses of light, or of 
 shadows; but those which are situated between the 
 extremes of light and shade are the most distinct. 
 
 Perspective, as far as it extends in regard to painting, is 
 divided into three principal parts ; the first consists in the 
 diminution of size according to distance ; the second con- 
 cerns the diminution of colours in such objects ; and the 
 third treats of the diminution of the perception altogether 
 of those objects, and of the degree of precision they ought 
 to exhibit at various distances. 
 
 The azure of the sky is produced by a mixture composed 
 of light and darkness;* I say of light, because of the moist 
 particles floating in the air, which reflect the light. By 
 darkness, I mean the pure air, which has none of these 
 extraneous particles to stop and reflect the rays. Of this 
 we see an example in the air interposed between the eye 
 and some dark mountains, rendered so by the shadows of 
 an innumerable quantity of trees; or else shaded on one 
 side by the natural privation of the rays of the sun : this 
 air becomes azure, but not so on the side of the mountain 
 which is light, particularly when it is covered with snow. 
 
 Among objects of equal darkness and equal distance, 
 those will appear darker that terminate upon a lighter 
 ground, and vice versd.f 
 
 That object which is painted with the most white and 
 the most black, will show greater relief than any other ; for 
 that reason I would recommend to painters to colour and 
 dress their figures with the brightest and most lively 
 colours ; for if they are painted of a dull or obscure colour, 
 they will detach but little, and not be much seen, when the 
 picture is placed at some distance, because the colour of 
 every object is obscured in the shades ; and if it be repre- 
 sented as originally so all over, there will be but little 
 difference between the lights and the shades, while lively 
 colours will show a striking difference. 
 
 * See chap. 292. f See chapters 212, 248, 255. 
 
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 125 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 304. — Aerial Perspective. 
 
 There is another kind of perspective, called aerial, because 
 by the difference of the air it is easy to determine the dis- 
 tance of different objects, thongh seen on the same line ; 
 snch, for instance, as bnildings behind a wall, and appear- 
 ing all of the same height above it. If in yonr picture you 
 want to have one appear more distant than another, you 
 must first suppose the air somewhat thick ; because, as we 
 have said before, in such a kind of air the objects seen at a 
 great distance, as mountains are, appear bluish like the 
 air, by means of the great quantity of air that interposes 
 between the eye and such mountains. You will then paint 
 the first building behind that wall of its proper colour ; the 
 next in point of distance, less distinct in the outline, and 
 participating, in a greater degree, of the bluish colour of 
 the air ; another, which you wish to send off as much 
 farther, should be painted as much bluer ; and if you wish 
 one of them to appear five times farther removed beyond 
 the wall, it must have five times more of the azure. By 
 this rule, these buildings which appeared all of the same 
 size, and upon the same line, will be distinctly perceived 
 to be of different dimensions, and at different distances. 
 
 305.- — The Parts of the smallest Objects will first disappear in 
 Painting. 
 
 Of objects receding from the eye the smallest will be first 
 lost to the sight ; from which it follows, that the largest 
 will be the last to disappear. The painter, therefore, ought 
 not to finish the parts of those objects which are very far 
 off, but follow the rule given in the sixth book.* 
 
 How many, in the representation of towns, and other 
 
 * There is no work of this author to which this can at present 
 refer, but the principle is laid down in chapters 274, 306, of the 
 present treatise. 
 
126 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 objects remote from the eye, express every part of the 
 buildings in the same manner as if they were very near. 
 It is not so in Nature, because there is no sight so powerful 
 as to perceive distinctly at any great distance the precise 
 form of parts or extremities of objects. The painter, there- 
 fore, who pronounces the outlines, and the minute distinc- 
 tion of parts, as several have done, will not give the 
 representation of distant objects, but by this error will 
 make them appear exceedingly near. Again, the angles 
 of buildings in distant towns are not to be expressed (for 
 they cannot be seen), considering that angles are formed 
 by the concurrence of two lines into one point, and that a 
 point has no parts ; it is therefore invisible. 
 
 306. — Small Figures ought not to be too much finished. 
 
 Objects appear smaller than they really are when they 
 are distant from the eye, and because there is a great deal 
 of air interposed, which weakens the appearance of forms, 
 and, by a natural consequence, prevents our seeing dis- 
 tinctly the minute parts of such objects. It behoves the 
 painter, therefore, to touch those" parts slightly, in an un- 
 finished manner ; otherwise it would be against the effect 
 of Nature, whom he has chosen for his guide. For, as we 
 said before, objects appear small on account of their great 
 distance from the eye; that distance includes a great 
 quantity of air, which, forming a dense body, obstructs 
 the light, and prevents our seeing the minute parts of 
 the objects. 
 
 307. — Why the Air is to appear whiter as it approaches nearer 
 to the Earth. 
 
 As the air is thicker nearer the earth, and becomes 
 thinner as it rises, look, when the sun is in the east, 
 towards the west, between the north and south, and you 
 will perceive that the thickest and lowest air will receive 
 more light from the sun than the thinner air, because its 
 beams meet with more resistance. 
 
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 127 
 
 If the sky terminate low, at the end of a plain, that part 
 of it nearest to tbe horizon, being seen only through the 
 thick air, will alter and break its natural colour, and will 
 appear whiter than over your head, where the visual ray 
 does not pass through so much of that gross air, corrupted 
 by earthy vapours. But if you turn towards the east, the 
 air will be darker the nearer it approaches the earth ; for 
 the air being thicker, does not admit the light of the sun 
 to pass so freely. 
 
 308. — Sow to paint the distant Part of a Landscape. 
 
 It is evident that the air is in some parts thicker and 
 grosser than in others, particularly that nearest to the 
 earth ; and as it rises higher, it becomes thinner and more 
 transparent. The objects which are high and large, from 
 which you are at some distance, will be less apparent in 
 the lower parts; because the visual ray which perceives 
 them, passes through a long space of dense air ; and it is 
 easy to prove that the upper parts are seen by a line, which, 
 though on the side of the eye it originates in a thick air, 
 nevertheless, as it ascends to the highest summit of its 
 object, terminates in an air much thinner than that of the 
 lower parts; and for that reason the more that line or 
 visual ray advances from the eye, it becomes, in its progress 
 from one point to another, thinner and thinner, passing 
 from a pure air into another which is purer; so that a 
 painter who has mountains to represent in a landscape, 
 ought to observe, that from one hill to another, the tops 
 will appear always clearer than the bases. In proportion 
 as the distance from one to another is greater, the top will 
 be clearer; and the higher they are, the more they will 
 show their variety of form and colour. 
 
 309. — Of precise and confused Objects. 
 
 The parts that are near in the foreground should be 
 finished in a bold determined manner; but those in the 
 distance must be unfinished, and confused in their out- 
 lines. 
 
128 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 310. — Of distant Objects. 
 
 That part of any object which is nearest to the luminary 
 from which it receives the light, will be the lightest. 
 
 The representation of an object in every degree of dis- 
 tance, loses degrees of its strength ; that is, in proportion 
 as the object is more remote from the eye it will be less 
 perceivable through the air in its representation. 
 
 311. — Of Buildings seen in a thick Air. 
 
 That part of a building seen through a thick air, will 
 appear less distinct than another part seen through a 
 thinner air. Therefore the eye N, looking at the tower 
 
 A D, will see it more confusedly in the lower degrees, but 
 at the same time lighter; and as it ascends to the other 
 degrees it will appear more distinct, but somewhat darker. 
 
 312. — Of Towns and oilier Objects seen through a thick Air. 
 
 Buildings or towns seen through a fog, or the air made 
 thick by smoke or other vapours, will appear less distinct 
 
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 129 
 
 the lower they are ; and, vice versa, they will be sharper 
 and more visible in proportion as they are higher. We 
 have said in chapter 321 that the air is thicker the 
 lower it is, and thinner as it is higher. It is demonstrated 
 also by the cut, where the tower A F is seen by the eye 
 
 N, in a thick air, from B to F, which is divided into fonr 
 degrees, growing thicker as they are nearer the bottom. 
 The less the quantity of air interposed between the eye and 
 its object is, the less also will the colour of the object 
 participate of the colour of that air. It follows, that the 
 greater the quantity of air interposed between the eye and 
 the object seen is, the more this object will participate of 
 the colour of the air. It is demonstrated thus : N being 
 the eye looking at the five parts of the tower A F, viz. 
 A B C D E, I say, that if the air were of the same thick- 
 ness, there would be the same proportion between the 
 colour of the air at the bottom of the tower and the colour 
 of the air that the same tower has at the place B, as there 
 is in length between the line M and F. As, however, we 
 have supposed that the air is not of equal thickness, but, 
 on the contrary, thicker as it is lower, it follows, that the 
 proportion by which the air tinges the different elevations 
 of the tower B C F exceeds the proportion of the lines ; 
 because the line M F, besides its being longer than the line 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 S B, passes by unequal degrees through a quality of air 
 which is unequal in thickness. 
 
 313. — Of the inferior Extremities of distant Objects. 
 
 The inferior or lower extremities of distant objects are 
 not so apparent as the upper extremities. This is observ- 
 able in mountains and hills, the tops of which detach from 
 the sides of other mountains behind. We see the tops of 
 these more determined and distinctly than their bases ; 
 because the upper extremities are darker, being less en- 
 compassed by thick air, which always remains in the lower 
 regions, and makes them appear dim and confused. It is 
 the same with trees, buildings, and other objects high up. 
 From this effect it often happens that a high tower, seen 
 at a great distance, will appear broad at top, and narrow at 
 bottom ; because the thin air towards the top does not 
 prevent the angles on the sides and other different parts of 
 the tower from being seen, as the thick air does at the 
 bottom. This is demonstrated by the seventh proposition,* 
 which says, that the thick air interposed between the eye 
 and the sun is lighter below than above, and where the 
 air is whitish it confuses the dark objects more than if 
 such air were bluish or thinner, as it is higher up. The 
 battlements of a fortress have the spaces between equal to 
 the breadth of the battlement, and yet the space will 
 appear wider ; at a great distance the battlements will 
 appear very much diminished, and being removed still 
 farther, will disappear entirely, and the fort show only the 
 straight wall, as if there were no battlements. 
 
 314. — Which Parts of Objects disappear first by being removed 
 farther from the Eye, and which preserve their Appearance. 
 
 The smallest parts are those which, by being removed, 
 lose their appearance first. This may be observed in the 
 gloss upon spherical bodies, or columns, and the slender 
 
 * See chapters 307, 322. 
 
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 131 
 
 parts of animals ; as in a stag, the first sight of which does 
 not discover its legs and horns so soon as its body, which, 
 being broader, will be perceived from a greater distance. 
 But the parts which disappear the very first, are the lines 
 which describe the members, and terminate the surface and 
 shape of bodies. 
 
 315. — Why Objects are less distinguished in proportion as they 
 are farther removed from the Eye. 
 
 This happens because the smallest parts are lost first ; 
 the second, in point of size, are also lost at a somewhat 
 greater distance, and so on successively ; the parts by 
 degrees melting away, the perception of the object is 
 diminished ; and at last all the parts, and the whole, are 
 entirely lost to the sight.* Colours also disappear on 
 account of the density of the air interposed between the eye 
 and the object. 
 
 316. — Why Faces appear dark at a distance. 
 
 It is evident that the similitude of all objects placed 
 before us, large as well as small, is perceptible to our senses 
 through the iris of the eye. If through so small an en- 
 trance the immensity of the sky and of the earth is admitted, 
 the faces of men (which are scarcely anything in com- 
 parison of such large objects), being still diminished by 
 the distance, will occupy so little of the eye, that they 
 become almost imperceptible. Besides, having to pass 
 through a dark medium from the surface to the Betina 
 in the inside, where the impression is made, the colour of 
 faces (not being very strong, and rendered still more 
 obscure by the darkness of the tube), when arrived at the 
 focus appears dark. No other reason can be given on that 
 point, except that the speck in the middle of the apple of 
 the eye is black, and, being full of a transparent fluid like 
 
 * See chapters 116, 121, 305. 
 
132 
 
 AEEIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 air, performs the same office as a "hole in a board, which on 
 looking into it appears black ; and that those things which 
 are seen through both a light and dark air, become confused 
 and obscure. 
 
 317. — Of Toivns and other Buildings seen through a Fog in the 
 Morning or Evening. 
 
 Buildings seen afar off in the morning or in the evening, 
 when there is a fog or thick air, show only those parts 
 distinctly which are enlightened by the sun towards the 
 horizon; and the parts of those buildings which are not 
 turned towards the sun remain confused and almost of the 
 colour of the fog. 
 
 318. — Of the Height of Buildings seen in a Fog. 
 
 Of a building near the eye the top parts will appear 
 more confused than the bottom ; because there is more fog 
 between the eye and the top than at the base. And a 
 square tower, seen at a great distance through a fog, will 
 appear narrower at the base than at the summit. This is 
 accounted for in chapter 313, which says, that the fog 
 will appear whiter and thicker as it approaches the ground ; 
 and, as it is said before,* 4 that a dark object will appear 
 smaller in proportion as it is placed on a whiter ground. 
 Therefore, the fog being whiter at bottom than at top, 
 it follows that the tower (being darkish) will appear 
 narrower at the base than at the summit. 
 
 319. — Why Objects which are high, appear darker at a Distance 
 than those which are low, though the Fog be uniform, and of 
 equal Thickness. 
 
 Amongst objects situated in a fog, thick air, vapour, 
 smoke, or at a distance, the highest will be the most 
 distinctly seen: and amongst objects equal in height, 
 
 * See chapters 313 and 323. 
 
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 133 
 
 that placed in the darkest fog, will be most confused and 
 dark. As it happens to the eye H, looking at A B C, 
 
 three towers of equal height : it sees the top C as low as 
 R, in two degrees of thickness ; and the top B, in one 
 degree only ; therefore the top C will appear darker than 
 the top of the tower B. 
 
 320. — Of Objects seen in a Fog. 
 
 Objects seen through a fog will appear larger than they 
 are in reality, because the aerial perspective does not agree 
 with the linear, viz., the colour does not agree with the 
 magnitude of the object ; * such a fog being similar to the 
 
 * To our obtaining a correct idea of the magnitude and distance of 
 any object seen from afar, it is necessary that we consider how much 
 of distinctness an object loses at a distance (from the mere inter- 
 position of the air) , as well as what it loses in size ; and these two 
 considerations must unite before we can decidedly pronounce as to 
 its distance or magnitude. This calculation, as to distinctness, must 
 be made upon the idea that the air is clear ; as if by any accident it is 
 otherwise, we shall (knowing the proportion in which clear air dims 
 a prospect) be led to conclude this farther off than it is, and, to 
 justify that conclusion, shall suppose its real magnitude correspondent 
 with the distance, at which from its degree of distinctness it appears 
 to be. In the circumstance remarked in the text there is, however, a 
 great deception ; the fact is, that the colour and the minute parts of 
 the object are lost in the fog, while the size of it is not diminished in 
 proportion ; and the eye being accustomed to see objects diminished 
 in size at a great distance, supposes this to be farther off than it is, 
 and consequently imagines it larger. 
 
134 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 thickness of air interposed between the eye and the horizon 
 in fine weather. But in this case the fog is near the eye, 
 and though the object be also near, it makes it appear as 
 if it were as far off as the horizon ; where a great tower 
 would appear no bigger than a man placed near the eye. 
 
 321. — Of those Objects which the Eyes perceive through a Mist 
 or thick Air. 
 
 The nearer the air is to water, or to the ground, the 
 thicker it becomes. It is proved by the nineteenth propo- 
 sition of the second book,* that bodies rise in proportion 
 to their weight ; and it follows, that a light body will 
 rise higher than another which is heavy. 
 
 322 . — Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 Of different objects equal in magnitude, form, shade, 
 and distance from the eye, those will appear the smaller 
 that are placed on the lighter ground. This is exemplified 
 by observing the sun when seen behind a tree without 
 leaves : all the ramifications seen against that great light 
 are so diminished that they remain almost invisible. The 
 same may be observed of a pole placed between the sun 
 and the eye. 
 
 Parallel bodies placed upright, and seen through a fog, 
 will appear larger at top than at bottom. This is proved 
 by the ninth proposition,f which says, that a fog or thick 
 air, penetrated by the rays of the sun, will appear whiter 
 the lower they are. 
 
 Things seen afar off will appear out of proportion, 
 because the parts which are the lightest will send their 
 image with stronger rays than the parts which are darkest. 
 I have seen a woman dressed in black, with a white veil 
 over her head, which appeared twice as large as her 
 shoulders covered with black. 
 
 * This proposition, though undoubtedly intended to form a part of 
 some future work, which never was drawn up, makes no part of the 
 present. 
 
 t See chap. 307. 
 
( 135 ) 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 LANDSCAPE. 
 
 323. — Of Objects seen at a Distance. 
 
 Any dark object will appear lighter when removed to 
 some distance from the eye. It follows, by the contrary 
 reason, that a dark object will appear still darker when 
 brought nearer to the eye. Therefore the inferior parts 
 of any object whatever, placed in thick air, will appear 
 farther from the eye at the bottom than at the top; for 
 that reason the lower parts of a mountain appear farther 
 off than its top, which is in reality the farthest. 
 
 324. — Of a Town seen through a thick Air. 
 
 The eye which, looking downwards, sees a town im- 
 mersed in very thick air, will perceive the top of the 
 buildings darker, but more distinct than the bottom. The 
 tops detach against a light ground, because they are seen 
 against the low and thick air which is beyond them. This 
 is a consequence of what has been explained in the preced- 
 ing chapter. 
 
 325. — How to draw a Landscape. 
 
 Contrive that the trees in your landscape be half in 
 shadow and half in the light. It is better to represent 
 
136 
 
 LANDSCAPE. 
 
 them as when the snn is veiled with thin clouds, because 
 in that case the trees receive a general light from the sky, 
 and are darkest in those parts which are nearest to the 
 earth. 
 
 326. — Of the Green of the Country. 
 
 Of the greens seen in the country, that of trees and 
 other plants will appear darker than that of fields and 
 meadows, though they may happen to be of the same 
 quality. 
 
 327. — What Greens will appear most of a bluish Cast. 
 
 Those greens will appear to approach nearest to blue 
 which are of the darkest shade when remote. This is 
 proved by the seventh proposition,* which says, that blue 
 is composed of black and white seen at a great distance. 
 
 328. — The Colour of the Sea from different Aspects. 
 
 When the sea is a little ruffled it has no sameness of 
 colour ; for, whoever looks at it from the shore, will see 
 it of a dark colour, in a greater degree as it approaches 
 towards the horizon, and will perceive also certain lights 
 moving slowly on the surface like a flock of sheep. Who- 
 ever looks at the sea from on board a ship, at a distance 
 from the land, sees it blue. Near the shore it appears 
 darkish, on account of the colour of the earth reflected by the 
 water, as in a looking-glass ; but at sea the azure of the air 
 is reflected to the eye by the waves in the same manner. 
 
 329. — Why the same Prospect appears larger at some Times 
 than at others. 
 
 Objects in the country appear sometimes larger and 
 sometimes smaller than they actually are, from the cir- 
 cumstance of the air interposed between the eye and the 
 horizon happening to be either thicker or thinner than 
 usual. 
 
 * Vide chapters 292, 303. 
 
LANDSCAPE. 
 
 137 
 
 Of two horizons equally distant from the eye, that which 
 is seen through the thicker air will appear farther removed ; 
 and the other will seem nearer, being seen through a 
 thinner air. 
 
 Objects of unequal size, but equally distant, will appear 
 equal if the air which is between them and the eye be of 
 proportionable inequality of thickness, viz., if the thickest 
 air be interposed between the eye and the smallest of 
 the objects. This is proved by the perspective of colours,* 
 which is so deceitful that a mountain which would appear 
 small by the compasses, will seem larger than a small hill 
 near the eye ; as a finger placed near the eye will cover 
 a large mountain far off. 
 
 330.— Of Smole. 
 
 Smoke is more transparent, though darker, towards 
 the extremities of its waves than in the middle. 
 
 It moves in a more oblique direction in proportion to 
 the force of the wind which impels it. 
 
 Different kinds of smoke vary in colour, as the causes 
 that produce them are various. 
 
 Smoke never produces determined shadows, and the 
 extremities are lost as they recede from their primary 
 cause. Objects behind it are less apparent in proportion 
 to the thickness of the smoke. It is whiter nearer its 
 origin, and bluer towards its termination. 
 
 Fire appears darker, the more smoke there is interposed 
 between it and the eye. 
 
 Where smoke is farther distant, the objects are less 
 
 confused bv it. 
 «/ 
 
 It encumbers and dims all the landscape like a fog. 
 Smoke is seen to issue from different places, with flames at 
 the origin and the most dense part of it. The tops of moun- 
 tains will be more seen than the lower parts, as in a fog. 
 
 331. — In what part Smoke is lightest. 
 
 Some which is seen between the sun and the eye will be 
 lighter and more transparent than any other in the land- 
 
 * See chap. 298. 
 
138 
 
 LANDSCAPE. 
 
 scape. The same is observed of dust, and of fog ; while, 
 if you place yourself between the sun and those objects, 
 they will appear dark. 
 
 332. — Of the Sunbeams passing through the Openings of 
 Clouds. 
 
 The sunbeams which penetrate the openings interposed 
 between clouds of various density and form, illuminate all 
 the places over which they pass, and tinge with their own 
 colour all the dark places that are behind : which dark 
 places are only seen in the intervals between the rays. 
 
 333. — Of the Beginning of Main. 
 
 When the rain begins to fall, it tarnishes and darkens 
 the air, giving it a dull colour, but receives still on one 
 side a faint light from the sun, and is shaded on the other 
 side, as we observe in clouds ; till at last it darkens also 
 the earth, depriving it entirely of the light of the sun. 
 Objects seen through the rain appear confused and of 
 undetermined shape, but those which are near will be 
 more distinct. It is observable, that on the side where 
 the rain is shaded, objects will be more clearly distinguished 
 than where it receives the light ; because on the shady 
 side they lose only their principal lights, whilst on the 
 other they lose both their lights and shadows, the lights 
 mixing with the light part of the rain, and the shadows are 
 also considerably weakened by it. 
 
 334. — The Seasons are to be observed. 
 
 In autumn you will represent the objects according as it 
 is more or less advanced. At the beginning of it the leaves 
 of the oldest branches only begin to fade — more or less, 
 however, according as the plant is situated in a fertile or 
 barren country. And do not imitate those who represent 
 trees of every kind (though at equal distance) with the 
 same quality of green. Endeavour to vary the colour of 
 meadows, stones, trunks of trees, and all other objects, as 
 much as possible, for Nature abounds in variety ad 
 infinitum. 
 
LANDSCAPE. 
 
 139 
 
 335. — The Difference of Climates to be observed. 
 
 Near the sea-shore, and in southern parts, you will be 
 caref al not to represent the winter season by the appear- 
 ance of trees and fields, as you would do in places more 
 inland, and in northern countries, except when these are 
 covered with evergreens, which shoot afresh all the year 
 round. 
 
 336.— Of Dust. 
 
 Dust becomes lighter the higher it rises, and appears 
 darker the less it is raised, when it is seen between the eye 
 and the sun. 
 
 337. — How to represent the Wind. 
 
 In representing the effect of the wind, besides the 
 bending of trees, and leaves twisting the wrong side 
 upwards, you will also express the small dust whirling 
 upwards till it mixes in a confused manner with the air. 
 
 338.— Of a Wilderness. 
 
 Those trees and shrubs which are by their nature more 
 loaded with small branches, ought to be touched smartly 
 in the shadows, but those which have larger foliage will 
 cause broader shadows. 
 
 339. — Of the Horizon seen in the Water. 
 
 By the sixth proposition,* the horizon will be seen in 
 the water as in a looking-glass, on that side which is 
 opposite the eye. And if the painter has to represent a 
 spot covered with water, let him remember that the colour 
 of it cannot be either lighter or darker than that of the 
 neighbouring objects. 
 
 * This was probably to have been a part of some other work, but it 
 does not occur in this. 
 
140 
 
 LANDSCAPE. 
 
 340. — Of the Shadow of Bridges on the Surface of the Water. 
 
 The shadows of bridges can never be seen on the sur- 
 face of the water, nnless it should have lost its transparent 
 and reflecting quality, and become troubled and muddy; 
 because clear water being polished and smooth on its 
 surface, the image of the bridge is formed in it as in a 
 looking-glass, and reflected in all the points situated 
 between the eye and the bridge at equal angles ; and even 
 the air is seen under the arches. These circumstances 
 cannot happen when the water is muddy, because it does 
 not reflect the objects any longer, but receives the shadow 
 of the bridge in the same manner as a dusty road would 
 receive it. 
 
 341. — Hotv a Painter ought to put in Practice the Perspective 
 
 of Colours. 
 
