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 To face (he lilJe. 
 
A 
 
 COMPLETE VIEW 
 
 , OF THE 
 
 DRESS AND HABITS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PEOPLE OF ENGLAND, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SAXONS IN BRITAIN TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 ILLUSTKATED BY ENGKA VINOS 
 
 TAKEN FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC REMAINS OF ANTIQUITY. 
 
 TO WHICH IS PREFIXED 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION, 
 
 CONTAINING A GENERAL 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE ANCIENT HABITS IN USE AMONG MANKIND, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 EARLIEST PERIOD OF TIME TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 JOSEPH STRUTT. 
 
 A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION, WITH CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY NOTES, 
 
 BY 
 
 J. R. PLANCHE, ESQ. F.S.A. 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE HISTORY OF BRITISH COSTUME, ETC. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 MDCCCXLII. 
 

 
 
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 HIS GRACE, 
 
 GEORGE GRANVILLE LEVESON - GOWER, 
 
 DUKE OE SUTHERLAND, K.G. 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 THESE VOLUMES 
 
 ARE, 
 
 WITH PERMISSION, 
 
 MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 HIS GRACE’S 
 
 MUCH OBLIGED AND VERY OBEDIENT HUMBLE SERVANT, 
 
 J. R. PLANCHE. 
 

 
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P E E F A C E. 
 
 Nearly half a century has elapsed since the learned, patient, and industrious 
 author of these valuable volumes placed them before the public, with a modest address, 
 in which he stated the difficulties he had encountered, and named as a principal 
 point in favour of his work, the novelty of its subject, there being at that time none 
 such in the English language, “ at least, none sufficiently extensive and regular to 
 display the prevalent fashions of our ancestors, through every century.”^ 
 
 The same claim to the patronage of the Public, may still be made for his 
 labours. With respect to the armour and weapons of the middle ages, the works 
 of that distinguished antiquary. Sir Samuel Meyrick, have superseded all former 
 speculative and imperfect essays on the subject, and “ the Monumental Effigies of 
 Great Britain,” by the late Mr. Stothard, unrivalled for correctness of drawing and 
 beauty of execution, have greatly contributed to the knowledge we previously 
 possessed of those unquestionable authorities : but notwithstanding the great 
 improvement in taste and the consequent increase of anxiety on the part of English 
 Authors, Painters, Sculptors, and Actors, to acquire sufficient knowledge of costume, 
 to avoid committing such errors as disgraced the works of many of their greatest 
 predecessors, no publication has subsequently appeared in England so full of infor- 
 mation on the general subject of costume, as the “ Complete View of the Dress and 
 Habits of the People of England,’' by the indefatigable and ingenuous Joseph Strutt. 
 The “ many errors” in it, of the existence of which he candidly expressed his 
 conviction, were nearly all caused by the peculiar circumstances under which its 
 pages were hurried through the press ; and do not affect in any way the reputation 
 for judgment or research of the author. Here and there Mr. Strutt has been 
 misled by faith in the dates assigned to his authorities by others. But con- 
 
 Vide original “Address to the Public.” 
 
VI 
 
 siderinj^, as he remarks, that he laboured “as it were in the dark,” and that 
 he was in fact the pioneer of succeeding Antiquaries, we have only to wonder that 
 so few errors should be discoverable. The principal were (as usual in works of 
 this description, however carefully printed,) in the numerical references to the books, 
 chapters, verses or lines of the host of authors quoted, and I beg to premise, that 
 having simply undertaken to write notes for this Edition, there may be, although I 
 have corrected all that came in my way, many still to rectify. I have now only 
 to return my best thanks to Sir Henry Ellis and Sir Frederick Madden, of 
 the British Museum, for the kind assistance I have received from them, as regards 
 both accommodation and information. 
 
 December, 1841 . 
 
 J. R. PLANCHE. 
 
ADDRESS TO THE PUBLIC. 
 
 I SHALL not pretend to apologise for the introduction of this work to the 
 inspection of the Public. If it possesses a sufficient portion of merit to recommend 
 itself to notice, 1 am certain it will meet with a favourable reception : if it does 
 not, undoubtedly it will be rejected with justice. 
 
 It may perhaps be unnecessary for me in favour of its novelty to premise, that 
 there is no such work in the English language ; at least, none sufficiently extensive 
 and regular to display the prevalent fashions of our ancestors through every 
 centurv. 
 
 The Engravings, which form the most material part of this publication, are 
 taken from drawings in Manuscripts coeval with the times that they are intended 
 to illustrate, or other monuments of antiquity equally authentic ; and they are 
 faithfully copied from the originals, without an additional fold being made to the 
 draperies, or the least deviation from the form of the garments. 
 
 In the arrangement of the figures, a task attended with no small difficulty, it 
 has been my study to render them interesting by grouping them as pleasingly as 
 the nature of the subject would admit ; and the ornamental embellishments of 
 every kind are not, in any instance, the work of my own imagination, but accurate 
 specimens of ancient art, and extracted from the same manuscript that the figures, 
 or some of them at least, are taken. 
 
 The Introduction contains a general outline of the various dresses that have 
 existed in the ancient world, and extended no farther than what seemed necessary 
 for the fuller explanation of the early habits of our ancestors. The engravings, 
 which accompany the Introduction, are few ; but taken from originals, undoubtedly 
 authentic. 
 
 I have avoided, as much as possible, the introducing any figures that have 
 been previously engraved for other works, and in no one instance given a copy 
 from a copy ; but always referred to the original itself, as the best voucher for mv 
 accuracy. 
 
Vlll 
 
 I am convinced, that in the prosecution of this extensive work many errors 
 will be unavoidable. In numberless instances I am necessitated to labour, as it 
 were, in the dark ; because, on the one hand, the descriptions of the dresses, 
 derived from our early writers, are frequently so very vague and nugatory, that 
 they afford but little or no light in the explication of the drawings and monumental 
 effigies coeval with them ; and, on the other hand, where these descriptions are 
 more full, they often want the concordant assistance of painting and sculpture. I 
 have, however, exerted the utmost of my ability to unite the two sources of infor- 
 mation with each other ; and, where my authority is in any point doubtful, or 
 deficient, I have acquainted the Reader how far he has to depend upon conjectural 
 evidence, which from necessity occurs in several instances. 
 
 July 1 , 1796 . 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS OF THE INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A General View of the Clothing Materials anciently in Use, and the Arts dependant i^pon 
 Dress ................ 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 The Civil, Mihtary, and Religious Habits of the Egyptians. — The Habits of the Ethiopians, and 
 
 other neighbouring Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . xi 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 The Civil, Military, and Ecclesiastical Habits of the Israelites. — The Habits of the Philistines, 
 
 and other neighbouring Nations ........... xxv 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 The Ancient Habits of the Assyrians, of the Persians, of the Medes, and other Asiatic Nations . Ld 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 The Habits appropriated to Mourning by the Asiatic Nations ; and the Distinctions made by 
 
 Dress ................ Ixxi 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 A general view of the Habits of the Greeks and the Romans Ixxvi 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 A 
 
CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS, TO THE 
 
 CONCLUSION OF THE EIGHTH* CENTURY, 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The State of the Clothiug Arts considered. — Habits of the Men. — The Shirt. — The Tunic. — The 
 Surcoat. — The Cloak, or Mantle. — The Head-dress. — The Shoes, Stockings, &c. ... 1 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 The Dress of the Women of the Eighth Century. — The Under- Garment. — The Gown. — The Mantle. 
 
 — The Coverchief, or Head-Dress. — The Shoes, Stockings, &c. ...... 13 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 The Military Habits of the Anglo-Saxons of the Eighth Century. — The Tunic. — The Mantle. — 
 
 The Helmet. — ^The Shield. —The Sword and the Spear. — The Horse Soldier, the Foot Soldier, 
 and the Military Officer attendant upon the King . . . . . . . .21 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 The Ecclesiastical Habits of the Eighth Century. — A particular Description of them cannot be 
 given — Three figures supposed to be Ecclesiastics ; and why. — A curious Portrait of Aldhelm, 
 Bishop of Sherborn, described ..... . 
 
 25 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS, FROM THE 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE NINTH CENTURY TO THE ARRIVAL OF THE NORMANS. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Habits of the Men continued — The several Gradations of Rank not possible to be traeed by the 
 Dress. — A particular Description of the Habit of Charlemagne. — The Variations in the several 
 parts of Dress described in the former Part. — The Leg-Bandages. — The Socks. — The Boots, or 
 Buskins. — The Gloves, &c. ............ 27 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 The Habits of the Anglo-Saxon Women continued. — The several Parts of their Dress not increased 
 in Number during the Saxon JEra . — A Recapitulation of those Parts of the Female Dress 
 described in a former Chapter, and the Alterations they underwent from the Eighth, to the 
 close of the Eleventh Century. . . . . . . . . . . .46 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 The Military Habits of the Anglo-Saxons from the Commencement of the Ninth Century to the 
 Arrival of the Normans. — The coat of Mail. — The Breast-Plate. — The Greaves. — The Helmets. — 
 
 The Shields. — The Swords ; and the Spears. — The Military Habits of the Danes described 
 from a curious Saxon Reliquary. . . . • • . . . . . .49 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 The Ecclesiastical Habits of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. — The Archbishop, Bishop, Abbot, 
 
 Monks, and inferior Clergy. ............ 60 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 The Mourning-Habits of the Anglo-Saxons not known. — How the Bodies of the Dead were ap- 
 parelled. — The Manner in which Charlemagne was buried. — The appearance of the Bodies of 
 Edward the Confessor, of Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury, and of Withburga Sister of 
 Etheldrida Abbess of Ely, upon opening of their Tombs. ....... 6.3 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 A General Review of the Materials which composed the Saxon Habits. — The Art of Weaving. — The 
 Art of Embroidery. — The Anglo-Saxon Ladies famous for their Skill in this Art. — The subjects 
 executed by them. — The Uses to which embroidered Garments were appropriated. — The 
 Tanner’s Art. — The Dyer’s Art. 67 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 The ornamental Parts of Dress considered. — Body-painting. — Colouring of the Hair. — Crowns and 
 Diadems. — Head-tires. — Ear-rings. — Girdles. — Pouches. — Bracelets. — Rings. — Buckles and 
 Spurs. 72 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 General Observations. — The various Manners in -which the Anglo-Saxon Monarch is depicted. — The 
 Appearance of the Anglo-Saxons when abroad, and in their Rural Exercises. — The Manner in 
 which their Battles are represented. — Their Standards. —Their Appearance on Horseback — 
 
 The Manner in which the Ladies rode on Horseback. — General Appearance of the Ladies. — 
 Domestic and State Habits. . . . . . . . . • . . .79 
 
 PART III. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS, FROM THE 
 ACCESSION OF WILLIAM THE FIRST TO THE THRONE OF ENGLAND TO THE CONCLUSION OF 
 THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 The Manners and Dresses of the Saxons changed by the Normans. — A Brief Review of the Clothing 
 Materials. — The Progress of the Clothing Arts. — Laws relative to the manufacturing of 
 Cloth, &c. ............... 82 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 The Habits of the Men generally considered. — The interior Parts of their Dress not changed. — The 
 Tunic ; the Super-Tunic. — The Gown. — The Mantle. — The Coverings for the Head, and Head- 
 Dress. — The Gloves. — The Stockings.— The Boots. — The Shoes. — The Girdles. — The Aprons, 
 
 &c. of the Anglo-Normans. ............ 86 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 The Habits of the Norman Women. — The Surcoat a new Garment. — The Alterations made in the 
 other Parts of the Saxon Dress by the Norman Ladies. — The Under-Garment. — The Gown. — 
 
 The Surcoat. — The Girdle. — The Mantle. — The Coverchief and other Decorations for the Head. 
 
 — The Hair-Dress. — The Stockings.— The Shoes, &c. . . . . • . .102 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 The MUitary Habits of the Anglo-Normans from the Conquest to the Conclusion of the Twelfth 
 Century. — The Mail-Armour. — The Mihtary Surcoat. — The Helmets. — The Shields. — The 
 Spears, Swords, and other Implements of War 108 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 The Ecclesiastical Habits of the eleventh and twelfth Centuries generally considered. — Increased in 
 Splendour, and altered in their Form. — Anecdote of Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester. — The Habit 
 of an Archbishop. — The Admission of St. Guthlac into Priest’s Orders. — The Habit of an 
 Abbess. — The Habit of a Lay Preacher, and of a Pilgrim 114 
 
LIST OF PLATES 
 
 WITH THE NUMBERS OF THE PAGES IN WHICH REFERENCES TO THEM ARE TO BE FOUND. 
 
 [N. B. The Publisher having thought it inexpedient to alter the original titles of the Copper-plates, 
 they are here given as printed, and rectified, when incorrect, by notes in the margin. Ed.] 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 
 Page. 
 
 1. 
 
 Egyptian Habits ' 
 
 . 
 
 XV. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xxi. 
 
 2. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 . 
 
 xvi. xvii. xix. xxi. 
 
 3. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 . 
 
 . xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xxi. 
 
 4. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 > IN THE INTRODUCTION 
 
 XV. xvii. xix. xxi. 
 
 5. 
 
 Grecian Habits 
 
 . xciii. xcviii xcix. ci. cii. 
 
 6. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 . . 
 
 Ixxvii. Lxxxvii. xcviii. 
 
 7. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 . 
 
 Ixxxvii. xciii. xcvii. xcviii. c. 
 
 8. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 . 
 
 . xcviii. c. ci. 
 
 1. 
 
 Saxon Rustics of the 8th century® 
 
 5, 11, 12 
 
 2. 
 
 The Saxon Tunic as worn in the 8th century 
 
 5, 12 
 
 3. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon Monarch of the 8th century, in a Habit of State 
 
 6,7 
 
 4. 
 
 An Anglo-Saxon Nobleman in his State Dress . 
 
 7, 8 
 
 5. 
 
 The Saxon Mantles 
 
 as worn in the 8th century 
 
 8, 9 
 
 6. 
 
 The Mantles of the 8th century, continued 
 
 8, 12 
 
 7. 
 
 A Personage of Distinction of the 8th century, in Full Dress . 
 
 7, 8 
 
 8. 
 
 A Monarchial State Habit of the 8th century 
 
 9, 10 
 
 9. 
 
 Dresses of the Anglo-Saxon Women of the 8th century . 
 
 15, 17, 18 
 
 10. 
 
 Dresses of the Women of the 8th century, continued 
 
 15, 18 
 
 11. 
 
 The Summer Dress and Travelling Habit of the Ladies of the 8th century 14, 16, 17, 18 
 
 12. 
 
 An Anglo-Saxon Lady of the 8th century, in Full Dress 
 
 15, 18 
 
 13. 
 
 Military Habits of the 8th century 
 
 23, 24, 55, 56, 57, 77 
 
 14. 
 
 The Saxon King in 
 
 his Martial Habit, with his Armour Bearer 
 
 22, 50, 55, 56, 110 
 
 15. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Habits of the 8th century 
 
 25 
 
 16. 
 
 Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborn 
 
 26 
 
 17. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon Monarch of the 9th century, in his State Habit 
 
 30, 32, 40 
 
 18. 
 
 Dresses of the 9th and 10th centuries® 
 
 27, 34, 35, 36, 40, 42 
 
 19. 
 
 Personages of Distinction of the 9th and 10th centuries'^ 
 
 40,41,42,56 
 
 20. Anglo-Saxon Lady of the 9th century ® . . . 37,47 
 
 * Vide note, page 1, vol. i. Read 11th century. ' Read 10th and 11th centuries, Vide note, p. 276, vol. ii. 
 
 Read 1 1 th century. ® Read 10th century. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 21 . 
 
 22 . 
 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 
 30. 
 
 31. 
 
 32. 
 
 33. 
 
 34. 
 
 35. 
 
 36. 
 
 37. 
 
 38. 
 
 39. 
 
 40. 
 
 41. 
 
 42. 
 
 43. 
 
 44. 
 
 45. 
 
 46. 
 
 47. 
 
 48. 
 
 49. 
 
 50. 
 
 51. 
 
 52. 
 
 53. 
 
 54. 
 
 55. 
 
 56. 
 
 57. 
 
 58. 
 
 59. 
 
 60. 
 61. 
 
 Saxon Ladies of the 9th and 10th centuries' 
 
 An Ancient Statue found in Monmouthshire 
 Military Habits of the 1 0th century 
 
 From a curious Reliquary in the possession of Thomas Astle, Esq. 
 
 Ecclesiastics of the 10th and 11th centuries s 
 
 Abbot Elfnoth presenting a Book of Prayer to the Monastery of St. Augustin 
 Wulfstan, Archbishop of York 
 Edward the Confessor, from his Great Seal 
 Funeral Habits and Saxon Ornaments . 
 
 Norman Rustics of the 1 1 th century 
 Anglo-Norman Youths of the 11th century** 
 
 Anglo-Norman Habits of the 11th century ** . . 88, 89, 90, 93, 98, 99, 100 
 
 An Anglo-Norman Nobleman of the 11th century in his State Habit'* . 88, 90 
 
 The Regal State Habit of the 11th century** . . . 88, 90, 93 
 
 Henry the First and Second, from their Great Seals . . . 88, 90 
 
 Page. 
 
 47 
 
 51, 110 
 41, 51, 55, 56, 110 
 43, 53, 57, 58 
 . 61, 115 
 
 60, 61, 115 
 40, 60, 115 
 54 
 
 57, 59, 64, 75, 77 
 91, 98, 99 
 88, 90, 93, 98, 99 
 
 Anglo-Norman Women of the 1 1th century 
 An Anglo-Norman Queen of the 1 1th century * 
 Dresses of the 11th century * 
 
 Women of the 12th century 
 Ladies of the 12th century in FuU Dress 
 Female Dresses of the 12th century*^ 
 
 Norman Dresses of the 12th century 
 Soldiers of the 11th and 12th centuries * 
 
 Armour of the 12th century,*** and Coat of Mail from 
 
 103, 105, 106 
 . 105, 107 
 75, 104, 105, 107 
 103, 105, 106, 107 
 102, 103, 105, 107; and 22, 45, vol. ii. 
 
 106, 107 ; and 119, vol. ii. 
 
 89, 93 
 
 108, 109, 110, 112, 113; and 22, 58, vol. ii. 
 109, 110, 111, 112; and 58, 65, vol. ii. 
 
 Nero c. iv. 12th century 
 
 From a Monument of the 13th century, in Danbury Church, Essex 1 10, 1 1 1 ; and 50, 58, 65, vol. ii. 
 In Danbury Church, Essex . . 110, 111 ; and 50, 58, 65, vol. ii. 
 
 Monastical Habits of the 12th century** 
 
 Ecclesiastical Habits of the 12th century** 
 
 Ditto ditto ** 
 
 Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, from a MS. of the 12th century 
 Rustics of the 13th century 
 Habits of the 13th century 
 Hunting Habits of the 13th century 
 Habits of the 13th century 
 
 A Physician and his Servant, from a MS. of the 13th century ° 
 
 A Nobleman of the 13th century, in his Habit of State 
 A Regal State Habit of the 13th century 
 A Coronation Habit of the 13th century 
 Henry the Third, from a MS. of the 13th century 
 The Coronation of Edward the First 
 Young Women of the 13th century 
 
 . 116, 117 
 115, 117 
 83, 116, 117 
 115 
 
 101 ; and 30, vol. ii. 
 94 ; and 30, 188, 192, vol. ii. 
 
 94 ; and 35, vol. ii. 
 
 . 30, 33, vol. ii. 
 
 36, 165, vol. ii. 
 
 30, 35, 36, vol. ii. 
 
 31, 34, 36, vol. ii. 
 
 34, 36, 37, vol. ii. 
 30, 36, 37, vol. ii. 
 . 36, vol. ii. 
 