 To put in practice that perspective which teaches the 
 alteration, the lessening, and even the entire loss of the 
 very essence of colours, you must take some points in the 
 country at the distance of about sixty-five yards* from 
 each other; as trees, men, or some other remarkable objects. 
 In regard to the first tree, you will take a glass, and having 
 fixed that well, and also your eye, draw upon it, with the 
 greatest accuracy, the tree you see through it ; then put it 
 a little on one side, and compare it closely with the natural 
 one, and colour it, so that in shape and colour it may 
 resemble the original, and that by shutting one eye they 
 may both appear painted, and at the same distance. The 
 same rule may be applied to the second and third tree at 
 the distance you have fixed. These studies will be very 
 useful if managed with judgment, where they may be 
 wanted in the offscape of a picture. I have observed that 
 the second tree is less by four-fifths than the first, at the 
 distance of thirteen yards. 
 
 * Cento braccia, or cubits. The Florence braccio is one foot ten 
 inches seven-eighths, English measure. 
 
VARIOUS PRECEPTS IN PAINTING. 
 
 141 
 
 342. — Various Precepts in Painting. 
 
 The superficies of any opaque body participates of the 
 colour of the transparent medium interposed between 
 the eye and such body, in a greater or less degree, in 
 proportion to the density of such medium and the space it 
 occupies. 
 
 The outlines of opaque bodies will be less apparent in 
 proportion as those bodies are farther distant from the eye. 
 
 That part of the opaque body will be the most shaded, 
 or lightest, which is nearest to the body that shades it, or 
 gives it light. 
 
 The surface of any opaque body participates more or 
 less of the colour of that body which gives it light, in 
 proportion as the latter is more or less remote, or more 
 or less strong. 
 
 Objects seen between lights and shadows will appear to 
 have greater relievo than those which are placed wholly in 
 the light, or wholly in shadow. 
 
 When you give strength and precision to objects seen at 
 a great distance, they will appear as if they were very 
 near. Endeavour that your imitation be such as to give 
 a just idea of distances. If the object in nature appear 
 confused in the outlines, let the same be observed in your 
 picture. 
 
 The outlines of distant objects appear undetermined and 
 confused, for two reasons : the first is, that they come to 
 the eye by so small an angle, and are therefore so much 
 diminished, that they strike the sight no more than small 
 objects do, which though near can hardly be distinguished, 
 such as the nails of the fingers, insects, and other similar 
 things : the second is, that between the eye and the distant 
 objects there is so much air interposed, that it becomes 
 thick; and, like a veil, tinges the shadows with its own 
 whiteness, and turns them from a dark colour to another 
 between black and white, such as azure. 
 
 Although, by reason of the great distance, the appearance 
 of many things is lost, yet those things which receive the 
 
142 
 
 VARIOUS PRECEPTS IN PAINTING. 
 
 light from the sun will be more discernible, while the rest 
 remain enveloped in confused shadows. And because the 
 air is thicker near the ground, the things which are lower 
 will appear confused ; and vice versa. 
 
 When the sun tinges the clouds on the horizon with red, 
 those objects which, on account of their distance, appear 
 bluish, will participate of that redness, and will produce 
 a mixture between the azure and red, which renders the 
 prospect lively and pleasant ; all the opaque bodies which 
 receive that light will appear distinct, and of a reddish 
 colour ; and the air, being transparent, will be impregnated 
 with it, and appear of the colour of lilies* 
 
 The air which is between the earth and the sun when it 
 rises or sets, will always dim the objects it surrounds more 
 than the air anywhere else, because it is whiter. 
 
 It is not necessary to mark strongly the outlines of any 
 object which is placed upon another. It ought to detach 
 of itself. 
 
 If the outline or extremity of a white and curved surface 
 terminate upon another white body, it will have a shade at 
 that extremity, darker than any part of the light ; but if 
 against a dark object, such outline, or extremity, will be 
 lighter than any part of the light. 
 
 Those objects which are most different in colour will 
 appear the most detached from each other. 
 
 Those parts of objects which first disappear in the 
 distance, are extremities similar in colour, and ending 
 one upon the other, as the extremities of an oak tree 
 upon another oak similar to it. The next to disappear 
 at a greater distance are, objects of mixed colours, when 
 they terminate one upon the other, as trees, ploughed 
 fields, walls, heaps of rubbish or of stones. The last 
 extremities of bodies that vanish are those which, being 
 light, terminate upon a dark ground ; or being dark, upon 
 a light ground. 
 
 Of objects situated above the eye, at equal heights, the 
 farthest removed from the eye will appear the lowest ; and 
 if situated below the eye, the nearest to it will appear the 
 
 * Probably the author here means yellow lilies, or fleurs de lis. 
 
VARIOUS PRECEPTS IN PAINTING. 
 
 143 
 
 lowest. The parallel lines situated sidewise will concur to 
 one point.* 
 
 Those objects which are near a river or a lake in the 
 distant part of a landscape, are less apparent and distinct 
 than those that are remote from them. 
 
 Of bodies of equal density, those that are nearest to the 
 eye will appear thinnest, and the most remote thickest. 
 
 A large eye- ball will see objects larger than a small one. 
 The experiment may be made by looking at any of the 
 celestial bodies, through a pin-hole, which being capable 
 of admitting but a portion of its light, it seems to diminish 
 and lose of its size in the same proportion as the pin-hole 
 is smaller than the usual apparent size of the object. 
 
 A thick air interposed between the eye and any object, 
 will render the outlines of such object undetermined and 
 confused, and make it appear of a larger size than it is in 
 reality ; because the linear perspective does not diminish 
 the angle which conveys the object to the eye. The aerial 
 perspective carries it farther off, so that the one removes 
 it from the eye, while the other preserves its magnitude. f 
 
 When the sun is in the west the vapours of the earth 
 fall down again and thicken the air, so that objects not 
 enlightened by the sun remain dark and confused, but 
 those which receive its light will be tinged yellow and red, 
 according to the sun's appearance on the horizon. Again, 
 those that receive its light are very distinct, particularly 
 public buildings and towns in houses and villages, because 
 their shadows are dark ; and it seems as if those parts which 
 are plainly seen were coming out of confused and undeter- 
 mined foundations, because at that time everything is of 
 one and the same colour, except what is enlightened by 
 the sun. J 
 
 Any object receiving the light from the sun, receives 
 also the general light ; so that two kinds of shadows are 
 produced : the darkest of the two is that which happens to 
 have its central line directed towards the centre of the sun. 
 The central lines of the primitive and secondary lights are 
 
 * That point is always found in the horizon, and is called the point 
 of sight, or the vanishing point. 
 
 f See chap. 320. J See chap. 317. 
 
144 
 
 VARIOUS PRECEPTS IN PAINTING. 
 
 the same as the central lines of the primitive and secondary 
 shadows. 
 
 The setting sun is a beautiful and magnificent object 
 when it tinges with its colour all the great buildings of 
 towns, villages, and the top of high trees in the country. 
 All below is confused and almost lost in a tender and 
 general mass ; for, being only enlightened by the air, the 
 difference between the shadows and the lights is small, and 
 for that reason it is not much detached. But those that 
 are high are touched by the rays of the sun, and, as was 
 said before, are tinged with its colour; the painter therefore 
 ought to take the same colour with which he has painted 
 the sun, and employ it in all those parts of his work which 
 receive its light. 
 
 It also happens very often, that a cloud will appear dark 
 without receiving any shadow from a separate cloud, 
 according to the situation of the eye ; because it will see 
 only the shady part of the one, while it sees both the en- 
 lightened and shady parts of the other. 
 
 Of two objects at equal height, that which is the farthest 
 off will appear the lowest. Observe the first cloud in the 
 cut, though it is lower than the second, it appears as if it 
 were higher. This is demonstrated by the section of the 
 pyramidical rays of the low cloud at M A, and the second 
 
 (which is higher) at N" M, below M A. This happens also 
 when, on account of the rays of the setting or rising sun 
 a dark cloud appears higher than another which is light. 
 
VARIOUS PRECEPTS IN PAINTING. 
 
 145 
 
 343. — The Brilliancy of a Landscape. 
 
 The vivacity and brightness of colours in a landscape 
 will never bear any comparison with a landscape in Nature 
 when illumined by the sun, unless the picture be placed 
 so as to receive the same light from the sun itself. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 344. — Why a painted Object does not appear so far distant as 
 a real one, though they be conveyed to the Eye by equal Angles. 
 
 If a house be painted on the pannel B C, at the apparent 
 distance of one mile, and by the side of it a real one be 
 
 perceived at the true distance of one mile also ; which 
 objects are so disposed, that the pannel, or picture, A C, 
 intersects the pyramidical rays with the same opening of 
 angles ; yet these two objects will never appear of the same 
 size, nor at the same distance, if seen with both eyes.* 
 
 * This position has been already laid down in chapter 124 (and 
 will also be found in chapter 348) ; and the reader is referred to the 
 note on that passage, which will also explain that in the text, for 
 further illustration. It may, however, be proper to remark, that 
 though the Author has here supposed both objects conveyed to the 
 eye by an angle of the same extent, they cannot, in fact, be so seen, 
 unless one eye be shut ; and the reason is this : if viewed with both 
 
146 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 345. — How to draw a Figure standing upon its Feet, to appear 
 forty Braccia * high, in a Space of twenty Braccia, with pro- 
 portionate Members. 
 
 In this, as in any other case, the painter is not to mind 
 what kind of surface he has to work upon ; particularly if 
 his painting is to be seen from a determined point, such as 
 a window, or any other opening. Because the eye is not 
 
 
 ^ F 
 
 Pv 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 to attend to the evenness or roughness of the wall, but 
 only to what is to be represented as beyond that wall ; such 
 as a landscape, or anything else. Nevertheless a curved 
 surface, such as PRG, would be the best, because it has 
 no angles. 
 
 346. — How to draw a Figure twenty-four Braccia high, upon a 
 Wall twelve Braccia high. 
 (Plate 22.) 
 
 Draw upon part of the wall M N half the figure you 
 mean to represent ; and the other half upon the cove above, 
 
 eyes, there will be two points of sight, one in the centre of each eye ; 
 and the rays from each of these to the objects must of course be 
 different, and will consequently form different angles. 
 
 * The braccio is one foot ten inches and seven-eighths English 
 measure. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 147 
 
 MR. But before that, it will be necessary to draw upon 
 a flat board, or a paper, the profile of the wall and cove, of 
 the same shape and dimension, as that upon which you are 
 to paint. Then draw also the profile of your figure, of 
 whatever size you please, by the side of it ; draw all the 
 lines to the point F, and where they intersect the profile 
 M ft, you will have the dimensions of your figure as they 
 ought to be drawn upon the real spot. You will find, that 
 on the straight part of the wall M 'N, it will come of its 
 proper form, because the going olì perpendicularly will 
 diminish it naturally ; but that part which comes upon the 
 curve will be diminished upon your drawing. The whole 
 must be traced afterwards upon the real spot, which is 
 similar to M N. This is a good and safe method. 
 
 347. — Why, on measuring a Face, and then painting it of the 
 same Size, it will appear larger than the natural one. 
 
 A B is the breadth of the space, or of the head, and it is 
 placed on the paper at the distance C F, where the cheeks 
 
148 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 are, and it would have to stand back all A C, and then the 
 temples would be carried to the distance 0 R, of the lines 
 A F, B F ; so that there is the difference C 0 and R D. 
 It follows that the line C F, and the line D F, in order to 
 become shorter,* have to go and find the paper where the 
 whole height is drawn, that is to say, the lines F A, and 
 F B, where the true size is ; and so it makes the difference, 
 as I have said, of C O, and R D. 
 
 348. — Wliy the most perfect Imitation of Nature will not appear 
 to liave the same Relief as Nature itself. 
 
 If Nature is seen with two eyes, it will be impossible 
 to imitate it upon a picture so as to appear with the same 
 relief, though the lines, the lights, shades, and colour, be 
 perfectly imitated. f It is proved thus : let the eyes A B, 
 
 look at the object C, with the concurrence of both the 
 central visual rays A C and B C. I say, that the sides of 
 the visual angles (which contain these central rays) will 
 see the space Gr D, behind the object C. The eye A will 
 see all the space F D, and the eye B all the space G E. 
 Therefore the two eyes will see behind the object C all the 
 
 * i.e. To be abridged according to the rules of perspective, 
 f See chap. 122. 
 
 F 
 
 CD 
 
 E 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 149 
 
 space F E ; for which reason that object C becomes as it 
 were transparent, according to the definition of transparent 
 bodies, behind which nothing is hidden. This cannot happen 
 if an object were seen with one eye only, provided it be 
 larger than the eye. From all that has been said, we may 
 conclude, that a painted object, occupying all the space it 
 has behind, leaves no possible way to see any part of 
 the ground, which it covers entirely by its own circum- 
 ference.* 
 
 349. — Universality of Painting ; a Precept. 
 
 A painter cannot be said to aim at universality in the 
 art, unless he love equally every species of that art. For 
 instance, if he delight only in landscape, his can be es- 
 teemed only as a simple investigation ; and, as our friend 
 Botticello t remarks, is but a vain study ; since, by throw- 
 ing a sponge impregnated with various colours against a 
 wall, it leaves some spots upon it, which may appear like 
 a landscape. It is true also, that a variety of compositions 
 may be seen in such spots, according to the disposition of 
 mind with which they are considered ; such as heads of 
 men, various animals, battles, rocky scenes, seas, clouds, 
 woods, and the like. It may be compared to the sound of 
 bells, which may seem to say whatever we choose to imagine. 
 In the same manner also, those spots may furnish hints for 
 
 * The whole of this chapter, like the next but one preceding, 
 depends on the circumstance of there being in fact two points of 
 sight, one in the centre of each eye, when an object is viewed with 
 both eyes. In natural objects the effect which this circumstance 
 produces is, that the rays from each point of sight, diverging as they 
 extend towards the object, take in not only that, but some part also 
 of the distance behind it, till at length, at a certain distance behind 
 it, they cross each other; whereas, in a painted representation, 
 there being no real distance behind the object, but the whole being a 
 flat surface, it is impossible that the rays from the points of sight 
 should pass beyond that flat surface ; and as the object itself is on 
 that flat surface, which is the real extremity of the view, the eyes 
 cannot acquire a sight of anything beyond. 
 
 f A well-known painter at Florence, contemporary with Leonardo 
 da Vinci, who painted several altar-pieces and other public works. 
 
150 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 compositions, though they do not teach us how to finish 
 any particular part; and the imitators of them are but 
 sorry landscape-painters. 
 
 350. — In what Manner the Mirror is the true Master of 
 Painters. 
 
 When you wish to know if your picture be like the object 
 you mean to represent, have a flat looking-glass, and place 
 it so as to reflect the object you have imitated, and compare 
 carefully the original with the copy. You see upon a flat 
 mirror the representation of things which appear real ; 
 Painting is the same. They are both an even superficies, 
 and both give the idea of something beyond their superficies. 
 Since you are persuaded that the looking-glass, by means 
 of lines and shades, gives you the representation of things 
 as if they were real ; you being in possession of colours 
 which in their different lights and shades are stronger than 
 those of the looking-glass, may certainly, if you employ the 
 rules with judgment, give to your picture the same appear- 
 ance of Nature as you admire in the looking-glass. Or 
 rather, your picture will be like Nature itself seen in a 
 large looking-glass. 
 
 This looking-glass (being your master) will show you 
 the lights and shades of any object whatever. Amongst 
 your colours there are some lighter than the lightest part 
 of your model, and also some darker than the strongest 
 shades ; from which it follows, that you ought to represent 
 Nature as seen in your looking-glass, when you look at it 
 with one eye only ; because both eyes surround the objects 
 too much, particularly when they are small.* 
 
 351. — Wiiich Painting is to be esteemed the best. 
 
 That painting is the most commendable which has the 
 greatest conformity to what is meant to be imitated. This 
 kind of comparison will often put to shame a certain des- 
 cription of painters, who pretend they can mend the works 
 of Nature ; as they do, for instance, when they pretend to 
 
 * See chapters 224 and 348. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 151 
 
 represent a child twelve months old, giving him eight heads 
 in height, when Nature in its best proportion admits but 
 five. The breadth of the shoulders also, which is equal to 
 the head, they make double, giving to a child a year old 
 the proportions of a man of thirty. They have so often 
 practised, and seen others practise these errors, that they 
 have converted them into habit, which has taken so deep 
 root in their corrupted judgment, that they persuade them- 
 selves that Nature and her imitators are wrong in not 
 following their own practice.* 
 
 352. — Of the Judgment to be made of a Painter's Work. 
 
 The first thing to be considered is, whether the figures 
 have their proper relief, according to their respective situa- 
 tions, and the light they are in : that the shadows be not 
 the same at the extremities of the groups, as in the middle ; 
 because being surrounded by shadows, or shaded only on 
 one side, produces very different effects. The groups in the 
 middle are surrounded by shadows from the other figures, 
 which are between them and the light. Those which are 
 at the extremities have the shadows only on one side, and 
 receive the light on the other. The strongest and smartest 
 touches of shadows are to be in the interstice between the 
 figures of the principal group where the light cannot 
 penetrate, t 
 
 Secondly, that by the order and disposition of the figures 
 they appear to be accommodated to the subject, and the 
 true representation of the history in question. 
 
 Thirdly, that the figures appear alive to the occasion 
 which brought them together, with expressions suited to 
 their attitudes. 
 
 353. — Sow to make an imaginary Animal appear natural. 
 
 It is evident that it will be impossible to invent any 
 animal without giving it members, and these members 
 must individually resemble those of some known animal. 
 
 If you wish, therefore, to make a chimera, or imaginary 
 
 * See chap. 10. 
 
 f See chap. 201. 
 
152 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 animal, appear natural (let us suppose a serpent) ; take the 
 head of a mastiff, the eyes of a eat, the ears of a porcupine, 
 the mouth of a hare, the brows of a lion, the temples of an 
 old cock, and the neck of a sea tortoise.* 
 
 354. — Painters are not to imitate one another. 
 
 One painter ought never to imitate the manner of any 
 other ; because in that case he cannot be called the child of 
 Nature, but the grandchild. It is always best to have 
 recourse to Nature, which is replete with such abundance 
 of objects, than to the productions of other masters, who 
 learnt everything from her. 
 
 355. — How to judge of one's own Work. 
 
 It is an acknowledged fact, that we perceive errors in 
 the works of others more readily than in our own. A 
 painter, therefore, ought to be well instructed in perspec- 
 tive, and acquire a perfect knowledge of the dimensions 
 of the human body ; he should also be a good architect, at 
 least as far as concerns the outward shape of buildings, 
 with their different parts ; and where he is deficient, he 
 ought not to neglect taking drawings from Nature. 
 
 It will be well also to have a looking-glass by him, when 
 he paints, to look often at his work in it, which, being seen 
 the contrary way, will appear as the work of another hand, 
 and will better show his faults. It will be useful also to 
 quit his work often, and take some relaxation, that his 
 judgment may be clearer at his return ; for too great 
 application and sitting still is sometimes the cause of many 
 gross errors. 
 
 356. — Of correcting Errors which you discover. 
 
 Remember, that when, by the exercise of your own 
 judgment, or the observation of others, you discover any 
 errors in your work, you immediately set about correcting 
 them, lest, in exposing your works to the public, you expose 
 
 * Leonardo was remarkably fond of this kind of inventions, and is 
 accused of having lost a great deal of time in this way. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 153 
 
 your defects also. Admit not any self-excuse, by persuad- 
 ing yourself that you shall retrieve your character, and 
 that by some succeeding work you shall make amends for 
 your shameful negligence ; for your work does not perish 
 as soon as it is out of your hands, like the sound of music, 
 but remains a standing monument of your ignorance. If 
 you excuse yourself by saying that you have not time for 
 the study necessary to form a great painter, having to 
 struggle against necessity, you yourself are only to blame ; 
 for the study of what is excellent is food both for mind and 
 body. How many philosophers, born to great riches, have 
 given them away, that they might not be retarded in their 
 pursuits ! 
 
 357. — The best Place for loolcing at a Picture. 
 
 Let us suppose, that A B is the picture, receiving the 
 light from D ; I say, that whoever is placed between C and 
 E will see the picture very badly, particularly if it be 
 painted in oil, or varnished ; because it will shine, and will 
 
 . B 
 
 appear almost of the nature of a looking-glass. For these 
 reasons, the nearer you go towards C, the less you will be 
 able to see, because of the light from the window upon the 
 picture, sending its reflection to that point. But if you 
 place yourself between E D, you may conveniently see the 
 picture, and the more so as you draw nearer to the point 
 D, because that place is less liable to be struck by the 
 reflected rays. 
 
154 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 358. — Of Judgment. 
 
 There is nothing more apt to deceive us than our own 
 judgment, in deciding on our own works ; and we should 
 derive more advantage from having our faults pointed out 
 bj our enemies, than by hearing the opinions of our friends, 
 because they are too much like ourselves, and may deceive 
 us as much as our own judgment. 
 
 359. — Of Employment anxiously wished for by Painters. 
 
 And you, painter, who are desirous of great practice, 
 understand, that if you do not rest it on the good founda- 
 tion of Nature, you will labour with little honour and less 
 profit ; and if you do it on a good ground, your works will 
 be many and good, to your great honour and advantage. 
 
 360. — Advice to Painters. 
 
 , A painter ought to study universal Nature, and reason 
 much within himself on all he sees, making use of the most 
 excellent parts that compose the species of every object 
 before him. His mind will by this method be like a 
 mirror, reflecting truly every object placed before it, and 
 become, as it were, a second Nature. 
 
 361.— Of Statuary. 
 
 To execute a figure in marble, you must first make a 
 model of it in clay, or plaster, and when it is finished, place 
 it in a square case, equally capable of receiving the block 
 of marble intended to be shaped like it. Have some peg- 
 like sticks to pass through holes made in the sides, and all 
 round the case ; push them in till every one touches the 
 model, marking what remains of the sticks outwards with 
 ink, and making a countermark to every stick and its hole, 
 so that you may at pleasure replace them again. Then 
 having taken out the model, and placed the block of marble 
 in its stead, take so much out of it, till all the pegs go in 
 at the same holes to the marks you had made. To facilitate 
 
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 155 
 
 the work, contrive your frame so that every part of it, 
 separately, or all together, may be lifted up, except the 
 bottom, which must remain under the marble. By this 
 method you may chop it off with great facility.* 
 « 
 
 362. — On the Measurement and Division of Statues into Parts. 
 
 Divide the head into twelve parts, each part into twelve 
 degrees, each degree into twelve minutes, and these minutes 
 into seconds. t 
 
 363. — A Precept for the Painter. 
 
 The painter who entertains no doubt of his own ability, 
 will attain very little. When the work succeeds beyond 
 the judgment, the artist acquires nothing ; but when the 
 judgment is superior to the work, he never ceases improv- 
 ing, if the love of gain do not retard his progress. 
 
 364. — On the Judgment of Painters. 
 
 When the work is equal to the knowledge and judgment 
 of the painter, it is a bad sign ; and when it surpasses the 
 judgment, it is still worse, as is the case with those who 
 wonder at having succeeded so well. But when the 
 judgment surpasses the work, it is a perfectly good sign ; 
 and the young painter who possesses that rare disposition, 
 will, no doubt, arrive at great perfection. He will produce 
 few works, but they will be such as to fix the admiration 
 of every beholder. 
 
 * The method here recommended, was the general and common 
 practice at that time, and continned so with little, if any variation, 
 till lately. Bat about thirty years ago, the late Mr. Baoon invented 
 an entirely new method, which, as better answering the purpose, he 
 constantly used, and from him others have also adopted it into 
 practice. 
 
 f This may be a good method of dividing the figure for the purpose 
 of reducing from large to small, or vice versa ; but it not being the 
 method generally used by the painters for measuring their figures, as 
 being too minute, this chapter was not introduced amongst those of 
 general proportions. 
 
156 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 365. — That a Man ought not to trust to himself, but ought to 
 consult Nature. 
 
 Whoever flatters himself that he can retain in his 
 memory all the effects of Nature, is deceived, for our 
 memory is not so capacious : therefore consult Nature for 
 everything. 
 
GENEEAL INDEX. 
 
 The number at the end of each Title refers to the corresponding 
 Chapter in the original edition in Italian. 
 
 DEAWINGr. 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 1. What the young Student in Painting ought in the first Place to 
 
 learn. Chapter 1. 
 
 2. Rule for a young Student in Painting. 3. 
 
 3. How to discover a young Man's Disposition for Painting. 4. 
 
 4. Of Painting, and its Divisions. 47. 
 
 5. Division of the Figure. 48. 
 
 6. Proportion of Members. 49. 
 
 7. Of Dimensions in general. 173. 
 
 8. Motion, Changes, and Proportion of Members. 166. 
 
 9. The Difference of Proportion between Children and grown Men. 
 
 169. 
 
 10. The Alterations in the Proportion of the Human Body from 
 
 Infancy to full Age. 167. 
 
 11. Of the Proportion of Members. 175. 
 
 12. That every Part be proportioned to its Whole. 250. 
 
 13. Of the Proportion of the Members. 185- 
 
 14. The Danger of forming an erroneous Judgment in regard to the 
 
 Proportion and Beauty of the Parts. 42. 
 
 15. Another Precept. 12. 
 
158 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 CHAT. 
 
 16. The Manner of drawing from Relievos, and rendering Paper fit 
 
 for it. 127. 
 
 17. Of drawing from Casts or Nature. 31. 
 
 18. To draw Figures from Nature. 38. 
 
 19. Of drawing from Nature. 25. 
 
 20. Of drawing Academy Figures. 30. 
 
 21. Of Studying in the Dark, on first waking in the Morning, and 
 
 before going to Sleep. 17. 
 
 22. Observations on drawing Portraits. 188. 
 
 23. The Method of retaining in the Memory the Likeness of a Man, 
 
 so as to draw his Portrait, after having seen him only 
 once. 189. 
 
 24. How to remember the Form of a Face. 190. 
 
 25. That a Painter should take Pleasure in the Opinion of Every- 
 
 body. 19. 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 26. What is principally to be observed in Figures. 213. 
 
 27. Mode of Studying. 7. 
 
 28. Of being universal. 22. 
 
 29. A Precept for the Painter. 5. 
 
 30. Of the Measures of the Human Body, and the bending of 
 
 Members. 174. 
 
 31. Of the small Bones in several Joints of the Human Body. 229. 
 
 32. Memorandum to be observed by the Painter. 57- 
 
 33. The Shoulders. 171. 
 
 34. The Difference of Joints between Children and grown Men. 168. 
 
 35. Of the Joints of the Fingers. 170. 
 
 36. Of the Joint of the Wrist. 176. 
 
 37. Of the Joint of the Foot. 177. 
 
 38. Of the Knee. 178. 
 
 39. Of the Joints. 179. 
 
 40. Of the Naked. 220.' 
 
 41. Of the Thickness of the Muscles. 221. 
 
 42. Fat Subjects have small Muscles. 222. 
 
 43. Which of the Muscles disappear in the Different Motions of the 
 
 Body. 223. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 159 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 44. Of the Muscles. 226. 
 
 45. Of the Muscles. 224. 
 
 46. The Extension and Contraction of the Muscles. 227. 
 
 47. Of the Muscle between the Chest and the lower Belly. 230. 
 
 48. Of a Man's complex Strength, but first of the Arm. 234. 
 
 49. In which of the two Actions, Pulling or Pushing, a Man has the 
 
 greatest Power, Plate II. 235. 
 
 50. Of the bending of Members, and of the Flesh round the bending 
 
 Joint. 236. 
 
 51. Of the naked Body. 180. 
 
 52. Of a Ligament without Muscles. 228. 
 
 53. Of Creases. 238. 
 
 54. How near behind the Back one Arm can be brought to tho 
 
 other. Plate III. and IV. 232. 
 
 55. Of the Muscles. 225. 
 
 56. Of the Muscles. 194. 
 
 57. Of the bending of the Body. 204. 
 
 58. The same Subject. 205. 
 
 59. The Necessity of Anatomical Knowledge. 43. 
 
 MOTION AND EQUIPOISE OP FIGURES. 
 
 60. Of the Equipoise of a Figure standing still. 203. 
 
 61. Motion produced by the Loss of Equilibrium. 208. 
 
 62. Of the Equipoise of Bodies, Plate V. 263. 
 
 63. Of Positions. 192. 
 
 64. Of balancing the Weight round the Centre of Gravity in 
 
 Bodies. 214. 
 
 65. Of figures that have to lift up, or carry any Weight. 215. 
 
 66. The Equilibrium of a Man standing upon his Feet, Plate VI. 201. 
 
 67. Of Walking, Plate VII. 202. 
 
 68. Of the Centre of Gravity in Men and Animals. 199. 
 
 69. Of the corresponding Thickness of Parts on each Side of the 
 
 Body. 269. 
 
 70. Of the Motions of Animals. 249. 
 
 71. Of Quadrupeds and their Motions. 268. 
 
 72. Of the Quickness or Slowness of Motion. 267. 
 
 73. Of the Motion of Animals. 299. 
 
160 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 74. Of a Figure moving against the Wind, Plate VIII. 295. 
 
 75. Of the Balance of a Figure resting upon its Feet. 266. 
 
 76. A Precept. 350. 
 
 77. Of a Man standing, but resting more upon one Foot than the 
 
 other. 264. 
 
 78. Of the Balance of Figures, Plate IX. 209. 
 
 79. In what Manner extending one Arm alters the Balance. 198. 
 
 80. Of a Man bearing a Weight on his Shoulders, Plate X. 200. 
 
 81. Of Equilibrium. 206. 
 
 82. Of Motion. 195. 
 
 83. The Level of the Shoulders. 196. 
 
 84. Objection to the above answered, Plate XI. and XII. 197. 
 
 85. Of the Position of Figures, Plate XIII. 89. 
 
 86. Of the Joints. 184. 
 
 87. Of the Shoulders. 172. 
 
 88. Of the Motions of a Man. 207. 
 
 89. Of the Disposition of Members preparing to act with great Force, 
 
 Plate XIV. 233. 
 
 90. Of throwing anything with Violence, Plate XV. 261. 
 
 91. On the Motion of driving anything into or drawing it out of the 
 
 Ground. 262. 
 
 92. Of forcible Motions, Plate XVI. 181. 
 
 93. The Action of Jumping. 260. 
 
 94. Of the three Motions in jumping upwards. 270. 
 
 95. Of thè easy Motions of Members. 211. 
 
 96. The greatest Twist which a Man can make, in turning to look at 
 
 himself behind, Plate XVII. 231. ' 
 
 97. Of turning the Leg without the Thigh. 237. 
 
 98. Postures of Figures. 265. 
 
 99. Of the Gracefulness of the Members. 210. 
 
 100. That it is impossible for any Memory to retain the Aspects and 
 
 Changes of the Members. 271. 
 
 101. The Motions of Figures. 242. 
 
 102. Of common Motions. 248. 
 
 103. Of simple Motions. 240. 
 
 104. Complex Motions. 240. 
 
 105. Motions appropriated to the Subject. 241. 
 .106. Appropriate Motions. 245. 
 
 107. Of the Postures of Women and young People. 259. 
 
 108. Of the Postures of Children. 258. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 161 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 109. Of the Motion of the Members. 186. 
 
 110. Of mental Motions. 246. 
 
 111. Effect of the Mind upon the Motions of the body, occasioned by 
 
 some outward Object. 247. 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 i 
 
 112. Of those who apply themselves to the Practice, without having 
 
 learnt the Theory of the Art. 23. 
 
 113. Precepts in Painting. 349. 
 
 114. Of the Boundaries of Objects called Outlines or Contours. 291. 
 
 115. Of linear Perspective. 322. 
 
 116. What Parts of Objects disappear first by Distance. 318. 
 
 117. Of remote Objects. 316. 
 
 118. Of the Point of Sight. 281. 
 
 119. A Picture is to be viewed from one Point only. 59. 
 
 120. Of the Dimensions of the first Figure in an historical Painting- 
 
 91. 
 
 121. Of Objects that are lost to the Sight, in Proportion to their 
 
 Distance. 292. 
 
 122. Errors not so easily seen in small Objects as in large ones. 52. 
 
 123. Historical Subjects one above another on the same Wall to be 
 
 avoided. 54. 
 
 124. Why Objects in Painting can never detach as natural Objects 
 
 do. 53. 
 
 125. How to give the proper Dimension to Objects in Painting. 71. 
 
 126. How to draw accurately any particular Spot. 32. 
 
 127. Disproportion to be avoided, even in the accessory Parts. 290. 
 
 INVENTION OR COMPOSITION. 
 
 128. Precept for avoiding a bad Choice in the Style or Proportion of 
 
 Figures. 45. 
 
 129. Variety in Figures. 21. 
 
162 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 130. How a Painter ought to proceed in his Studies. 6. 
 
 131. Of sketching Histories and Figures. 13. 
 
 132. How to study Composition. 96. 
 
 133. Of the attitudes of Men. 216. 
 
 134. Variety of Positions. 217. 
 
 135. Of Studies from Nature for History. 37. 
 
 136. Of the Variety of Figures in History Painting. 94. 
 
 137. Of Variety in History. 97. 
 
 138. Of the Age of Figures. 252. 
 
 139. Of Variety of Faces. 98. 
 
 140. A Fault in Painters. 44. 
 
 141. How you may learn to compose Groups for History Painting. 90. 
 
 142. How to study the Motions of the Human Body. 95. 
 
 143. Of Dresses, and of Draperies and Folds. 358. 
 
 144. Of the Nature of Folds in Draperies. 359. 
 
 145. How the Folds of Draperies ought to be represented, Plate 
 
 XVIII. 360. 
 
 146. How the Folds in Draperies ought to be made. 361. 
 
 147. Fore-shortening of Folds, Plate XIX. 362. 
 
 148. Of Folds. 364. 
 
 149. Of Decorum. 251. 
 
 150. The Character of Figures in Composition. 253. 
 
 151. The Motion of the Muscles, when the Figures are in natural 
 
 Positions. 193. 
 
 152. A Precept in Painting. 58. 
 
 153. Of the Motion of Man, Plates XX. and XXI. 182. 
 
 154. Of Attitudes, and the Motions of the Members. 183. 
 
 155. Of a single Figure separate from an historical Group. 212. 
 
 156. On the Attitudes of the Human Figure. 218. 
 
 157. How to represent a Storm. 66. 
 
 158. How to compose a Battle. 67. 
 
 159. The Representation of an Orator and his Audience. 254. 
 
 160. Of demonstrative Gestures. 243. 
 
 161. Of the Attitudes of the Bystanders at some remarkable 
 
 Event. 219. 
 
 162. How to represent Night. 65. 
 
 163. The Method of Awakening the Mind to a Variety of Inventions. 
 
 16. 
 
 164. Of Composition in History. 93. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 163 
 
 EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 165. Of expressive Motions. 50. 
 
 166. How to paint Children. 61. 
 
 167. How to represent old Men. 62. 
 
 168. How to paint old Women. 63. 
 
 169. How to paint Women. 64. 
 
 170. Of the Variety of Faces. 244. 
 
 171. The Parts of the Face, and their Motions. 187. 
 
 172. Laughing and Weeping. 257. 
 
 173. Of Anger. 255. 
 
 174. Despair. 256. 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 175. The Course of Study to be pursued. 2. 
 
 176. Which of the two is the most useful Knowledge, the Outlines of 
 
 Figures, or that of Light and Shadow. 56. 
 
 177. Which is the most important, the Shadow or Outlines in Paint- 
 
 ing. 277. 
 
 178. What is a Painter's first Aim and Object. 305. 
 
 179. The Difference of Superficies, in regard to Painting. 278. 
 
 180. How a Painter may become universal. 10. 
 
 181. Accuracy ought to be learnt before Despatch in the Execu- 
 
 tion. 18. 
 
 182. How the Painter is to place himself in regard to the Light, and 
 
 his Model. 40. 
 
 183. Of the best Light. 41. 
 
 184. Of drawing by Candle-light. 34. 
 
 185. Of those Painters who draw at Home from one Light, and 
 
 afterwards adapt their Studies to another Situation in the 
 Country, and a different Light. 46. 
 
 186. How high the Light should be in drawing from Nature. 27. 
 
 187. What Light the Painter must make use of to give most Relief to 
 
 his Figures. 55. 
 
 188. Advice to Painters. 26. 
 
 189. Of Shadows. 60. 
 
164 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 190. Of the kind of Light proper for drawing from Eelievos, or from 
 
 Nature. 29. 
 
 191. Whether the Light should be admitted in Front or sideways ; 
 
 and which is the most pleasing and graceful. 74. 
 
 192. Of the Difference of Lights according to the Situation. 289. 
 
 193. How to distribute the Light on Figures. 279. 
 
 194. Of the Beauty of Faces. 191. 
 
 195. How, in drawing a Face, to give it Grace, by the Management 
 
 of Light and Shade. 35. 
 
 196. How to give Grace and Relief to Faces. 287. 
 
 197. Of the Termination of Bodies upon each other. 294. 
 
 198. Of the back-grounds of painted Objects. 154. 
 
 199. How to detach and bring forward Figures out of their Back- 
 
 ground. 288. 
 
 200. Of proper Back-grounds. 141 . 
 
 201. Of the general Light diffused over Figures. 303. 
 
 202. Of those Parts in Shadows which appear the darkest at a 
 
 Distance. 327. 
 
 203. Of the Eye viewing the Folds of Draperies surrounding a 
 
 Figure. 363. 
 
 204. Of the Relief of Figures remote from the Eye. 336. 
 
 205. Of Outlines of Objects on the side towards the Light. 337. 
 
 206. How to make Objects detach from their Ground, that is to say, 
 
 from the Surface on which they are painted. 342. 
 
 CONTRAST AND EFFECT. 
 
 207. A Precept. 343. 
 
 208. Of the Interposition of transparent Bodies between the Eye and 
 
 the Object. 357. 
 
 209. Of proper Back-grounds for Figures. 283. 
 
 210. Of Back.grounds. 160. 
 
 REFLEXES. 
 
 211. Of Objects placed on a light Ground, and why such a Practice 
 
 is useful in Painting. 159. 
 
 212. Of the different Effects of White, according to the Difference of 
 
 Back-grounds. 139. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 165 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 213. Of Reverberation. 75. 
 
 214. Where there cannot be any Reverberation of Light. 76. 
 
 215. In what Part the Reflexes have more or less brightness. 79. 
 
 216. Of the reflected Lights which surround the Shadows. 78. 
 
 217. Where Reflexes are to be most apparent. 82. 
 
 218. What Part of a Reflex is to be the lightest. 80. 
 
 219. Of the Termination of Reflexes on their Grounds. 88. 
 
 220. Of double and treble Reflexions of Light. 83. 
 
 221. Reflexes in the Water, and particularly those of the Air. 135. 
 
 COLOURS AND COLOURING. 
 
 COLOURS. 
 
 222. What Surface is best calculated to receive most Colours. 123. 
 
 223. What Surface will show most perfectly its true Colour. 125. 
 
 224. On what Surface the true Colour is least apparent. 131. 
 
 225. What Surfaces show most of their true and genuine Colour. 
 
 132. 
 
 226. Of the Mixture of Colours. 121. 
 
 227. Of the Colours produced by the Mixture of other Colours, called 
 
 secondary Colours. 161. 
 
 228. Of Verdigris. 119. 
 
 229. How to increase the Beauty of Verdigris. 120. 
 
 230. How to paint a Picture that will last almost for ever. 352. 
 
 231. The Mode of painting on Canvas, or Linen Cloth. 353. 
 
 232. Of lively and beautiful Colours. 100. 
 
 233. Of transparent Colours. 113. 
 
 234. In what Part a colour will appear in its greatest Beauty. 114. 
 
 235. How any Colour without Gloss is more beautiful in the Lights 
 
 than in the Shades. 115. 
 
 236. Of the Appearance of Colours. 116. 
 
 237. What part of a Colour is to be the most beautiful. 117. 
 
 238. That the beauty of a Colour is to be found in the Lights. 118. 
 
 239. Of Colours. 111. 
 
 240. No Object appears in its true Colour, unless the Light which 
 
 strikes upon it be of the same Colour. 150. 
 
166 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 241. Of the Colour of Shadows. 147. 
 
 242. Of Colours. 153. 
 
 243. Whether it be possible for all Colours to appear alike by means 
 
 of the same Shadow. 109. 
 
 244. Why White is not reckoned among the Colours. 155. 
 
 245. Of Colours. 156. 
 
 246. Of the Colouring of remote Objects. 339. 
 
 247. The Surface of all opaque Bodies participates of the Colour of 
 
 the surrounding Objects. 298. 
 
 248. General Eemarks on Colours. 162. 
 
 COLOURS IN REGAED TO LIGHT AND SHADOW. 
 
 249. Of the Light proper for painting Flesh Colour from Nature. 36. 
 
 250. Of the Painter's Window. 296. 
 
 251. The Shadows of Colours. 101. 
 
 252. Of the Shadows of White. 104. 
 
 253. Which of the Colours will produce the darkest Shade. 105. 
 
 254. How to manage, when a White terminates upon another 
 
 White. 138. 
 
 255. On the Backgrounds of Figures. 140. 
 
 256. The Mode of composing History. 92. 
 
 257. Remarks concerning Lights and Shadows. 302. 
 
 258. Why the Shadows of Bodies upon a white Wall are blueish 
 
 towards the Evening. 328. 
 
 259. Of the Colour of Faces. 126. 
 
 260. A Precept relating to Painting. 284. 
 
 261. Of Colours in Shadow. 158. 
 
 262. Of the Choice of Lights. 28. 
 
 COLOURS IN REGARD TO BACKGROUNDS. 
 
 263. Of avoiding hard Outlines. 51. 
 
 264. Of Outlines. 338. 
 
 265. Of Backgrounds. 334. 
 
 266. How to detach Figures from the Ground. 70. 
 
 267. Of Uniformity and Yariety of Colours upon plain Surfaces. 304. 
 
 268. Of Backgrounds suitable both to Shadows and Lights. 137. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 1G7 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 269. The apparent Variation of Colours, occasioned by the Contrast 
 
 of the Ground upon which they are placed. 112. 
 
 CONTRAST, HARMONY, AND REFLEXES, IN REGARD TO 
 COLOURS. 
 
 270. Gradation in Painting. 144. 
 
 271. How to assort Colours in such a manner as that they may add 
 
 Beauty to each other. 99. 
 
 272. Of detaching the Figures. 73. 
 
 273. Of the Colour of Reflexes. 87. 
 
 274. What Body will be most strongly tinged with the Colour of any 
 
 other Object. 124. 
 
 275. Of Reflexes. 77. 
 
 276. Of the Surface of all shadowed Bodies. 122. 
 
 277. That no reflected Colour is simple, but is mixed with the Nature 
 
 of the other Colours. 84. 
 
 278. Of the Colour of Lights and Reflexes. 157. 
 
 279. Why reflected Colours seldom partake of the Colour of the Body 
 
 where they meet. 85. 
 
 280. The Reflexes of Flesh Colours. 81. 
 
 281. Of the Nature of Comparison. 146. 
 
 282. Where the Reflexes are seen. 86. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COLOURS. 
 
 283. A Precept of Perspective in regard to Painting. 354. 
 
 284. Of the Perspective of Colours. 134. 
 
 285. The Cause of the Diminution of Colours. 136. 
 
 286. Of the Diminution of Colours and Objects. 356. 
 
 287. Of the Variety observable in Colours, according to their 
 
 Distance or Proximity. 102. 
 
 288. At what Distance Colours are entirely lost. 103. 
 
 289. Of the Change observable in the same Colour, according to its 
 
 Distance from the Eye. 128. 
 
 290. Of the blueish Appearance of remote Objects in a Land- 
 
 scape. 317. 
 
 291. Of the Qualities in the Surface which first lose themselves by 
 
 Distance. 293. 
 
168 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 292. From what Cause the Azure of the Air proceeds. 151. 
 
 293. Of the Perspective of Colours. 107. 
 
 294. Of the Perspective of Colours in dark Places. 148. 
 
 295. Of the Perspective of Colours. 149. 
 
 296. Of Colours. 152. 
 
 297. How it happens that Colours do not change, though placed in 
 
 different Qualities of Air. 108. 
 
 298. Why Colours experience no apparent Change, though placed in 
 
 different Qualities of Air. 106. 
 
 299. Contrary Opinions in regard to Objects seen afar off. 142. 
 
 300. Of the Colour of Objects remote from the Eye. 143. 
 
 301. Of the Colour of Mountains. 163. 
 
 302. Why the Colour and Shape of Objects are soft in some Situa- 
 
 tions apparently dark, though not so in Keality. 110. 
 
 303. Various Precepts in Painting. 340. 
 
 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 304. Aerial Perspective. 165. 
 
 305. The Parts of the smallest Objects will first disappear in 
 
 Painting. 306. 
 
 306. Small Figures ought not to be too much finished. 282. 
 
 307. Why the Air is to appear whiter as it approaches nearer to the 
 
 Earth. 69. 
 
 308. How to paint the distant Part of a Landscape. 68. 
 
 309. Of precise and confused Objects. 72. 
 
 310. Of distant Objects. 355. 
 
 311. Of Buildings seen in a thick Air. 312. 
 
 312. Of Towns and other Objects seen through a thick Air. 309. 
 
 313. Of the inferior Extremities of distant Objects. 315. 
 
 314. Which Parts of Objects disappear first by being removed farther 
 
 from the Eye, and which preserve their Appearance. 321 . 
 
 315. Why Objects are less distinguished in proportion as they are 
 
 farther removed from the Eye. 319. 
 
 316. Why Faces appear dark at a Distance. 320. 
 
 317. Of Towns and other Buildings seen through a Fog in the 
 
 Morning or Evening. 325. 
 
 318. Of the Height of Buildings seen in a Fog. 324. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 169 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 319. Why Objects which are high, appear darker at a Distance than 
 
 those which are low, though the Fog be uniform, and of 
 equal Thickness. 326. 
 
 320. Of Objects seen in a Fog. 323. 
 
 321. Of those Objects which the Eye perceives through a Mist or 
 
 thick Air. 311. 
 
 322. Miscellaneous Observations. 308. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 LANDSCAPE. 
 
 323. Of Objects seen at a Distance. 313. 
 
 324. Of a Town seen through a thick Air. 314. 
 
 325. How to draw a Landscape. 33. 
 
 326. Of the Green of the Country. 129. 
 
 327. What Greens will appear most of a blueish Cast. 130. 
 
 328. The Colour of the Sea from different Aspects. 145. 
 
 329. Why the same Pi^ospect appears larger at some times than at 
 
 others. 307. 
 
 330. Of Smoke. 331. 
 
 331. In what part Smoke is lightest. 329. 
 
 332. Of the Sunbeams passing through the Openings of Clouds. 310. » 
 
 333. Of the Beginning of Eain. 347. 
 
 334. The Seasons are to be observed. 345. 
 
 335. The Difference of Climates is to be observed. 344. 
 
 336. Of Dust. 330. 
 
 337. How to represent the Wind. 346. 
 
 338. Of a Wilderness. 285. 
 
 339. Of the Horizon seen in the Water. 365. 
 
 340. Of the Shadow of Bridges on the Surface of the Water. 348. 
 
 341. How a Painter ought to put in Practice the Perspective of 
 
 Colours. 164. 
 
 342. Various Precepts in Painting. 332. 
 
 343. The Brilliancy of a Landscape. 133. 
 
170 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS OBSEKYATIONS. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 344. Why a painted Object does not appear so far distant as a real 
 
 one, though, they be conveyed to the Eye by eqnal 
 Angles. 333. 
 
 345. How to draw a Figure standing upon its Feet, to appear forty 
 
 Braccia high, in a space of twenty Braccia, with pro- 
 portionate Members. 300. 
 
 346. How to draw a Figure twenty-four Braccia high, upon a Wall 
 
 twelve Braccia high, Plate XX II. 301. 
 
 347. Why, on measuring a Face, and then painting it of the same 
 
 Size, it will appear larger than the natural one. 297. 
 
 348. Why the most perfect Imitation of Nature will not appear to 
 
 have the same Belief as Nature itself. 341. 
 
 349. Universality of Painting. A Precept. 9. 
 
 350. In what Manner the Mirror is the true Master of Painters. 275. 
 
 351. Which Painting is to be esteemed the best: 276. 
 
 352. Of the Judgment to be made of a Painter's Work. 335. 
 
 353. How to make an imaginary Animal appear natural. 286. 
 
 354. Painters are not to imitate one another. 24. 
 
 355. How to judge of one's own Work. 274. 
 
 356. Of correcting Errors which you discover. 14. 
 
 357. The best Place for looking at a Picture. 280. 
 
 358. Of Judgment. 15. 
 
 359. Of Employment anxiously wished for by Painters. 272. 
 
 360. Advice to Painters. 8. 
 
 361. Of Statuary. 351. 
 
 362. On the Measurement and Division of Statues into Parts. 39. 
 
 363. A Precept for the Painter. 11. 
 
 364. On the Judgment of Painters. 273. 
 
 365. That a Man ought not to trust to himself, but ought to consult 
 
 Nature. 20. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. MANUSCRIPTS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 II. CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE OF HIS PRIN- 
 CIPAL PAINTINGS. 
 
 III. DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
( 173 ) 
 
 I. 
 
 MANUSCBIPTS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 The history of these Manuscripts has been investigated by so 
 many learned men * that we are able to trace the most important 
 of them through all their vicissitudes during the last three and 
 a half centuries ; and the account of their various travels is both 
 curious and interesting. 
 