 39, 40, 41, 47, 48, vol. ii. 
 
 ^ Read 11th century. 
 ■ Read 12th century. 
 “ Read 13th century. 
 
 S Read 12th century. 
 ^ Read 13th century. 
 " Read 13th century. 
 
 *‘ Read 12th century. 
 
 ' Read 12th century only. 
 ° Read 12th century. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 62. 
 
 Ladies of the 13th century 
 
 41, 46, 129, vol. ii. 
 
 63. 
 
 Ditto ditto . 
 
 , 44, 47, vol. ii. 
 
 64. 
 
 A Queen of the 13th century, in her Habit of State 
 
 41, 44, 47, vol. ii. 
 
 65. 
 
 Military Habits of the 13th century . . 50, 
 
 53, 57, 58, 59, 65, vol. ii. 
 
 66. 
 
 A Knight of the 13th century in his Military Habit 38, 50, 51, 
 
 57, 58, 59, 64, 65, vol. ii. 
 
 67. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Habits of the 13th century 
 
 . 
 
 68. 
 
 An Official Habit of an Archbishop in the 13th century 
 
 . 36, vol. ii. 
 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 
 69. 
 
 Habits of the different Seasons, from a MS. of the 14th century 
 
 . 1 25, 1 65 
 
 70. 
 
 Rustics of the 14th century 
 
 
 71. 
 
 Jesters of the 14 th century p . 
 
 202 
 
 72. 
 
 Travelling Dresses of the 14 th century 
 
 30 
 
 73. 
 
 Gentlemen’s Dresses of the 14th century 
 
 . 222, 231 
 
 74. 
 
 Gentlemen of the 14th century . 
 
 168, 178 
 
 75. 
 
 Personages of Distinction of the 14th century 
 
 222 
 
 76. 
 
 Personages of Distinction, continued 
 
 178 
 
 77. 
 
 Noblemen of the 14th century 
 
 222 
 
 78. 
 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 222 
 
 79. 
 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 222 
 
 80. 
 
 Law Habits of the 14th century 
 
 166 
 
 81. 
 
 State Officers of the 14th century 
 
 , 
 
 82. 
 
 The Seneschal and his Officers, from a MS. of the 14th century 
 
 167, 253 
 
 83. 
 
 A King, with the Officers of his Court, from a MS. of the 14th century 
 
 167, 188, 253 
 
 84. 
 
 Richard the Second and his Father, from a beautiful Missal that belon® 
 
 ;ed to that Monprch 29 
 
 85. 
 
 Regal Habits .... 
 
 167 
 
 86. 
 
 Noblemen of the 14th century 
 
 168 
 
 87. 
 
 Head Coverings of the 1 4th century 
 
 185, 222 
 
 88. 
 
 Country Women of the 14th century 
 
 
 89. 
 
 Young Ladies of the 14th century 
 
 48, 263 
 
 90. 
 
 Matrons of the 14th century 
 
 . 212, 257 
 
 91. 
 
 The Ladies’ Chamber and Toilet of the 14th century 
 
 238 
 
 92. 
 
 Ladies of the 14th century 
 
 238 
 
 93. 
 
 Ladies of High Rank of the 14 th century i 
 
 265 
 
 94. 
 
 Ladies of Rank of the 14 th century 
 
 119, 175, 238, 266 
 
 95. 
 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 119,262 
 
 96. 
 
 State Habits of the 14th century 
 
 . 171,266 
 
 97. 
 
 A Lady of High Rank in her State Habit of the 14th century . 
 
 265 
 
 98. 
 
 Ladies’ Head Dresses of the 14th century 
 
 
 99. 
 
 Mourning Habits of the 14th century 
 
 210 
 
 100. 
 
 Military Habits of the 14th century 
 
 
 101. 
 
 From a carving on ivory in the possession of F. Douce, Esq. 
 
 
 P Plead of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. 
 
 Read 14th and 15th centuries. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate; 
 
 102 . 
 
 103. 
 
 104. 
 
 105. 
 
 106. 
 
 107. 
 
 108. 
 109. 
 
 no. 
 
 111 . 
 
 112 . 
 
 113. 
 
 114. 
 
 115. 
 
 116. 
 
 117. 
 
 118. 
 
 119. 
 
 120 . 
 121 . 
 122 . 
 
 123. 
 
 124. 
 
 125. 
 
 126. 
 
 127. 
 
 128. 
 
 129. 
 
 130. 
 
 131. 
 
 132. 
 
 133. 
 
 134. 
 
 135. 
 
 136. 
 
 137. 
 
 138. 
 
 139. 
 
 140. 
 
 141. 
 
 142. 
 
 143. 
 
 Military Habits of the 14 th century 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 Edward the Third in his Military Habit 
 Ecclesiastical Habits 
 
 Labourers and Artificers of the 15th century . 
 
 Various Dresses of the 15 th century 
 Persons of Distinction of the 15th century 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 Persons of High Rank of the 15 th century 
 Courtiers and State Officers of the 15th century 
 State Officers of the 15th century 
 Ducal Habits of the 15 th century 
 Edward the Third and Guy Earl of Flanders 
 
 Henry the Sixth presenting a Sword to John Talbot Earl of Shrewsbury 
 Masquerade Habits of the 15th century 
 
 Domestic Women of the 15th Century . , 
 
 Habits of the 15th century 
 Ladies of High Rank of the 15th century 
 From a Monumental Brass in DigsweU Church, Herts . 
 
 Ladies of the 15th and I6th centuries'" 
 
 Ladies of Rank of the 1 5th and 1 6th centuries ^ 
 
 Ditto ditto '■ 
 
 Personages of Rank of the 15 th century 
 Head Dresses of the 15th and I6th centuries 
 Habits of the 15th and 16th centuries * 
 
 Gentlemen of the 15th and 16th centuries ® 
 
 Courtiers of the 15th and 1 6th centuries ® 
 
 Official Habits of the 1 5th and 1 6th centuries ’ . 
 
 Personages of Distinction of the 15th and 16th centuries* 
 
 Fashionable Habits of the 15 th and 16th centuries ® 
 
 The Beau of the 15th century 
 Military Habits of the 15th and 16th centuries ‘ 
 
 Religious Habits of the 15th century 
 A Countess of the 1 6th century in her Mourning Habit 
 Dresses of the 16 th century 
 Dresses, &c. of the 16th and 17th centuries 
 
 From the Frontispiece of the great Bible said to have been designed by Hans 
 Dresses of the 16th and 17th centuries 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 Armour of the 16th Century 
 Ann of Denmark, Queen of James the First 
 Dresses of the 17th century 
 
 FrontispiecetoVol.il. .... 
 
 188 
 
 Page. 
 
 53 
 
 208 
 
 236 
 
 190, 236 
 
 197 
 
 212 
 
 212, 266 
 131, 258 
 
 180 
 
 250 
 236, 237 
 236 
 
 163, 236 
 179, 236 
 
 209 
 214 
 . 189, 227 
 152, 180, 204, 229 
 Holbein . 
 
 144 
 
 266 
 
 145, 175, 266 
 182, 236, 265, 266 
 178, 180 
 
 ■■ Read 15th century only. 
 
 • Read 15th century only. 
 
 ‘ Read 15th century only. 
 
THE INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE CLOTHING MATERIALS ANCIENTLY IN USE, 
 
 AND THE ARTS DEPENDANT UPON DRESS. 
 
 The first idea of clothing the body appears to have originated rather from 
 shame than from necessity ; for, so long as our first parents continued obedient to 
 the commandment of their Creator, they were strangers to their own nakedness, 
 and garments of every kind were totally useless ; but, the moment they transgressed 
 the divine mandate, their eyes were opened and “ they saw,” says the sacred 
 historian “ that they were naked.” Shame then induced them to make a partial 
 covering for their bodies, which does not seem indeed at any rate to deserve the 
 name of a garment, and was by no means calculated to answer the claims of nature 
 when a change of seasons required the extraneous assistance of clothing ; but, 
 before their expulsion from Eden, the benign author of their existence, who best 
 knew the extent of their wants, provided them with such dresses as were suited to 
 the exigences of their subsequent condition : — “Unto Adam also and unto his wife 
 “ did the Lord God make coats of skin, and clothed them’'^ 
 
 Such were the habits of our primeval parents ; and from so simple a beginning 
 originated the vast variety of dresses, which were afterwards composed of materials 
 of many kinds, and loaded with superfluous ornaments of gold, of silver, and of 
 precious stones, agreeable to the taste or rather extravagance of the succeeding 
 ages. 
 
 It is impossible to ascertain the period in which the manufacturing of cloth was 
 first introduced among mankind ; and it would be absurd to pretend to investigate 
 
 ' QtC'nb'T "Iiy msriD Genesis, iii. 21. 
 
 B 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
11 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the causes to which it owed its origin : like most other useful inventions, it is 
 probable that those of spinning and weaving might have arisen from some accidental 
 circumstances ; but, as they depended upon the complication of many different 
 operations, we may reasonably conclude that they were not hastily brought to any 
 great degree of perfection. The laborious productions of the loom must of course 
 have been very expensive, and the use of them confined to persons of superior rank 
 and opulence ; which may account in some measure for the little progress made in 
 the clothing arts among mankind in general for several generations posterior to the 
 deluge. The ancient Greek authors, speaking of the first ages of the world, assure 
 us, that men killed the beasts of the field for their food, and clothed themselves 
 with their skins ; which Diodorus Siculus expressly declares was the custom among 
 the primitive Egyptians.^ 
 
 It is ahimdantly evident that many useful arts, and probably those on which the 
 manufacturing of cloth depended among the rest, were invented by the Antedilu- 
 vians, and the knowledge of them preserved by Noah and his family ; it may 
 therefore appear extraordinary to us, that, when the descendants of that patriarch 
 dispersed themselves upon the face of the earth, they should so generally have lost 
 sight of them all, and by a retrograde disposition of the mind, have dwindled into 
 a state of total ignorance : — such, however, undoubtedly is the fact. I am indeed 
 inclined to believe that the clothing arts were known to the Antediluvian world ; 
 for, garments of various kinds, thread, and even the ornamental parts of dress, are 
 particularized by Moses as being in use soon after the deluge and he speaks of 
 them without the least indication of their novelty, or the most distant hint that the 
 manufacturing of them was a recent invention, and first introduced after the resto- 
 ration of mankind. 
 
 Linen and woollen garments were in use among the Egyptians at a very remote 
 
 1 Diodorus Siculus, lib. I. cap. ii. and iv. 
 
 2 A hyke, or mantle, is spoken of, Genesis, ehap. ix. ver. 23, as used by two of the sons of Noah to 
 eover him when he lay exposed in his tent. nbiSti? the Hebrew name appropriated to this garment, 
 used in several subsequent passages in Scripture, is unequivocally expressive of a garment manufactured 
 in the loom ; so that there is little reason to conceive, that it should in this place alone be put for a 
 vestment of leather, tan or thread, occurs, Gen. chap. xiv. ver. 23. For the various ornaments see 
 Gen. chap. xxiv. ver. 22, &c. [The “ golden earring of half a shekel weight,” as it has been rendered by 
 the old English translators, seems to have been a ring or jewel for the nose. It is so given in the 
 Persian and Arabic Versions. — Ed.] 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 period. “ Vestures of fine linen”' were worn by the superior officers of Pharaoh’s 
 court as early as the time of the patriarch Joseph. If, indeed, it be denied that the 
 clothing arts descended from the Antediluvian world, the general testimony of ancient 
 history ivill point to Egypt for their origin ; for, it is certain that they appeared in 
 much greater perfection there, and much earlier, than in any other country." The 
 linen especially, manufactured by the Egyptians, maintained its precedency in foreign 
 nations for many succeeding generations : it was called linenhj way of eminence, 
 and formed a very material part of the exports of that country. From this source 
 the Israelites certainly derived the skill in the clothing arts, for which they are cele- 
 brated by Moses ; and with them it seems to have declined in proportion as they 
 receded from their task-masters. In the days of Solomon, it is true, the thread, or, 
 as it is called, linen-yam,^ was brought unworked from Egypt to Jerusalem, to make 
 the decorations for the first temple ; but, at the same time, it was necessary to call 
 in a foreign artist to superintend the manufacturing of those materials ; and he him- 
 self performed the most elaborate part of the workmanship. We are by no means, I 
 apprehend, to conclude, from the thread being imported in an unwrought state, or 
 from the circumstance of a Tyrian artist being employed to make it into cloth, that 
 the skiU of the Egyptians in the clothing arts was upon the decline at that period ; 
 the contrary will soon appear ; and this circumstance might probably arise from some 
 peculiarity respecting the form and ornaments of the linen, which required it to be 
 made immediately under the direction of the Jewish priesthood ; and the workman 
 
 ' Gen. chap. xli. ver. 42. The word however, may be rendered fine white cotton 
 
 cloth ; for, it signifies both cotton and linen, but cannot be interpreted by the word silk, as it is rendered 
 in the margin of our Bibles. 
 
 * The Egyptians themselves claimed this honour ; and put a shuttle into the hand of their goddess 
 Isis, to signify that she was the inventress of weaving. Histoire du Ciel, c. 32. [I have not met with 
 this book, but the invention of weaving is accorded by Pliny to the Egyptians, lib. vii. 56 ; and 
 Athenseus positively names as the inventor, Pathymias the Egyptian. Deipn. lib. 2. — Ed.] 
 
 3 I Kings, chap. x. ver. 28 ; and 2 Chronieles, chap. i. ver. 16. [“The word mp (Koh or Koa)’’ 
 says the learned Editor of the Pictorial Bible, “bears no where else the meaning here given to it” (i. e. 
 
 “linen yarn.”) “The Septuagint and the Vulgate give it as a proper name.” “The authority 
 
 of the Septuagint,” he adds, “ is important, in at least proving that linen yarn is not intended. The 
 word, when translated, has no other meaning than that of a collection or gathering together, as in Gen. i. 
 9, and Jer. iii. 17.’’ And Mr. Taylor, the editor of Calmet, considers it in this instance to apply to the 
 horses mentioned in the same verse. — Ed.] 
 
IV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was the “ son of a woman of the daughters of Dan,”‘ who, from a nearer relationship 
 to the Jews, might be better acquainted with their customs, and of course better cal- 
 culated to execute such a commission, than an Egyptian artist. 
 
 Solomon has put into the mouth of a luxurious prostitute an eulogium upon the 
 Egyptian linens : “ I have decked,” says she, “ my bed with carpets, and the carved 
 works with fine linen of Egypt and the prophet Ezekiel, who lived upwards of 
 four hundred years after Solomon, speaking of the prosperity of Tyre, mentions the 
 fine linen with broidered work from Egypt as forming part of her most valuable im- 
 ports.* Neither is profane history destitute of its testimony in favour of the cele- 
 brity of the Egyptian linen manufactures : for, one of the most ancient Grecian 
 historians informs us, that Amasis, king of Egypt, “ sent to the Lacedemonians a 
 curious pectoral,* made of linen, adorned with many figures of animals woven into 
 the work, and enriched with gold and variety of colours. — The chain,” continues my 
 author, “is of admirable artifice, fine and slender, though consisting of three hundred 
 and sixty distinct threads.” He then adds, “ such another is to be seen at Lindus, 
 dedicated to Minerva by the same Amasis.”® A pectoral of the like kind was taken 
 among the spoils at the battle of Isus, and presented to Alexander the Great, who 
 was so much pleased with it, that he wore it himself as part of his martial habit.*’ 
 
 The Egyptian weavers, contrary to the custom of most other nations, were men ; 
 for, Herodotus assures us, that “ the women of Egypt were employed abroad in 
 trade and business ; but the men were left at home to spin and weave. Other 
 nations,” adds he, “ weave the rough side’’^ of the piece uppermost — the Egyptians 
 underneath.”® 
 
 ‘ 2 Chronicles, chap. ii. ver. 14. 
 
 * Proverbs, chap. vii. ver. 16. The Hebrew word ptaS which in this passage is translated fine linen, 
 may literally be rendered the spinnings or linen thread ; it also signifies fringes made of linen thread. 
 However, either of these interpretations will suit the present purpose. [Other versions read — “ I have 
 decked my bed with coverings of tapestry, with carved [query, figured] works, with fine linen of Egypt.” 
 The Editor of the Pictorial Bible renders it — “I have covered my couch with variegated coverings of 
 Egyptian tapestry but acknowledges that “ fine linen” is the best general term to use in translating the 
 various different words for the several tissues woven by the Egyptians. — Ed ] 
 
 * Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. ver. 7. 
 
 5 Herodotus, in Thalia, xlvii. [Phny also speaks of the remarkably fine texture of a similar one pre- 
 sented by Amasis to the Minerva of Rhodes, “filis singula fila constare.” ccclxv. — Ed.] 
 
 ® Plutarch, in vita Alexandri. He calls it a pectoral of linen often folded and plaited. 
 
 I KpoKT). ^ Herodotus, in Euterpe, xxxv. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 V 
 
 The linen, which was made by the Jewish artists for the habits of the priests 
 and the decorations of the tabernacle, was of several kinds : the linen, simply so 
 called; t\iQ fine linen \hQ fine-twined linen f- and the fine linen of woven work 
 the latter, I presume, was a species of variegated cloth, in which the colours were 
 inserted in the weaving ; and, for that reason, so particularised by the sacred histo- 
 rian, to distinguish it from the cloth embroidered with the needle, which also 
 formed a considerable part of the sacred decoration. The twined linen I cannot at 
 any rate pretend to define.^ 
 
 It is by no means to be understood from what has been said, that the manufac- 
 turing of linen was confined to the Egyptians and the Israelites : the art was well 
 known to the neighbouring nations, and carried by some of them to a great degree 
 of perfection. The fine linen, manufactured by the Tyrians, is spoken of by the 
 prophet Ezekiel, as a valuable commodity, purchased by the SjTian merchants.® 
 Linen formed part of the garments of the Assyrian nobility ; and, in short, was an 
 article of dress universally esteemed and worn by all who could afford to pur- 
 chase it. 
 
 Garments manufactured from w^ool are doubtless of very high antiquity, and may 
 perhaps claim a just precedency to those of linen.'’ But, as linen generally con- 
 stituted the inner parts of the habits, the finer and softer it was in its texture, the 
 more comfortable it was found to be by the wearer, and in proportion produced a 
 superior price ; which may in some measure account for the greater progress that 
 appears to have been made in the linen than in the woollen manufactures : the 
 latter, however, were by no means neglected, though the productions are not so 
 highly distinguished, either for their beauty, or the excellency of their workman- 
 ship. Woollen garments were made and used in every country, famous for its skill 
 in the clothing arts. The city of Tyre is particularized by the prophet Ezekiel as 
 
 > in or ww. 2 
 
 * Exodus, chap, xxviii. ver. 5, 6, 7, and 8 ; and chap, xxxix. ver. 27. 
 
 * [Mr. Thompson in his remarks on the mummy cloth of Egypt mentions a peculiarity of structure 
 in some given to him by Mr. Belzoni as very striking. “The thread of the warp was double, consisting 
 of two fine threads twisted together.” — Might not this be a specimen of the fine twined linen ? — Ed.] 
 
 , 5 Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. ver. 16. 
 
 6 Justin (Lib. ii.) says that the Athenians first taught the manufacturing of wool. The Egyptians, 
 as we have already seen, claim the same honour, and, without doubt, with more propriety. 
 