 Leonardo gave by his will "to Messer Francisco da Melzi, 
 gentleman, of Milan, in gratitude for the services he has rendered 
 him in times past, all and every one of the books that the said 
 testator now possesses, and other instruments and drawings con- 
 cerning his art and the profession of painter." Melzi, who was 
 Leonardo's sole executor, took his treasures to his home at 
 Vaprio, on the banks of the Adda, where he guarded them 
 piously until his death. His heirs, however, seem to have had 
 but small regard for them, and allowed a certain Lelio Gavardi 
 to take away fourteen volumes. These were afterwards re- 
 covered by Signor Gian Ambrogio Mazenta, who returned them 
 to the Melzi family. But Signor Orazio, then the head of the 
 family, " marvelled much/' says Mazenta, " that I should have 
 taken so much trouble," and courteously presented the re- 
 
 * Venturi, Amoretti, Gay e, Uzielli, Govi, and many others. 
 
174 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 covered volumes to him, adding — " There are many more draw- 
 ings by the same hand lying in the garret of my country house." 
 
 About the year 1594, Pompeo Leoni, a sculptor of Arezzo, 
 obtained possession of a few of these volumes, and sold some of 
 the drawings (which are now at Windsor) to the Earl of Arundel, 
 and the rest to Count G-aleazzo Arconati, who, on January 21, 
 1637, presented them to the Ambrosian Library at Milan. 
 
 We may suppose that Arconati collected all the volumes he 
 could procure, for at the end of the next century there were 
 certainly not less than thirteen volumes of Leonardo's works in 
 the Ambrosian, including the "Codice Atlantico," a book of 
 large size, containing many hundred important drawings which 
 had been collected and bound up by Leoni, whose name appears 
 in an inscription on the cover. 
 
 When Bonaparte entered Milan, in 1796, he, with his usual 
 rapacity, seized these volumes and sent them to the Bibliothèque 
 de l'Institut at Paris, where they all remained until the peace of 
 1815, when the "Codice Atlantico" was returned to Milan; 
 while the other twelve were most unaccountably left behind in 
 Paris, where they still remain. 
 
 At the present time we can trace the following twenty 
 volumes, or collections, of Leonardo's Manuscripts : — ■ 
 
 Twelve in the Bibliothèque de l'Institut at Paris, marked in 
 large Eoman letters — A to L. (See page 230.) 
 
 One in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, known as the " Codice 
 Atlantico," which has lately been thoroughly investigated by 
 Signor Govi, in his " Saggio delle Opere di Leonardo di Vinci." 
 (See page 228.) 
 
 One in the possession of the Trivulzio family at Milan, known 
 as the " Codicetto Trivulziano." This volume was sold to Don 
 Carlo Trivulzio about 1750, by Don Gaetano Caccia of Novara. 
 
 One, a Treatise on the flight of birds, in the possession of Count 
 Manzoni of Lugo. 
 
MANUSCRIPTS. 
 
 175 
 
 One in the Arundel collection in the British Museum (No. 263). 
 
 This is a rough book of observations and demonstrations on 
 subjects chiefly of mixed mathematics ; being unconnected notes 
 written by him at different times, commencing 22nd March, 1508, 
 on the mechanical powers of forces, percussion, gravity, motion, 
 optics, astronomy, etc., with various arithmetical and geometrical 
 propositions in Italian. Several memoranda occur in this 
 volume (noticed in the Catalogue of the Arundel MSS., p. 79), 
 particularly the death of his father Pietro da Vinci. (See 
 page 232). 
 
 One in the Eoyal collection at Windsor Castle, originally 
 purchased by the Earl of Arundel from Pompeo Leoni, and 
 purchased by Charles I., at the sale of the Arundel collection. 
 Many of these drawings, engraved by Bartolozzi and others, were 
 published by John Chamberlaine, the King's Librarian, in 1796. 
 (See Catalogue on page 233.) 
 
 Two in the Ashburnham collection, made up, it has been 
 asserted, from the volumes in the Bibliothèque de l'Institut. 
 
 One in the possession of the Earl of Leicester, at Holkham, on 
 the weight and motive power of water. 
 
 And scattered drawings, accompanied with the usual annota- 
 tions, are to be found in the Public Libraries at Vienna, Venice, 
 Florence, Turin, and Paris. (See pages 231, 232.) 
 
 The following volumes have been lost : — 
 
 One presented by Mazenta to the painter, Ambrozio Figini, 
 who bequeathed it to Ercole Bianchi. This was subsequently 
 purchased by Consul Smith, of Venice, but all trace of it has 
 now disappeared. 
 
 One presented by Mazenta to Duke Carlo Emmanuele, of 
 Savoy. This was possibly burned in one of the fires which took 
 place in the Royal Library of Turin, in 1667 or 1679. 
 
 Leonardo's writings are quickly recognized. It is said that he 
 
176 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 was left-handed, and this may be one reason for the curious fact 
 that nearly all his manuscripts are written backwards, from right 
 to left, and cannot be easily read without the aid of a mirror. 
 
 Venturi says that they contain speculations in those branches 
 of natural philosophy nearest allied to geometry ; that they are 
 first sketches and occasional notes, the author always intending 
 afterwards to compose from them complete treatises. The 
 spirit of geometry guided him throughout, whether it were in 
 the art of analyzing a subject in the connexion of the discourse, 
 or the care of always generalizing his ideas. As to natural 
 philosophy, he never was satisfied on any proposition if he had 
 not proved it by experiment. 
 
 The same author has likewise given extracts from Da Vinci's 
 Manuscripts, arranged under the following heads : — 
 
 I. Of the descent of heavy oodies, combined with the rotation of 
 the Earth. — Copernicus did not draw up his law of gravitation 
 and rotation until forty years later. 
 
 II. Of the Earth divided into particles. — Leonardo supposes that 
 fragments of the earth fell from above the atmosphere, and 
 arrived at a centre where they oscillated like a stone suspended 
 from a thread. 
 
 III. Of the Earth and the Moon. — He discovers that the scin- 
 tillation of a star is not in the star itself, but in our eyes. And 
 that the earth, receiving the light of the sun, is an earth to the 
 moon itself and reflects the rays of the sun. 
 
 IV. Of the action of the Sun on the Sea. — Leonardo thinks that 
 in consequence of this action, the level of the sea at the equinox 
 raises itself, and that the waters, falling back again from the 
 poles, restore the equilibrium. 
 
 V. Of the ancient state of the Earth. — His speculations on this 
 subject do not appear to have any important value. 
 
MANUSCRIPTS. 
 
 177 
 
 VI. Of Flame and Air. — Flame, he says, like an animal, is 
 nourished by air, and dies when air is wanting ; and he accounts 
 for the smoke from the fact that the air has not penetrated 
 there. Leonardo therefore discovered the theory of combustion 
 three centuries before modern physicists. 
 
 VII. Of Statics. — He shows by diagrams the action of the 
 lever, more particularly of the oblique lever. 
 
 VIII. Of the descent of heavy hodies on inclined planes. — He 
 discourses on the easiest method of moving heavy bodies. 
 
 IX. Of the Water which is supplied from a canal. — Leonardo 
 remarks on the various causes which vary the supply of the 
 water. 
 
 X. Of Whirlpools. — In a vortex, he says, there is a mass of water 
 which rests suspended, and in the midst a vacuum; and he 
 carefully analyzes this phenomenon. 
 
 XI. Of Vision.— Leonardo has written on vision at some length, 
 both in his ''Treatise on Painting," and his "Treatise on 
 Perspective," as well as in his "Notes on Light and Cloud." 
 He does not absolutely mention the camera-obscura, but he 
 describes its action so well, that it is evident the discovery of 
 the camera may be attributed to him. 
 
 XII. On various Instruments. — He describes several instru- 
 ments : — Proportional compasses on a movable centre, by which 
 an oval can be traced ; apparatus to indicate the density of the 
 air ; a machine for measuring the humidity of the air. 
 
 Leonardo also designed a helmet, communicating with the 
 air, for the pearl-fishers in the Indian seas; apparatus to help 
 swimmers ; a machine suggested by the wings of a bat, by means 
 of which men could fly ; a press to squeeze the oil from olives ; 
 a measure for ribbons; a machine to twist thread; a new method 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 of casting medals; and he certainly knew the immense power 
 of steam. In fact, there was scarcely a subject connected with 
 science or art, upon which he did not contribute some addition 
 to the knowledge of his day. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the researches that have been made, it is 
 still uncertain whether the first edition of the " Trattato della 
 Pittura" was printed from Leonardo's own manuscripts, or 
 from notes gathered by one of his disciples from the scattered 
 volumes. It is possible that an examination of the twelve 
 volumes now in Paris might set this question at rest. 
 
 The only other published work of Leonardo is the " Trattato 
 del Moto e Misura dell' Aqua" (On the motion and power of 
 water). 
 
( 179 ) 
 
 II. 
 
 A CLASSIFIED AND DESCEIPTIVE CATALOGUE 
 OF THE PKINCIPAL PAINTINGS OF 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
 Part I. — HOLY FAMILY — MADONNA — CHEIST. 
 
 %* Except when the authority is named, the criticisms contained 
 in the following Catalogue must he taken as the opinions of M. 
 Arsene Houssaye,from whose work it has been chiefly compiled. 
 
 1. — The Baptism of Christ. 
 In the Gallery of the Academy of Fine Arts, Florence. 
 Leonardo da Vinci painted nothing more than the angel in 
 this picture, which was the composition of his master, Andrea 
 Verocchio. Tradition affirms that this was the last work ever 
 executed by Andrea, for that, on seeing the angel painted by his 
 pupil, he threw down his palette for ever. 
 
 Verocchio drew correctly, but his figures are stiff and spirit- 
 less ; the angel of Leonardo has been aptly termed a " brilliant 
 stain " on his picture— a ray of sunlight on a faded page. 
 
 Engraved in Eosini's " Storia della Pittura Italiana." 
 
 2. — Madonna of Vaprio. 
 
 Painted in fresco on a wall. 
 Leonardo lived at Vaprio for four years in a house near the 
 Adda, the neighbour of his landlord Melzi, who dwelt in the 
 adjoining villa. On tbe wall overlooking the court-yard of 
 
180 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 this villa is painted a picture of the Madonna and Infant 
 Saviour. It is of colossal size, the head of the Yirgin being 
 not less than six palmi, or about four feet six inches, in height. 
 In the year 1796 some soldiers of the Eepublic bivouacked in 
 this court, lit a fire against the wall of Leonardo's house, and 
 blackened the fresco like the funnel of a chimney. The heads, 
 fortunately, were comparatively uninjured. The whole has since 
 been repainted. 
 
 Passavant believes that Leonardo made the cartoon for this 
 picture, but that the fresco itself was the work of Francesco 
 Melzi. We may conclude, however, that Leonardo did more 
 than the sketch. The Virgin has a beautiful though severe 
 countenance, and the Child wears that smile of gracious 
 expression which Leonardo, and perhaps he alone, knew how 
 to represent. 
 
 Engraved in Fumagalli's " Scuola di Leonardo." 
 
 3. — The Virgin among the Eocks. {La Vierge aux Bochers.) 
 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 This is possibly a copy. Waagen says that this painting 
 cannot have been the work of Leonardo, "for, in opposition 
 to the remarkable and poetical style of composition, characteriz- 
 ing the epoch when the talents of this painter had attained their 
 highest perfection, there are certain parts, such as the heads of 
 the angel and of the Virgin, which are without expression, and 
 display a surprising feebleness of design; the folds of the 
 drapery, moreover, have a false and stiff appearance." 
 
 M. Passavant hazards the following conjecture : " We cannot 
 suppose that Leonardo was content with executing merely the 
 sketch for this composition : we believe that a picture, formerly 
 in the Chapel of the Conception in the Church of the Franciscans 
 at Milan, which is mentioned in the ' Treatise on Painting,' by 
 Lomazzo (p. 171-212), and also in the ' Passeghi de Scandii et 
 Lormanni,' (1751, Milan), and which was sold in 1796 for thirty 
 ducats to the painter Hamilton because it was thought to be a 
 copy, was really by Leonardo himself. It afterwards passed 
 into the collection of the Duke of Suffolk; two angels which 
 were formerly at either side of the principal picture are at 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 181 
 
 present in the gallery of the Duke de Melzi, and attest by their 
 brilliancy the authenticity of the work of which they once formed 
 a part. The picture in the Louvre is doubtless a copy." 
 
 The Duke of Devonshire possesses a drawing of very great 
 beauty, representing a head of the Virgin with her hair falling 
 on both sides of the face, which is turned a little to the right. 
 On the same page is a head of the Holy Child, three quarters 
 seen. These two studies are in black chalk, relieved with white, 
 on blue paper. M. Passavant, who has given this description, 
 adds : " This drawing, of extraordinary beauty and well pre- 
 served, appears to be a study for the ' Vierge aux Eochers ' of 
 the Louvre." 
 
 In the Museum at Nantes there is a duplicate of the " Vierge 
 aux Eochers " (No. 199), and the catalogue affirms that it is the 
 original : this statement cannot be depended on. 
 
 " The aspect of the Virgin in the * Vierge aux Eochers/ " says 
 Théophile Gautier, " is mysterious and charming. A grotto of 
 basaltic rocks shelters the divine group, who are sitting on the 
 margin of a clear spring, in the transparent depths of which we 
 see the pebbles of its bed. Through the arcade of the grotto, 
 we discover a rocky landscape, with a few scattered trees, and 
 crossed by a stream, on the banks of which rises a village. All 
 this is of a colour as indefinable as those mysterious countries 
 one traverses in a dream, and accords marvellously with the 
 figures. What more adorable type than that of the Madonna ; 
 it is especially Leonardo's ; and does not in any way recall the 
 Virgins of Perugino or Eaphael. Her head is spherical in form ! 
 the forehead well- developed ; the fine oval of her cheeks is 
 gracefully rounded so as to enclose a chin most delicately 
 curved ; the eyes with lowered eyelids encircled with shadow, 
 and the nose, not in a line with the forehead, like that of a 
 Grecian statue, but still finely shaped ; with nostrils tenderly 
 cut, and trembling, as though her breathing made them 
 palpitate ; the mouth a little large, it is true, but smiling with 
 a deliciously enigmatic expression that Da Vinci gives to his 
 female faces, a tiny shade of mischief mingling with the purity 
 and goodness. The hair is long, loose, and silky, and falls in 
 crisp meshes around the shadow-softened cheeks, according 
 withjihe half-tints with incomparable grace." 
 
182 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 This picture was formerly in the possession of Francis I. It 
 was originally painted on wood, but was transferred to canvas 
 some years since, and has been retouched to such an extent, 
 that, at first sight, it is difficult to pronounce any opinion 
 upon it. 
 
 In the Exhibition of Works of the Old Masters at the Eoyal 
 Academy in 1870, the Earl of Suffolk exhibited his " Vierge aux 
 Rochers," which Waagen says is "most probably the original." 
 
 Engraved in line by Desnoyers. 
 
 4. — The Virgin seated on the knees of St. Anne. 
 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 " In the picture of the Virgin seated on the knees of St. Anne," 
 — we quote Théophile Gautier, — " the shadows are more subdued 
 than in ' La Vierge aux Eochers ; ' the painter has certainly not 
 employed in this picture that dark tint which has marred his 
 other paintings; the colouring is lighter and cooler. In a 
 landscape strewn with rocks and little trees, of which you may 
 count the leaves, St. Anne holds on her knees the Virgin, who 
 gracefully leans towards the Infant Jesus. The Child is playing 
 with a little lamb, which He holds gently by the ear, with a 
 charmingly infantile action which takes nothing from the 
 nobility of the composition. A few slight lines cross the fore- 
 head and cheeks of St. Anne, but do not detract from her 
 beauty ; for Leonardo shrank from the representation of sadness, 
 and would not afflict the eye by a spectacle of decrepitude. The 
 head of the Virgin is exquisitely fine in outline ; her face beams 
 with virginal grace and maternal love ; her eyes are bathed in 
 tenderness, and her half-smiling mouth has that indefinable 
 expression of which Leonardo alone knew the secret." 
 
 M. Taine also speaks of this painting, giving us, as it were, a 
 page of music : " In the little Jesus of the picture of St. Anne, 
 a shoulder, a cheek, a temple, alone emerge from the shadowy 
 depth. Leonardo da Vinci was a great musician. Perhaps he 
 found in that gradation and change of colour, in that vague yet 
 charming magic of chiaroscuro, an effect resembling the cre- 
 scendos and decresendos of grand musical works." 
 
 The authenticity of this picture has often been called in 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 183 
 
 question. Waagen attributes it to a pupil of Leonardo, "so 
 much," he says, " is the usual smile of his figures here exaggerated 
 and affected." Eosini says that it may be the work of Salai, but 
 that it had perhaps been re-touched by Leonardo, unless, indeed, 
 it be by Bernardino de Luini. M. Delécluze is of the same 
 opinion as M. Eosini. Passavant, however, affirms that it is an 
 original picture, for, says he, " none of the pupils of Leonardo 
 had a touch so spiritual, or that firmness of expression so much 
 to be admired in this work." 
 
 There are many existing copies ; the greater number of which 
 have claimed to be the original, but it is acknowledged now that 
 many of these are much inferior to the painting in the Louvre. 
 Even though the blue garment of the Virgin is effaced, though 
 the left leg has certainly been re-painted, yet we think this is 
 the work of Leonardo da Vinci, or else a masterpiece by 
 Bernardino de Luini. 
 
 A sketch for this picture, according to M. Eigollot, is in the 
 collection belonging to the Plattenberg family, in Westphalia, 
 Among the copies may be cited : one which was for some time 
 in the collection at the sacristy of San Celso at Milan, but is 
 now in the Leuchtenberg Gallery at Munich. It is by Salai; 
 D'Argenville has, however, attributed it to Leonardo himself. 
 Another, which is in the Eoyal Gallery at Florence, the Catalogue 
 of 1844 attributes to Salai. This was bought at Vienna, accord- 
 ing to Lanzi, by the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III. 
 Viardot, speaking of another copy at the ximbrosian Library at 
 Milan, gives it as his opinion that it is by Luini. Kugler 
 mentions one in the Brera Gallery ; " it is," says he, " the work 
 of Andrea Salaino, for one can recognize the hand of this master 
 by the warm and transparent red of his flesh-tints." 
 
 The Eoyal Museum of Madrid also possesses a copy, or a 
 sketch of an inferior kind, of the St. Anne of the Louvre. 
 
 Engraved by Langier; by Cantini; and in Landon's "Vies 
 et (Euvres des Peintres." 
 
 5. — The Holy Family of St. Petersbukg. 
 In the Gallery of the Hermitage. 
 The history of this picture reads like an old legend. Amoretti, 
 the Abbé Lanzi, and M. de Gallenberg all repeat the same story. 
 
184 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The painting was lost when the palace of the Dukes of Mantua 
 was pillaged by the Germans. It disappeared for a long time, 
 and at length fell into the possession of the Abbé Salvadori, 
 one of the secretaries of the Count Firmian. Salvadori also 
 concealed the picture, believing that the Count, who was 
 Governor of Mantua, would make him return it to the palace 
 whence it had been stolen. After the death of Salvadori, the 
 picture was sent to the village of Mori, in the Trent district, 
 where it was sold by the heirs of the Abbé to the agents of 
 Catherine II. 
 
 Passa vant says of this picture that " all those who have seen 
 it in the Gallery of the Hermitage are convinced that it is a 
 superb work, worthy of the great Florentine master/' 
 
 Pagavi thought it so beautiful, and so nearly like the work 
 of Eaphael, that he marked it with the monogram of Leonardo, 
 in order to prevent its being attributed to the Prince of Painters. 
 
 Henri Beyle likewise speaks of this painting with enthusiasm, 
 saying that "Leonardo never painted anything better or more 
 sublime." 
 
 There is also a long description of it in the "Histoire de la 
 Peinture en Italie " by the same author. " Mary," he says, " is 
 seen full-face; she gazes on her son with pride, and is one of 
 the grandest figures of the mother of our Saviour that was ever 
 painted ; the Child, full of gaiety and life, embraces her ; behind 
 them, to the left of the spectator, is a young woman reading. 
 This figure is frequently named St. Catherine, but it is probably 
 the portrait of the sister-in-law of Leo X., wife of Giulio de' 
 Medici, to whom she was married in January, 1515 ; this picture 
 being, according to Beyle, of a date subsequent to that event. 
 On the opposite side is St. Joseph, whose head is the most 
 original one in the picture; he looks down smilingly upon the 
 Holy Child with a graceful expression of playful humour. This 
 is Leonardo's own idea; for it was far from the spirit of that 
 age to introduce any gaiety into a sacred subject ; in this respect 
 he was the precursor of Correggio." 
 
 M. Viardot, on the contrary, says, in his " Musées d'Allemagne. 
 et de Eusse," that this is "a defective work, in which two 
 women, Mary and Catherine, are drawn one above another, 
 where all is ugly, ungraceful, and grotesque (!)." 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 185 
 
 Kugler indicates many copies or replicas of this "Holy 
 Family." The best known is the " Vierge au Bas-relief," in the 
 possession of Lord Monson ; others are in England or Milan. 
 
 The St. Petersburg picture bears the signature "L. D. V"; 
 this alone would not prove it to be the work of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, were the touch of the master not otherwise plainly visible 
 on this beautiful painting. 
 
 Engraved in the " Galerie de l'Hermitage, avec descriptions," 
 by Cannile de Genève. 
 
 6. — The Infant Jesus. 
 
 At Bologna. 
 
 Vasari speaks of a picture of the Holy Child, that Leonardo 
 painted for Baldassare Turini. It is, perhaps, this statement 
 of Vasari that has caused Lanzi to cite as authentic, " a Child 
 Jesus lying in a rich cradle, ornamented with pearls, which is 
 at Bologna, in the apartments of the Gonfaloniere at the palace." 
 
 This picture exhibits the Holy Infant clothed, with the ex- 
 ception of the head, which is crowned with light, and recalls 
 the luminous effect of the portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli in the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Henri Beyle says that he believes it to be by Leonardo, but in 
 his early manner ; he adds that it shows nothing of his customary 
 style. According to Vasari, this Holy Child was " marvellously 
 beautiful and graceful." 
 
 7. — Christ Disputing with the Doctors. 
 In the National Gallery, London. 
 This picture, which formerly belonged to the Carr Collection, 
 was originally the property. of the Aldobrandini family. Its 
 authenticity has been much disputed. Bigollot is of opinion 
 that Leonardo made the original drawing, but that the picture 
 itself was painted by Bernardino Luini. Others critics agree in 
 assigning the work to this distinguished pupil of Leonardo. 
 
 In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, scholars followed 
 closely on the steps of their instructors. It was not until after 
 the publication of the Abbé Lanzi's "Storia Pittorica" that we 
 began to concern ourselves much with many painters of the 
 
186 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 second order, the names, the merits, and the works of whom he 
 revealed. He it was who first restored to fame Luini, Salai, 
 Solario, Oggione, Cesare da Sesto, Beltrafiìo, and other pupils 
 of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 "We have now," says Waagen, "learned how to detect the 
 peculiarities of each of these artists, and in what authentic work 
 of Leonardo can be found that warm flesh tint so brilliant in all 
 its parts, and those local tints of blue and red draperies, so pure, 
 so uniform, and so well painted? But however beautiful may 
 be the features of Christ, although they recall in general the 
 well-known type of the school of Leonardo, although there is a 
 slight tinge of melancholy, the face lacks that depth of character, 
 that grandeur, which Leonardo usually imprinted on his works. 
 The composition and the drawing, are much too feeble to be his 
 work, if indeed it could be recognized through the unfortunate 
 restorations which this picture has undergone. The forehead, 
 the cheeks, and the hands of Christ have above all suffered from 
 the method of Italian restorers, which consists in retouching the 
 flesh tints with a coloured varnish : a process which may satisfy 
 the uncritical crowd, but which vexes the true connoisseur, who 
 seeks in vain for the original touch of the painter's pencil." 
 
 D'Agincourt says that though this picture has been attributed 
 to Bernardino Luini, he believes it to be really Leonardo's. In 
 his " Histoire de l'Art " he thus speaks of it : — " The subject of 
 this painting is confused and badly arranged; the figures are 
 half length. The Saviour is represented with his face towards 
 us; his expression is sweet and noble, but rather feminine, in 
 spite of his growing beard; he wears a garment of silk covered 
 with jewels." 
 
 In the opinion of Herr Passavant, "This splendid picture is 
 most carefully finished, and in parts finely coloured, especially 
 the hands of the Christ ; it is in good preservation, apparently 
 one of Leonardo's later productions, more fulness and roundness 
 of form being perceptible than in his earlier works. The colours 
 are also laid on in full body, although with much tenderness." 
 
 A fine copy of this picture is in the Spada Palace at Eome. 
 
 Engraved by Felsing ; by Ghigi ; by Leonelli ; and in Landon's 
 " Vies et CEuvres des Peintres." 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 187 
 
 8 — Christ Bearing His Cross. 
 In the possession of Sir Thomas Proctor Beauchamp. 
 This painting was shown at the Exhibition of Works of the Old 
 Masters at the Koyal Academy in 1871. 
 
 9 — Heads of Christ. 
 In his " Catalogue of the King's Pictures " (Paris 1754), Lépicié 
 mentions a half-length figure of Christ, carrying the globe in 
 His left hand and in the attitude of blessing it with His right. 
 He notes this as being very feeble. This picture was etched by 
 Wenceslaus Hollar, in 1650. The " Magasin Pittoresque " of the 
 year 1849 published a wood engraving of it after a drawing by 
 Granville. A notice by M. de Chenevières-Pointel accompanies 
 this engraving. 
 
 M. Passavant states that he found several different heads or 
 busts of Christ in profile, either bearing the cross or holding the 
 globe : but he considers these as nothing more than the pro - 
 ductions of Leonardo's pupils. 
 
 Engraved also by Felsing. 
 
 " Never," says M. G. d'Adda (Gazette des Beaux-Arts, August, 
 1868), " has sentiment inspired by dignity and truth of religion 
 been carried farther than in the head of Christ in the Gallery of 
 the Brera." Must we apply to this also the decision of M. 
 Passavant, just quoted, that all the heads of Christ attributed to 
 Leonardo are the work of his pupils? Gault de St.-Germain 
 mentions a head of the Saviour as being in the possession of 
 Prince Lichtenstein, at Vienna, which is regarded by Winckel- 
 mann as one of the most remarkable productions of genius, a 
 sublime work of the highest type of manly beauty. 
 
 In the Cathedral at Antwerp is a head of Christ, attributed to 
 Leonardo ; we know not on what authority. 
 
 10. — The Madonna or Lucca. 
 
 In the Casa Buonvisi at Lucca. 
 This small picture is regarded as a .very early work of Leonardo's, 
 and, according to Beyle, in his first style. M. de Kumohr, in 
 his " Italienische Forschungen" says, " Here may be found traces 
 
188 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 of those strivings after intense expression so peculiar to this 
 master; and at the same time a certain similarity to the 
 Florentine painters of the time of Ghirlandajo." 
 
 11. — The Virgin of San Onofrio. 
 
 In the Convent of San Onofrio, at Borne. 
 D'Agincourt mentions this picture as being painted in fresco 
 on a window frame of the Convent of San Onofrio. The Yirgin 
 is represented holding a flower, which she offers to the Infant 
 Jesus. It has been restored by Palmaroli, on a gold background. 
 A bust seen behind is supposed by d'Agincourt to represent the 
 donor. 
 
 As far as can be judged, after the repainted portions of 
 Palmaroli and the marks left by time, this picture much 
 resembles in subject, and even in execution, the works of 
 Lorenzo di Credi, one of Leonardo's fellow-students. But 
 M. Eumohr concludes that " it is a work of Leonardo's youth, 
 done during his sojourn at Eome, before leaving it for the court 
 of Lodovico Sforza, at Milan." ;If, however, Leonardo did not 
 go to Eome, for the first time, earlier than 1514, this fresco 
 would according to chronology, be a work of his third " epoch," 
 which would seem more than doubtful. 
 
 12. — The Cartoon of St. Anne. 
 In the Eoyal Academy of Arts, London. 
 The early history of this Cartoon is much complicated. Vasari 
 recounts many details, and describes the work with great 
 admiration, at some length, but, after Vasari, a cloud hangs 
 over its history. Lanzi believes that it was lost ; Lomazzo, in 
 his " Trattato della Pittura," says that it may be found in the 
 possession of the painter Aurelio Laurino, at Milan, after it had 
 been seen in France. 
 
 In any case, the description Vasari has left us closely cor- 
 responds with the picture in London ; which does full justice to 
 the genius of the master, who has stamped this work with the 
 imprint of his power. " It excited," says Vasari, " general 
 admiration when it was exhibited in Florence, in the year 1502." 
 It is a drawing in black and white chalk ; the heads are rather 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 189 
 
 less than life-size; the perfection of the design is admirable, 
 though incomplete; the extremities and the drapery of the 
 virgin are scarcely indicated; and the whole work is much 
 faded. 
 
 The Virgin holds the Infant Christ upon her knees, and the 
 child is gazing at the little St. John playing with a lamb. 
 St. Anne, seated by the side of the Virgin, is looking at her 
 daughter with ecstasy, while with her left hand she points 
 heavenward. " Her smile," says Vasari, " indicates the excess 
 of her joy in seeing her offspring raised to celestial rank." 
 
 Herr Passavant says, " This is a unique and beautiful cartoon. 
 Through what various hands it passed, previous to its arrival in 
 England, I have not been able to discover. It is now treated 
 as a precious relic, and kept under glass in the keeper's room. 
 It is drawn in black chalk and highly finished. In style of 
 treatment, as far as regards a greater attention to effect of light 
 than to strict symmetry of form, it resembles the sketch of the 
 Adoration of the Kings, in the Florence Gallery. It is in good 
 preservation." 
 
 Engraved by Anker Smith. (A Photograph of this cartoon is 
 published in Mrs. C. Beaton's "Life of Leonardo.") 
 
 13. — The Virgin of Munich. 
 In the Pinacothek. 
 Vasari recounts that he saw at the house of Signor Giulio 
 Torini a small picture by Leonardo, " representing the Madonna 
 with her son in her arms." This had been painted with extreme 
 care, but was already much altered. Leonardo is said to have 
 painted it while at Peschia, when on his way from Milan to 
 Kome, for Signor Baldassare Torini, for whom also he executed 
 an Infant Christ of marvellous beauty and grace. 
 
 It has been suggested that this description probably refers to 
 the picture now numbered 567, in the Pinacothek at Munich, in 
 which the Virgin, seated in an open cave, surrounded by a 
 landscape, holds with her right arm the infant, who is couching 
 by her side beneath her mantle. It much resembles the " Vierge 
 aux Kochers " of the Louvre. 
 
 In his book on " l'Art en Allemagne," M. Fortoul mentions 
 
190 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 this picture; he attributes it to Leonardo, and extols its 
 " delicious colouring ; " a praise which some may think calcu- 
 lated rather to cast a doubt on its authenticity. 
 
 14. — The Virgin "au Bas-Kelief." 
 
 Formerly Lord Mon son's, now in the possession of the Countess of 
 Warwick, at Gatton Park. 
 This Holy Family, which appears to be nearly a repetition of 
 the picture at the Hermitage, was, in 1835, the property of Mr. 
 Woodburn, a picture-dealer in London* who sold it to Lord 
 Monson. M. Passavant says of this picture, " it is one of the 
 best-preserved works of Leonardo; the drawing is exquisite, 
 and the colours still fresh : it is altogether an admirable and 
 original picture." Other critics, however, decline to regard it 
 as undoubtedly authentic, and suggest that it may be an 
 extremely skilful copy of a sketch by Leonardo. The figures 
 are rounded, the tones warm yet brilliant, but the expressions 
 of the countenances are not quite those associated with 
 Leonardo's style. 
 
 This group is composed of the Virgin, the Infant Jesus, the 
 youthful St. John, Joseph, and Zacharias. 
 
 At Milan, in the gallery of the Duke de Melzi, there is a Holy 
 Family comprising the same personages. It is attributed to 
 Cesare da Sesto, whose " Adoration of the Magi," in the gallery 
 at Naples, has also for its principal group a Holy Family much 
 resembling it. 
 
 The collection of Cardinal Feschi contains another copy of 
 this picture, which is generally known as the " Vierge au Bas- 
 relief," although the bas-relief from which the name is taken is 
 nothing more than one of the smaller accessories. 
 
 In the Fitz-William Museum, there is a fine copy, on a 
 reduced scale. 
 
 Engraved by Forster. 
 
 15. — The Holy Family of Madrid. 
 
 We owe our acquaintance with this picture, this "famous 
 work," to M. Viardot, who, in his book, " Musées d'Espagne, 
 d'Angleterre, et de Belgique," has spoken of this Holy Family in 
 terms of exaggerated laudation. 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 191 
 
 The solidity and the perfect preservation so especially dwelt 
 on by M. Viardot tend to cast a doubt on the originality of this 
 picture ; Leonardo's paintings are not usually either solid or in 
 good preservation. 
 
 M. Kugler has not mentioned it in his catalogue of the 
 principal works in the " Museo del Key," included in volume ii. 
 of his " Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei." 
 
 M. Viardot says that this " Holy Family " is painted in the 
 manner of " Modesty and Vanity," in the Sciarra Palace, which 
 latter picture he also highly praises. However, M. de Eumohr 
 attributes the work in question to Salai, and Fumagalli believes 
 it to have been painted by Luini. 
 
 16. — The Virgin of the Esterhazy Gallery. 
 The Virgin in this painting is between St. Catherine and St. 
 Barbara, and supports in her arms the Holy Child, who is look- 
 ing at a book on the table before Him. M. Passa vant says " that 
 it is agreed to attribute it to Luini." 
 
 The group is shown at half length, and, according to M. 
 Viardot, recalls the Holy Family of Madrid, which he considers 
 it nearly equals in importance and beauty. He goes on, how- 
 ever, to point out that the heads of the three women singularly 
 resemble each other, and are of the same type, scarcely varied. 
 
 Probably this picture was sketched by the great master him- 
 self, and finished by Luini. 
 
 Engraved by Steinmiiller. 
 
 17. — Virgin, with the Donor. 
 
 In the Brussels Gallery. (?) 
 Lépicié gives the following description of this Virgin in his 
 Catalogue Eaisonné of the pictures belonging to the King of 
 France : " Virgin holding the Infant Christ. The Holy Mother 
 in a simple and graceful attitude, bears in her arms the Holy 
 Child, near whom may be seen the little St. John. 
 
 " In the foreground of this picture, the artist has placed the 
 figure of a kneeling man, in the act of adoration. The back- 
 ground is partly formed by a curtain. 
 
 " Independently of the grand character of the design, there 
 
192 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 may here be found that grace and fidelity of expression which 
 Leonardo gives his figures." 
 
 This picture was presented to the Museum of Brussels in the 
 year xi. of the first French Eepublic. 
 
 18. — Virgin. 
 
 Belonging to Lord Ashhurton. 
 An angel is seen raising the cover of a bed on which the Divine 
 Infant is sleeping in the arms of His mother ; while the little 
 St. John and an angel watch by Him. 
 The figures are half the size of nature. 
 
 This picture, which was formerly in the Prior's chamber of 
 the Escurial, subsequently formed part of the collection of 
 General Sebastiani. 
 
 Dr. Waagen says it is by Luini. At present it belongs to Lord 
 Ashburton, who, on the authority of many critics, believes it to 
 be genuine. 
 
 19. — Virgin of the Albani Palace. 
 
 Borne. 
 
 Both Lanzi and Eaphael Mengs speak of this picture; the 
 former says that its grace is impossible to describe, and the 
 latter goes so far as to assert, that it is the most valuable work 
 in that gallery ; on the other hand, Passavant simply refers to it 
 as " perhaps by Luini, or one of the same school." 
 
 The Virgin is represented as though asking for a branch of 
 lilies with which her Infant Jesus is playing, while he shrinks 
 away as unwilling to part with them. It is altogether a very 
 graceful composition. 
 
 Engraved by Martinet. 
 
 20. — The Virgin at Alton Towers. 
 
 Earl of Shrewsbury. 
 Herr Passavant (in " Kunstreise durch England und Belgien ") 
 mentions a small picture by Leonardo, preserved at Alton Towers, 
 the seat of the Earl of Shrewsbury. " It shows the Virgin with 
 the Infant Christ upon her breast ; the Child stretches out his 
 hand for a pink which she holds in her hand. The background 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 193 
 
 represents a landscape, with the Lake of Como in the distance, 
 and in the foreground is a garden; the mother wears a black 
 dress and yellow mantle." 
 
 21.— The Virgin of the Pourtalès Gallery. 
 The " Bulletin de l'AUiance des Arts," vol. i. page 30, refers to 
 this painting, and attributes it to Leonardo. It was once in the 
 possession of the Koyal Family of Spain, and was bought for a 
 work of Luini, at the Pourtalès sale. " In it the Virgin is shown 
 bending towards her Infant Son, as she offers Him a flower." 
 
 22. — The Virgin of Andrea Solario. 
 
 In the Louvre. 
 
 This picture, signed "Andreas de Solario fee," although it 
 vividly recalls the manner of G. Ferrari, his master, is most 
 probably founded on a design by Leonardo, "for," says Pas- 
 savant, " there is still existing in the collection at the Ambrosian 
 Library, a drawing in red chalk by this master, half-length life 
 size, which has served as a basis for many of the pictures painted 
 at Milan by the pupils or the imitators of Leonardo's school ; 
 these are, however, all inferior to that at the Louvre. This 
 drawing by Leonardo has been engraved by Gerii." 
 
 So Andrea Solario must nevertheless be awarded a great share 
 in the praise due to this admirable picture, which, with its light- 
 ness, its inimitable charm, its transparency and brilliant colour- 
 ing, belongs entirely to the Lombard school. 
 
 23. — The Virgin of the Brera Gallery. 
 Milan. 
 
 This also has been pointed out to us by Passa vant. " The 
 Virgin and the Child Jesus are in a landscape ; the picture is 
 incomplete. It was formerly in the possession of the Archbishop 
 of Milan, and is at present in the Brera Gallery. The design is 
 too feeble to be Leonardo's ; but it may be by Salaino." 
 
 24. — The Holy Family of Brescia. 
 Again our information rests on the authority of Passavant : 
 " The Holy Family, in an open tent, surrounded by a landscape 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 with a river, on which there are two swans. This picture, 
 executed with great care, has passed from the collection of 
 Sigismund Belluso, of Mantua, to that of the Count Theodore 
 Lecchi, at Brescia ; it is evidently a work by one of Da Yinci's 
 pupils." 
 
 25. — The Madonna of Milan. 
 " The Virgin is holding the Holy Child with both hands, and He 
 strokes her chin as though He were about to embrace her, mean- 
 while turning His head towards the spectators. The picture is 
 very charming, and most highly finished." Kugler thus describes 
 this work, which he found in the Casa Aracceli, at Milan. 
 
 Is it really by Leonardo, and is it still at Milan ? M. Charles 
 Clement refers to a Madonna in the Litta Palace of the same 
 city. " The Virgin," says he, " is seen in profile, as she inclines 
 her head towards the Infant Christ. The drawing is of great 
 beauty, and displays a grandeur, amplitude, and roundness, 
 which are of a truly extraordinary character. 
 
 " The face of the Virgin is painted in a somewhat dry manner, 
 denoting the influence of Flemish art. 
 
 " The authenticity of this picture has been contested, but it 
 is nevertheless an admirable piece of painting." 
 
 Engraved in the selection of Fumagalli. 
 
 26. — The Virgin with the Scales. 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 The drawing of this picture is somewhat undecided ; it has been 
 supposed that it was painted by Leonardo during a period of 
 depression. Waagen attributed it to Marco d'Oggione, while 
 Passa vant names Salaino as the probable painter ; the catalogue 
 of the Louvre, however, unhesitatingly gives it to Leonardo. 
 
 The name of this work was derived from the scales of the 
 Last Judgment, which St. Michael is represented as offering to 
 the Infant Jesus seated on the knees of His mother ; but neither 
 Mary nor her son appear to pay any attention to him, for they 
 are occupied with watching the little St. John, who is toying 
 with a lamb beside his mother, St. Elizabeth. 
 
 Engraved in Landon's " Vies et (Euvres des Peintres." 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 195 
 
 27— The Holy Family. 
 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 In this the Infant Christ is seated on a cushion, His mother 
 supports Him, and assists in taking a cross of reeds from the 
 hands of the little St. John tbe Baptist. 
 
 Waagen, and after him Passavant, refer this picture to the 
 Eoman school ; the former says, " That from its composition, its 
 agreeable character, and the warmth of its colouring, which 
 is slightly gloomy in the shadows, he recognizes a work of 
 Pierino del Vago." At the Louvre, however, it is attributed to 
 Leonardo. 
 
 28. — Mater Dolorosa. 
 Fumagalli, in his " Eecueil," gives the drawing for a bust of the 
 " Mater Dolorosa." " It is," says Kugler, " of remarkable 
 grandeur and nobility, and evidently is the design for a completed 
 work." Where it is now to be found is uncertain. 
 
 29. — Assumption of the Virgin. 
 This picture is mentioned by il Padre Gattico, who, in a manu- 
 script history of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie at 
 Milan, says that Leonardo painted over the door of the convent 
 church an Assumption of the Virgin, which was executed on 
 canvas ; " there may be seen, in a glory formed by numberless 
 little angels, St. Dominic and the Duke Lodovico Sforza on the 
 one side, and on the other St. Peter Martyr and the Duchess 
 Beatrice. The picture was in the form of a lunette; it was 
 transferred to the sacristy in 1726, where it has been copied in 
 fresco." All these details do not interfere with the fact that the 
 authenticity of this picture has been doubted by the greater 
 number of historians on art ; they even insinuate that the Domi- 
 nican Gattico, in his too great anxiety to enhance the glory of 
 his convent, has not hesitated to depart from strict truth. 
 
 30. — Virgin surrounded by Saints. 
 This is known to M. Millin only, who, in his " Voyage dans le 
 Milanais," states that the church of the Brera possesses a Virgin 
 by Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
196 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 "She is surrounded by three bishops and a cardinal, the 
 donor, his wife, and their children; two angels are placing a 
 crown upon her head." 
 
 31. — The Virgin of Pommersfeld. 
 Count Schònborn possesses in the gallery of his castle of 
 Pommersfeld a Virgin represented with the Holy Child upon 
 her knees, on a cushion. The virgin is supported by a pedestal, 
 and the Child points to a vase on a table. 
 
 Kugler says that this Virgin and Child are the portraits of a 
 beautiful woman and her son known to Leonardo ; but a little 
 further on he attributes the picture to Solario. 
 
 On comparing the Virgin at Pommersfeld with the work 
 numbered 1228 in the Louvre, known as the " Virgin of Andrea 
 Solario," " there may be found," says Dr. Eigollot, " the same 
 amiable expression in the faces, the same well-drawn forms, so 
 fine and so rounded, and the same excellent fore-shortening of 
 the limbs of the child with its softened contours, and the rosy 
 tone of the toes and the elbows ; one may recognize also the clear 
 flesh tints, with their delicate blue half-tones and transparent 
 shadows, though these last are rather dark, the beautiful blue 
 colouring of the mantle, and the red dress with its white lights 
 and orange shadows ; in fact, in the soft work of the pencil, in 
 the manner in which the colours are grounded and diffused, the 
 handiwork of the pupil of Gaudenzio Ferrari may readily be 
 discovered." This picture was at first attributed to Eaphael, 
 but wrongly ; it is doubted whether it is more rightly referred 
 to Solario. 
 
 Granted that this picture has a sufficiently original appearance 
 to account for many copies having been made, it is nevertheless 
 doubtful if it is the work of Leonardo. The features of the 
 Virgin " with a short nose," the elaborate nature of the painting, 
 and the superficial expression of her face, are not in any way 
 characteristic of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Among the copies which have been made of this Virgin of 
 Pommersfeld, Waagen refers to a painting in the Gallery at 
 Berlin ; which is stated in the catalogue to have been painted 
 after a composition by Leonardo. 
 
PLaU in. 
 
 Chap. 346 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 197 
 
 32 — The Virgin and Infant Jesus. 
 M. G. de Moulins, the owner of this picture, published, in 1848, 
 a pamphlet " On the Illustrious Leonardo da "Vinci and his Im- 
 mortal Works," informing us of its being in his possession, and 
 that he was prepared to dispose of it on remunerative terms. 
 He also affirmed in the same pamphlet that it had never been 
 out of his family since the time when it was given to Francois 
 de Moulins, who was Grand Almoner of France, and once tutor 
 to Francis I., and died in 1535. Besides his own statement, he 
 gives no other confirmation of the fact than a phrase from Féli- 
 bien : " There is in the cabinet of M. de Sourdis a Virgin holding 
 a little Jesus in her arms." This M. de Sourdis was a near 
 relative and intimate friend of the De Moulins family. 
 
 The picture is painted on wood ; the figures are larger than 
 life size ; the Virgin supports her cheek against the head of her 
 Child, whom she holds upon her lap ; she is clothed in a red 
 dress, and a mantle of azure blue lined with orange silk falls 
 from her shoulders ; the Child is unclothed. 
 
 Part II. — SACKED HISTOEICAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 33. — The Last Supper. 
 In the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. 
 This, the greatest work of Leonardo, has already been so fully 
 described in this volume (see page xxxv.), that further notice 
 is not needed. 
 
 Engraved by Eaphael Morghen; Thouvenet; and many 
 others. 
 
 Herr Passavant gives the following criticism on the copy at 
 the Eoyal Academy : — " A copy in oils, by Marco Uggione, from 
 Leonardo's celebrated painting in Sta. Maria delle Grazie in 
 Milan, is of the same size as the original. 
 
 " The united efforts of ignorance and destruction having now 
 rendered the splendid fresco a mere shadow of what it was, this 
 copy by one of Leonardo's best pupils assumes a proportionate 
 
198 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 value. It is also in itself a fine performance, preserving the 
 character of the heads most completely, all that is wanting 
 being that delicacy of finish which particularly distinguished 
 the original. The beauty of the old painting in this respect 
 is further proved by the ten original heads which formerly 
 belonged to the Ambrosian Library, and which are now in 
 England.* They were purloined from the library during the 
 period of the French Revolution, fell into the hands of Sir 
 Thomas Baring, and afterwards passed into the collection of 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence, at whose sale they came into the posses- 
 sion of Mr. Woodburn, in whose gallery I had the advantage of 
 seeing them. These ten heads are of extraordinary beauty, and 
 in tolerable preservation ; drawn in black chalk, with a slight 
 tint of colour, and altogether well worthy of the great master. 
 It seems as if Leonardo had devoted his chief efforts to the 
 heads, leaving the rest of the figure only slightly expressed. In 
 the sloping, almost horizontal strokes, we recognize the peculiar 
 signs of Leonardo's pencil, while the great delicacy of the draw- 
 ing and perfect gradation of tone are incontrovertible proofs of 
 his excellence. The copy now before us, by Marco Uggione, 
 formerly embellished the refectory of the Chartreuse at Pavia, 
 but was stolen during the troubles of the revolution by a 
 Frenchman, who brought it to Milan, and having there taken 
 up a sum of money upon it, absconded, and was no more heard 
 of. In the meantime the picture remained unnoticed and 
 unreclaimed till the year 1815, when the Treaty of Paris being- 
 concluded and every nation striving to regain her own, this 
 copy, for better security, was brought over and publicly exhibited 
 in England. Sir Benjamin West, at that time President of the 
 Eoyal Academy, made a most favourable report of its merits, 
 but purchasers were few in number, and the Academy sub- 
 sequently obtained it at a low price." 
 
 34.— St. John the Baptist. 
 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 Dr. Kugler says, in his " Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte," that 
 ''this St. John, the portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli, and that of 
 
 * Eight of these heads are in the Gallery of the Hermitage. 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 199 
 
 Mona Lisa, which are in the Louvre, can alone be regarded as 
 thoroughly authenticated works of Leonardo's most brilliant 
 period, since nearly all references relate either to these or to 
 incomplete or missing works." If it were not for the cross in the 
 hand of the saint, the radiancy of his face, and the impassioned 
 expression of his mouth and eyes, and the gesture with which 
 he points towards heaven, it might lead one to mistake him for 
 a Bacchus — he seems to be crying " Evoe " to Jupiter after his 
 first vintage. The beauty of the modelling and the flesh-tones 
 mingled with the shadows, which are almost opaque, the clear 
 spaces brilliant with metallic-like reflection, are all characteristic 
 of the hand of Leonardo. 
 
 Unhappily, the head alone has been left as he painted it ; a 
 number of retouches have defaced this chef-d'oeuvre, this com- 
 panion to the Mona Lisa. 
 
 The entire history of this picture is not known, but it is 
 certain that Louis XIII. made it a present to Charles I. of 
 England, who, in exchange, gave him a portrait of Erasmus by 
 Holbein, and a Holy Family by Titian. It is probable that 
 Cromwell once had it in his possession. By a series of unknown 
 adventures, Leonardo's painting fell into the hands of the 
 amatuer Jabach, from whom it was obtained for the Louvre. 
 The Ambrosian Collection at Milan possesses a copy of this 
 work. 
 
 35. — The Adoration of the Magi. 
 In the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. 
 This was doubtless painted before Leonardo left Florence, about 
 1480, for the Figures, above al) that of the Virgin, are not of that 
 type which he afterwards adopted at Milan. 
 
 His constant aim was to master the effects of light ; he may 
 claim to be regarded as the inventor of that difficult science 
 which is called " chiaroscuro." 
 
 " This picture," says Eumohr, in his " Italienische Forschun- 
 gen," "in which the distribution and composition are of a 
 studied simplicity, in which the numerous persons are arranged 
 in groups, bound together by skilful disposition of masses, and 
 where all the figures, though placed in a common obscurity, are 
 
200 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 made visible by the reflections of feeble and broken lights, is the 
 most complete example that Leonardo has left to painters who, 
 like Fra Bartolomeo, have devoted themselves to the art of 
 distributing light, and combining the composition of their 
 pictures by the use of shade on shade." 
 