VI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a mart anciently famous for white wool, which was held in high estimation by the 
 merchants of Damascus.^ 
 
 The intermixture of linen and woollen threads in the making of cloth is of very 
 ancient date : it probably originated with the Egyptians, and its fabrication is 
 strictly forbidden by the Mosaic law.*^ 
 
 The Thracians, according to Herodotus, anciently made their garments of a 
 particular species of hemp, so nearly resembling that it required a man to have 
 had much experience to distinguish the one from the other. ^ 
 
 It is generally admitted, and, I presume with justice, that cotton was manufac- 
 tured into cloth at a very early period. Cotton is not, indeed, particularly specified 
 by the early historians ; but the Hebrew word, translated silk in our Bibles,^ is 
 thought by the learned to be rather expressive of a species of fine cotton cloth.® 
 
 Silk was certainly unknown to the ancients for many ages after every other part 
 of the clothing-manufactures were carried to very great perfection : it was not intro- 
 duced into Europe till the conclusion of the Roman Republic, after which time, it is 
 frequently mentioned by the classic Latin writers ; Josephus, speaking particularly 
 of the triumphal garments of Vespasian and his son Titus, says they were made of 
 silk,^ which even then was considered as a very precious article ; hut upon this sub- 
 ject there will he occasion to speak more fully hereafter. 
 
 The manufacturing of cloth from the hair of animals is an art of high antiquity : 
 the external covering of the tabernacle is expressly said by Moses to have been made 
 of goats’ hair and the inhabitants of the Western parts of Ethiopia, according to 
 Diodorus Siculus, anciently wore a species of drawers made with the hair from their 
 
 ' Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. ver. 18. 
 
 2 Leviticus, chap. xix. ver. 19; and Deuteronomy, chap. xxii. ver. 11. 
 
 * Kavya(iiQ rw Xtvw £fi(j>epetTrarr]. Herod, in Melpom. Ixxiv. Arrian, according to the author of the 
 notes upon Strabo, says that the people of India had a kind of linen or woollen that they gathered from 
 the trees — \ivov XainrpoTaTov ; linum autem appellat lanam qua ex arhorihus colligitur. Note to Strabo, 
 lib. XV. p. 1036. 
 
 Gen. chap. xli. ver. 42 ; Proverbs, chap. xxxi. ver. 22 ; et alibi : the word in Hebrew is 
 [Aitun. — Ed.] ® See Parkhurst, p. 363. 
 
 ® effdrjatm trtjpiKaiQ. Bel. Jud. lib. VI. chap. 24. 
 
 7 Exodus, chap. xxvi. ver. 7, &c. The Arabs to this day make use of tents made with hair-cloth. [Is 
 it necessary to remind the reader of the exquisite productions of Cashmere and Persia, composed of 
 camels’ and of goats’ hair? — Ed.] 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 vn 
 
 heads, because, says he, such is the nature of the ground, that the sheep carry no 
 fleeces.^ The sackcloth, as it is commonly called in Scripture'^, used by the Jews 
 for mourning, appears to have been manufactured from hair ; and, in some instances, 
 if not in all, it certainly was black.^ 
 
 The Indians, says Herodotus, who inhabit Asia, clothe themselves with garments 
 made of rushes* which they cut from the river, and, interlacing them together like 
 mats,® work them into the form of the thorax. The Hylobii, a people of India, 
 according to Strabo, used garments that were manufactured from the bark of trees.® 
 
 The first garments in use among mankind were confessedly made of the skins of 
 animals ; and leather certainly constituted several parts of the dress, even after the 
 clothing-arts were carried to the greatest degree of perfection. The ancients appear 
 to have been well skilled in the arts of tanning and dressing of leather ; the outer 
 coverings of the tabernacle were made of rams’ skins, and the skins of badgers 
 which, from the circumstance of the former being dyed red, as mentioned by Moses, 
 will naturally lead one to conclude that they must have been properly prepared pre- 
 vious to that operation. The shoes, the girdles, and even other parts of the habits 
 in general use, are repeatedly spoken of as being made of leather. 
 
 Many of the Scythians, says Herodotus, use skins instead of napkins, and clothe 
 themselves with the skins of men, which they make into garments in the same man- 
 ner as other nations make them of the skins of beasts.® 
 
 The art of dyeing the materials for clothing of various colours must have been 
 carried to a great degree of perfection at a very early period : blue, purple, crimson, 
 scarlet, and scarlet double-dyed, are colours particularized for the decoration of 
 the tabernacle, and for the embellishment of Aaron’s pontifical habit.® Several 
 nations were famous for certain colours peculiar to themselves, owing often to local 
 circumstances. The Tyrian purple was remarkable to a proverb, which is said to 
 have been extracted from a shell-fish found upon the coasts of Tyre ; though several 
 modem authors have denied the existence of such a fish, and imagine that the purple 
 
 1 Lib. III. cap. i. - Gen. xxxvii. 34 ; et alibi frequenter. 
 
 * Revelations, chap. vi. ver. 12. * ^Xoiyriv. 
 
 ^ ^opfjLou' modum storece, tanquam thoracem. Herod, in Thalia, xcviii. 
 
 ® Vestes ex arhorum corticibus habentes. Strabon. lib. XV. Also of the Massagetce, qui in insulis 
 degunt — he says, amiciunt se arborum corticibus. Ibid. lib. XL Exodus, chap. xxvi. ver. 14. 
 
 ® Herod, in Melpom. Lxiv. 9 Exodus, chap. xxvi. xxviii j et alibi. 
 
Vlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of the Tyrians was made from the cochineal only. “ Dyed garments from Bozrah” 
 are mentioned by Isaiah, which, from the passage immediately following, appear to 
 have been red “ like the garments of him who treadeth the wine-fat.”^ It is said of 
 the Massagetes, a people dwelling beyond the river Araxes, that they had a certain 
 tree, the leaf of which, when bruised and diluted with water, served to paint or dye 
 the figures of animals upon their garments^ with a colour that never faded, neither 
 could the figures be washed out with water, but continued as if they had been woven 
 in the cloth. 
 
 I shall not say any thing farther upon this subject at present : it will of necessity 
 be more fully exemplified in the succeeding part of the Introduction. 
 
 The art of working upon cloth with the needle, and embroidering figures of 
 various kinds with differently coloured threads, are of very ancient date. It was 
 well known to the Israelites, and practised by them immediately after their emigra- 
 tion from Egj^pt ; and from Egypt, without doubt, their skill in embroidery was 
 derived ; for Moses does not speak of it as an art invented in his days, or peculiar 
 to the children of Israel, which he probably would have done if the honour of its 
 invention could have been claimed by him or by his countrymen. If we may judge 
 of the perfection to which the art of embroidery was carried in Egypt by the decora- 
 tions of the tabernacle, and conceive the Egyptians at that remote period to have 
 been equally skilful with the Israelites, we shall form no mean opinion of their 
 abilities. The curtains of the tabernacle and the veil of the ark were made of the 
 finest linen, interwoven with threads of various colours, and embroidered with 
 cherubim.’’ The hangings also for the door of the tabernacle were composed of 
 blue, of purple, of scarlet, and of fine twined linen wrought with needle-work.* The 
 ephod also and the tunic, which formed part of the official habit belonging to Aaron, 
 were made of the finest materials, and richly adorned with embroidery.® 
 
 * Isaiah, chap. Ixiii. ver. 1 and 2. ^ Zuia eg rjjv ecrdrira eyypa<peiv, Herod, in Clio, cciii. 
 
 ’ Dp“i the Hebrew word, rendered in our translation of the Pentateuch embroidery, may however 
 signify brocade, or any variegated work, whether wrought in the loom, or with the needle. 
 translated cunning work, from the primitive signification of the word to add or super-add, may more 
 faithfully be rendered the work of super-adding, and applied with greater propriety to needle-work only, 
 than the former. 
 
 ^ In the twenty-sixth chapter of Exodus the reader may find a full description of these splendid 
 performances. Josephus says, that the veil of the Holy of Holies was adorned with every kind of flowers 
 thjit the earth produces. Antiq. Jud. lib. III. cap. 5. 
 
 ^ Exodus, chap, xxviii. ver. 6 and 9. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IX 
 
 Homer praises the Sidonian ladies for their skill in the art of embroidery in a 
 passage selected by Herodotus from the Iliad ; wherein the poet, adverting to the 
 wardrobe of Hecuba, says : — 
 
 There vestures lay in various colours wrought, ^ 
 
 The work of Sidon’s dames, from Sidon brought 
 By godlike Paris. 
 
 Yet, if it be thought by the learned, that the garments spoken of by Homer were 
 not embroidered with the needle, but worked in brocade, or perfected by variegated 
 threads in the loom, I shall not presume to dispute the point. 
 
 We are not, however, by any means to conclude, from the partial extracts pro- 
 duced upon the present occasion, that the art of embroidery was confined to the 
 narrow boundaries of Egypt and Palestine : it certainly extended to every other part 
 of the globe, where the clothing manufactures were carried to perfection ; and par- 
 ticularly in Europe it may be said to have arisen to full maturity. 
 
 Having briefly taken a general survey of the materials for clothing anciently in 
 use, and of the arts dependent upon the manufacturing of cloth, it remains to add a 
 few words concerning the artists themselves, and those by whom they were super- 
 intended. It must be premised, that dressing of flax, carding of wool, spinning, 
 and weaving, were not considered by the ancients as mean and -despicable employ- 
 ments, but, on the contrary, such as added dignity and lustre even to the highest 
 rank that birthright could confer. We shall not therefore be surprised to find the 
 ladies of the first quality engaged in the labours of the loom, when the poets have 
 represented the goddess of Wisdom following the same employment, and priding 
 herself in the excellence of her productions.^ In short, it appears from ancient 
 history, that every mistress of a large family superintended a clothing manufactorv, 
 which was carried on under her own roof ; and the garments that she wore herself, 
 as well as those of her husband, her children, and her servitors, were the produce 
 of it. It would be endless to quote authorities in support of this assertion ; the 
 works of the historians and the poets of the former times abound with proofs of its 
 verity. I shall content myself with laying before my readers the character of a 
 good housewife, as we find it drawn by Lemuel, in the last chapter of the book of 
 Proverbs ; at least, so much of it as appears to be pertinent to the present purpose : 
 
 ^ UettXol wafxTroiKifioi — omninb varie picti. Iliad, lib. VI. ver. 220. 
 
 ^ Ovid, Metam. lib. VI. 
 
X 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 “ She seeketh,” says he, “ wool and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands. She 
 layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. She is not afraid 
 of the snow for her household, for all her household are clothed with double gar- 
 ments.^ She maketh herself coverings of tapestry : her clothing is of fine linefr 
 and purple. She maketh fine linen, and selleth it ; and delivereth girdles unto the 
 merchant,” &c.^ 
 
 In the remote ages, it is certain that the manufacturing of cloth was pursued for 
 domestic uses, and occasionally for presents for visitors of distinction, and not 
 unfrequently for the glorious purpose of clothing the poor ; but, as the productions 
 of the loom, where many servants were constantly employed, would naturally exceed 
 the expenditure of the family, the overplus became an article of commerce ; and the 
 manufacturing of garments in process of time gradated into a trade exceeded by 
 none in profit or usefulness. 
 
 1 wdb I have followed the margio translation, which is more congenial with the 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 - WW evidently not silk, as the word is rendered in our translation. 
 
 ^ Proverbs, chap. xxxi. ver. 13 ; et infra. [The word piD sadin in verse 24, is another of those 
 various expressions which our version equally renders by fine linen. — Ed.] 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND RELIGIOUS HABITS OF THE EGYPTIANS, THE 
 HABITS OF THE ETHIOPIANS, AND OTHER NEIGHBOURING NATIONS. 
 
 The Egyptians anciently clothed themselves with the skins of animals, if the 
 testimony of Diodorus Siculus may be relied upon ; but in the time that the 
 patriarch Joseph resided in Egypt, the manufacturing of cloth was not only 
 established there, but carried to some degree of perfection ; for, vestures of fine 
 linen were given by Pharaoh to him as a mark of distinction ; at the same time a 
 chain of gold was put upon his neck ; the king also took his ring from his own 
 hand and put it upon his hand.^ Josephus, relating the same circumstance, assures 
 us, that Pharaoh gave him authority to use his own signet, and to be clothed in 
 purple.* 
 
 Cambyses sent garments of purple, together with a wreathed neck-bracelet, and 
 bracelets for the arms of gold, as presents for the king of Ethiopia.^ Splendid 
 robes, and the ensigns and badges of royal authority, are said to have been put on 
 by the king of the Egyptian empire, anciently, when he went to sacrifice to the 
 gods : — and the president of the judges, when he appeared in his official capacity, 
 wore a golden chain about his neck, to which was attached an emblematical figure 
 of Truth adorned with precious stones.^ 
 
 It is an undoubted fact, that linen constituted much of the ancient Egy ptian 
 habit. The men, according to Herodotus, wore two garments ; the one a linen 
 tunic, ornamented with a welt or fringe at the bottom, which they called calasiris f 
 and the other a white woollen mantle,'’ which was thrown over the former. In 
 another place the same author, speaking generally of the habits of the Egyptians, 
 says, they wear garments of linen^ fresh washed, taking singular care to have them 
 always clean ; for, adds he, they esteem cleanliness more than ornament. The 
 
 1 Genesis, chap. xh. ver. 42. 2 ^^roptpvpav. Antiq. Jud. lib. II. cap. v. 
 
 ® Herodotus in Thalia. * Diodorus Siculus, lib. I. cap. vi. 
 
 ^ Kidvvag \ivEovQ Trepi ra ffKeXea S’veraayujTOvc KaXeovm KaXampig Herod, in Euterpe, Ixxxi. 
 
 ® Etptj/ca nfiara XevKa. Ibid. I Ibid, in Euterpe, xxxvii. 
 
Xll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 woollen mantle, mentioned above, was not constantly worn by the Egyptians ; for, 
 no man could enter the places of worship with any garment made of wool upon him ; 
 nor permit his relatives to be buried in the same without incurring the censure of 
 profanation.^ 
 
 It is impossible, from the source of historical intelligence, to trace the different 
 degrees of dress existent among the Egyptians : indubital proofs, however, may be 
 produced that various gradations of rank were distinguished by peculiar habits ; but 
 the nature and extent of such distinctions do not appear upon record. The hahit 
 of the monarch we may easily conceive to have been rich and splendid, when we 
 recollect that the elegant art of embroidery was carried to great perfection in 
 Egypt, if it really did not originate in that country : it is also reasonable to suppose 
 that the example of the sovereign would naturally be followed by the nobility, and, 
 indeed, by every individual according to his rank and circumstances : the splendid 
 robes, rings, and chains of gold, with other badges of high authority, though indeed 
 but barely mentioned by the ancient historians, are sufficient to justify this 
 opinion. 
 
 Herodotus assures us, that the Egj^tian women, in his time, wore only one 
 garment but, unfortunately, he has not left us the least hint respecting its form, 
 or the manner in which it was put on ; that it was made of linen appears from the 
 general description he has given of the Egyptian habit ; and probably it resembled 
 the calasiris just mentioned. The rank of the women was probably distinguished 
 by the fineness and richness of this garment, as well as by other personal ornaments 
 which were appropriated to them ; for, jewels of silver and jewels of gold were used 
 by them at the time of the emigration of the Israelites from Egypt.^ 
 
 'Notwithstanding the effeminate character given to the Egyptians by Herodotus, 
 we find them frequently engaged in war ; and, in several instances, they exhibited 
 by no means a despicable figure in the field. We have very little knowledge of the 
 ancient Egyptian armour :* the thorax, or pectoral,® used by them, is indeed, 
 
 1 See the beginning of this chapter. ^ Herod, in Euterpe, xxxvi. 
 
 * Exodus, chap. xii. ver. 35 ; et alibi. 
 
 * [The deficiency of information on this head of which Mr. Strutt complained, has been amply 
 supplied of late years by the researches of modern Egyptian travellers. Vide the works of Rosellini and 
 Wilkinson, passim, and note to this work, page xv. — Ed.] 
 
 5 These pectorals were often exceedingly magnificent. See p. 5 of the Introduction. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 particularly spoken of by the author just mentioned, who informs us, that it was 
 also adopted by the Persian warriors. 
 
 The Egyptian pectoral'^ was made of linen, often folded, and plaited in such a 
 manner as to resist the point of the enemy’s weapon. Herodotus mentions the 
 arms of an Egyptian soldier, which we find to be a short sword, a buckler, and a 
 javelin.^ The lonians and the Carians, according to the same author, in the time 
 of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, wore brazen armour p but, whether he meant, by 
 the insertion of this passage in the history of Egypt, to intimate that the same kind 
 of armour was used by the Egyptians, I shall not take upon me to determine ; 
 certain it is that Psammetichus himself wore an helmet of brass when he went to 
 war.* 
 
 The prineipal part of the Egyptian sailors, who assisted Xerxes in his expedition 
 against the Grecians, were equipped with helmets strongly quilted.^ They had also 
 convex shields, javelins proper for a sea-engagement, and large double-edged axes. 
 The inferior order had only a pectoral, and were armed with a large sword.® 
 
 The Egyqitian priests, Herodotus expressly declares, were clothed in linen ; and 
 their shoes were also made of the same material : neither were they permitted to 
 dress in any other manner, nor to wear any kind of woollen garments, for nothing 
 made of wool was admitted into the temple of their gods.’^ 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, in order to prove that the manners of the Ethiopians resembled 
 those of the Egyptians, cites a variety of similar customs ; and, among them, the 
 following which relate to the habits of the priests of both countries ; they are, says 
 he, shaven alike, and clothed with the like stoles and attire, and carry a sceptre like 
 a plough-share, such as their kings also bear ; they likewise wear the same kind of 
 high-crowned caps,® twisted at the top, and wreathed round about with the serpent 
 which they called the asp. The same author also informs us, that the sacred scribes 
 among the Egyptians wore a red cap adorned with a kite’s feather.^ 
 
 1 AiyvTTTiovc ^wpaKag. Herod, in Clio, cxxxv. ^ Herod, in Polymnia. 
 
 ^ OnXicrdeyrag Herod, in Euterpe, clii. * Kvyerjv )(^aX/c£r;v. Ibid. cli. 
 
 ^ Kpavta xJjXeura. Herod, in Polymnia, Ixxxix. ® McTraXac pa^atpac. Ibid. 
 
 7 Herod, in Euterpe, xxxvii. s IltXoic. Diodorus Siculus, lib. III. cap. i. 
 
 9 Diodorus Siculus, lib. I. cap. VI. [One of the reasons given by Diodorus for this bead-dress is a 
 tradition that a book wherein were written all the rites and customs of worsliipping of the gods bound 
 about with a scarlet thread was brought by a kite to the priests of Thebes. — Ed.] 
 
XIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Egyptians in general were remarkable for their cleanliness ; their priests 
 especially, who shaved all the parts of their bodies once in three days, and made use 
 of frequent bathings,^ lest vermin or any other impurity, should he found upon them 
 who officiated in the service of the gods ; and probably it was for the same reason 
 that their heads were shaved, contrary to the custom of most other countries." 
 
 Anciently, says Diodorus Siculus, when an Egyptian king deceased, the people 
 of Egypt cast dust upon their heads, and girded themselves with a linen girdle 
 beneath their breasts ; and in this manner both men and women went about in com- 
 panies, amounting sometimes to two or three hundred, twice a day, singing mourn- 
 ful songs in praise of the deceased monarch, and recalling his virtues as it w^ere from 
 the silent tomb.® It was customary with most nations, according to Herodotus, in 
 the time of mourning, for those who were the most nearly concerned, to shave their 
 heads ; but, on the contrary, adds he, when any one dies in Egypt his relations cease 
 to shave, and suffer their hair to grow upon their heads and faces.* The same 
 author assures us, that the skulls of the Egyptians were much harder than those of 
 the Persians, owing to the national custom of shaving the heads of their children at 
 a very early age.® 
 
 Shaving the eyebrows was also a mourning ceremony among the Egyptians, and 
 performed by all the family when a cat belonging to them died of a natural death ; 
 for the death of a dog, they shaved the whole body.® It is also said that they cut 
 their flesh with sharp instruments at their annual mournings for Osiris.^ 
 
 It has already been observed, that it was accounted irreligious among the 
 Eg}'ptians to bury their dead in woollen garments ; and certain mysterious reasons, 
 according to Herodotus, were given by the priests in justification of this opinion : 
 the bodies of the deceased were therefore swathed from the head to the feet in 
 bandages of linen. 
 
 It is much to be lamented, that the two valuable authors, so frequently quoted 
 in the preceding part of this chapter, have been so sparing in their intelligence 
 respecting the habit of the Egyptians : the suggestions, selected above, contain all 
 the material information that they have left behind them, and, unfortunately, the 
 
 1 Twice constantly by day, and as often by night, in cold water. Herod, in Euterpe, xxxvii. 
 
 2 Herod, in Euterpe, xxxvi. 3 Diodorus Siculus, lib. I. cap. vi. 
 
 * Herod, in supra. 5 Ibid, in Thalia, xii. ® Ibid, in Euterpe, Ixvi. 
 
 7 Seller’s Antiquities of Palmyra. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XV 
 
 deficiency cannot be supplied; though, I trust, the figures which may be found upon 
 the first four plates belonging to the Introduction, will, on proper examination, 
 throw some small degree of light upon this important subject.’ 
 
 The first part of the Egyptian habit that I shall particularize, appears upon the 
 third figure of the first plate. It is of the most simple kind, consisting only of a 
 covering for the lower part of the body, and the thighs : in the instance before us it 
 reaches nearly to the knees ; but, in others, it does not descend so low. Sometimes 
 it was sloped with a curve from the front of the girdle to the bottom, as it is repre- 
 sented by the first figure upon the fourth plate ; and then a supplementary part was 
 added, which hung beneath the aperture, and supplied the deficiency of the garment 
 itself : the third figure upon the same plate, which is the reverse of that last-men- 
 tioned shows the appearance of this covering on the back of the wearer.^ 
 
 It may be questioned whether this garment, simple as it appears to be, did not 
 consist of several parts ; it is almost constantly party-coloured wherever it is repre- 
 sented by painting ; and even those parts are often marked with stripes of different 
 colours, falling in various directions, which bear the appearance of separate pieces ; 
 but these stripes were probably ornamental only, and either wove in the cloth by 
 threads of several colours, or worked upon it afterwards by the needle. 
 
 This garment, in some instances, constituted the whole of the clothing ; but the 
 pectoral is generally added, as we find it is upon the figure first referred to. In the 
 Table of Isis, a curious Egyptian monument so called, because it is supposed to 
 represent the various religious ceremonies belonging particularly to the worship of 
 that goddess,^ we find several figures clothed in this garment, with the addition of 
 two broad straps, which pass over both the shoulders, and crossing each other at the 
 pit of the stomach, appear to be fastened to the girdle : the same kind of straps, 
 
 1 [The admirable works of Sir Gardner Wilkinson, Rosellini, Lane, and other modern travellers, have 
 amply supplied the deficiency lamented by Mr. Strutt, and to them we must refer our reader for details 
 which would swell out the introductory portion of these volumes to an extent uncalled for by their 
 professed objects, viz “ The dress and habits of the people of England.” — Ed.] 
 
 2 The original figure whence these two are taken is bronze ; and it is preserved in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 ® An ample description of this valuable relique of antiquity, accompanied by engravings upon a large 
 scale by Laurentius Pignorius, was published at Amsterdam, 1669. A full explanation of the same, 
 illustrated also by engravings, is given in the second part of the second volume of L' AntiquM Expliquee, 
 par Bernard de Montfaucon. 
 
XVI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 though partially obscured, indeed, by the exterior clothing, may be seen upon the 
 second and fourth figures of the first plate. In the second figure we also meet with 
 an appendage to the garment just described, which is joined to it at the girdle, and, 
 rising thence, encloses the body as high as the bottom of the breasts, and ends a 
 little above the crossing of the straps or bandages mentioned above. 
 
 It is generally supposed, that this habit belonged to the priests of Egypt ; and a 
 figure, exactly so clothed, is represented, in the Table of Isis, standing at an altar 
 before the statue of that goddess, and sacrificing an animal like a goat, which cer- 
 tainly strengthens this opinion ; hut it does not, however, seem to have belonged to 
 the priesthood exclusively ; for, upon the same monument, we meet with two figures 
 habited in the like kind of garment ; one of which bears the appearance of a mili- 
 tarv character, and holds a barbed spear in his hand ; the other is fighting with a 
 spear against an animal resembling the rhinoceros. 
 
 The name of this part of the Egyptian habit is totally unknown : we may, how- 
 ever, certainly conclude, that it was not the calasiris mentioned by Herodotus ; for, 
 the calasiris is expressly said to have covered the legs, and of course must have 
 been considerably longer. The garment, represented upon the first and fifth figures 
 of the second plate, corresponds much better with the historian’s description of the 
 calasiris : in both instances, it is girded with a girdle about the loins ; nor is it by 
 any means unlike the woman’s petticoat of the present day, saving only, that it 
 appears to fold one part over another, and was rather wrapped round the body than 
 put over the head : the bottom of the garment, appropriated to the first figure, is 
 ornamented with a variegated welt, or border, agreeable to the express words of 
 Herodotus.' To this garment is attached a single strap, or bandage, which passes 
 over the left shoulder, and in the fifth figure resembles a scarf or sash. A garment 
 of the same kind, but more perfect, and with short sleeves, is represented upon the 
 sixth figure of the first plate, which is also girt about the loins with a girdle, but 
 without the appearance of a welt or fringe at the bottom." 
 
 * See page xi, and note 5, of the same page. 
 
 ' I wish to observe in this place once for all, that the figures 1,2, 3, 4, and 6, plate I, and figures 
 1, 2, and 3, plate II, are taken from two large painted coffins, which contained two mummies ; and are 
 preserved in the British Museum : the figures 4 and 5, plate II, from the lid of another coffin ; the figure 
 5, plate I, and the pectoral, plate III, from the mummies themselves ; figures 1 and 3, plate IV. and 1 
 and 2, plate III, are from bronzes ; figures 2, 4, 5, and 6, plate IV, from figures manufactured with a 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XVll 
 
 A kind of cloak appears upon the fourth figure of the fourth plate, which is much 
 decayed and imperfect : on the back part of it is seen a perpendicular stripe, orna- 
 mented with hieroglyphic characters, which arc nearly obliterated. The first and 
 second figimes of the third plate, representing the front and hack views of the same 
 bronze, exhibit a di'ess much more perfect and much more splendid than any of the 
 preceding. The tunic, which is open in the front to the girdle, descends to the 
 ancles ; the sleeves reach to the wTists, where they tenninate with oniaments ; and, 
 indeed, the whole of the garment is adorned with the appearance of rich embroiderv : 
 the part like a stripe, or gusset, which descends the whole length of the back, is ele- 
 vated in the original, and appears evidently to be connected with the hair, or head 
 covering, upon the right side of the head ; but, whether it was hair curiously plaited 
 hanging to the heels, or, whether it was part of the garment, (for, the ornaments of 
 both resemble each other) I shall not presume to deteraiine. 
 
 The habit of the fifth figure of the first plate occurs more than once in painting 
 / upon the body of a mummy ; but I o\m I am at a loss to account for the appearance 
 of the full form of the figure so powerfully expressed, and the extension of a lighter- 
 colom'ed garment in the fi’ont, unless the inner clothing was of a dark colour, and 
 fitted exactly to the body, and the external ch’ess a thin kind of gauze, through which 
 the under-habit might he discovered. 
 
 There was no part of the Egyptian dress more universally prevalent than the 
 pectoral : it appears to have been worn by all ranks and orders of people ; and it was 
 common also to the women as well as to the men. The pectorals, worn by the 
 Eg\'ptian monarchs, by the courtiers, and by the superior order of the priests, were, 
 without doubt, exceedingly magnificent. A linen pectoral, adorned with figures of 
 animals woven in the work, and enriched with gold and variety of colours, was pre- 
 sented by Amasis, king of Eg}"pt, to the Lacedaemonians ; and the chain, which, 
 according to Herodotus, was a necessary appendage, though extremely slender and 
 delicate, consisted of no less than three hundred distinct threads.^ The forai of the 
 Egyptian pectoral appears upon a multiplicity of different figures : it was semicircular, 
 
 kind of earthenware : all which are at the British Museum. The figure 3, plate III, is taken from a 
 beautiful and well-preserved figure of Osiris, in the possession of Benjamin West, Esq. ; by whose per- 
 mission it has obtained a place in this work. 
 
 ^ Herodotus in Thaha, xlvii. See also page iv. 
 
 D 
 
xvm 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and constantly adorned with rows of oniaments one above another, in which not only 
 the ornaments themselves, but the colours also, were often much varied. The 
 vector ah appropriated to the female figures are frequently smaller in proportion than 
 those belonging to the men ; but this is by no means always the case. The first, 
 second, third, and fourth figures of the first plate, the second and fourth figures of 
 the second plate, and the fourth figure of the third plate, are all invested with the 
 pectoral ; and that belonging to the last is not only the most perfect, but apparently 
 the most elegant : it consists of seven rows of ornamental work, whereas the others 
 have not more than three, four, or five, at the most : there seems to have been no 
 regular number assigned to these arrangements : some pectorals have ten, some 
 twelve ; and the splendid specimen, which was taken from the breast of a mummy, 
 and copied upon the third plate, has no less than fourteen : the chain, by which it 
 was attached to the breast, is not to be found ; hut probably it was connected with 
 the two circular parts that appear on each side, and which were fastened upon the 
 shoulders. The representation, here given, is nearly half the size of the original : 
 the ornaments are finished with a prodigious degree of exactness, and the colours are 
 placed in a regular succession : the light parts of the appendages at the top are gilt ; 
 the darker parts are blue striped upon a black ground : the narrow borders, by which 
 they are united to the pectoral, are red, blue, black, and white, alternately. The 
 first row of the ornamental part is light blue ; the second yellow, green, and white ; 
 the third bright red and black ; and the fourth is the same as the second ; the fifth, 
 sixth, seventh, and eighth, correspond exactly with the four first, and are repeated 
 in the four succeeding rows ; the thirteenth is like the first ; and the ground of the 
 fourteenth is black, with red, blue, and green stripes, alternately succeeding each 
 other.' 
 
 Herodotus assures us, that, in his time, the women of Egypt wore but one gar- 
 ment, which, according to the representation of it given by the artists of that country, 
 did not differ very widely from the calasiris above described, excepting that it was 
 girded much higher upon the body, and does not seem to have been open at the sides. 
 The first and fourth figures, upon the first plate, may serve as specimens of this 
 
 1 There is an astonishing similarity, not only in the form, but also in the arrangement of the orna- 
 ments between the Egyptian thorax, or pectoral, and the war gorget, used by the inhabitants of the South 
 Sea Islands. It is, therefore, with great propriety, that both of them are placed in one point of view at 
 the British Museum, so that the conformity appears the more striking. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XIX 
 
 garment ; but one of a much richer appearance constitutes the habit of the second 
 figure upon the second plate, which is the representation of the goddess Isis the 
 first figure, upon the first plate, has only one bandage from the shoulder attached to 
 the tunic, if the dress she wears may properly be called by that name ; and, indeed, 
 it appears to be a part of it : in both the other instances there are two bandages, one 
 descending from each shoulder, and both of them appear to be attached to the girdle 
 of the tunic : this dress, with all its appendages, was insufficient to cover the upper 
 parts of the body, and left the arms entirely naked. The goddess Isis, as we find 
 her represented by the fifth figure of the fourth plate, is clad in a garment like those 
 described above, but without the bandages from the shoulders, or any other appen- 
 dages. The habits of the second and third figures upon the first plate, of the first 
 and fourth figures upon the second plate, and of the first and third figures upon the 
 fourth plate, are appropriated, by the generality of modern authors, to the priests ; 
 and this opinion is justified by the frequent appearance of such figures officiating at 
 the altars of the deities, or employed in other acts of devotion towards them ; though, 
 as I observed above, the same kind of habits, or others greatly resembling them, are 
 sometimes attributed to such persons as seem to have no claim to the sacerdotal 
 office. The instruments that the Egyptian figures usually hold in their hands can- 
 not be well accounted for ; the long curved staff, with the small fork at the bottom, 
 may be intended to represent the sceptre “ like a plough-share” which, according to 
 Diodorus Siculus, was borne by the priests as well as by the kings of Egypt.“ 
 
 The deity Osiris, represented by the third figure upon the third plate, is habited 
 in a manner differing from any of the preceding examples ; for, the greater part of 
 his body, both his arms to the wrists, and his legs, are covered with a robe, that 
 reaches to his feet ; his pectoral is large and radiated ; and the mitre upon his head 
 bears great analogy to the high-crowned eap with a knob^ or boss,^ upon the top of it, 
 which the author last mentioned assures us was worn by the priests of Egypt and of 
 Ethiopia. He also adds, that it was wreathed about with a serpent called the asp. 
 In the present instance, the asp, or an animal of the serpent kind, appears upon the 
 front of the mitre, with the head elevated from the verge.^ The scourge, which is 
 
 1 The variegated stole of Isis, agreeable to the present representation of that goddess, is spoken of by 
 Plutarch and other authors. 
 
 2 Diodorus Siculus, lib. hi. cap i. ^OgcpaXov. Ibid. 
 
 * Ibid. [A high cap, with a knob or boss on the top of it, was the crown of Upper Egypt ; when 
 
XX 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 held by this figure in his right hand, and the crooked sceptre in the left, were sym- 
 bolical of some peculiar attributes belonging to the deity ; but the learned are by no 
 means agreed in the application of them. In the representation of Osiris, especially 
 when he appears with the long robe, it is thought we may find the full dress of the 
 high priest of the Egyptians ; and this opinion will, I trust, receive additional 
 strength, when it is proved that many parts of the splendid habit which was made 
 for Aaron originated from the dress of this deity. ^ 
 
 It would be an herculean labour to describe all the variations to be met with in 
 the head-dresses of the Egyptians ; almost every ancient relic either of painting or 
 of sculpture belonging to this extraordinary people, in which the representation of 
 their habits is to be found, will rarely fail to exhibit some material difference in the 
 coverings for the head, and especially in the appendages connected with them ; they 
 varied, I presume, according to the rank or opulence of the wearers in some in- 
 stances ; but in others, where different monuments are referred to, and those pro- 
 bably executed at different periods of time, the variations may be owing simply to 
 the changes of the fashions, which, with them as well as with us, depended greatly 
 upon the arbitrary caprices of fancy. 
 
 Herodotus assures us that the Egyptians constantly shaved their heads, except 
 in the times of mourning ; the head coverings of course that we meet with in the 
 examples accompanying this part of the work, and which are oftener black than any 
 other colour, cannot be intended to represent the hair naturally belonging to the 
 wearer ; but, in those instances where the resemblance of hair will justify the sup- 
 position, a kind of peruke,” especially when the hair appears to be long, as we find 
 
 the crown of Lower Egypt was joined with this, the united crowns were called the Pshent. In the repre- 
 sentation of the Coronation of Reraeses at Medeenet Haboo, that Prince is announced to have “ put on 
 the crown of the Upper and Lower Country ” — Vide Wilkinson s Customs and Manners, Vol III. p. 352 
 and 354. — Ed ] 
 
 ’ The original of this curious little figure, which is nearly of the same size as the copy, was found 
 with four others ( two of them representing the same deity, and the other two the goddess Isis with the 
 infant Orus, or Horus, upon her lap) near St. Albans, in Hertfordshire, within the site of ancient Verulam, 
 a city of the Romans. They were purchased by Benjamin West, Esq. historical painter to His Majesty; 
 in whose possession they now remain. The present figure is much more perfect than any of the other four. 
 
 - It was customary with other nations to wear false hair, especially with the Medes, as we shall see 
 hereafter. [No doubt need exist now upon this subject, as Egyptian wigs are to be seen in the British 
 and Berlin Museums ; and liead coverings were also made in woollen or other stuffs under the deno- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXI 
 
 it upon the fifth figure of the fourth plate ; or ornamented with curls, as it is exhi- 
 bited upon the fourth and sixth figures of the same plate ; or braided as it is exem- 
 plified upon the first and second figures of the third plate. 
 
 In the table of Isis, spoken of in the preceding part of this chapter, there are 
 several head-coverings, differing greatly from any of those that are here given ; some 
 of them resemble the flat helmets of the twelfth century ; others again are ele- 
 vated with a curve towards the hinder part of the head ; and to all of them are 
 added large appendages of feathers, or flowers, or leaves, of various kinds, with other 
 oniaments of almost every species ; the head of the goddess Isis, exclusive of the 
 horned crescent usually given to her, is decorated with the representation of a bird, 
 whose head extends beyond her forehead, and its wings are depressed on either side 
 below her ears. 
 
 The figure of Osiris is rarely represented without a mitre upon his head ; and it 
 is equally as rare to meet with two of those mitres exactly resembling each other, 
 the general form of the mitre appears upon the third figure of the third plate ; but 
 the two appendages at the bottom, which in this instance bear some slight analogy 
 to two ears, in other examples are lengthened, and resemble two horns ; and the 
 radiated part, extending on either side from the cone, in others is sometimes en- 
 closed by an ornamental border. The second figure of the fourth plate is altogether 
 habited in a singular manner ; and the covering of his head resembles the common 
 night-cap of the present day. 
 
 The second, third, and fifth figures of the first plate, the third figure of the 
 second plate, and the second figure of the fourth plate, are represented with beards, 
 which in all these instances, the last excepted, are affixed to the bottom of the chin 
 only, and lessens gradually to a point, which is turned up with a curve ; the beard of 
 Osiris is also braided in a very curious and singular manner. The beards, as 
 well as the coverings for the head above-mentioned, appear to have been made 
 of false hair, and removed when the face was shaved ; innumerable examples might, 
 indeed, be produced in which the men are represented without beards ; but those 
 I trust will be deemed sufficient that have already been produced.' 
 
 mination of “false wigs,” for those who could not afford the more expensive quahty of real hair. — Vide 
 Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs, Vol. III.p 356. — Ed.] 
 
 1 See Fig. 5, PI i ; Figs. 1, 4, and 5, PI. ii.; Fig. 1, PI. iii.; and Figs. 1 and 4, PI. iv. 
 
XXll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The bodies of the dead, according to the testimony of the ancient historians, 
 were not buried in woollen clothes, but were swathed about with bandages of linen ; 
 and the truth of this assertion is abundantly proved by the examination of the mum- 
 mies, many of which are remaining to the present day ; the manner in which the 
 swathing was originally performed is depicted by an ancient Egyptian artist, and 
 may be seen upon the second plate belonging to the Introduction.^ 
 
 It is impossible to ascertain the sera in which the ornamental appendages to dress 
 were first introduced among mankind ; it is highly probable that they were in use 
 anterior to the deluge ; for they are spoken of by Moses as existing after that event, 
 and without the least indication of the novelty of their intervention. Rings, brace- 
 lets, and chains of gold, formed the decorative part of the Egyptian habits at a very 
 early period. Pharaoh is expressly said to have taken the ring from his hand,^ and 
 to have put it upon the hand of the patriarch Joseph, and a chain,^ also of gold upon 
 his neck, as tokens of high honour. The Egyptians not only wore bracelets upon 
 their arms, hut also upon their legs, as we may see exemplified by several of the 
 figures that accompany this work. The Israelitish women, not long after their de- 
 parture from Goshen, are said to have been possessed of various jewels ; and among 
 them ear-rings are particularly specified these, indeed, might he a part of the 
 valuable ornaments borrowed from the women of Egypt. Josephus speaks of Pha- 
 raoh’s diadem,^ which seems to have been nothing more than a circle or fillet of 
 gold.® 
 
 The manners and habits of the eastern Ethiopians were greatly analogous to 
 
 1 See the third figure, which is faithfully copied from a painting upon the coffin of one of 
 the mummies, preserved at the British Museum. 
 