 Engraved in Kosini's " Storia della Pittura Italiana." 
 
 36. — Bust of St. John. 
 The Italian, Conca, mentions " a head of the youthful St. John 
 in the palace of the King of Spain." Mengs speaks of a head of 
 St. John the Baptist in his youth, as belonging to the Princess 
 of the Asturias. These two are probably identical. 
 
 Félibien, in his " Entretiens sur les Peintres," says that 
 "there was in the Hotel de Condé, in the cabinet of M. le 
 Prince, a head of St John the Baptist." It had been painted, 
 he thinks, at Florence, about 1513, by Leonardo da Yinci, for 
 a gentleman of the court of the Duke of Florence, called 
 Camille degli Albizzi. Lanzi, who had seen many pictures of 
 St. John the Baptist, says that they cannot be safely attributed 
 to Leonardo. 
 
 Herr Passavant has not given any opinion, neither has Dr. 
 Kigollot. It is probable, however, that Mengs was not deceived ; 
 and considering the high eulogy that he gives to the picture 
 of St. John the Baptist in the possession of the Princess of the 
 Asturias, we may readily believe that Leonardo had a hand in 
 " that grand study of chiaroscuro." 
 
 37.— St. Jerome Penitent. 
 In the Collection of Cardinal Feschi. 
 This is nothing more than a rough sketch, like the Adoration of 
 the Magi. St. Jerome is on his knees in a grotto, with a lion by 
 his side ; the head only of the Saint is finished. 
 
 38. — Head of St. John. 
 
 At Milan. 
 
 Herr Passavant says, in his manuscript notes, " The severed 
 head of St. John is on a plate. The picture is very finely 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 201 
 
 executed, but appears to have been done by a pupil of Leonardo's 
 after his design. It was found in the Ambrosian Collection at 
 Milan. The lights in the hair are heightened by gold, which is 
 not found on any other of the works of this master." 
 
 This head of St. John, which has been noticed by few critics, 
 ought to be put among the most doubtful pages of the great 
 book Leonardo has left us. 
 
 39. — Pictures of Herodias. 
 
 At Florence. 
 
 An " Herodias " which has for a long time passed as the work 
 of Leonardo still exists in the Tribune of the Uffizj at Florence. 
 It is now almost decided by all art-critics to be a masterpiece of 
 Bernardino Luini, pupil and imitator of Leonardo, the greater 
 number of whose pictures have been attributed to his master ; 
 and they are in many cases worthy of that honour. The 
 Herodias of Florence is assuredly one of the most beautiful 
 creations of art. The figures are half-length. Herodias seizes 
 the head of the saint, which the executioner is bringing forward ; 
 a serving-maid is standing near. 
 
 There are in this picture an energy of expression and a 
 skilfulness of workmanship which are very remarkable. The 
 Eoyal Palace of Hampton Court possesses a picture of Herodias, 
 attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, but Dr. Waagen thinks that it 
 is more likely to be the work of Beltraffio. There is mention 
 also of an Herodias in the collection of M. Collot, formerly 
 Director of the Mint, Paris, but this is a reproduction of the one 
 at Hampton Court. u If it is not by Leonardo, it is worthy to 
 be so," says a French critic. It is of a very clear tone, more 
 transparent and fine than that of the copy at Hampton Court. 
 
 The catalogue of the pictures in the Imperial Gallery at 
 Vienna attributes three pictures of Herodias to Leonardo da 
 Vinci, but none of these three pictures are by the hand of the 
 master. They are all the work of his school. It is difficult, 
 however, to find the signature of any well-known pupil on 
 them. Passavant thinks that one of these may be Cesare 
 da Sesto. 
 
 In the Orleans Gallery there is a copy of the Herodias of 
 
202 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Vienna, and the Dresden Gallery also possesses another, bnt 
 in a bust only. No. 1227 of the Louvre is " Salome," the 
 daughter of Herodias, by Andrea Solario. This has been often 
 attributed to Leonardo, but it is certain that it was bought by 
 Louis XIV., on the understanding that it was a work of Solario. 
 It is one of the good pictures due to the influence of Leonardo. 
 This, according to the "Notices des Tableaux recueillis en 
 Lombardie," once belonged to the Cardinal Eichelieu. 
 
 Dr. Eigollot found at Amiens, in the collection of an amateur, 
 a fine picture, having for its subject Herodias holding a dish, in 
 which the executioner places the head of St. John the Baptist. 
 An old woman, whose head is covered with a turban, responds 
 with a gesture to the glances of Herodias ; two figures are seen 
 in the background. " This picture came from the sale of M. 
 Lafontaine, who, it is believed, had it from George IV., in 
 exchange for some Dutch and Flemish pictures for which the 
 king had a desire. According to the catalogue of the sale, it is 
 believed that it once formed part of the collection of Charles I. 
 It has been attributed to Leonardo, but wrongly. 
 
 At the Leeds Exhibition, in 1868, Colonel Markham exhibited 
 a painting by Leonardo — " The Daughter of Herodias receiving 
 the head of St. John." 
 
 The picture in the Gallery at Florence has been engraved by 
 Volpato and in Landon's Selection. 
 
 40. — Saint Catheeine. 
 Lèpicié, in his " Catalogue des Tableaux du Eoi," mentions a 
 half-length of St. Catherine crowned with jessamine, and holding 
 in her right hand an open book, the pages of which she is 
 apparently turning with her left; she is accompanied by two 
 angels, one of whom holds a palm, and the other her instrument 
 of martyrdom. " This picture," adds Lépicié, " is vigorous in 
 colour ; the details of the draperies astonish us by their finish ; 
 Leonardo has left nothing neglected that may truthfully render 
 the different characters of the materials which drape the 
 principal figure." It is now at Compiègne, and the catalogue 
 refers to it under the erroneous title of " The Holy Family ; " it 
 is numbered 139. 
 
PATNTINGS. 
 
 203 
 
 There are many St. Catherines attributed to Leonardo; among 
 others one was formerly at Modena, in the gallery of the D'Este 
 family. M. Eigollot mentions another at Milan, in the possession 
 of the painter Appiani. 
 
 The Eoyal Gallery at Copenhagen natters itself that it 
 possesses the original of all the Saint Catherines attributed to 
 Leonardo ; Herr Passavant believes, however, that this is a vain 
 assertion, and that the much-vaunted work is more probably by 
 Luini. 
 
 Gault de Saint-Germain speaks of an original St. Catherine in 
 Germany: he probably refers to the painting at Nuremberg, 
 which was engraved by H. C. Miiller. 
 
 At the Leeds Exhibition of Works of the Old Masters, in 1868, 
 a "St. Catherine and Two Angels" (from the Corsi Gallery, 
 Florence) was lent by Mr. P. F. Howard. 
 
 41. — Magdalenes. 
 Vasari possessed a drawing by Leonardo representing a 
 Magdalene, the head of whom " was full of grace and expression." 
 This drawing is now preserved in the gallery at Florence. Conca 
 speaks of a " Magdalene with her hair falling loosely about her, 
 which was found in the Cathedral of Burgos, and which skilful 
 connoisseurs attribute to Leonardo." Lanzi mentions two 
 pictures of the Magdalene as attributed to Leonardo, one at the 
 Pitti Palace at Florence, the other at the Aldobrandini, at 
 Eome ; but believes that both of these are most likely the work 
 of Luini. 
 
 Herr Passavant, in a notice referred to by M. Eigollot, says 
 that the Magdalene of the Aldobrandini Palace was subsequently 
 at Vienna, in the hands of the Counsellor Adamo wich. 
 
 42. — Saint Sebastian. 
 In the Gallery of the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. 
 M. Chaeles Blanc has narrated the history of this picture in 
 the "Gazette des Beaux- Arts " of the 15th of January, 1861. 
 " It was," says he, " bought by the famous merchant Dubois, at 
 Turin, towards the commencement of the Empire. Charged to 
 compose a nucleus for a gallery by an Italian prince, he collected 
 
204 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 a vast number of paintings, and among them was this St. 
 Sebastian, which he valued at a hundred thousand francs, as he 
 declared it to be by Leonardo." 
 
 The Italian prince died young ; his collection was sold, and the 
 Saint Sebastian fell into the hands of the Chevalier Bistoli, who 
 some time afterwards gave this painting in pledge, and it was, 
 after his death, sold to M. Wolsey-Moreau, who exhibited it in 
 Paris, where negotiations for its purchase and removal to the 
 Louvre were opened; but in 1860, the Grand Duchess Marie, 
 attracted by its beauty, induced the Emperor of Kussia to buy 
 it for sixty thousand francs, that it might be included among 
 the collection at the Hermitage Gallery in St. Petersburg. 
 
 The Saint, tied to a tree by means of red and black ribbons, 
 points with his left hand to an arrow which has pierced his 
 heart, and with his right to an inscription. It is evident, as 
 M. Charles Blanc remarks, that this is an emblematical portrait 
 of some grand personage of Milan. 
 
 Part III.— CLASSICAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 43 — Bacchus. 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 Waagen says that the landscape in this picture appears to him 
 to be the work of Bernazzano, " who often painted backgrounds 
 for Cesare da Sesto." He dwells " on the local tone, which is 
 red, on the hardness of the contours, on the awkwardness of 
 the gradations of shadow." Passavant, on the contrary, extols 
 the head, the feet, and parts of the scenery, as being entirely 
 beautiful; "the remainder," he says, "seems never to have 
 been finished, and has suffered much," but he attributes the 
 painting to Leonardo without any donbt. 
 
 All that can be said with any reasonable pretension to cer- 
 tainty is, that Leonardo painted this picture, but that inex- 
 perienced hands have tampered with the work in attempting to 
 restore it. 
 
 Passavant truly observes that the vine-leaves and grapes are 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 205 
 
 of a crude green colour which Leonardo has not employed in 
 the rest of the picture ; he believes that this " Bacchus " is really 
 meant for St. John the Baptist in the Desert, and recalls the fact 
 that in the church of St. Eustorgio, at Milan, there is a copy of 
 this work which is there named St. John the Baptist. 
 
 It is not improbable that some purist, scandalized by the 
 pagan expression of the Saint, was convinced that Leonardo 
 intended his figure for a Bacchus, and most conscientiously 
 added the vivid green vine-leaves and grapes. If so, this 
 " Bacchus " is nothing more than a travesty of Leonardo's work. 
 
 M. Giuseppe Campori refers to a volume of manuscript poetry 
 by Flavio-Antonio Giraldi, in the Public Library of Ferrara, in 
 which he found a distich alluding to a " Bacchus " attributed to 
 Leonardo. It runs thus : 
 
 "Bacchus Leonardi Vincii. 
 « Tergeminum posthac, mortales, credite Bacchum : 
 Me peperit doctà Vincius ille manu." 
 
 Does this mean the Bacchus of the Louvre ? 
 
 Gault de Saint-Germain, in his Catalogue, mentions this 
 picture as being by some attributed to Lorenzo di Credi. But 
 why not ascribe it to Leonardo without further discussion ? 
 
 44. — Head of the Medusa. 
 In the Uffizi at Florence. 
 Vasari speaks of a Medusa as belonging to the Duke Cosimo de' 
 Medici; and it is believed to be the same that is now in the 
 Uffizj. It is a death-like head, of a fantastic yet realistic type, 
 and marvellously drawn. The glassy eyes extinguish them- 
 selves in rolling in their orbits; the mouth is distorted with 
 agony, and the hair, which seems bristling with horror, is 
 composed of hideous green snakes, which Leonardo has rendered 
 with an extreme fineness of touch ; they extend themselves as if 
 fearfully hissing, even as though they shrunk from the fatal 
 breath that escapes from that terrible mouth. M. de Kumohr 
 does not think that this famous head is really a work of Leo- 
 nardo's youth, and believes that the picture at Florence is no 
 more than a copy, painted towards the middle of the seventeenth 
 
206 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 century, of the Medusa mentioned by Vasari. Passavant remarks 
 that the colour is more thickened than was usual with Leonardo. 
 Notwithstanding these criticisms it is probable that the head in 
 the Gallery at Florence is the same as that which belonged to the 
 Duke Cosimo ; it is evidently the work of a youth, incomplete, 
 but bearing unmistakable signs of the powerful touch of a 
 master. 
 
 Photographed by Messrs. Alinari of Florence. 
 
 45. — Vanity and Modesty. 
 
 In the Barberini Palace, Rome. . 
 Piranesi and d'Agincourt have engraved an allegorical picture 
 entitled " Vanity and Modesty," from a work attributed to 
 Leonardo in the Barberini Gallery at Eome. The Giustiniani 
 Collection contained a painting of the same subject, also as- 
 cribed to Leonardo, and in the Sciarra Palace at Eome there 
 is a third representation of this allegory, of which M. Viarclot 
 says : " This picture is in a most elevated style, and its admirable 
 beauty is such that it does not permit me to raise any doubts of 
 its authenticity." It has, however, been doubted if any one of 
 the three is really by Leonardo. That first mentioned is 
 generally attributed to Luini, and is supposed to have been 
 painted by him over his master's drawing; and that which 
 M. Viardot refers to has also been attributed to Luini by 
 Fumagalli; but M. Eumohr thinks it may be a painting by 
 Salai. 
 
 Engraved by Campanella; by Troyen; and in Landon's 
 Selection. , 
 
 46.— Leda. 
 
 At the Hague. 
 
 There is more than one picture of Leda attributed to Leo- 
 nardo ; the chief is that at the Eoyal Gallery of the Hague. It 
 is a beautiful composition, but has been subjected to many 
 transformations and changes. Too pagan in character for some 
 into whose hands it fell, this picture was re-named " Charity," 
 and by a process as simple as barbarous, the nude portions of 
 the figures were covered ; in this disguise it was the glory of the 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 207 
 
 Gallery at Hesse-Cassel, after which it was for some years at 
 Malmaison, whence it was taken, no doubt by indirect means, to 
 the Eoyal Gallery at the Hague, where it has been restored 
 almost to its primitive state. 
 
 In this picture Leda is represented with a child on her arm, 
 and one knee on the ground, in the position of a person rising 
 slowly ; with her left hand she points to the twins, Pollux and 
 Helen, who are emerging from the mythological egg ; a child 
 seated on the other side near a part of the shell appears to 
 regard the principal group with great attention. 
 
 The scene passes on the banks of a river, where the grass is 
 mingled with reeds ; the river traverses the whole of the back- 
 ground : at one side extends a breadth of country strewn with 
 towers, and on the horizon a chain of mountains loses itself in 
 clouds ; to the left an amazon and two cavaliers gallop swiftly 
 along on horseback. 
 
 M. de Eumohr has frequently spoken of this picture ; he 
 believes it was painted at Milan, on account of its violet tone 
 and rather dingy flesh tints, which recall the painting of the 
 portraits of the Duke and Duchess of Milan; but he finds 
 certain defects in the treatment of the nude portions, which 
 would seem to indicate the date of the picture to be more closely 
 associated with Leonardo's youth. 
 
 Passavant says that the composition certainly emanated from 
 Leonardo, " for there exists a drawing, published by Gerii, 
 evidently intended as a sketch for it, but the picture itself, the 
 drawing of which is heavy, is executed by one of his pupils." 
 
 Is this the Leda to which Théophile Gautier refers ? " Singular 
 to note," says he, " that Leonardo da Vinci, who possessed so 
 profound a knowledge of the science of anatomy, scarcely ever 
 painted a nude figure ; for our part, we do not know any other 
 example but the Leda; she is shown at full length in an equilibrio 
 pose worthy of the great and beautiful Grecian statues, to which, 
 however, she bears no other resemblance, for Da Vinci, original 
 in everything, draws his ideas from the source of nature alone. 
 At the feet of Leda, which are noble and pure as if they were 
 carved in marble, are two children playing among the shell-chips 
 of their broken egg, the lovely offspring of the celestial swan ; 
 the young mother wears that expression of sprightly gaiety 
 
208 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 which is, as it were, the seal of Leonardo ; her eyes sparkle with 
 laughing malice beneath their lightly coupled brows, and the 
 month is drawn back at the corners, creasing the dimples of the 
 cheeks with sinuosities so soft, so voluptuous, and at the same 
 time so arch, that her look is almost perfidious."- 
 
 In the Eoyal Collection of England there is an original draw- 
 ing in pen and ink representing Leda standing beside a swan. 
 Herr Passayant, in his notes, says : " This is a composition by 
 Eaphael ; but it appears that Leonardo once possessed the draw- 
 ing, or, at all events, his scholars made many copies of it. In 
 the Borghese Gallery at Eome there may be seen an example of 
 this ; another was engraved at Paris, by Leroux, in 1835." 
 
 In spite of Passavant's positive assertion, the standing Leda is 
 not by Eaphael ; perhaps, however, the great painter of Urbino 
 may have made the original drawing, which is in England, after 
 a composition of Leonardo's; it is known that in his youth 
 Eaphael studied at one time the cartoons of Leonardo and 
 Michael Angelo. 
 
 Speaking of Michael Angelo, we must, according to Passavant, 
 restore to him the sketch of Leda which was at Fontainebleau, 
 and of which Lomazzo speaks ; this last opinion of Passavant is 
 perhaps more reasonable ; the sketch, which is now at Berlin, 
 bears the impress of Michael Angelo rather than that of 
 Leonardo. 
 
 Engraved by Leroux. 
 
 47— Flora. 
 
 This picture once formed part of the collection belonging to 
 Marie de' Medici ; it was afterwards in the Orleans Gallery, at 
 the sale of which it was bought by M. Udney, who re-sold it to 
 the King of the Netherlands. It is finished with all the care 
 usually bestowed on a portrait, and indeed it was for a long 
 time, and not without reason, believed to be a portrait of Diana 
 of Poictiers, or of one of the mistresses of Francis I. 
 
 The Dutch have given it the names of Frivolity or Vanity, 
 for what reason none but a German professor of aesthetics can 
 philosophically explain. The figure is simply a charming young 
 woman holding a flower, with her right breast uncovered. In a 
 catalogue of the pictures belonging to Charles I. of England, 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 209 
 
 there is mention of a painting representing a half-length figure 
 of a laughing woman holding a flower, which was referred to a 
 pupil of Leonardo. 
 
 M. Passa vant speaks of "an old copy, in which the entire 
 figure is nude," and which was at Stratton, the residence of Sir 
 T. Caring; he thinks it is the one indicated in the catalogue 
 above named. 
 
 There is in London another picture of the same subject, also 
 attributed by Dr. Waagen to Leonardo. The woman is clothed 
 in a blue mantle and a blue-tinted white robe, and holds a flower 
 in her left hand ; her posture is charming ; the head recalls the 
 most beautiful of Leonardo's faces, and the execution is of great 
 purity. " But," says Dr. Wagen, " the features are here of a 
 particularly fine character: the delicate nature of the amber 
 flesh tones, and, above all, the manner in which the colours are 
 grounded, seem to proclaim this the work of Andrea Solario." 
 
 May not this last-mentioned example be the half-length 
 laughing figure referred to in the catalogue of King Charles ? 
 It is now in the gallery of the Duke of Sutherland, at Stafford 
 House. 
 
 Another Flora attributed to Francis Melzi, and said to be 
 designed by Leonardo, was a few years ago in the possession of 
 Signor Lancelloti at Naples. 
 
 Lithographed by J. Linnell. 
 
 Part IV.— HISTOKICAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 48. — Cartoon of the Battle or Anghiari. 
 (Battle of the Standard.} 
 The Battle of Anghiari was fought against Niccolò Piccinino 
 near Florence, in 1440 ; it was by no means terrible, since but 
 one man was killed in it, and even he, not from wounds received 
 in the fight, but because he fell beneath the horses' feet and was 
 trampled to death. 
 
 A special decree of the Eepublic had charged Leonardo to 
 represent this battle in a large picture on the walls of the council 
 
 P 
 
210 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 chamber ; he commenced his sketch in the hall at Santa Maria 
 Novella, and made it of such large proportions that he was 
 obliged to call in the aid of his engineering science in designing 
 a machine to elevate and lower his work with ease. Vasari 
 speaks of the cartoon with enthusiasm, above all extolling a 
 group of cavaliers disputing about the possession of a standard 
 or flag ; but he says that Leonardo was forced to renounce his 
 intention of painting the picture in oils, on account of the 
 imperfect method then followed for the preparation of colours. 
 In the " Carteggio inedito d' artisti dei secoli xiv. xv. xvi." by 
 Doctor Gaye, we read that some parts of this work were indeed 
 begun in 1504, that Leonardo was assisted by Baphael, Antonio 
 di Biago, and by Ferrando l'Espagnol, and that so much as they 
 then did was still to be seen in 1513. 
 
 The original design of Leonardo is lost. Passavant says that 
 the group of soldiers engraved by Edelinck, after a drawing by 
 Eubens, and that reproduced in Plate 39 of vol. i. of L'Etruria 
 Pittrice," are neither of them taken from the original sketch, 
 which does not exist, but from a reduced copy believed to be the 
 work of Bronzino, or from a drawing in the Kuccellai Palace at 
 Florence. 
 
 The " Battle of the Standard" was engraved by Bertrand 
 Edelinck. 
 
 Part V.— POETEAITS. 
 
 49. — Portrait of Leonardo. 
 In the Gallery of the Uffizi at Florence. 
 This portrait of Leonardo, painted by himself, is the one which 
 is so well known through the engravings of Eaphael Morghen, 
 Campiglia, and others. He was sixty years of age. 
 Engraved also by Laguillermie. 
 
 50. — Portrait of Leonardo (drawn in profile). 
 In the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle. 
 This was published in 1796, in a selection entitled " Imitations 
 of Original Designs by Leonardo da Yinci, consisting of various 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 211 
 
 drawings, published by John Chamberlaine." The stippled 
 engraving by Bartolozzi, in imitation of red chalk, is a profile. 
 The countenance shines with a light which seems to come from 
 on high ; the head of so beautiful a type in the original, is 
 rendered with a singularly delicate exactitude. A copy of 
 this is in the Ambrosian Library. It is said that this is the 
 portrait of which Vasari speaks as in the possession of Francesco 
 Melzi. 
 
 The Museum of the Louvre once contained a profile portrait 
 of Leonardo, a drawing in red chalk which came from the col- 
 lection at Modena. 
 
 Photographed in Mrs. C. Heaton's " Life of Leonardo." 
 
 51. — Portrait of Leonardo. (Full face.) 
 At Venice. 
 
 In the collection at the Academy of Fine Arts at Venice may be 
 seen a superb head, almost full face, drawn in red, which is very 
 probably a portrait of Leonardo in his advanced age. Bossi 
 has engraved it in his " Cenacolo," and there is a copy in black 
 chalk among the drawings belonging to the King of the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 52. — Portrait of Leonardo. 
 In the Esterhazy Gallery at Vienna. 
 
 This portrait represents Leonardo holding a letter in his hand, 
 on which is written: "A Maria Ant della Torre Leonardo di 
 Piero da Vinci manda il ritratto." It ought to be — A Marc- Ant. 
 M. Viardot declares this portrait to be absolutely authentic ; but 
 Count Gallemberg has not even spoken of it in his work 
 composed at Vienna in 1833, and published in 1834 under the 
 title of " Leonardo da Vinci." 
 
 53. — Portrait of Leonardo. 
 
 At Milan. 
 
 " This is indeed," says M. Viardot, " the beautiful and venerable 
 head of the patriarch-artist." 
 
 It is drawn in profile on paper with red chalk, and may 
 possibly be a copy of tha t in the Eoyal Collection at Windsor. 
 
212 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 54. — Portrait of Leonardo. 
 
 At Vaprio. 
 
 Counsellor Pagavi, in his manuscript memoirs, refers to a 
 portrait of Leonardo painted by himself, as being in a house 
 known as La Canonica di Vavro (or Vaprio), situated on the 
 Adda. 
 
 This house belonged to the "Melzi family, whom Leonardo 
 often visited there, they being among his most intimate friends. 
 
 The old Canonica d' Aprio has resisted the destroying in- 
 fluences of wind and rain. There are, however, no traces of this 
 painting discoverable therein. It has probably either perished 
 or been removed elsewhere. 
 
 55. — Portrait of Francis I. 
 
 In this picture, which belongs to Mr. Pocock, the king is repre- 
 sented as St. John the Baptist. « 
 
 The frame bears the date 1518. Leonardo had ceased to paint 
 at the later period of his life, which this date would indicate ; it 
 may, however, have been added after his death. 
 
 Lithographed by Day and Haghe. 
 
 56. — Portrait of Mona Lisa. (La Gioconda.) 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 This masterpiece, which has been called "the despair of 
 painters," is an enigma of beauty. It is a portrait of the wife of 
 Francesco del Giocondo ; and Vasari, although an Italian, and 
 speaking in that flowery language, could not find terms suffi- 
 ciently laudatory in which to express his enthusiasm. 
 
 Francis I. bought this grand work for 4000 gold crowns of 
 the currency of his time, and equal to 20,000 of our present 
 coinage. " La Joconde " might now be sold for that sum and 
 yet be considered cheap. 
 