 2 IT b'S'o in2?3i3-ns 
 
 ® Sntn ”T3“l The word *121 may also signify a wreathen bracelet for the neck. Genesis, 
 chap. xli. ver. 42. 
 
 Exodus, chap. iii. ver. 22. [There is no mention of ear-rings in the verse here quoted : the words 
 are “Jewels of silver and jewels of gold and raiment.” It is in the xxxii. chap, of Exodus, and the 2nd 
 verse, that golden ear-rings are distinctly mentioned as being worn not only by the women but by the 
 men, “ Of your wives, of your sons, and of your daughters.” — Ed.] 
 
 5 Antiquities of the Jews, Book II. chap. v. 
 
 ^ [This is not so certain, as the diadem as well as the mitre of the ancient kings and priests, men- 
 tioned in holy writ, was a turban of fine linen, with an encircling or front ornament of gold or precious 
 stones. Justin tells us that Alexander the Great took his diadem from his head to bind up the wounds 
 of Lysimachus. — Ed.] 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXlll 
 
 those of the Egyptians ; but the western parts of Ethiopia were inhabited by a 
 people much less cultivated : some of them, according to Diodorus Siculus, never 
 wore any clothing, while others cut off the tails from their sheep and bound them 
 about their loins for modesty-sake ; and others again substituted the skins of beasts 
 for the same purpose ; but the more civilized part of them clothed themselves with 
 drawers, manufactured from the hair of their heads, ^ which material they used from 
 necessity, because, adds the historian, the nature of the ground is such, that the 
 sheep caiTy no fleeces j and, by way of ornament, some of them wore a ring of brass 
 pendent from their lips. Their shields were often made of the raw hides of oxen ; 
 but, respecting the war accoutrements of the Ethiopians, Herodotus is more explicit 
 where he speaks of the different nations that assisted Xerxes in his expedition into 
 Greece. Such of them, says he, as inhabited the parts of the country above Egypt, 
 were clothed with the skms of lions and of leopards. They had bows four cubits long, 
 with arrows proportionate to the size of the bow, pointed with sharp stones instead 
 of iron ; and the heads of their javelins were made of goat’s horns sharpened. 
 They had also truncheons armed with iron ; and, previous to their engagement in 
 battle, they daubed one half of their bodies over with a kind of white plaster,*^ and 
 painted the other half with vermilion.^ The women of this country also bore arms, 
 until they arrived at a certain age. 
 
 The dress of the Asiatic Ethiopians bore some resemblance to that of the 
 Indians, who are said to have used a species of defensive armour made of wood 
 but, in place of an helmet, they substituted the skin of a horse’s head, stripped 
 from the carcass together with the ears and the mane, and so contrived, that the 
 mane served for the crest, and the ears appeared erected upon the head of the 
 wearer ; their shields also, unlike those in common use, were composed with the 
 skins of cranes.^ 
 
 The Arabians, who accompanied Xerxes, wore a girdle over a surcoat, called 
 
 * ^Iti subligaculis (Trtpu^o/iao-i) tegunt dunes e capillitio contextis. Diodorus Siculus, lib. III. cap. i. 
 
 - Fvvpw. Herodotus in Polymnia, Ixix. 3 MtX™. Ibid. 
 
 * The words of the historian are, eigara utto Trnroirifitya. Ibid. [Beloe translates the passage 
 thus : “ The dress of the Indians was cotton.” — Ed.] 
 
 3 Aopae ytpavwv. Herodotus in Polymnia, Lxx. The same author informs us, that the Oriental 
 Ethiopians had long straight hair, but the hair of Ethiopians, inhabiting the borders of Libya, were more 
 curled than that of any other people. 
 
XXIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 zeira but the historian has not described the form of this garment, nor the ma- 
 terials with which it was composed. 
 
 From the Libyans, who inhabited to the westward of the lake Tritonis, says 
 Herodotus, the Grecians received the apparel and agis of Minerva, as represented 
 upon her images, excepting only that in Libya her habit is made of skins, and the 
 fringes below the aegis are thongs of leather, and not serpents : in all other respects 
 the resemblance is perfect ; and even the name testifies that the stole of the Palla- 
 dion^ came from Libya, for the Libyan women wear a mantle of tanned goat’s skin, 
 dyed red, and fringed, over the rest of their garments : from these skins the Gre- 
 cians gave the name of agis to the pectoral of Minerva.^ The Libyans also who 
 assisted Xerxes, were clothed in tunics of leather, and carried round-pointed lances 
 hardened at one end by fire.‘‘ 
 
 The Libyan Auses, a people who anciently inhabited the west side of the river 
 Triton, wore their hair long on the right side of their heads, but shaved the left : 
 they also painted their bodies with vermilion.® 
 
 The Adrymachides, a people inhabiting near Egypt, adopted the Libyan habit, 
 and the women wore a bracelet of brass upon each leg.® 
 
 The country, continues the historian, that lies above the Nasamones, is inha- 
 bited by the Garamantes, and westward of these in the maritime places, the people 
 shave their heads quite round, leaving only a lock of hair in the middle of the 
 crown ; and, when they make war, they wear the skins of ostriches instead of 
 armour.^ 
 
 It is certain, that the Egyptians not only accustomed themselves to frequent 
 ablutions, but also that they anointed their bodies with unguents of difierent kinds.® 
 The Ethiopians, and the inhabitants of the western parts of Libya painted their 
 bodies ; but it does not appear that the Egyptians anciently adopted that custom. 
 
 ’ Zeipag. Ibid. Ixix. 
 
 2 SroXjj Twv IlaXXa^twv. Ibid, in Melpomene, clxxxix. 
 
 ^ Tiov atyeuty tovteojv aiyiBag oi EXXr/j'tf fieriopofjaffay. Ibid. 
 
 * Ibid, in Polymnia, Ixxi. 5 Ibid, in Melpomene, cxci. 
 
 ® ’PiXXiov )(aX(C£ov. Ibid, clxviii. 
 
 ^ hrpovdujy Karayaiwy Sopag <popeovin Trpo(iXT]fiaTa. Herodotus in Melpomene, clxxv. 
 
 ® An alabaster box of rich ointment [perfumes] was considered as a present fit for the reception of 
 a monarch. Ibid, in Thalia, xx. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE THILISTINES, AND OTHER NEIGHBOURING NATIONS. 
 
 The children of Israel, at the time of their departure from Goshen, appear to 
 have been well instructed in all the arts and sciences cultivated in Egypt, especially 
 such of them as related to their comfort or their convenience ; we have, indeed, 
 divine authority to prove that their conductor was “ learned in all the wisdom of the 
 Egwptians but I shall confine my observations to such matters as relate to dress 
 only. 
 
 A loose linen garment, of the shift or shirt kind, was anciently in use among 
 the inhabitants of Palestine ; and it seems to have been common to both sexes. 
 This garment is called a sheet in one part of our Bible ; but the general interpre- 
 tation of the original word® is fine linen and, from the manner in which it is 
 coupled with the changes of raiment in the Book of Judges, it may be applied, with 
 much greater propriety, to the shirt, or some such interior garment, than to any 
 external part of the clothing P and it is well known that shirts of linen, cotton, or 
 gauze, are still worn by the Turks and Moors, and by persons of condition among 
 the wandering Arabs in Arabia Felix.® 
 
 The tunic,® which was girt about the loins with a girdle, formed a very material 
 part of the Jewish habit. This garment is called chethomene^ by Josephus, and 
 described by him as a tunic with straight sleeves closely encompassing the body, 
 and reaching to the ancles. The tunic formed part of the sacerdotal habit. It 
 was then made of fine linen f and it is probable that the tunics, belonging to 
 
 1 Acts, chap, vii, ver. 22 - Judges, chap, xiv, ver. 12-13 ; et alibi. 
 
 ^ The LXX render the -words by oLvlovaQ and odoyia ; and the Vulgate throughout by sindonem and 
 sindonas. 
 
 * This opinion is greatly strengthened by the 19th verse of the same chapter, where it is e.xpressly 
 said, that, after Sampson had slain thirty of the Philistines, and taken their apparel, he was enabled to 
 perform his promise ; the shirts being, I presume, upon the backs of those that he had slain. 
 
 ® Shaw’s Travels, 228, &c. 6 DDriD. ^ Ant. Jud. lib. III. chap. /. 
 
 ® Ai7rX>;e ffivdovog fivvaiyT)^ according to Josephus. Ibid. 
 
 VOL. I, E 
 
XXVI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 persons of rank and opulence, were also made of linen ; and the robe or mantle of 
 some other valuable material, and died of a purple colour ; for, purple and fine 
 linen are said to have formed the luxurious habits of the wealthy with other 
 Asiatic nations, purple was confined to the monarchical habits, or to the habits of 
 the royal family, and to the superior officers of the court, to whom the permission to 
 wear it was granted as a high honour ; and even the Jews themselves, at times, 
 were restricted in this particular. 
 
 We may easily conceive that tunics of linen, or even of woollen of the finest 
 kind, could not be purchased by the inferior classes of the people. The price, 
 without doubt, depended upon the excellency of the materials with which they were 
 manufactured, and the labour bestowed upon them ; both of which were suited to 
 the rank and opulence of the wearer. Certain it is, however, that a mixture of 
 woollen and linen in the same garments was strictly forbidden,^ though garments of 
 both kinds unmixed were worn ; and the winter tunics of the wealthy were probably 
 made of fine wool. 
 
 The Israelites were strictly commanded to make fringes^ upon the borders of 
 their garments, and put upon the fringes of the borders a lace, or ribband of blue ;* 
 and, as this commandment appears to have been given without any peculiar excep- 
 tion, the tunic of course was decorated accordingly. The tunic that Jacob caused 
 to be made for his son Joseph, as a distinguishing mark of his love to him above his 
 brethren, is said to have been of many colours f and, in the later times, a tunic of 
 the same description was appropriated to the virgin daughters of the kings of 
 Israel.® 
 
 1 Luke, chap. xvi. ver. 19. 
 
 - Leviticus, chap. xix. ver. 19 ; Deut. chap. xxii. ver. 11. [The reason given by Josephus in which 
 he is supported by the Mishnah is, that dresses of this description were peculiar to the Priesthood, and 
 were on that ground forbidden to tlie people. — Ed.] 
 
 ^ Numbers, chap. xv. ver. 38. * nbmh'PlS Ibid. 
 
 5 C'DQn^nS literally a coat of pieces that is made of pieces, stripes, or threads, of various colours. 
 Genesis, chap, xxxvii. ver. 3. [The Editor cf the Pictorial Bible observes upon this text that the most 
 remarkable illustration of it is that “ given by Mr. Roberts, who states that in India it is customary to 
 invest a beautiful or favourite child with ‘ a coat of many colours,’ consisting of crimson, purple, and 
 other colours, which are often tastefully sewed together ; and adds, that a child being clothed in a 
 garment of many colours, it is believed that neither tongues nor evil spirits will injure him because the 
 attention is taken from the beauty of the person to that of the garment.” — Ed.] 
 
 2 Samuel, chap. .xiii. ver. 18. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXVIl 
 
 The length of the tunic reaching to the ancles, and the straightness of the 
 sleeves, are great objections to the idea of its being a garment universally adopted 
 by the Jews, at least in that state ; for to those persons, whose occupations required 
 much exertion, it would have been exceedingly inconvenient ; it is more reasonable 
 to suppose, that a much shorter tunic, with looser sleeves, which would permit free 
 exercise of the limbs, was worn by the common labourer, servants, and slaves. 
 
 In the Asiatic countries, where the garments were long, loose, and flowing, the 
 girdle became a necessary appendage to the dress, especially to those who were 
 walking, running, or engaged in any exercises that required agility. The girdle 
 w^as bound about the loins, as may be proved by variety of instances ; but the tunics 
 of the priests were girt about the breasts, or immediately under the paps, I presume 
 for distinction’s sake.^ Upon entering a house, it was usual for a man to loose his 
 girdle, and take it fi'om his loins ; but it was also constantly replaced when he was 
 about to depart ; for which reason, in the Scripture phraseology, “to be in 
 readiness” is metaphorically expressed by “ the loins being girded” 
 
 Golden girdles, girdles of fine linen, and also of fine twined linen, which were 
 worn by the priests, are spoken of in the Scripture." The prophets, by way of 
 humility, wore girdles of leather and the same, I doubt not, were used by the 
 inferior classes of the people. Some of the girdles, worn by the Hebrews, were of 
 great value, as we may judge from the richness of the materials with which they 
 were composed, as well as from the excellence of the workmanship ; we read of their 
 being curiously wrought with the needle, and embellished with gold. Joab said to 
 the man, who informed him that Absalom was suspended by the hair, “ Why didst 
 thou not smite him there to the ground ? and I would have given thee ten shekels 
 of silver and a girdle and it is to be observed, that embroidered girdles are still 
 considered as an essential part of finery by the Asiatics of both sexes. 
 
 The super-tunic, or robe, was worn over the tunic ; and, according to the 
 description given of this part of the Jewish habit by Josephus,5 it was not composed 
 
 1 Joseplius, Antiq. Jud. lib. III. cap. vii. See also the Revelations, chap. i. ver. 13. 
 
 - Antiq. Jud. lib. III. cap. 7. See also Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 29 ; Jeremiah, chap. xiii. ver. 1. 
 
 2 Kings, chap. i. ver. 8. 
 
 * 2 Samuel, chap, xviii. ver 1 1. There are several names in the Hebrew for this part of the habit : 
 I shall mention only four, and rendered by the LXX i^wvri ; “IVJS from its encompassing the 
 
 body ; and from the verb “I2n to gird. 
 
 ^ Antiq. Jud. lib. III. cap. vii. 
 
XXVlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of separate pieces, but was one long garment woven throughout without seams, with 
 an aperture at the neck lengthways from the midst of the back to the breast ; and 
 the selvages were hound with a ribband to give a handsome appearance to the open- 
 ing it was also parted at the sides through which the arms were extended, and to 
 these apertures I presume the sleeves, if any belonged to it, were attached. In the 
 passage referred to, Josephus is particularizing, it is true, the several parts of dress 
 belonging to the priests ; but the super-tunic is frequently spoken of in the Bible, 
 and indiscriminately attributed to persons who had no claim whatever to the priest- 
 hood and, indeed, the robe of Aaron was sufficiently distinguished, not only by its 
 richness and beauty, but also by the bells and pomegranates which hung from the 
 bottom of the hem.^ The same author assures us, that it reached to the ancles ; 
 but it was probably shorter than the inner tunic, that the fringes of the one might 
 not hide the fringes upon the other. This garment, I presume, in every instance 
 was rich and costly ; for, it is never applied to any persons but such as were of 
 superior rank.* 
 
 The cloak, or mantle, obtained an early place in the catalogue of the Jewish 
 habits : a garment of this kind is spoken of, immediately after the deluge, as a part 
 of dress well knoivn, and probably derived from times still more remote than that 
 event.^ This mantle'^ covered the whole of the body ; and, “ it seems,” according to 
 a modem author,^ “ to have been much the same kind of garment as the hrjhe, which 
 is still worn by the Kabyles and Arabs in Africa and the Levant. These hykes,” 
 says he, “ or blankets, as we should call them, are of different sizes, and of different 
 
 * Or rather “ that it should not he rent,” Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 23. 
 
 ~ or expresses an upper garment, hut not a mantle or cloak ; and it is used for the robe 
 
 which Job rent when he heard of the death of his sons. The garments also of his friends, which they 
 rent, are called hy the same name. Job, chap. i. ver. 20 ; and chap. ii. ver. 12. 
 
 Exodus, chap, xxviii. ver. 33. 
 
 * Josephus assures us, that Agrippa wore a splendid robe, woven entirely with silver, and of admi- 
 rable workmanship ; aroXrjv EvCvaafiivoQ apyvpov ttettodj/zev/jv, Traaav w£ ^avfxairiov vfrjr ftvai. Antiq. 
 Jud. lib. XIX. cap. viii. 
 
 5 Genesis, chap. ix. ver. 23. See also note (~) page ii. 
 
 ® ntibci? and nbiaty which appears to be another name for the same garment, or for one exceed- 
 ingly like it ; and these encompassed the body entirely, as we may judge from the root bQti7 to surround 
 on all sides, to involve, &c. whence the name is derived. 
 
 7 Dr. Shaw. See his Travels, pp. 224 and 22.^. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXIX 
 
 qualities and fineness ; the usual size of them is six yards long, and five or 
 six feet broad, serving the Kabyle or Arab for a complete dress in the day ; and 
 as he sleeps in his raiment, as the Israelites did of old,' it serves him likewise for 
 his bed and covering by night. The plaid of the Highlanders in Scotland is the 
 verv same.” 
 
 This mantle appears to have been universally used by every rank of persons 
 among the people of Israel ; and was, I doubt not, the garment with four edges 
 which they were positively enjoined to adorn with fringes, and with ribbands of a 
 blue colour upon the fringes." 
 
 There is another garment said to be of the cloak or mantle kind, frequently 
 mentioned in Holy Writ, which derives its name from a word expressive of magnifi- 
 cence and glory and, therefore, with reason is supposed to have been superior in 
 splendour to any other part of the ancient dress ; it is appropriated to persons of 
 high rank and authority ; and, if not composed entirely of skins, dressed with the 
 fur upon them, it was certainly ornamented with ermines and furs.^ The name of 
 this mantle is given to the hairy garment of Elijah and the prophets in general 
 were clothed with the same, but perhaps of an inferior quality. “ As the hign 
 priesthood and supreme civil authority, in the patriarchal times,” (says Parkhurst,) 
 “ centered in the same person, hence skins and furs, which were worn at first in a 
 religious view, came to be the insignia of civil authority.”® It was also this robe, or 
 mantle, that the King of Nineveh put from him when “ he covered himself with 
 sackcloth and ashes,” to deprecate the vengeance of the Almighty which is no 
 small argument in favour of its pompous appearance. The ancient mantle, described 
 in the preceding article, is thought to have resembled the hyke ; and the mantle, 
 which we are now speaking of, the burnoose, a garment more showy than the hyke, 
 and for that reason worn over it by the Moors in Barbary to this day : and, in 
 
 1 Deut. chap. xxiv. ver. 13. 
 
 2 Deut. chap. xxii. ver. 12 ; and Numbers, chap. xv. ver. 38. The word translated quarters 
 in our Bibles signifies properly the extremities, skirts or borders, of a garment, and not the quarters of it. 
 
 ® niTW from the verb “ITS to become magnificent, pompous, glorious, &c. 
 
 * And for this reason it is often called miS the hamj mantle. 
 
 5 1 Kings, chap. xix. ver. 13 and 19. ® Hebrew and English Lexicon, p. 5. 
 
 7 Jonah, chap. iii. ver. 6. 
 
XXX 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 favour of this opinion, it may easily be proved, from a passage in Micah, that this 
 mantle of skins was anciently used as a covering for the hyke, or common mantle.^ 
 Another kind of dress," which might be a mantle of a smaller kind than the 
 hyke, was used by the Jews ; and differed little, I presume, from the veil which 
 Moses put over his face when he came down from the mountain : its form, however, 
 is no where specified, nor the materials with which it was manufactured. 
 
 The ancient vestments of the kings of Israel bore great affinity to those belong- 
 ing to the high priest : excepting the bells and pomegranates upon the bottom of 
 the robe, and the sacred pectoral, with the inscription upon the crown, appropriated 
 to the latter, there does not appear to have been any material difference j and, if 
 we may judge of Solomon’s dress from the profusion of his wealth, and the pomp 
 with which he made his appearance in his court, we shall readily conceive that it 
 was not inferior in point of lustre and magnificence to the pontifical habit. 
 
 Exclusive of the splendour of his garments, the Jewish monarch was principally 
 distinguished by the crown that he wore upon his turban ; and also by the richness 
 and form of the turban itself ; and both of them owed their origin to the mitre, and 
 lamina of gold bound upon the mitre, which adorned the head of the high priest. 
 The name of the regal turban is the same that is given to the mitre of Aaron : and 
 derived from a word^ expressive of the circumvolutions of the linen by which it was 
 
 1 -ns nobtZ? bioxs You strip fAe ns or burnoose Me borders of Me pnbiy 
 
 or hyke. Micah chap. ii. ver. 8. If I might offer a conjecture of my own, I should, from the very 
 passage before me, conclude that the distinction made between these garments is perfectly needless : and 
 that the P”i~rS was, in this instance at least, an ornamental border of ermine to the “fibiy or mantle, 
 added either for the sake of warmth, or to render it more magnificent ; and the verb to strip, or Jlarj, 
 used upon this occasion, will apply more properly to the stripping or tearing the upper from the under 
 part of the same garment, than merely to taking one garment from another. The mantle, when orna- 
 mented with the fur covering, being called by the name given to the covering, is a phraseology common 
 in the Hebrew language : thus the girdle of the ephod is called the ephod, and the word ephod often in- 
 cludes the whole pontifical habit. [This seems to me a very forced explanation of the passage which in 
 the received translation runs simply thus, “ Ye pull off the robe vnth the garment from them that pass 
 by, &c.” That is, you rob them of all their clothes “as an enemy” does those that “were averse from 
 war.” The common form of depredation in the East, especially among the Bedouin Arabs, &c. - Ed.] 
 
 * nmo rendered by the LXX TreptftoXri, and by the Vulgate pallium, occurs, Gen. chap. xlix. ver. 1 1 ; 
 and niDQ which the LXX explain by the word naXvppa, and the Vulgate velamen. Exodus, chap, xxxiv. 
 verses 33, 34, 35. 
 
 from to turn, roll, or lorap round. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 formed. The use of the turhan was not confined to the king and the priests ; it 
 was also worn by persons of rank of both sexes ; but, without doubt, it differed in 
 the fashion, size, and materials, according to the rank of the wearer. Thus we 
 find, that “the Moors and Turks in Barbary, with some of the principal Arabs, 
 wear upon the head a small hemispherical cap of scarlet cloth ; and the turhant, as 
 they call a long narrow web of linen, silk, or muslin, is folded round the bottom of 
 these caps, and very properly distinguishes, by the number and fashion of the folds, 
 the several orders and degrees of soldiers, and sometimes of citizens, one from 
 another.”^ The turban, indeed, continues to be the usual head-dress of the 
 Turks, Persians, Arabs, and other eastern nations, to the present day. 
 
 The regal crown, and the crown, or lamina of gold, affixed to the pontifical mitre, 
 are both of them expressed in the Hebrew by the same word,^ which signifies to 
 separate or set apart, as the pontiff and the sovereign were separated from the rest 
 of mankind, and appointed to their respective high and authoritative offices ; from 
 the name it appears that the crown was the sign of that separation, and the mark of 
 distinguished dignity to both ; for which reason we may easily conceive that it 
 differed in its form from the crowns, or diadems, used by the monarchs of the Gen- 
 tiles ; and from those permitted to be w'orn by the princes and persons of high rank 
 among the Jews. 
 
 The form of the regal crown is no where ascertained ; but the name of the por- 
 tion of gold, belonging to the pontifical mitre, may possibly throw some light upon 
 this obscure subject. It is called a flower of gold in one place ; and in another 
 the flower of the holy crown f and in both passages signifies the crown itself. The 
 appellation of the flower is supposed to have been given to it, because it is made in a 
 flower-like, or radiated form ; and we may reasonably enough conclude, that the 
 regal and pontifical crowns bore some resemblance to each other, when w'e are 
 assured, that they were symKolical, in both instances, of the same thing. It appears 
 from several parts of Scripture, that the kings in ancient times, did not appear 
 
 1 Dr. Shaw’s Travels, p. 226. 
 
 ^ [nezer] and from this root the word Nazarite is also derived. 
 
 * 2(11 Exodus, chap, xxviii. ver. 36 ; and m71pn 1T3 chap, xxxix. ver. 30 : the 
 
 word in both places certainly means a flower ; and by no means & plate, as it is usually rendered. 
 [It is rendered petal in the Septuagint, thereby supporting the idea that the ornament was of the form 
 of a flower. — Ed.] 
 
XXXll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 without their crown, unless upon such occasions as they chose to disguise them- 
 selves ; and even that they wore them in the field of battle.' 
 
 The diadem, circle, or fillet of gold," was an ornament also worn upon the turban 
 bv princes, and other personages of high rank.^ The diadem was sometimes 
 bestowed, as a mark of especial favour, by the eastern monarchs, upon such persons 
 as they chose to honour in a very high degree. Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, 
 caused Mordecai to be clothed in royal apparel ; and a large diadem of gold^ was 
 placed upon his head. The diadem, or crown, as it is called in the English version, 
 taken fi'om the king of Rabbah, weighed a talent of gold ; and it was adorned with 
 precious stones.^ The same kind of diadem was also worn by the Jewish bride- 
 gi'oom at his marriage. This custom is of high antiquity, as we may learn from 
 the following passage in the Canticles : “ Go forth, O ye daughters of Zion, and 
 behold king Solomon with the diadem, wherewith his mother crowned him in the 
 day of his espousals,”® The ancient ceremony of crowning the contracting parties is 
 still observed in the Greek church. “ This second ceremony,” says a modern au- 
 thor, “ which is properly the mc.rriage, is called the ofiice of matrimonial coronation, 
 from a singular circumstance attending it, that of crowning the parties. Formerly 
 these crowns were garlands made of flowers or shrubs ; but now there are generally 
 in all the churches crowns of silver kept for that purpose.”' So in the marriages of 
 the Maronites in Syria ; “ a short service being performed, the bishop puts a crown 
 first on the bridegroom’s head ; after which the bride, the bride’s man, and the 
 bride’s maid, are crowned in the same manner.”® 
 
 It was customary with rakes and debauchees, at the time of their carousals, to 
 
 1 2 Samuel, chap. i. ver. 10. 
 
 ^ "Uaj? from the same root, signifying to encompass, or surround. 
 
 * Remove the turban, and take off n"R23?n the crown from the head of “ the wicked 
 
 prince of Israel." Ezekiel, chap. xxi. ver. 2.5, 26. See also Job, chap. xix. ver. 9. It appears from 
 Josephus, that the diadem and the crown were both worn at one time; the corpse of Herod (says he) 
 was apparelled in purple raiment, having a diadem upon his head, and above that a crown of gold: 
 Atacrigari , vwepiceifiErov aTt(pavov -^pvaeov. Antiq. Jud. lib. VII. cap. 9. [See also note 6, p. xxii. 
 ante. — Ed] 
 
 * nni mrsy Esther, chap. viii. ver. 15. 
 
 * 2 Samuel, chap. xii. ver. 30 ; and I Chron. chap. xx. ver. 2, 
 
 ® Solomon’s Song, chap. iii. ver, 11. 
 
 ^ Dr, King’s Rites, &c. of the Greek Church in Russia. 
 
 8 Dr. Russell’s Nat. Hist, of Aleppo, p. 127. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xxxiii 
 
 crown themselves with the buds of roses and with flowers, as we may judge from 
 the words that Solomon has put into the mouth of a drunkard ; “ Let us fill our- 
 selves,” says he, “ with costly wines and ornaments, and let no flower of the spring 
 pass by us ; let us crowm ourselves with rose-buds before that they be withered.”* 
 
 The tiara, or bonnet, called, in our translation of the Bible, the head-tire, was 
 worn by the Jews of both sexes the Hebrew name is expressive of decoration and 
 beauty,^ and applied to this part of the head-dress by way of eminence ; because it 
 was an ornament held in the highest estimation by them, as it is by the modem 
 Orientals to this day.'* The bonnets of the priests were made of linen ; and in their 
 form are thought to have resembled a truncated tone, and thereby distinguished from 
 those appropriated to the laity ; but both of them are expressly said to have been 
 bound upon the head.^ 
 
 Phylacteries, or frontlets,® formed part of the Jewish head-dress ; they consisted 
 of scrolls of parchment, and were inscribed with portions of the law, which they 
 were strictly enjoined to wear upon their hands also, as well as upon their foreheads ; 
 “ and thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be as front- 
 lets between thine eyes.”^ A modern author, speaking of the head-dress of the 
 Arabs in Yemen, and particularly of the external cap, which was often richly em- 
 broidered with gold, assures us, that all of them, that he had seen, had these words : 
 There is no God hut God ; Mohammed is the apostle of God : or some other sen- 
 tence from the Koran and this custom seems clearly to have been derived by the 
 Mohammedan Arabians from the frontlets of the Jews. 
 
 Contrary to the usage of the Egyptians, who constantly shaved their heads, the 
 Israelites permitted the growth of their hair ; and when they used the razor, it was 
 
 1 Wisdom, chap. ii. ver. 7, 8. 
 
 2 Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 20; Ezekiel, chap. xxiv. ver. 17, 23. 
 
 ^ to decorate or adorn. This word is joined with the linen bonnets of the priests 
 Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 28, where it is translated goodly bonnets ; hut I rather think it should have 
 been rendered conical tiara ; for, the word signifies a hill, a mountain, or any thing of a conical 
 form; and it is applied to the caps, or bonnets, of the priests, because they were in the shape of a cone. 
 
 * See Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabie, tom. I. p. 129. 
 
 5 Leviticus, chap. viii. ver. 13 ; Ezekiel, chap, xxxiv. ver. 17, 23. 
 
 ® or nstaiu). 
 
 7 Dent. chap. vi. ver. 8, et ahbi. 
 
 ® La Alldh ilia Alldh Mohammed rasul Alldh. Niebuhr, ut supra, p. 55. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 F 
 
XXXIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a sign of deep humiliation, or of mourning but the priests were forbidden to shave 
 their heads in times of mourning, because, by so doing, they defiled themselves.^ 
 
 It is not possible to ascertain how long the hair was suffered to grow upon the 
 head before it was curtailed, nor the manner in which it was decorated. Long pen- 
 dent locks were admired by the Israelitish ladies in the days of Solomon and pro- 
 bably it was for this very reason, that Absalom, the son of David, took such pains in 
 the cultivation of his hair, which was so luxuriant, that, when he shortened it, as he 
 constantly did at the conclusion of every year, because the weight of it became 
 burdensome to him, the quantity he usually cut off weighed “ two hundred shekels 
 after the king’s weight.”* The Nazarites, upon a religious account, shaved not 
 their heads, hut permitted their hair to grow, the full time of their separation ; and 
 for this reason Samson said to Dalilah, “ There hath not come a razor upon mine 
 head, for I have been a Nazarite unto God from my mother’s wnmb.”^ When the 
 time of a Nazarite’s separation was finished, he was brought to the door of the 
 tabernacle ; his head was then shaved ; and the consecrated locks were burnt with 
 the sacrifice upon the altar.® The apostle Paul considered long hair as exceedingly 
 unbecoming to the men, and censured them for wearing of it with much severity; 
 but commends it as a decorous and proper ornament, for distinction’s sake, when 
 appropriated to the fair sex.'^ 
 
 Samson’s hair is said to have been divided into seven locks ; but whether these 
 divisions were merely optional, and made for the sake of ornament only, or positively 
 necessary upon a religious account, I shall not take upon me to determine. 
 
 The usage of art to beautify the hair was practised by the Eastern nations at a 
 very remote period ; but the time of its introduction among the Israelites cannot be 
 ascertained : we may trace it, however, as far back as the days of king Solomon ; for 
 Josephus assures us, that the horse-men, belonging to that monarch, powdered their 
 
 1 Job, chap. i. ver. 20 ; Isaiah, chap. xv. ver. 2 ; et alibi. 
 
 * Leviticus, chap. xxi. ver. 5. 
 
 * Cauticles, chap. v. ver. 1 1 ; where the word bnbn signifies pendulous, or hanging down, rather 
 than bushy or curled. 
 
 * Equal to four pounds two ounces, Troy weight. 2 Samuel, chap. xiv. ver. 2G. 
 
 * Judges, chap. xvi. ver. 1/. 
 
 6 Numbers, chap. vi. ver. 18. 
 
 7 First Epistle to Corinthians, chap. xi. verses 14, 15. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXXV 
 
 heads with gold dust every day, so that their locks shone, and the rays of the sun 
 were reflected by the glittering of the gold.^ 
 
 The Jews permitted their beards to grow ; hut at the same time they trimmed 
 them with care. To shave the beard entirely, or to mar the corners of the beard, as 
 it is expressed in the Scripture, were signs of mourning.’^ Hanun, the lord of the 
 Ammonites, in derision shaved half the beards of David’s messengers, which was 
 considered by the Israelites as a shameful and most unpardonable insult. The 
 neglecting also to trim the beards seems to have been a sign of sorrow ; for, it is said 
 of Mephibosheth, that he ^Hrimined not his heard" from the day that David departed 
 from Jerusalem to the day that he returned again in peace.^ 
 
 The patriarch Joseph shaved his beard previously to his appearance before 
 Pharaoh; but this was rather done in compliance with the custom, established in the 
 court of the monarch, than from a general usage derived from his progenitors.^ 
 
 Shoes, or indeed more properly sandals,^ were worn in the primeval ages : they 
 anciently consisted of a sole with strings or bandages attached to the upper part of 
 it to fasten it upon the foot. These appendages are called shoe-latchets in the 
 English Bible ; but that they were strings, or bandages, appears from the name they 
 bear in the Hebrew.® 
 
 Bracelets of various kinds for the arms, rings for the fingers with or without 
 the signet, and chains of gold for the neck, with other decorative ornaments, were 
 used at a very early period by the men of Israel ; but we shall have occasion 
 to speak farther concerning these embellishments towards the conclusion of the 
 chapter. 
 
 The garments, appropriated to the Jewish women of high rank, were 
 exceedingly splendid, as we may judge from several passages in Holy Writ. I shall 
 select a few of them only. The queen is said to “ stand at the king’s right hand in 
 
 ' '^•qyfxa Se ^(^puffiov cad' ijfitpav avrwy tTriapdoy rate cofiaic, tog ortX/jtu/ avrwy rag ce<pa\ag, rrjg 
 avrrjg rov xpvtriov -n-pog roy TjXtoy ayrayac\wfj.eyr]g. Antiq. Jud. lib. VIII. cap vi, 
 
 * Leviticus, chap. xxi. ver. 5. 
 
 * Samuel, chap. xix. ver. 24. 
 
 “* Genesis, chap. xli. ver. 14. 
 
 ® bVD which is usually rendered in the Chaldee targums. b"T3D or sb“r2D and by the LXX aav- 
 haXtov and viro^rifia; with which the caliga, or calceamentum, of the Vulgate seems perfectly to agree. 
 
 ® "I'I'itC’ from the verb to twine, bind, or roll round. 
 
XXXVl 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 gold of Ophir.” To which is added : “ the king's daughter is all glorious within ; 
 her clothing is of wrought gold she shall he brought unto the king in raiment of 
 needle-work.”^ But Ezekiel speaks more fully upon this subject, where Jerusalem 
 is typified by a deserted female, and reproached with ingratitude by the Almighty ; 
 “ 1 washed thee,” says he, “ with water ; I anointed thee with oil ; I clothed thee 
 with broidered work — alluding to the embroidered or party-coloured tunic which 
 the royal virgins wore; — “I shod thee with azure sandals f I girded thee about with 
 a girdle of fine linen; and I covered thee with a mantle oi fine cotton:^ I decked thee 
 also with ornaments ; and I put bracelets upon thine hands, and a chain upon thy 
 neck ; and I put a jewel upon thy forehead,'' and ear-rings in thine ears, and 
 a beautiful diadem upon thine head.”® And Judith, when she was preparing herself 
 to appear before Holofernes, “ pulled off the sack-cloth which she had on, and put 
 oflF the garments of her widowhood, and washed her body all over with water, and 
 anointed herself with precious ointment, and braided the hair of her head, and put a 
 mitre, or turban, upon it ; and put o^ the garments of gladness,” — which in another 
 place are said to be linen, wherewith she was clad during the life-time of Manasses, 
 her husband ; and she put sandals” — which the Assyrian chieftain is said particu- 
 larly to have admired — “upon her feet ; and put about her her bracelets, and her 
 chains, and her rings, and her ear-rings, and all her ornaments ; and decked herself 
 bravely to allure the eyes of all men that should see her.” And, in later times, the 
 Evangelist Saint John, in the Apocalypsis, describing the habit of the woman seated 
 upon the beast, says, “ she was arrayed in purple and in scarlet colour, and decked 
 with gold and precious stones, and with pearls.”^ 
 
 ’ Or brocaded -with gold, as the word certainly imports Psalm xlv. ver. 14. 
 
 * Or embroidery. Ibid. ver. 14. 
 
 * li^nn Badgers' skins in our Bibles ; but this translation is without sufficient authority. The 
 ancient versions universally agree, that the word imported not an animal, but a colour; the LXX render 
 it by the words vqiclvQoq and vamyduos; and the Vulgate by hyacinthus and hyacinthinus, azure or 
 sky blue. 
 
 * Not silk, as in our version. See p iii. 
 
 ^ “fCS bv literally, upon thy nose: it was probably pendent from the head-dress, and hung over 
 the forehead upon the top of the nose ; but rings in the nose were worn by tbe Asiatic women, as we 
 shall see hereafter. 
 
 ^ Ezekiel, chap. xvi. verses 9, 10, 11, 12. Judith, chap x. verses 3 and 4. See also chap. xvi. 
 verses 8 and 9. Revelations, chap. xvii. ver. 4. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXXVH 
 
 The women were strictly forbidden by the Levitical law to wear the habits 
 pertaining to the men and there is no doubt but a proper distinction w as made 
 between the dresses of both sexes, which, I presume, consisted principally in their 
 shape ; for, many garments, fabricated with the same materials, and bearing the same 
 names, were worn by the men as well as by the women, and without any imputation 
 of an infringement of the commandment. 
 
 A loose garment of linen, answering the purpose of a shift, was w^om by the 
 Israelitish women ; it is called by the same name in the Hebrew language as the 
 linen tunic of the shirt kind, appropriated to the men and might resemble it in 
 the same degree that the shirt and shift of the present day resemble each other. 
 
 Among the parts of the dress and ornaments belonging to Jewish ladies, 
 enumerated by the prophet Isaiah, there is one, which, by the Vulgate, and other 
 versions after it, is rendered looking-glasses ;* but, by the connection in which it 
 stands, should rather mean some kind of vestures ; and accordingly it is explained in 
 the Septuagint by garments that one might see through, of the Lacedemonian kind‘s — 
 alluding to the dress of the Lacedemonian maidens, which, according to the ancient 
 writers, reached only to the knees, and was open on both sides, and exposed the 
 person of the wearer in walking much more than was consistent with common 
 decency.^ “ It is possible,” says a modem author, “ that the Jewish ladies might 
 wear garments of a similar fashion ; but I rather think, the present vestments w'ere 
 of the cob- web kind, and so transparent as not to hinder them from appearing almost 
 naked.® Such a garment Menander, an ancient Greek poet, calls a transparent 
 vest and speaks of it as the dress of a courtezan. The Latin authors call it a 
 glassy vestment f and one of them informs us, that it was made of Coan cloth,^ 
 
 ^ The woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man; neither shall a man put on a woman s 
 garment. Deut. chap, xxii ver. 5. 
 
 Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 23. See also p. xviii. 
 
 * from nbn to discover, or reveal. Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 23. ■* Aiacpavr] XaicwriKa. 
 