 After the " Last Supper," this is the most admirable work of 
 Leonardo's that remains to us ; but like it, it is a work which 
 each day becomes more mysterious and more effaced. The 
 background — a charming landscape, where the blue sea is 
 bordered by picturesque mountains — is half invisible to our 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 213 
 
 eyes, but we can yet contemplate this delightfully pure drawing, 
 we can still admire these finely ideal forms so delicately 
 rendered, we can still feel enraptured before the ineffable gaze 
 of these lucidly dewy eyes ; we can still, like the contemporaries 
 of Francis I., fall into a dream before the infinitely mysterious 
 smile; but where now are the warm tones and life-like flesh- 
 tints, the vivid carnations that once enchanted Vasari? It is 
 with difficulty that we can bring ourselves to be astonished now 
 at the hands — "hands without parallel even up to our own 
 time" — which are of irreproachable beauty in form, but the 
 colour of which has almost vanished into night. 
 
 Félibien, whom modern critics seem to regard with disdain 
 but who will keep his place among art historians, had never 
 seen anything more finished or better expressed than "La 
 Gioconda." " It has so much grace, and such sweetness in the 
 eyes and the features, that it appears almost living; and it seems 
 to one who sees this portrait, that it is of a woman who takes 
 pleasure in being admired." This is concisely and comprehen- 
 sively written. 
 
 " The work of Leonardo is a marvel, a thing more divine than 
 human." Thus spoke Vasari, and justly. In the presence of 
 so wonderful a painting one endeavours to calculate the time 
 that was consumed in its execution ; it may be, one thinks, that 
 the artist yielded to the fascination he so well displayed, and 
 that he prolonged at pleasure the luxury of a tète-à-tète with this 
 charming woman ; it may be that he had, in fact, great difficulty 
 in expressing the proud serenity and provocation contained in 
 this face, the smile of which sometimes appears almost unearthly, 
 and seems to magnetize us with its voluptuous attraction. We 
 fancy that after having finished the drawing with much delicacy, 
 and shaded it off into almost imperceptible obscurity, and having 
 thus approached and then withdrawn, as it were, the artist had 
 wished to follow into mystery his recoiling half-tints, to hide 
 from our eyes in a veil of mist the lovely figure, until it appears 
 at last as a dream in the midst of a fairy land, surrounded by 
 small blue rocky mountains, pointed sharply and carved in 
 crystal, like stalactites reversed towards the sky. 
 
 The Eoyal Museum of Madrid possesses a copy of this portrait, 
 in which the background is formed of a dark curtain. It is said 
 
214 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 that tliis copy is by Leonardo himself; but he rarely copied 
 anything, much more his own pictures ; moreover, this copy of 
 Madrid is too well preserved to have been painted by Leonardo. 
 There are others, in England, in Germany, and elsewhere, which 
 are quite as beautiful as that at Madrid, but which are not from 
 the hand of the master himself. 
 
 Passavant mentions two copies, " one which may be found in 
 the Hermitage Gallery, and another forming part of the collec- 
 tion of Cardinal Fesch," in which Mona Lisa is represented 
 unclothed. 
 
 Engraved by Fanchey ; by Massard ; and in Landon's Selection. 
 
 57. — La Monaca. 
 In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 This half-length figure of a nun or young girl wearing a hood 
 is of strange beauty and fascination, and shines vividly amid the 
 many masterpieces which fill the galleries of the Pitti Palace. 
 
 It has been said that this is not the work of Leonardo, but of 
 one of his scholars. Oltrocchi, however, suggests that it is a 
 painting which is recorded to have been given in 1536 to 
 Cardinal Salviati by a brother-in-law of Leonardo. It was found 
 in the collection of the Marquis Niccolini, and, notwithstanding 
 the doubt that has been expressed, those who see it feel that it 
 is one of the most poetic creations of the master. 
 
 58. — Portraits of Lodovico Sforza and his Family. 
 It was towards 1495 that Leonardo painted the family of 
 Lodovico il Moro kneeling on a mountain, representing Calvary, 
 which may still be seen in the Convent Delle Grazie at Milan ; 
 but while the landscape, said to have been painted by Montor- 
 fano, is well preserved, the figures of Leonardo have vanished. 
 
 Vasari says that nothing was more beautiful than the heads 
 of the young princes Maximilian and Francesco, who stood near 
 their mother the Duchess Beatrice. Now one can scarcely dis- 
 tinguish anything of these three figures, any more than that of 
 the Duke Lodovico Sforza ; the whole group is even more faded 
 than the " Last Supper," which is on the opposite wall. 
 
 The mediocre work survives, the work of genius has perished. 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 215 
 
 Would that Leonardo, the chemist, had been content with the 
 common oils which Montorfano employed ! 
 
 59. — Portrait of Gian Galeazzo Sforza. 
 At Milan. 
 
 There is a three-quarter length portrait in the Ambrosian 
 Library at Milan, representing the Duke while still in his youth. 
 This, which has for a long time been thought to have been 
 intended for Lodovico, is one of the best portraits by Leonardo. 
 Passavant, in his "Kunstreise durch England," refers to a 
 portrait of Lodovico Sforza drawn in black chalk, of great 
 natural beauty, as preserved at Oxford ; this also is attributed 
 to Leonardo, but Passavant believes it to be " by one of his best 
 pupils." 
 
 60. — Portrait of Isabella of Aragon, wife of 
 
 Galeazzo Sforza. 
 At Milan. 
 
 This portrait is also in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. It is 
 a fine profile study, after the manner of Holbein or Van Eyck. 
 
 Dr. Burckhardt in his " Cicerone " says, " This profile picture 
 is beyond all description beautiful and charming, and of a 
 perfection in the execution which precludes the possibility of any 
 artist but Leonardo." 
 
 61. — Portraits of the Duke Maximilian Sforza. 
 Two portraits of the eldest son of " Il Moro " are attributed to 
 Leonardo ; one is in the Ambrosian Library, the other in the 
 possession of the Melzi family. 
 
 62. — Portrait of a Woman. 
 In the Boyal Gallery at Augsburg. 
 This is surely a sister of Mona Lisa, a sister in artistic beauty 
 and perfection, and in its presence, as in that of " La Gioconda," 
 the eternal ideal of this great seeker after the perfection of 
 female beauty seems nearly attained. The portrait shows her 
 in full face ; the mouth above all is of great delicacy and charm; 
 
216 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the eyes appear to have been retouched, they have not their 
 former expression; the hair and the breast are only sketched 
 out. 
 
 63. — portrait of lucrezia crivelli. (" la belle 
 Ferronnière.") 
 In the Gallery of the Louvre. 
 Le Pére Dan, in his " Trésor des Merveilles de Fontainebleau " 
 (1642), calls this a portrait of a Duchess of Mantua. M. Delé- 
 cluze, in " L'Artiste," says that it is a portrait of Ginevra Benci. 
 For a long time, and even now sometimes, it has also been named 
 La Bella Ferronnière ; but according to the most trustworthy 
 historians, the mistress of Francis L, to whom tradition has 
 given that name, was either dead or past an attractive age at 
 the time of Leonardo's arrival in France. 
 
 Quite different from La Gioconda, but still as attractive in its 
 somewhat stern placidity, is the portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli, 
 which for so long passed for that of La Belle Ferronnière. 
 
 In the Codex Atlanticus, an autograph manuscript of Leonardo 
 da Vinci, may be read three Latin epigrams on Lucrezia Crivelli, 
 the mistress of the Duke Lodovico Sforza. It is known, more- 
 over, that Leonardo on arriving at Milan painted a portrait of 
 this lady. The general opinion is, therefore, that this picture in 
 the Louvre is really a portrait of Lucrezia, purchased by 
 Francis I. 
 
 It is a beautiful figure, painted in the Florentine manner, 
 before the Milanese type had become Leonardo's ideal. She is 
 represented in three-quarters length, with soft silky hair, and a 
 forehead encircled by a black band fastened with a diamond, 
 thus giving cause for the popular name of La Bella Ferronnière. 
 This beautiful head is full of light, and has an expression of 
 pride mingled slightly with melancholy. The tone of colour is 
 warm and brilliant, and the whole drawing tells of Leonardo in 
 each of its soft, pure lines; the shadows, too, are warm, and 
 almost transparent. Dr. Waagen says that it is the most 
 beautiful picture by Leonardo that the Louvre possesses. 
 
 Le Pére Dan speaks of five pictures by Leonardo which he 
 saw in the Gallery of Paintings at Fontainebleau: 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 217 
 
 " 1. A figure of the Virgin with a little Jesus, who is supported 
 by an angel, all seated in a pleasant landscape. 
 
 " 2. St. John the Baptist in the desert. 
 
 "3. A half-length figure of Christ. 
 
 " 4. The portrait of a Duchess of Mantua. 
 
 "5. The fifth in number but the first in value, a marvel of 
 painting, is the portrait of a virtuous Italian lady named Mona 
 Lisa." 
 
 No. 1 is unknown ; No. 2 is the St. John the Baptist of the 
 Louvre ; No. 3 is mentioned in the catalogue of Lépicié, but is 
 not now found; No. 4 is the portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli, 
 and No. 5 is Mona Lisa, which the good father counts the first 
 in value, as a work of marvellous skill. 
 
 Engraved by Bridoux ; Lacroix ; and in Landon's Selection. 
 
 64. — Portrait of a Young Man. 
 
 In the Gallery at Florence. 
 Bottari believes that in this he recognizes a portrait of Eaphael. 
 The catalogue of 1655 declares positively that it is from the hand 
 of Leonardo : thus — " Ritratto in tavola di un giovane, di mano 
 di Lionardo da Vinci." 
 
 According to Passa vant, " the colours of this picture are laid 
 on very thickly, and in this respect it resembles the head of 
 the Medusa. It may probably be one of Leonardo's early 
 works." 
 
 65. — Portrait of Ginevra Benci. 
 
 In the Gallery at Florence. 
 Ginevra Benci was a graceful and charming girl, the daughter 
 of Amerigo Benci, who was Leonardo's landlord, and with whom 
 was found a sketch for the picture of the Adoration of the Magi. 
 Ghirlandaio and Leonardo were often inspired by the beauty 
 and naiveté of the young girl. Ghirlandajo painted her portrait 
 among others, in the fresco that he executed for the church of 
 Santa Maria Novella, towards 1484. Vasari says that Leonardo 
 also painted her : " Ritrasse la Ginevra d'Amerigo Benci, 
 cosa bellissima, ed abbandonò il lavoro a' frati." 
 This portrait of Ginevra was in the Niccolini Gallery ; it was 
 
218 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 bought by the Duke of Tuscany, and by him placed in the Pitti 
 Palace. It is a lovely work in Leonardo's first manner ; it seems 
 as though one could detect the caresses of the brush on those 
 charming eyes, and lips that open with an arch smile — that 
 smile which Leonardo so often gives to his women, even to his 
 Virgins, to render them the more attractive. But this portrait 
 has been " cleaned" and with the varnish many of the beauties 
 of its first state have disappeared. 
 
 The historian of Italian painting, Eosini, is said to possess an 
 original portrait of Ginevra Benci by Leonardo. It is a charm- 
 ing figure, in a pure style. He has given a representation of it, 
 together with one of the portraits by Ghirlandajo, in his work 
 called " Storia della pittura Italiana, esposta coi monumenti." 
 
 Pai merini has engraved a portrait under the name of Laura, 
 which he believes to be also of Ginevra Benci and by Sandro 
 Botticelli. The same portrait has been reproduced in 1824 in a 
 Florentine edition of the works of Kaphael Morghen illustrated 
 by Palmerini. 
 
 66. — Portrait of Cesar Borgia. 
 
 This portrait is spoken of by M. le Comte de Betz, who had seen 
 it at Bologna in 1845, in the Corazza Collection. The catalogue 
 of pictures in this collection affirms that it is a portrait of Caesar 
 Borgia painted by Leonardo ; but we know that the statements 
 of catalogues must be accepted with reservations. M. de Betz, 
 however, says that he fully recognized in this portrait, which is 
 very beautiful, the manner of Leonardo, and that the eyes have 
 been painted by no one else ; they have that strange power of 
 expression which he alone could give, and which retains one so 
 long before his portraits. 
 
 67. — Portrait of an Old Man. 
 
 At Windsor Castle. 
 
 This is a beautiful head of an old man, beardless, drawn with 
 great delicacy and brilliancy. It is attributed to Leonardo. 
 Passavant, however, doubts its authenticity. 
 
 / 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 219 
 
 68. — Portrait op Charles VIII., or Charles d'Amboise. 
 In the Louvre. 
 
 This picture was at first designated a portrait of Charles VIII. ; 
 afterwards of Louis XII. ; and now, on the authority of M. le 
 Blanc, it is said to represent Charles d'Amboise, de Chaumont, 
 Maréchal of France, and Governor of the Duchy of Milan. This 
 favourite of Louis XII. died in 1511, at the age of thirty-nine ; 
 he entered Milan with the king in 1509, and it is suggested that 
 this portrait was painted between that time and 1511. 
 
 Both Waagen and Passavant think that this portrait ought to 
 be attributed to Jean-Antoine Beltramo, one of Leonardo's best 
 pupils. In 1846 Hillemacher published an etching of it, with 
 the inscription, " Charles Vili, roy de France." 
 
 69. — Portrait of a Man, full face. [By Holbein.] 
 In the Dresden Gallery. 
 This picture, which Jacob Folkema has engraved so well under 
 the title of "Portrait d'un guerrier, vu de face," is, according 
 to Lomazzo, the portrait of Giovanni Giacomo Trivulzio, painted 
 after the battle of Agnadel, in which General Trivulzio, then 
 sixty-four years of age, commanded the vanguard. 
 
 According to other critics this is a portrait of Duke Lodovico ; 
 according to Passavant, of Mr. Morett, goldsmith and jeweller to 
 Henry VIII. of England. In support of this latter opinion, it 
 is affirmed that Hollar engraved the picture in question in 1647 
 with Morett's name attached to it ; it was then in the collection 
 of Lord Arundel. It may be remarked that the Comte de Betz 
 refers to a portrait in the Pitti Palace numbered 207, in the 
 gallery called the Saloon of the Iliad, representing a man, which 
 is attributed to Leonardo, and called "L'Orefice." May not 
 this be the portrait that was engraved by Hollar ? But if there 
 is no agreement on the subject of the name of the personage 
 represented in the portrait of the Dresden Gallery, neither is 
 there any certainty with regard to the name of its painter, some 
 declaring it to be by Leonardo da Vinci, others by Hans Holbein. 
 M. Viardot, in his " Musées d'Allemagne," says that the merits 
 of this picture are equal to those of La Gioconda ; but other art 
 
220 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 critics incline to the opinion that it is more like the work of 
 Holbein ; and if it be a portrait of Henry the Eighth's goldsmith, 
 they are probably correct. [There is now no doubt but that this 
 portrait is by Holbein.] 
 Engraved in " The Dresden Gallery." 
 
 70. — Portrait of a Woman. 
 
 At Antwerp. 
 
 M. Eigollot says that he has seen this portrait in the collection 
 of an amateur at Antwerp. It represents a woman seated, 
 and a little less than half life-size. The owner of this picture 
 attributes it to Leonardo, and believes it to be a portrait of a 
 duchess of Milan or Mantua. He was so strongly convinced of 
 its authenticity that he had refused to sell it for 60,000 francs, 
 and would not take less than 100,000. But M. Eigollot refrains 
 from giving us his own opinion. 
 
 71. — Portrait of Marc Antonio della Torre. 
 At Milan. 
 
 Marc Antonio della Torre, professor of anatomy, was the 
 master, the idol, and the friend of Leonardo. It is not then 
 without reason that his portrait is said to have been painted by 
 his great pupil. But can it be that the portrait preserved at 
 the Ambrosian Library is that of the celebrated professor, who 
 died of the plague in 1512 ? Nothing can prove this assertion, 
 and, as Passavant says, " the picture is too feeble in design and 
 drawing, the drapery too stiff, to allow of its being attributed 
 to Leonardo; it is in oil, and has been entirely repainted." 
 
 72. — Portrait of a Man in Eed. 
 
 In the Dulwich Gallery. 
 In his "Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in England," Dr. Waagen 
 speaks of this portrait, which is attributed to Leonardo, as 
 being, in his opinion, the work of Beltraffio. 
 
 73. — Head of a Woman. 
 In the Orleans Gallery. 
 Among the plates published by Conché, in 1786, under the title 
 of " Galerie du Palais JRoyal," may be found a head of a woman 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 221 
 
 after the Flora of Leonardo, and said to be by the same master. 
 But the original of the "Head of a Woman" is really in the 
 possession of Lord Egerton. It is attributed to Luini, that 
 pupil of Leonardo who has so often deceived one into thinking 
 his work the work of his master. 
 
 74. — PORTEAIT OF JEANNE D'ArAGON. 
 
 Queen Jeanne died in 1435 ; it therefore appears little probable 
 that the portrait in the Doria Gallery, or that which has been 
 discovered at Eome — both being attributed to Leonardo, on the 
 authority of Amoretti — have any chance of being rightly named. 
 
 There is not much to confirm the opinion of Passavant, who 
 asserts that the portrait in the Doria Gallery actually represents 
 the Queen whose name it bears, and that it is also a copy of 
 Eaphael's picture in the Louvre, which he thinks was made by 
 one of Leonardo's pupils, who had evidently taken care to give 
 the face that "smiling expression peculiar to the school of his 
 master." " The head is likewise," added he, " very well drawn, 
 as much so as the rest of the picture is stiff in design and dry 
 in colour." How far does this last observation prove this to be 
 a copy by a pupil of Leonardo ? Eaphael was much younger 
 than Leonardo; how then could he have painted the original 
 portrait of Jeanne d'Aragon, who died before the former was 
 born ? 
 
 75. — Portrait of the Chancellor Moroni. 
 But little faith can be placed in the portraits of his contem- 
 poraries which are attributed to Leonardo ; it is certain that the 
 greater number are of questionable authenticity. Leonardo 
 painted slowly and was choice about his models, not seeking 
 for sitters beyond his patrons, except in the case of the most 
 beautiful. There is mention of two copies of the portrait of 
 Moroni; they represent, it is true, a personage clothed in the 
 robes of a chancellor, but Geronimo Moroni was not appointed 
 •to the chancellorship by Duke Maximilian until after 1512, when 
 Leonardo was no longer at Milan. 
 
 These two so-called portraits of Moroni are, the one at Parma 
 in the hands of Count Sauritali, the other at Milan with the 
 
222 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Duke Scotti Gallerati. The first came from the collection of 
 the Duke Modena, and I believe it to be wrongly attributed to 
 Leonardo. As for the second, there is no doubt of its being 
 quite unauthentic. 
 
 76. — Portrait of a Woman. 
 
 Lépicié, in the " Catalogue Raisonné," speaks thus of this 
 portrait — "Item. — A head of a woman in profile, commonly 
 called ' La Belle Ferronnière.' She wears a ' toque ' of red 
 velvet, bordered with a kind of embroidery in gold, and finished 
 off at the side by a row of pearls ; a black veil is fixed to the 
 ' toque/ and falls upon her shoulders. The dress is of some 
 dark blue stuff. The profile is drawn with astonishing precision, 
 and leaves nothing to desire in the finish of the execution." So 
 says Lépicié of the " Belle Ferronnière." Is it really the original, 
 or is it an improved copy ? According to M. E. Soulié, assistant- 
 keeper of the Museum at the Louvre, " this portrait is still pre- 
 served there, although but little valued, it being estimated in 
 the inventory at 150 francs, and at the time of the last classifica- 
 tion it was judged unworthy of a place among the chefs-d'oeuvre 
 of the Galleries." But the new catalogue, under the number 488, 
 attributes this portrait to the school of Leonardo. 
 
 77. — A Laughing Boy with a Toy. 
 
 A picture bearing this title, and attributed to Leonardo, was 
 sold in England, in 1801, to Sir William Hamilton for £1365. 
 We can find no traces of this painting. 
 
 Part VI.— PICTUEES LOST OR MISSING. 
 
 We may now say a few words on the missing pictures of 
 Leonardo da Yinci, some of which are of great importance and 
 interest. 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 223 
 
 1. — A Roundel. 
 
 (Rotella del Fico.) 
 Vasari narrates that Leonardo, while a youth, painted on a 
 round piece of wood " reptiles and hideous animals, which had 
 a most frightful effect." This is said to have been bought by 
 the Duke of Milan for three hundred ducats ; but it is entirely 
 lost. 
 
 2. — Adam and Eve. 
 Vasari refers to this sketch as belonging in his time to Ottavio 
 de' Medici ; it was a work of Leonardo's youth, which he had 
 drawn in black and white with the brush, and representing 
 Adam and Eve in the earthly Paradise. It was intended as a 
 design for some tapestry for the King of Portugal. 
 
 3. — The Nativity of Our Lord. 
 (Probably an Altar-piece.) 
 The Duke of Milan, Lodovico Sforza, presented this to the 
 Emperor Maximilian on the occasion of his marriage to Blance- 
 Maria Sforza, the duke's niece. It was one of the most beautiful 
 of all the gems which the Emperor then received. 
 
 4. — An Angel. 
 
 According to Vasari, Duke Cosimo de' Medici possessed a figure 
 of an angel painted by Leonardo da Vinci. " The angel comes 
 towards you with uplifted arms, which show a most admirable 
 knowledge of foreshortening, in the drawing from the shoulder 
 to the elbow." What has become of this picture, probably the 
 Archangel St. Michael ? M. Rigollot says that after having been 
 perhaps banished to some villa during the regency of the grand- 
 duchesses of Tuscany, it was most likely sold by auction to a 
 broker with the inferior works which were put away in the 
 garrets of the Pitti Palace, and after having been restored, resold 
 to a Eussian or an Englishman. 
 
 Passavant, -in his manuscript notes, says, " The Grand-Duke 
 of Tuscany, having learnt all these circumstances, desired to 
 
224 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 buy this picture back again, but as the price demanded was 
 excessive, he refused to make the purchase." 
 
 5. — Two Children playing with a Lamb. 
 This is what Eaphael Mengs calls a " picture which is unfinished, 
 but certainly in Leonardo's best style. Besides the merits of the 
 chiaroscuro, there is a grace in the agreeable movements of the 
 figures which recalls the manner of Correggio." Conca also 
 mentions this work: "It is," says he, "a beautiful thing." 
 Mengs had seen it in the cabinet of the Princess of the Asturias, 
 and Conca says that it was in the Eoyal Palace at Madrid. May 
 it not be the picture of the Aguado Gallery, described as " No- 
 341. Two children playing on a green sward enamelled with 
 flowers ? " This picture was bought for 4000 francs at the sale 
 of that gallery in 1843, but by whom is not known. 
 
 6. — Conception of the Virgin. 
 This painting was found in the church of San Francesco at 
 Milan, according to Lomazzo, who says, " The celestial character 
 of virginity imparted to the Madonna is much admired." It is 
 said that this work is now in England. Professor Mussi formerly 
 possessed the sketch for the head ; it was in black chalk, touched 
 with the pencil and heightened the lights. ("Leonardo da 
 Vinci," von Hugo, Grafen von Gallemberg," pp. 225 and 230.) 
 t Luini, perhaps, was the painter of the " Conception," the 
 sketch for which belonged to M. Mussi. Vasari was deceived 
 more than once : this makes it probable that Lomazzo was also. 
 
 7. — Virgin Suckling the Infant Jesus. 
 In the edition of Vasari's works published at Sienna in 1794 
 there is a note by G. della Vallo : " There is a picture of the 
 Virgin suckling the Holy Child, by Leonardo, in the church of 
 Madonna di Campagna at Piacenza, which was bought by Prince 
 Belgiojoso, but is now at Milan, in the collection of the Duke 
 Litta Visconti Aresi." "The execution and the style of the 
 picture," says Passavant, " is that of the school of Van Eyck, 
 which appears to have had some influence over Leonardo during 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 225 
 
 his residence in Milan. The work has been damaged, but re- 
 touched in parts. It was engraved in 1828 by Jacopo Bernardi." 
 Lanzi speaks of a Madonna in the palace of the Belgiojoso d'Este 
 family, "which certainly came from the hand of Leonardo." 
 Perhaps this is the one of which Della Valle makes mention in 
 the note above referred to, and it may be the same as that indi- 
 cated by l'Anonyme de Morelli, who saw at the house of Michael 
 Contarini, at Venice, in 1543, a picture of the Virgin suckling 
 her child, by Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Waagen says, "There is a little oval picture of the same 
 subject at Blenheim Palace, in which the Virgin has a sad 
 expression, though full of nobility. This work is treated with 
 much delicacy, but has been greatly defaced ; it is attributed to 
 Leonardo, yet I think it must be the production of Beltraffio." 
 ("Kunst und Kunstwerke in England," v. 2.) 
 
 8. — Neptune. 
 
 Vasabi mentions that in his time, Messer Giovanni Gaddi 
 possessed a drawing by Leonardo representing Neptune sur- 
 rounded by sea-gods. This drawing was made for Antonio 
 Segui, and is also missing. 
 