 5 Plutarch, in Vita Numse. This dress, adds the author, afforded sufficient subject to the poets for 
 raillery: they gave to these girls the epithets of (paivogripiSag, and. av^pogaveig; and Euripides says of 
 them, yvgvoiai gripoig icai vreTrXotc aveigevoiQ. Ibid. 
 
 6 Parkhurst, Hebrew and English Lexicon, p. 89. 
 
 I Aia(^av«c ■^iTwviov. ® Vitreas vestes. 
 
 9 Cois tibi pcenh videre est ut nudam ; through the Coan vest you almost see her naked. Horace, 
 lib. I. Sat. 2, lines 100, 101. 
 
XXXVlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 probably of a thin texture like gauze, and so denominated from the island of Coos 
 where this species of stuff was manufactured, not unlike the shift described by Lady 
 Wortley Montague as part of her Turkish habit, which was made of fine white silk 
 gauze, closed at the neck with a diamond button ; but the shape and colour of the 
 bosom was very well to be distinguished through it.^ 
 
 The concealed dress, or coverings for the thighs, mentioned by Solomon in the 
 Canticles, as part of the dress belonging to the bride,^ agrees perfectly well with the 
 drawers, still worn by the Moorish and Turkish women of rank f and is happily 
 illustrated by the lady mentioned in the preceding article ; “ the first part of my 
 dress,” says she, speaking of her Turkish habit, “ is a pair of drawers, very full : 
 they reach to my shoes, and conceal the legs more modestly than petticoats ; they are 
 of a thin rose-coloured damask, and brocaded with silver flowers.”"^ 
 
 The tunics, appropriated to the women, bear the same name as those belonging 
 to the men;^ but, without doubt, they differed from each other in their form: in both 
 cases, where they belonged to persons of rank, they were made of linen,® and on 
 particular occasions, emhellished with embroidery. The variegated vesture, or tunic 
 of many colours,’’ was worn by the virgin daughters of the Jewish monarchs and the 
 raiment of needle work, embroidered with gold, spoken of in the forty-fifth Psalm as 
 belonging to them, is in my opinion precisely the same garment.® 
 
 The girdle appears to have been considered as an essential part of the female 
 habit, and esteemed not only for its usefulness, but also for the sake of ornament : 
 those belonging to the women of distinction were made of fine linen ; and, in many 
 
 ' Letter to the Countess of Mar, April 1, 1717. [Such transparent garments are continually 
 pourtrayed in the ancient Egyptian paintings. Ed.] 
 
 “J'DT' ''plan Song of Solomon, chap. vii. ver. 1. These words are explained by “ the joints 
 of the thighs,” which cannot bear any distant analogy to the engraved work, executed by the hands of 
 perseverance (as it is expressed in the original), with which they stand in comparison ; but the simile is 
 perfectly applicable to the brocaded work with flowers resembling that of the engraver. The word pDn 
 signifies concealment in its primitive sense; and the drawers, especially that part of them belonging to 
 the thighs, were concealed by the superior garments. 
 
 ^ Dr. Shaw’s Travels, p. 228. 
 
 ♦ Letter to Countess of Mar, April 1,1717. * ]nD See p. xxvi. 
 
 ® Judith, chap. xvi. ver. 8. i D2 ^riD See page xxvi. 
 
 ® 2 Samuel, chap. xiii. ver. 18. 9 Psalm xlv. verses 13, 14. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 instances, superbly enriched with needle work and embroidery, as they are in the 
 Eastern countries to this day.’ 
 
 There is an ornamental part of the female habit, called a tablet‘s in our version 
 of the Old Testament, but it is thought by the lexicographers to have been of the 
 girdle kind j to which may be added the swathe, or cincture for the breast, called a 
 stomacher f and how far these might differ from the girdle, usually spoken of, cannot 
 be determined. 
 
 Changeable suits of apparel, according to the English translation, are enume- 
 rated among the garments belonging to the Jewish ladies by the prophet Isaiah ; but 
 this interpretation of the Hebrew word there used is too general : it imports a loose 
 robe, or surcoat, which was worn only upon particular occasions.* The same word, 
 in another passage of the Scripture, is applied to the robes of the high priest and 
 they are called by the Septuagint robes reaching to the feetf' A surcoat of the like 
 kind appears to be worn by the Turkish women to this day ; and it is described by 
 an eye-witness as a loose robe, thrown off, or put on, according to the weather, being 
 of rich brocade, and lined with ermines, or with sables.^ 
 
 A mantle, analogous to the hyke, (the finer sorts of which are still worn by the 
 women of rank among the Arabs,) and also to the peplus of the ancient Greeks,’’ 
 formed part of the dress appertaining to the Hebrew ladies : this mantle is particularly 
 mentioned in the book of Ruth and the attendant circumstances prove it to have 
 been of a considerable size, and strong enough to contain a large quantity of barley 
 in all probability it covered the whole of the body, and was chiefly used in cold, or 
 wet, weather. 
 
 There was also another mantle, or veil, appertaining to the Jewish women, that 
 
 * The Hebrew name for this part of the di’ess is ~Tl2n and it is applied to the girdles of both sexes. 
 
 - TtSIS This ornament is said to have been made of gold in the two only passages in which it 
 occurs ; namely, Exodus, chap. xxxv. ver. 22; and Numbers, chap. xxxi. ver. 50. 
 
 ^ b''3''nD Isaiah, chap. ui. ver. 24. 
 
 from to loosen. Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 22. 
 
 ^ Zechariah, chap. iii. ver. 4. ® 
 
 1 Called a Curdee, Lady M. W. Montague's Letter to the Countess of Mar, April 1st, 1717. 
 
 8 Dr. Shaw’s Travels, p. 225. 
 
 9 The Hebrew name is nnCtSQ from nSt3 to spread out, or extend ; it is called a veil in our 
 
 version ; but the word mantle seems much more applicable to it. Ruth, chap. iii. ver. 1 5 ; Isaiah, 
 chap. iii. ver. 22. Six measures full. Ruth, ut supra. 
 
xl 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 reached to the feet ; and it is called by the Septuagint (but for what reason I know 
 not) a summer garment it was certainly an external covering, and worn by them 
 when they went abroad ; but the materials of which it was composed are not 
 specified. 
 
 There are several words in the Hebrew language expressive of the veil, or 
 covering for the head and face ; and, probably, every one of tbem denoted some 
 essential diflPerence with respect to the form and texture of this part of the female 
 dress. 
 
 The first that I shall mention was a covering for the head and face, if not for 
 part of the body also ; and was used for the sake of modesty : when Rebecca first 
 saw Isaac at a distance, she took a veil,- and covered herself; and it was also 
 sufficiently opake to conceal effectually the features of the wearer ; for, when Tamar 
 had covered herself with this veil,^ her father-in-law Judah did not discover her 
 person, though it is expressly said, that he had carnal intercourse with her, con- 
 ceiving her to be a harlot, because she sat with her face concealed by the road side. 
 The word, by which this veil is expressed, occurs only in the early part of the 
 Jewish history ; the garment itself was probably changed in the succeeding ages for 
 others more thin and transparent ; and for them new names of course were invented. 
 
 The kerchiefs, or close veils,* were certainly ornamental coverings for the head, 
 and became the subjects of admiration either for the richness of the materials with 
 which they were made, or for the beauty and elegance of their form. 
 
 Thin veils of gauze, or of some transparent substance of the like kind, were in use 
 among the Jewish ladies as early as the time of Solomon ; to this ornament appa- 
 rently he alludes in the Canticles, where, speaking of the bride, he says, “thine 
 eyes are like those of doves behind thy veil in the English translation the beauty 
 
 ^ OepierTpoy; and by the Vulgate and iAerisira ; the Hebrew word is T'' "It from rUTT lo 
 
 descend. Canticles, chap. v. ver. 7 ; Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 23. 
 
 - rendered by the LXX OspirrTpoy ; but it does not by any means appear, that the use of it 
 
 was confined to the summer. Genesis, chap. xxiv. ver. 65. 
 
 * Genesis, chap, xxxviii. verses 14, 19. 
 
 * Q''nDD!3 which the LXX translate eTrijdoXaia, veils, or coverings. Ezek, chap. xiii. verses 18, 21. 
 
 ^ “fDQSb and the word with the a prefixed signifies from behind, and 
 
 not within Song of Solomon, chap. iv. ver. 1 ; see also ver. 3 ; and chap. vi. ver. 7. So in Isaiah, 
 chap, xlvii. ver. 2, “fn’2- remove thy veil, and not uncover thy locks, as a token of disgrace 
 and infamy. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xli 
 
 of this passage is lost ; it is there rendered, thou hast dove's eyes unthin thy locks ; 
 that is, the lochs of the hair, whieh, to justify the simile, must have hung over her 
 eyes, and woidd of course have given her the appearance of a savage rather than of 
 a polished lady decorated with all the splendour of Asiatic finery. Besides, it is 
 well known, that every woman of rank or character in the Eastern part of the 
 world to this hour appears veiled before the men the veil here mentioned is 
 supposed to have been so transparent, that the radiancy of the eyes might be seen 
 through it ; which perfectly explains the spirit of the compliment. We need not, 
 indeed, have gone from our own country to elucidate this text : the English ladies 
 of the present day sufficiently exemplify it by the thin gauzes which we so frequently 
 see dependent from their caps and bonnets. To what has been said upon this 
 subject I shall only add, that the veil was anciently considered as a substitutional 
 protection to the female sex ; and therefore the removing or turning it forcibly 
 aside was conceived to be the highest affront that a man could be guilty of towards 
 them.* 
 
 Mufflers^ formed part of the female habit ; and were probably of the veil kind. 
 Mr. Parkhurst supposes them to have been the same as the Turkish murlins,* which 
 are thus described by a lady, who had frequent opportunities of seeing them. “ No 
 woman, of what rank soever, is permitted to go out into the streets without two 
 murlins ; one that covers the face all but her eyes, and another that hides the whole 
 dress of her head, and hangs half dowm her back.”^ 
 
 Braiding, curling, and plaiting of the hair was practised by the Jewish ladies of 
 rank ; it seems, indeed, to have been a necessary" preparation for the proper reception 
 of a variety of ornaments, with which they afterwards adorned their heads ; and 
 contributed not a little to the setting them out to advantage ; to this custom the 
 
 ^ Thus a modern author. TKe most essential part of the dress of the women of the East seems to 
 he the veil, with which they cover their faces when a man approaches. Niebuhr, Voyage de I’Arabie, 
 p. 134. 
 
 * And therefore it is, says Mr. Parkhurst, the removing of the veil of Judah, threatened in the 
 twenty-second chapter of Isaiah, expresses the utmost misery and ignominy, Hebrew Lexicon, page 434, 
 under ID 
 
 ® mQttVQ literally the hiders, rendered mantles in our translation. Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 22. 
 [The word “mufflers” occurs in verse 19. Ed.] 
 
 ■* Hebrew and English Lexicon, page 473. 
 
 5 Lady M. W. Montague’s Letter to the Countess of Mar, April 1, o. S. 1717. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 G 
 
xlii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 prophet Isaiah alludes, where he speaks of “well-set hair” in opposition to “bald- 
 ness we find Judith also “ braiding her hair,” previous to the placing of the 
 turban upon her head, when she was decorating herself on purpose “ to allure the 
 eyes of all men that should see her.”^ The plaiting and braiding of the hair was 
 carried to excess in the latter ages ; for, we find it censured with severity by the 
 apostles St. Peter and St. Paul.^ The passage, quoted a few lines back from Isaiah, 
 literally translated, would be stiffened work f and the ladies in the East to this day 
 stiffen, that is, braid, or plait, their hair, so as to make it stiff, with ribbands. A 
 modern author, speaking of the Moorish women of rank in Barhary, assures us, that 
 they all affect to have their hair hanging down to the ground, which, after they have 
 collected it into one lock, they bind and plait with ribbands ; and, where nature has 
 been less liberal in this ornament, there the defect is supplied by art, and foreign 
 hair is procured to be interwoven with the natural.^ The hair of the Turkish 
 ladies, according to another recent writer, “ hangs at its full length behind, divided 
 into tresses, braided with pearl, or ribband, which is always in great quantitv — 
 to which is added, “ I never saw in my life so many fine heads of hair 5 in one lady I 
 have counted a hundred and ten of the tresses, all natural and the head-bands, 
 or ribbands, which are placed by Isaiah in the catalogue of the female decorations,” 
 were probably the same that were used in the braiding and binding up of the hair. 
 
 Crisping pins, or rather bodkins,’^ are numbered among the ornaments apper- 
 taining to the Jewish ladies ; and perhaps they might be used f„r the adornment of 
 the hair ; bodkins, ornamented with jewels, make part of the finer\" still worn bv the 
 Turkish ladies of rank.” 
 
 The kerchiefs, or cawls, mentioned by Isaiah as ornaments for the head,® bore 
 some analogy, I presume, to the embroidered kerchiefs which the Turkish ladies 
 use at present to bind on their talpocks, or caps.^° 
 
 ^ Judith, chap. x. ver. 3. 2 j Peter, chap. iii. ver. 5 ; and 1 Tim. chap. ii. ver. 9. 
 
 3 ntC’pa Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 24. ^ Dj._ Shaw’s Travels, p. 228. 
 
 5 Lady M. W. Montague’s Letter to the Countess of Mar, April 1st, 1/17. 
 
 6 from the root “m?p to bind about, Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 20 ; see also Jeremiah, 
 
 chap. ii. ver. 32. 7 Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 22. 
 
 ® Lady M. W. Montague’s Letter to the Countess of Mar, March 10th, 1717. 
 
 0 rendered by the LXX kouvu^ovq, and by Montanus Reticula, cauls of net-work, 
 
 Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 1 1. 
 
 Lady M. W. Montague’s Letter to the Countess of Mar, April 1st, 1717. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xliii 
 
 The turban, or, as it is frequently called, the mitre, formed an essential part of 
 the head-dress belonging to the Jewish ladies ; but the turban was by no means 
 confined to the usage of the fair sex ; it was equally worn by the men ; but then it 
 differed, I doubt not, materially fi’om that which belonged to the females, not only 
 in the form, and in the materials with which it was composed, but also in the deco- 
 rative ornaments.* 
 
 The tiara, or bonnet as it is called in our translation, was a head-dress worn by 
 the Jews of both sexes, and held by them in the highest estimation, as we have seen 
 in a former part of this chapter.^ 
 
 Borders or rows of gold or jewels are mentioned in the Canticles as an adorn- 
 ment for the cheeks of the bride and probably they were like the strings of pearls 
 which the Turkish females of distinction place round their head-dress or rather, 
 perhaps, resembled the two or three rows of pearls which the Persian ladies wear 
 about the head, beginning on the forehead, and descending down the cheeks and 
 under the chin, so that their faces seem to be set in pearls.® 
 
 The shoes, or sandals,*^ appertaining to the Jewish women, formed an essential 
 part of their dress ; how far they differed from those belonging to the men cannot 
 he ascertained ; it appears, however, that they were more ornamental ; for, the 
 sandals of Judith are said to have ravished the eyes of HolofernesJ The materials, 
 with which the sandals were composed, are not specified ; but light blue seems to 
 have been the colour most admired, as may be gathered from the expression, “ I 
 shod thee with azure'' which is applied to Jerusalem under the type of a woman 
 sumptuously adorned.® 
 
 It does not appear that the Israelitish ladies made use of cosmetics for the 
 beautifying of their skins, or that they anciently adopted the custom of painting 
 their faces ; we have, however, incontestible proof that they tinged their eye-lids for 
 the improvement of their beauty ; and probably derived this custom from Jezebel 
 
 1 See a full description of the turban, p. xxxi. * Page xxxiii. 
 
 * Thy cheeks are comely with rows, or borders; from the root “in to go round about. 
 
 Song of Solomon, chap. i. verses 10, 11. 
 
 * Lady M. W. Montague’s Letter to the Countess of Mar, March 10th, 1/17. 
 
 ^ Olearius, cited byHarmer, p. 205. 
 
 ® 2av^aXio. Judith, chap. x. ver. 4. 7 Ibid. chap. xvi. ver. 9. 
 
 ® Ezekiel, chap. xvi. ver. 10. See page xxxvi, and note (®)of that page. 
 
xliv 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the Sidonian, the first upon record among them for a practice of like kind.^ It is 
 spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel with great disapprobation, and applied to an 
 harlot f which seems to indicate that it was not very generally adopted at that time. 
 The Moorish ladies in Barbary, the women in Arabia Felix, and those about Aleppo, 
 continue, to this day, the custom of tinging the inside of their eye-lids, which they 
 perform with the powder of lead ore and Dr. Russel informs us, that it was 
 “ upon the principle of strengthening the sight, as well as for the sake of ornament, 
 that it became a general practice among the Asiatic women to black the inside of the 
 eyelids, by applying a powder called ismed their method of doing it is by a cylin- 
 drical piece of silver, steel, or ivory, about two inches long, made very smooth, and 
 about the size of a common probe ; this they wet with water, in order that the 
 powder may stick to it ; and, applying the middle part horizontally to the eye, they 
 shut the eye-lids upon it ; and so drawing it through between them it blacks the 
 inside, leaving a narrow black rim all round the edge. This is sometimes practised 
 by the men ; but it is then regarded as foppish.” Painting the eyes was by no 
 means anciently confined to the Jews, nor even to the Asiatic nations as we shall see 
 hereafter. 
 
 The ornamental parts of dress, appropriated to the Jewish ladies, exclusive of 
 those immediately connected with their garments, were exceedingly numerous ; and 
 many of them from the obscurity of the original names of doubtful interpretation ; 
 those that follow compose the greater part of them ; but how far they are justly 
 translated, or properly applied, must be left to the reader’s judgment. 
 
 The nose-jewel is an adornment of high antiquity : we find it spoken of as early 
 as the days of Abraham ; and it was one of the ornaments which the servant of that 
 patriarch presented to Rebecca : “ I put,” says he, “ the jewel upon her nose”^ 
 
 1 2 Kings, chap. ix. ver. 30. See also Jeremiah, chap. iv. ver. 30. [In the English translation of 
 the Bible, the Hebrew word for eyes in these two passages has been rendered ‘'face.” Ed.] 
 
 - Ezekiel, chap, xxiii. ver. 40. The word here used is bnD to colour, paint, or tinge; in the two 
 passages, quoted in the note immediately preceding, the word is which signifies the mineral, or sub- 
 stance, from which the paint itself was made. 
 
 ® Which they call al kahol, according to Dr. Shaw ; see his Travels, p. 229 ; or kochel, which 
 approaches nearer to the Hebrew word See Niebuhr, in his Description of Arabia, p. 58. 
 
 This is made of a substance called also Ispahany from the plaee whence it is brought : it appears to 
 be a rich lead ore, &c. Nat. Hist. Aleppo, p. 102. 
 
 ® n2S"b37 £DT3n Genesis, chap. xxiv. ver. 47- This jewel was of gold, and equal in weight 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xlv 
 
 The nose-jewel is also mentioned frequently enough in the succeeding parts of the 
 Bible ; and we have the testimony of a modern writer, that it is “ the custom, in 
 almost all the East, for the women to wear rings in their noses in the left nostril, 
 which is bored low dovm in the middle. These rings,” continues the author, “ are 
 of gold, and have commonly two pearls, and one ruby between them placed in the 
 ring. I never saw a girl, or young woman in Arabia, or in all Persia, who did not 
 wear a ring after this -manner in her nostril.’” And to this custom of wearing rings 
 of gold in the nose, without doubt, Solomon alluded in the Proverbs, when he com- 
 pared “ a jewel of gold in a sivine’s snout” to “ a fair woman without discretion”'^ 
 
 The jewel just mentioned was probably worn in the ear as well as in the nose ; 
 at least, it is certain that an ornament of like kind, and bearing the same name, 
 occurs in several passages of Scripture, and is expressly said to have belonged to the 
 ears. The ear-rings, worn by the Jewish women during the time of their sojourning 
 in the wilderness, were made of gold. 
 