 9. — Pomona. 
 
 According to Lomazzo, there was at Fontainebleau a picture of 
 Pomona, which was said to be by Leonardo. It was especially 
 famous for the execution of the triple veil with which she is 
 covered. 
 
 It is not known what has become of it, for there is no mention 
 of such a work in the catalogues of the various royal galleries of 
 France. 
 
 10. — Virgin of Parma. 
 Lanzi says that this picture, which he saw at Parma in the 
 house of Count Sanvitali, was marked with the monogram L. V., 
 and, according to Gallemberg, one may read : * Leonardo Vinci 
 fece, 1492." It represents the Virgin, the Holy Child, St. John, 
 and St. Michael the Archangel. What has become of this work, 
 the authenticity of which appears certain ? 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 11. — Portrait op Cecilia Gallerani. 
 Cecilia Gallerani was a mistress of Lodovico Sforza, and 
 married Count Pergamino ; but history, or a chronicle, affirms 
 that the duke did not cease to love her on that account. 
 Leonardo painted her portrait when he was at the court of 
 Milan ; and poets made sonnets in honour of the duke, his 
 mistress, and, above all, of the painter. The Florentine Bell- 
 incioni is distinguished among all the others by his poetic 
 laudations. Of all this, however, there remains no more than 
 the doubtful copies of the portrait and the sonnet by Bellincioni. 
 It is said that the original portrait of the beautiful Cecilia was, 
 during the last century, in the possession of the Marquis 
 Boursane at Milan. But where is it now ? There was formerly 
 an ancient copy at the Ambrosian Library; and in the 
 Pinacothek at Munich there is a Saint Cecilia which had pre- 
 viously been the property of Professor Franchi, and passes for 
 a copy by one of Leonardo's pupils of the very un-saintlike 
 Cecilia Gallerani. There is also a second original portrait of 
 Cecilia, preserved by the Pallavicini family of San Calocero, and 
 painted at the height of her glory. 
 
 12. — Madonna of the Rose. 
 Leonardo painted this Madonna for the same mistress of 
 Lodovico Sforza. In it the Virgin is represented urging the 
 Infant Jesus to bless a rose. Perhaps this is an allegory, a 
 madrigal in painting ; and this rose may be emblematic of the 
 beautiful Cecilia. Why not? In the time of the Duke Lodovico, 
 the sacred and profane went hand in hand. 
 
 The " Madonna of the Eose " might have been seen at the 
 house of a wine merchant named Giuseppe Eadici; but it is 
 strange that from the duke's palace it should have passed 
 behind the counter. At what time, and how far has it gone 
 now ? It is reckoned as one of the most marvellously executed 
 of Leonardo's pictures ; the frame bears the following inscription : 
 Per Cecilia, qual te orna, lauda, e adora, El tuo unico figliolo, o 
 beata Virgine, exora. A canon of Milan named Foglia possesses 
 a copy of this Madonna. 
 
PAINTINGS. 
 
 227 
 
 Eio says that a portrait of Cecilia Gallerani, as St. Cecilia, was 
 at Milan, in the possession of Professor Franchi, and that 
 another was preserved by the Pallavicini of San Calocero. 
 
 13. — Ten Figures of Aged People. 
 According to M. E. Soulié, a manuscript inventory made in 
 1709 or 1710, by Bailly, keeper of the King's pictures, refers, 
 among others mentioned by Lépicié, to " a picture by Leonardo 
 da Vinci, representing eight figures of men and women at half- 
 length, surrounding the figures of an old man and woman 
 apparently caressing one another ; all of about 54 centimetres in 
 height, on a surface 90 centimetres in width, painted on wood in 
 a gilded frame. " This picture is not now to be found in any 
 French gallery. 
 
 14. — Bust of a Saint. 
 M. de Chennevieres has informed us that " in the catalogue of 
 the pictures of M. Crozat, Baron de Thiers, which were sold to 
 the Empress of Bussia, there is mention of a Buste de Saint 
 attributed to Leonardo." 
 
 15. — Madonna della Caraffa. 
 This is known to us principally from the praises which Leonardo 
 has bestowed upon it, speaking with enthusiasm of the vase 
 containing flowers sprinkled with dew, " so fresh that one could 
 believe them the work of nature." 
 
 This picture is one of those painted during Leonardo's youth, 
 before he had quitted Florence ; it formerly belonged to Clement 
 VIII., and was once in the Borghese Palace at Borne — whence 
 it has disappeared since 1846. D'Argenville, in his " Vies des 
 Peintres," says it was at the Vatican. 
 
 16.— The Virgin and Child. 
 A picture thus designated is mentioned in the historical and 
 chronological catalogue of the works collected at the National 
 depots for French Antiquities, by Alexander Lenoir, as a work 
 of Leonardo da Vinci ; it is numbered 7 in the list addressed to 
 the Committee of Public Instruction, with the following note 
 
228 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 appended; "Originally the property of some Dominicans, 
 afterwards transferred to the Museum ; it represents the Virgin 
 and Jesus, and is painted on copper, silvered by a preparation 
 much used among artists of the Florentine school, but which 
 has the disadvantage of causing the painting to turn black and 
 peel off after a certain time ; of this the picture we are speaking 
 of is an example." 
 
 17. — Madonnas at Florence. 
 According to Gaye and Bottari, Leonardo painted two Madonnas 
 when he was at Florence, and these were said to be almost 
 finished in 1507 ; they are now apparently lost. 
 
 Ill 
 
 DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
 There are several collections of drawings by Leonardo da "Vinci, 
 The most important are in the Ambrosian Library, Milan ; the 
 Gallery of the Louvre, Paris ; the Eoyal Gallery, Florence ; the 
 Albertina Gallery, Vienna ; the Academy, Venice ; the Print 
 Eoom, British Museum; the Eoyal Library, Windsor Castle; 
 Christ Church College, Oxford; the Duke of Devonshire's 
 Library; the Earl of Warwick's Collection; and that of Mr. 
 Malcolm, of Poltalloch. 
 
 THE AMBEOSIAN LIBEAEY, MILAN, 
 
 contains, among the more important drawings, the following 
 Twenty-four Subjects selected from the " Codice Atlantico " to 
 illustrate the Saggio delle Opere di Leonardo da Vinci. 1 
 
 1. Fac-simile of the autograph letter sent by Leonardo to 
 Lodovico il Moro, about 1483. 
 
 1 Milan, 1872. 
 
DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
 229 
 
 2. Kough sketch and map of Milan and its environs. 
 
 3. Various machines for raising water. 
 
 4. A canal with sluices and weirs, and details of same. 
 
 5. Plan for excavating and embanking a canal, with long MS. 
 details. 
 
 6. Coloured sketch for delivery of water from the canal of S. 
 Cristoforo. 
 
 7. Sketch map of the Eed Sea and the Mediterranean with 
 MS. notes as to their respective levels. 
 
 8. Construction of military bridges, with various details. 
 
 9. Military bridge with details of knots ; sketches of balestre ; 
 fishtraps. 
 
 10. Details of windlasses, with varieties of toothing, and palls. 
 A stone-thrower of unusual size. 
 
 11. Eough sketch, and finished drawing of a stone- throwing 
 machine worked by a tread- wheel. 
 
 12. Machine for raising heavy bodies, such as a stone column. 
 Device for flinging down scaling ladders raised against a wall. 
 
 13. Numerous details of machinery for transferring vertical 
 and horizontal motion. Machine of uncertain use, possibly a 
 scheme for a mitrailleuse. 
 
 14. Machine for cloth-dressing, and details of same. 
 
 15. Machine for cutting marble, with numerous details and 
 notes. 
 
 16. Projects for aerial machines ; parachute ; lamps ; turning- 
 lathe. 
 
 17. Machine to regulate the shape of iron bars to be used for 
 cannon. 
 
 18. Designs for artificial wings, with MS. explanations. 
 
 19. Drawings referring to experiments on attrition. 
 
 20. Machine for throwing silk. 
 
 21. Details of clockwork, with new kind of escapement. 
 
 22. Hydrographic map of the Loire and its affluents ; kneeling 
 female ; male head ; geometric measurements. 
 
 23. Balestra, or stone-thrower, mounted on wheeled carriage. 
 
 24. Sketches of the equestrian statue of Sforza, and case for 
 transporting same. 
 
230 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 IN THE LOUVKE, PAEIS. 
 Among the more important are — ■ 
 
 Head of a Young Man, in profile, wearing a leather cap. A 
 highly-finished pen-and-ink drawing, washed with ink ; engraved 
 by M. Caylus. 
 
 Head of a Child, profile, and slightly turned to the left, in 
 pencil, and heightened with white on pale green paper. This 
 has served as a study for the Infant Jesus in " La Vierge aux 
 Eochers." 
 
 Head of a Young Man, in profile, turned towards the right, 
 with a crown of oak-leaves wreathed among his hair ; finished 
 with silver point and black lead pencil on prepared paper. 
 
 Head of an Aged Man, three-quarters, and turning towards 
 the left. In red chalk ; engraved by Caylus. 
 
 The Bust of a Young Man, three-quarters, turned towards the 
 right ; with luxuriously abundant hair. In red chalk. 
 
 Head of a Woman, nearly full face, with glance directed 
 towards the left. Above, to the right, a profile of a yòung man. 
 In silver point, on paper tinted with pale blue. 
 
 Bust of a Woman, full face, looking towards the right. 
 Drapery surrounds the head, and forms, in its fall, a knot on 
 either side. In silver point, washed and heightened with white 
 on sea-green tinted paper. 
 
 Study of Drapery, enveloping the lower part of the body of a 
 person in a sitting posture. Painted in black and white on fine 
 canvas. 
 
 Portrait of a Young Woman, life-sized, seen to the bust. The 
 head is in profile, and turned towards the right; the hair is 
 waved, and falls upon the shoulders. The bust, in three- 
 quarters, is covered with a shining robe with large sleeves ; the 
 right hand reposes on the left arm. This sketch, which has 
 been executed with great care by the master himself, is drawn 
 in black lead and red chalk, heightened by touches of pastel. 
 It was formerly in the Calderara Pino Gallery at Milan, and also 
 in the Vallardi Collection, and was acquired at a public sale in 
 1860, for 4200 francs. 
 
 Study of the Virgin, for the picture of the Holy Family, re- 
 presenting the Virgin seated on the knees of St. Anne, in the 
 
DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
 231 
 
 Louvre. Drawn in black lead, and washed with Indian ink, and 
 heightened with white on paper slightly tinted with bister. 
 Octagon in form. 
 
 A beautiful drawing, which, however, appears to have been entirely 
 retouched by the hand of some modern master. It was in the collection 
 of Sir Thomas Lawrence, and numbered 182 in the Catalogue of the sale 
 of that belonging to the King of Holland, but was afterwards obtained 
 through Mr. Samuel Woodburn, at the price of 750 francs. 
 
 IN THE EOYAL GALLEEY, FLOEENCE, 
 
 there is a large collection, most of which have been photographed 
 by Alinari. Among them are — 
 
 A Dragon attacking a Lion. 
 
 Portrait of a Man with curling hair, profile. 
 
 Female Head with jewelled head-dress, profile. 
 
 A Mother and Child with a Cat. 
 
 Female Head, in profile, looking to right. 
 
 Portrait of a Man wearing a cap, profile. 
 
 Study for Drapery of a kneeling figure. 
 
 Female Head, full face. Head of an Old Man, full face. 
 
 Study for Drapery of a seated figure. 
 
 Study of the Head of Mona Lisa. 
 
 Study for Drapery of a standing figure. 
 
 Head of a Man crowned with laurel, profile. 
 
 Female Head, three-quarter face. 
 
 Study for La Belle Ferronnière. Study of a Hand and Fore- 
 arm. 
 
 Head of a Man, full face, with Leonardo's handwriting. 
 Three grotesque Heads of Old Persons. 
 
 Anatomical Studies, five sheets (one, David slaying the Lion). 
 Two Knights on Horseback and four Foot Soldiers. 
 
 IN THE ALBEETINA GALLEEY, YIENNA. 
 
 The Yisitation. Head of Christ. 
 Head of St. Anne. Head of the Virgin. 
 Ascension of Mary Magdalene. Head of a Monk. 
 Head of an Old Man. Portrait of Savonarola. 
 Caricatures (two sheets). Study of Two Horses. 
 Study of Drapery. Seven Studies of Heads. 
 
232 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 IN THE ACADEMY OF THE FINE ARTS, VENICE. 
 
 There are thirty-three drawings by Leonardo in this collec- 
 tion : among the principal subjects we find — ■ 
 
 A portrait of Leonardo, with a large beard. 
 
 A Head of Christ (small), bowed down and crowned with 
 thorns. 
 
 A Sketch for the St. Anne of the Louvre, very charming. 
 
 Three Dancing Figures, after the antique. 
 
 A sheet of caricatures, among which may be traced those of 
 Francis I., Savonarola, and some Florentine Poets. 
 
 Studies of the Infant Jesus, smiling at His Mother, while He 
 is caressing a Lamb. 
 
 Sheets of Figures showing the proportion of the human body. 
 
 A sheet of Flowers, drawn from nature, and highly finished. 
 
 A rough sketch representing cavaliers fighting with foot 
 soldiers, among whom are some skeletons — probably studies for 
 the cartoon of the " Battle of Anghiari." 
 
 IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 
 
 Head of a Man in profile. Drawn with silver point on blue 
 paper. 
 
 Head of a Man, full face. Highly-finished pen drawing on " 
 blue paper, heightened with white. 
 
 A Sheet containing three Caricature Heads. 
 
 Aged Men and Women, two drawings. Grotesques. 
 
 Study of a Virgin and Child and Cat and other compositions 
 (three sheets). 
 
 A Group of Monsters with figure of a Man holding a shield. 
 Slight sketch of Horsemen. 
 
 A sheet representing various engines of war; with hand- 
 writing. 
 
 Head of a Man in profile. Red chalk drawing on white 
 paper. 
 
 Nude Figure of a Young Man holding a staff. 
 
 Virgin and Child, the latter with His right hand raised as 
 in benediction. Pen drawing, heightened with white, on green 
 paper. 
 
 A Woman and Child and three profiles (two sheets). 
 Study of a Skull of a Horse. 
 
DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
 233 
 
 IN THE EOYAL COLLECTION, WINDSOR CASTLE, 
 
 there are several portfolios of drawings by Leonardo, of whic 
 the following are the most noteworthy. 
 
 Leonardo's own Portrait. 
 
 Head of Woman, full-face. 
 
 Profile of a Youth. 
 
 Head of a Man with a malignant expression. 
 Study for the St. Anne. 
 
 A beautiful Youthful Head with a longing expression. 
 Study of a Male Head in red chalk. 
 A Profile Head of a Child. 
 A Male Head, with large and noble features. 
 A page of studies of numerous Profile Heads. ■ 
 First outlines of a Virgin and Child and St. John. 
 Beautiful Male and Female Profiles (on reverse of above). 
 Four Caricatures, and a Head wreathed with oak-leaves. 
 A Young Girl in profile. On blue paper with silver point. 
 A Female Head, three-quarter face. Similar style to fore- 
 going. 
 
 A Youth resting on a Spear, and pointing forward with one 
 hand. 
 
 Part of a Male Figure, in red chalk. 
 
 Various Skulls, two entire and two divided. 
 
 A beautiful Youth in profile. Slight pen drawing. 
 
 A Knight in full gallop, an Archer, and a War Chariot. 
 
 A sheet of Elephants and Horsemen. 
 
 A Horseman in an animated attitude in full gallop. Probably 
 a study for the Sforza Monument. 
 A sheet of studies of Oxen and Asses. 
 
 Studies of Horsemen, and a Man on foot below. Probably a 
 study for the celebrated cartoon of the " Combat of Horsemen." 
 Neptune restraining his Sea-Horses. 
 Two studies of Horses. 
 
 Sketch for the Monument of Francesco Sforza. 
 Studies of Horses. 
 
 Four drawings of St. George and the Dragon. 
 Various designs for the Sforza Monument. 
 Dogs and Cats Fighting. 
 
234 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Various Landscapes. 
 
 A Youthful Figure seated ; a Prisoner in rags. 
 
 A sheet of studies containing two groups of the Virgin and 
 Child and St. John, and two versions of St. John and the Lamb. 
 
 A sheet of studies of a Mother and Child, a Child with a Cat, 
 two Children with Cats, and two Children embracing. 
 
 A drawing of a Hand. 
 
 Study for the foreshortened foot of Pomona in the picture by- 
 Francesco Melzi, at Berlin. 
 A sheet of excellent studies of Hands for the Mona Lisa. 
 Study for the Drapery of a Kneeling Figure. 
 Study of a Sleeve. 
 Various studies of Foliage. 
 Studies for the Coiffure of Leda. 
 Study of an old Camel. 
 
 A number of Men raising a ponderous Weight. 
 Two Heads, on tinted paper. 
 An Allegory. 
 
 Speaking of this magnificent collection of drawings, Herr 
 Passavant says, "Three volumes of Original Drawings, a 
 selection from which, entitled 'Imitations of Original Designs, 
 by Leonardo da Vinci, in his Majesty's Collection/ was pub- 
 lished by John Chamberlaine in 1796. . . . These drawings by 
 Leonardo are sketched either in red or black chalk, or in pencil 
 upon tinted paper. Some are drawn with the pen ; but only a 
 few in water colours or heightened with white. Among the 
 portraits, his own, taken in profile, is the most interesting, drawn 
 with red chalk, two-thirds the size of life. In Bartolozzi's print 
 from this drawing the fine intellectual expression and fire of the 
 eye is but feebly rendered. Generally speaking, his dotted 
 engravings give no adequate idea of this kind of drawing. The 
 other drawings represent a variety of subjects: figures, cari- 
 catures, horses, and other animals, with some fine anatomical 
 studies of these latter ; a small sketch, also, of an elephant 
 battle, spiritedly drawn on red chalk; added to these, several 
 designs for optics, hydraulics, and perspective ; a foundry, with 
 all kinds of military machines, and a drawing showing the effects 
 of a bomb which is bursting in a tower ; maps of the country, 
 following the course of different rivers — one of the Arno, another 
 
DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
 235 
 
 of the Vallambrosa, and the country between Volterra and 
 Livorno; the effects of an inundation, as drawn at the time 
 from nature; sketches of mountains, plants, etc., which he 
 introduced into his paintings; also the plan for some work, 
 explained by sketches of the subject. Besides these, in this 
 general workshop of the Muses, we also meet with MSS. of 
 music, the meaning of each note given beneath in Leonardo's 
 own hand. Lastly, a number of pen drawings of anatomical 
 subjects, with an explanatory text, which, according to this 
 master's usual method, is written from the right hand to the 
 left. These sketches belong to ' A Treatise on Anatomy,' and 
 formed one of the thirteen books which the Chevalier Melzi, the 
 friend who accompanied him to France, compiled from his 
 effects after his death. Three of these numbers fell into the 
 possession of Pompeo Leoni, sculptor to the King of Spain, one 
 of which, with a gilt inscription, ' Disegni di Leonardo da Vinci 
 restaurati da Pompeo Leoni,' was probably purchased by the 
 Earl of Arundel in 1636, at the time when this nobleman was 
 ambassador from Charles I. to the Emperor Ferdinand II. of 
 Austria. This book, and the portraits by Holbein, were found, 
 upon the accession of George III., in Queen Caroline's room at 
 Kensington Palace." 
 
 AT CHEIST CHUECH COLLEGE, OXFOKD. 
 
 Virgin and Child ; half-length, half-life size. 
 Two sheets of Allegories. 
 A sheet of studies for a Machine. 
 Horseman and Prostrate Figure. 
 
 Studies of Crossbows. (On reverse of above.) * 
 Lodovico Sforza, a fine portrait. In black chalk, life size, but 
 probably by a scholar of Leonardo's. 
 
 AT CHATSWOETH (Duke of Devonshire's). 
 
 Head of a Madonna. (Study for " La Vierge aux Eochers.") 
 Portrait of a Florentine Youth. 
 
 EAEL OF WAEWICK'S COLLECTION. 
 Study of a Head of the Virgin; in black chalk. 
 
236 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MR. MALCOLM, OF POLTALLOCK. 
 
 Head of a Warrior; silver point on prepared ground. 
 Study of a Head, resembling that of St. John in the Last 
 Supper. 
 
 Head of a Man shutting his eyes, as if dazzled by a brilliant 
 light. 
 
 A sheet of studies of Five Caricature Heads. 
 
 A list of Paintings and Drawings by Leonardo, mentioned 
 by Dr. Waagen in his "Treasures of Art in 
 Great Britain." 
 
 In the British Museum. — A Collection of Original Drawings. 
 
 In the National Gallery. — Christ Disputing with the Doctors. 
 (Probably by Luini.) 
 
 In the Royal Academy. — Cartoon. The Virgin seated in the 
 lap of St. Anne. 
 
 The Last Supper. Copy by Marco Oggione. 
 
 In Lord Ashbur ton's Collection. — The Virgin, Infant Saviour, 
 and St. John, with attendant Angels. This beautiful composi- 
 tion was formerly in the apartments of the Escurial, and came 
 to England in the Collection of General Sebastione. 
 
 In the Eolford Collection. — A Study of the Head of the Virgin 
 in " La Vierge aux Eochers." (Small size, in brown, on panel.) 
 In this picture the features have the refined feeling which 
 belongs to Leonardo alone. 
 
 At Catton Park (The Countess of Warwick's). — La Vierge au 
 bas-relief. Purchased by the late Lord Monson. 
 
 In Mr. Danby- Seymour's Collection. — Mona Lisa, a copy. 
 
 La Belle Ferronnière, a copy. (? by Beltraffio.) 
 
 In Mr. W. A. Mackinnon's Collection. — St. Catherine. (Ascribed 
 to Leonardo, but probably by one of his pupils.) 
 
 In Earl Brownlow's Collection. — Mona Lisa, Eeplica of. A very 
 delicate and beautiful example on panel. 
 
DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 
 
 237 
 
 At Hampton Court Palace. — Heroclias' Daughter with the Head 
 of St. John the Baptist. 
 
 The Royal Collection, Windsor Castle. — Three Volumes of 
 Drawings, the most important of which are already noted (p. 233). 
 
 At Christ Church College, Oxford. {General Guise's Collection.) 
 —A Collection of Seven Drawings, described on page 235. 
 
 At Basildon Park (James Morrison's, Esq.) — Flora. From the 
 collection of Sir Thomas Baring. 
 
 At Charlton Park (Earl of Suffolk's). — La Vierge aux Eochers. 
 (Most probably the original.) 
 
 At Stourhead House (Hoare Collection).-— The Holy Family. 
 Painted on parchment. 
 
 At Leigh Court (Sir W. Miles's). — Salvator Mundi. 
 
 At Thirlestaine House (Lord Northwick's). — The Virgin and 
 Child (the Virgin standing). Ascribed to Domenico Ghirlandajo, 
 but more like Leonardo. 
 
 At Chatsworth (Duke of Devonshire's). — Portrait of a Florentine 
 Youth. (Most probably a portrait by Beltraffio.) 
 
 At Wooton Hall (Davenport-Bromley Collection). — The Virgin 
 and Child, the latter holding a violet. Landscape with Lake of 
 Como in background. (Called Luini, but most probably Leo- 
 nardo.) From the Feschi Gallery. 
 
 At the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. — La Vierge au bas- 
 relief, a copy. Two children playing on a greensward enamelled 
 with flowers. 
 
 At Glendon Hall (Booth Collection). — A Lucretia. 
 
 At Holkham Hall (Earl of Leicester's).— MSS. entitled " Libro 
 originale della natura, peso e moto delle acque, di Leonardo da 
 Vinci, in tempo di Lodovico il Moro, nel condur che fece le 
 acque del naviglio della Martesana dell' Adda a Milano." 
 
 At Lord Yarborough's. — St. Anne. Copy, probably by Salaino, 
 of the picture in the Louvre. 
 
 Ln Lord Kinnaird's Collection. — La Columbine. Formerly in 
 the Collection of the King of Holland. 
 
238 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Paintings by Leonardo, or attributed to him, lent to 
 the Exhibitions of the Works of the Old Masters, 
 at the Royal Academy, Burlington House. 
 
 In 1870. 
 
 Belonging to 
 
 La Vierge aux Rochers ... Earl of Suffolk. 
 
 In 1871. 
 
 Ohrist bearing His Cross ... ... Sir T. Proctor Beauchamp. 
 
 Head of Christ (Crayon) . . . Baroness North. 
 
 St. Peter (Crayon) ... ... Baroness North. 
 
 In 1872. 
 
 Virgin and Child ... ... Duke of Buccleuch. 
 
 Portrait of a Young Man, said 
 to be of the Achinta family 
 
 Mr. W. Fuller Maitland. 
 
 In 1876. 
 
 Portrait of a Lady holding a Vase Marquis of Lansdowne. 
 In 1877. 
 
 Creator Mundi ... ... ... Sir William Miles. 
 
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