 Another kind of ear-rings, differing, I presume, in shape or size, and perhaps in 
 both, from the former, are mentioned in the Bible P they are called by a different 
 name ; and, probably, obtained the appellation given to them from the rotundity of 
 their form.^ The author cited above assures us, that two sorts of ear-rings were 
 worn in the East, when he was there : “ some of them,” says he, “ are so small, and 
 go so close to the ears, that there is no vacuity between them ; and others are so 
 large, that you may put the fore-finger between, adorned with a ruby and a pearl on 
 each side of it strung upon the ring.” “ I have seen,” adds the author, “ some of 
 these larger ear-rings with figures upon them, and strange characters, wEich I believe 
 to be talismans, or charms. The Indians say, they are preservatives against enchant- 
 ments ; perhaps the ear-rings of Jacob’s family, which he buried with the strange 
 gods, were of this class.’’® 
 
 A third kind of ear-rings, if the English translation be accurate, is mentioned by 
 Isaiah ; and the word so rendered is certainly applied by the prophet to some deco- 
 
 to half a shekel, or 109 grains Troy weight. [The passage in our translation stands, ‘‘ I put the ear-ring 
 upon her face.” Ed.] 
 
 1 Sir John Chardin, cited by Harmer, vol. II. p. 390. 
 
 * Proverbs, chap. xi. ver. 22. ^ Exodus, chap, xxxii. ver. 2. 
 
 ^ which signifies rotundity, or roundness. 
 
 ^ Sir John Chardin, ut supra. See Genesis, chap. xxxv. ver. 4. 
 
xlvi 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rative part of the female dress ; but it seems at the same time to denote a species of 
 ornament that yielded a low whistling or tinkling sound/ which, indeed, two or more 
 drops pendent from the ring might do by striking against each other ; and more 
 particularly, if they consisted of little bells resembling those that are said to be 
 attached to the hair of the women of pleasure at Cairo to this day.^ 
 
 It is uncertain whether the ear-rings were anciently worn by the Jewish men as 
 well as by the women, according to the modem practice^ in the East ; we learn, 
 however, that the ears of the male children, equally with those of the females, were 
 decorated with these ornaments. 
 
 Little moons, or round ornaments in form of the moon, are mentioned by the 
 prophet Isaiah among the adornments used by the Israelitish women ; thev are 
 called round tires* in our translation ; and, from the connection in which they stand 
 with the cauls, or kerchiefs, are thought to have belonged to the head-dress. The 
 same kind of ornaments, or ornaments at least bearing the same name, were hung 
 upon the necks of the camels appertaining to Zebah and Zalmuna, the Midianitish 
 chieftains : they are spoken of in the book of Judges, and particularly distinguished 
 from the chain which surrounded the necks of the camels, and from which, I 
 presume, the round ornaments were suspended.^ 
 
 Adornments for the neck of various sorts are mentioned in the Sacred Writings : 
 rows of pearls, or something of the like kind, disposed in the form of a necklace, are 
 said in the Canticles to have graced the neck of the royal bride / and this passage 
 of Scripture may, I think, be elucidated by an extract from a modern writer, who, 
 describing the dress of a Turkish sultana, says, “round her neck she wore three 
 chains, which reached to her knees ; one of large pearls, at the bottom of which 
 hung a fine coloured emerald as big as a turkey’s egg ; another, consisting of two 
 hundred emeralds, close joined together, of the most lively green, perfectly matched, 
 
 ^ They are called from t27nb to make a soft hissing, whistling, or tinkling sound. Isaiah, 
 
 chap. iii. ver 20. 2 pitts, pp. 99, 100. 
 
 3 The contrary rather appears to be the case ; for, in Judges, we find the Ishmaelites particularly 
 distinguished, because they had ear-rings of gold in their ears. Judges, ehap. viii. ver. 24. 
 
 * Q''D”inti7 rendered by the LXX grjviaKovc ; and by the Vulgate lunulas. Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 18. 
 3 Judges, chap. viii. verses 21, 26. [Vide the interesting notes on these passages in the Pictorial 
 Bible. Ed.] 
 
 ® CD''T’l”in rendered by the LXX opgiuKoi, collars, or necklaces. Song of Solomon, chap. i. ver. 10. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xlvii 
 
 every one as large as half a crown piece, and as thick as three crown pieces ; and 
 another of small emeralds perfectly round.” ‘ 
 
 Chains, or a similar kind of ornaments encompassing the neck, are also particu- 
 larised, which seem to have differed from the former, being called hy another name ; 
 and it appears, that the Jewish women in Solomon’s time wore several of these chains 
 at once about their necks,^ as the Asiatic ladies do to this day and these, I presume, 
 were the chains which Judith forgot not to adorn herself with when she sought to 
 charm the heart of the Assyrian general :* it also appears, that they were worn hy 
 the men as well as by the women. 
 
 Chains of gold, or jewels, distinguished hy an appellation different from those 
 given to the preceding ornaments, are placed in the catalogue of female embel- 
 lishments, recorded by the prophet Isaiah ; but no information is added to the 
 name.® 
 
 The wreathen collar for the neck® was worn hy both sexes ; but it seems to have 
 been a badge of high honour when it was appropriated to them.^ 
 
 Bracelets for the arms were in use at a very remote period ; they formed part of 
 the ornaments which the servant of Abraham presented to Rebecca ; the bracelets 
 there mentioned were made of gold, and weighed five shekels each.® It is probable, 
 that the Israelitish women might derive from the Egyptians the usage of wearing 
 bracelets upon their legs also, which is practised by the Moorish women in Barbarv 
 to this day. 
 
 The arm-bracelets were not confined to the use of the fair sex ; on the contrary, 
 they were worn (and that in ancient times) by the men also ; but they are then 
 called by a different name, and appear to have been wreathed, or twisted.® 
 
 ^ Lady M. W. Montague’s Letter to the Countess of Mar, March 10th, 1717. 
 
 ® “Thou hast ravished my heart p327 inS'3 with one chain of thy neck.” Canticles, chap. iv. ver.9. 
 
 * Niebuhr, Voyage, tom. i. p. 242. 
 
 * Called in the Greek Judith, chap. x. ver. 4. 
 
 ^ They are called miC? and seem (says Parkhurst) to have derived their name from their regular 
 structure : the word is rendered by the Vulgate monilia, necklaces. Isaiah, chap. hi. ver. 19. 
 
 ® Ta”! Ezekiel, chap. xvi. ver. 11. 
 
 I Genesis, chap. xli. ver. 42. Daniel, chap. v. ver. 7. 
 
 ® Equal to 1090 grains Troy -weight; see Genesis, chap. x.xiv. ver. 22: they are called in the 
 Hebrew 
 
 9 b'nD from bn2 to wreath, or twist. Genesis, chap, xxxviii. verses 18, 25. 
 
xlviii 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Chains, or bracelets, ornamented, I presume, with open work, are also spoken of 
 in the Scripture ; and were worn upon the arms of both sexes.^ 
 
 Rings, or rather bracelets of gold, set with beryl, are mentioned in the Song of 
 Solomon ; and they appear to have formed part of the dress belonging to the royal 
 bridegroom. 
 
 Ornamental fetters, or shackels,^ translated tinkling ornaments, in our version of 
 the Bible, are placed among the decorative parts of finery appropriated to the 
 Hebrew women by the prophet Isaiah and might possibly resemble the fetters of 
 silver, which Pliny tells us were worn by women of the lower rank among the 
 Romans.® A modern author speaks of great rings, which the common female 
 dancers of Egypt wear upon their legs.® Another writer of the present age informs 
 us, that the Arabian women, whom he saw in his passage down the Euphrates, 
 “ wore rings about their legs and hands, and sometimes a good many together, which 
 in their stepping slipped up and down, and so made a great noise and, according 
 to Sir John Chardin, in Persia and Arabia the women wear rings about their ancles, 
 which are full of little hells, “ Children and young women,” adds he, “ take a 
 pleasure in giving them motion, and walk hastily for that very purpose.”^ 
 
 Mirrors, even in the ancient times, were worn as an ornamental part of the dress 
 by the Hebrew women : it is evident, that they were composed of metal, and par- 
 ticularly of brass ; for, the foot of the laver which Moses caused to be made was 
 fabricated with the mirrors of the women who assembled in crouds at the door of 
 the tabernacle.® Mirrors, or looking-glasses, are still an essential part of the dress 
 
 ^ This ornament is expressly said to have been taken from the arm of Saul, 2 Samuel 
 
 chap. i. ver. .0 ; but the Vulgate renders the same word in Isaiah, chap. iii. ver. 20, periseelidas, or 
 drawers ; and our translators ornaments for the legs. 
 
 2 □’'sbjsa Dm Canticles, chap. v. ver. 14. ^Mr. Parkhurst thinks the word 
 
 should be translated topaz, rather than beryl, as it stands in our Bibles. 
 
 * C'DDV from the verb dDV to confine or fetter. 
 
 * “ The daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched-forth necks and wanton eyes, 
 mincing as they go, and make a tinkling with their feet. In that day the Lord will take away 
 mssn the bravery of their CD'DDVn tinkling ornaments about their feet.” Isaiah, chap. iii. verses 16, 18. 
 
 * Nat. Hist. lib. XXXIII. cap. 12. 
 
 ® Les grands anneaux. Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabic, tom. i. pp. 133, 148. 
 
 7 Rauwolf, cited by Parkhurst, p. 4/4 ; and Sir John Chardin’s Travels. 
 
 ® nS'nJDD n27n3 '13D ns — Exodus, chap, xxxviii. ver. 8; see also Job, chap, xxxvii. ver. 18. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xlix 
 
 of the Moorish women in Barhary : “they hang them constantly,” says a recent 
 writer, “ upon their breasts, and do not lay them aside, even in the midst of their 
 most laborious employments.”^ 
 
 Tablets or rather perfume-boxes,^ are enumerated among the ornaments worn 
 by the Jewish w’omen of rank ; and still are in use among the Persian ladies, to 
 whose necklaces, which fall below the hosom, is fastened a large box of perfumes : 
 some of these boxes are as big as one’s hand ; the common ones are of gold ; others 
 are covered with jew'els : they are all bored through, and filled with a black paste, 
 very light, made of musk and amber, which emits a very strong smell.^ 
 
 Drop-ornaments,^ or pendent jew^els in the form of drops, spangles of gold and 
 silver,^ and clasps, or buckles,*’ to fasten the garments, are spoken of as apper- 
 taining to the habits of the Hebrew^ ladies ; and the latter were used by the men 
 also, among whom the permission to vrear a fibula, or clasp of gold, was esteemed a 
 hioh honour.^ 
 
 o 
 
 The usage of finger-rings is exceedingly ancient ; and it appears to have been 
 equally adopted by persons of rank of both sexes among the Jews. The signet-rings 
 were marks of authority, appropriated chiefly to kings, princes, and noblemen ; and, 
 when they w^ere conferred upon persons of inferior stations, they were considered 
 as honorary favours of the highest kind.® 
 
 We do not find in the Old or New Testaments the least distant hint respecting 
 pockets appertaining to the garments of the Jewish people. The scrip, or satchel,** I 
 presume, w as the succedaneum for the pockets ; at least, we find it to be a necessary 
 
 1 Shaw’s Travels, p. 241. 
 
 - houses of the soul, if literally translated ; and properly rendered olfactoriola hy the 
 
 Vulgate. Isaiah, chap. hi. ver. 20. 
 
 ^ Complete System of Geography, vol. II. p. 175. 
 
 7 The Jews, in order to confer great honour upon Simon, their governor and high priest, among 
 other things, ordained that he should be clothed in purple, and wear a fibula, or buckle of gold, TropTrrfy 
 xpvar]y ; and that no other person should be clothed in purple, or wear a fibula of gold. Maccabees, 
 chap xiv. verses 43 and 44 ; see also chap. xi. ver. 58. 
 
 8 The word cmn or nssnn signifies not only a sig)iet ; but also a jewel, with the name of a 
 beloved person engraven upon it, and worn next the heart, or upon the arm. See Canticles, chap. viii. 
 
 ver. 6 ; Jeremiah, chap. xxii. ver. 24 ; Ilaggai, chap. ii. ver. 23 ; and Ecclesiasticus, chap. xlix. ver. 11 
 
 9 Dipb'' 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 H 
 
1 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 appendage to the dress of travellers ; and it was also used by the shepherds to carry 
 their food and other necessaries to this we may add the purse or bag for money, 
 and for weights to weigh the money, which persons of almost every rank had 
 constantly about them.® 
 
 We have little more than mere names to assist our researches respecting the 
 military habits of the Israelites : their knowledge of tactics was probably derived 
 from the Egyptians ; and it must be confessed, that they do not appear to have been 
 by any means deficient in military skill at the time they resided in the wilderness. 
 The thorax, or pectoral ; the plated girdles for the body ; the military sagum, or 
 cloak, called an habergeon in our translation of the Pentateuch ; together wdth the 
 helmet ; and the shields, which are of two kinds, the one larger than the other ; 
 formed the chief part, if not the whole, for their defensive armour P their offensive 
 arms consisted of swords, some of which had two edges ; daggers, spears, javelins, 
 bows, arrows, and slings.^ Axes also, or perhaps the word ought rather to be 
 rendered clubs, or maces, were used as weapons of war.® 
 
 Their weapons appear to have been made of brass, and of iron, or steel, for the 
 original word admits of both interpretations we read also of shields of gold, that is, 
 I presume, plated with gold ; for, we may easily conceive, that they would have 
 been much too heavy for common use, if they had been made entirely of gold, or of 
 any other metal. ^ 
 
 ^ 1 Samuel, chap. xvi. ver. 40. 
 
 ^ D''D Deut. chap. xxv. ver. 13 ; Proverbs, chap. i. ver. 14 ; Isaiah, chap. xlvi. ver. 6 ; and Luke, 
 chap. xxh. verses 35, and 36, in which last passage the purse and scrip are clearly distinguished from 
 each other — fiaXavnov Kai wrjpa. 
 
 ^ It does not appear, that the Jews used the greaves, or leg-armour : they are mentioned in only 
 one passage in Scripture, 1 Samuel, chap. xvii. ver. 6, and formed part of the armour of Goliath the 
 Philistine giant. 
 
 * The slingers are said to have been so expert, that, “seven hundred" of them in one army, “ could 
 sling stones at a hair's breadth, and not miss." Judges, chap. xx. ver. 16. 
 
 ® rendered battle-axe in our translation, Jeremiah, chap. li. ver. 20. 
 
 ® a weapon of iron or steel. Job, chap. xx. ver. 24 ; a bow of brass, ibid, 
 
 and Psalm xviii. ver. 34. [It is improperly rendered a bow of steel, in our translations. The Hebrew 
 word is, pechushah, the common word for brass. — Ed.] 
 
 I The shields and targets, which Solomon caused to be made and hung up in his palace, were of 
 massy gold ; but at the same time it appears that they were merely ornamental. 1 Kings, chap. x. 
 verses 16, 17. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 li 
 
 The thorax, or pectoral,^ di part of body-armour exceedingly ancient. If it 
 originated in Egypt, and there is some foundation for such an opinion, it is not 
 unlikely, that the Israelites derived its usage from that country. The pectoral is 
 usually called, in the English translation of the Old Testament, a coat of mail ; and 
 probably, in remote times, it was attached to a short tunic in the same manner that 
 the sacred breast-plate was fastened upon the ephod." Beneath the pectoral were 
 belts, plated with brass, or other metal ; and the uppermost of them was bound 
 upon the bottom of the tunic, which connected the pectoral with the belts ; and 
 all of them together formed a tolerably perfect armour for the front of the whole 
 body.^ 
 
 The military sagum, or cloak, is called, in our translation, an habergeon ; that 
 is, a kind of mail, or armour, to cover the head and breast : the original word is of 
 doubtful signification •,* but, of whatever kind the garment may have been, it 
 appears that it had an aperture at the upper part of it, through which the head 
 was passed when it was put upon the body. If I might hazard a conjecture upon a 
 subject so uncertain, I should say, that it was the tunic upon which the thorax was 
 
 1 The Hebrew word is or from to be strony ; and probably the same kind of 
 
 armour is meant by Jeremiah, who uses the word p“lD or in the plural n')3''“iD from the verb "iD to turn 
 aside, as the armour does the point of the weapon. Jeremiah, chap. xlvi. ver. 4 ; and chap. li. ver. 3. 
 
 - Resembling, I presume, the "^irwv ^aX/ceoc, or brazen vest, mentioned by Homer, Iliad, lib. XIII. 
 line 439. [The English word used in both the texts of Jeremiah above quoted is “ briyandine,” which 
 is not a coat of mail, but a quilted tunic, with iron plates sewed up in it. Ed.] 
 
 ^ These belts, called in the Hebrew, which were generally two, one above the other, are fre- 
 quently met with in the ancient Grecian sculpture ; and an example of them is given upon the fifth 
 plate belonging to this Introduction ; see fig. 4 and 5; but in some instances they rise higher upon the 
 breast; and this mode of armament perfeetly explains the passages in Scripture, where Ahab is said to 
 have been smitten with an arrow □“'pDin pD between the openinys, or joints, that is, of the belts, 
 I'a"! and between the thorax, ox pectoral ; 1 Kings, chap. xxii. ver. 34; 2 Chron. chap, xviii. ver. 
 33. The pectorals of the Egyptians were made of linen; and perhaps anciently those of the Jews were 
 the same. In after-times they seem to have been covered with plates of metal; and in the New Testa- 
 ment we meet with the word ^tnpaKag mbppovc, ox pectorals of iron j Revelations, chap. ix. ver. 9. 
 
 4 S"inn the word occurs only twice ; “ and there shall be a hole in the top in the midst thereof 
 that is the robe of the ephod; “ it shall have a bindiny of woven work round about the hole of it, as it 
 viere the hole of an habergeon, that it be not rent." Exodus, chap, xxviii. ver. 32; and chap xxxix. 
 ver. 23. [I am at a loss to know why Mr. Strutt calls this the military sayum or cloak, as it is 
 evidently a military tunie, which furnishes the comparison as he himself conjectures immediately 
 afterwards. Ed.] 
 
lii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fastened, and bore the same relation to the thorax that the ephod did to the sacred 
 pectoral. 
 
 There were two sorts of helmets in use among the Jewish warriors ; at least, the 
 helmets are distinguished hy two different names J they are both of them said to 
 have been made of brass but their form is totally unknoivn ; the helmet belonging 
 to the Israelitish monarch was distinguished from those of his subjects by the crown 
 which was placed upon it.^ 
 
 There are four sorts of shields specified in Holy Writ : their form is no where 
 described ; but it is certain, that they differed in their size.^ From the expression 
 of Isaiah, “ arise, ye princes, and anoint the shields,’'^ some have thought, that the 
 Israelites possessed the art of making their shields with leather, or raw hides ; but 
 the use of oil would be equally proper, if they were covered with brass, to keep 
 them from rusting, and to make them bright.® 
 
 The offensive weapons, which are only mentioned by name in the Sacred 
 Writings, have been enumerated above ; it will therefore be needless to say any 
 thing farther concerning them, as it is totally impossible to ascertain their form, 
 which, in all probability, did not greatly differ from those in use among the other 
 Asiatic nations. I shall only add, that the sword was usually girded upon the thigli, 
 as we may learn from the expression frequently used in Scripture, “gird every man 
 his sword upon his thigh whence also it appears, that they did not wear the 
 swords continually, but only when the exigency of the times required the use of such 
 weapons. 
 
 It is highly probable, that the Jews had some kind of distinctive habits appro- 
 priated to those persons who attended upon the sacred offices, previous to the 
 dispensation of the law from Mount Sinai ; and, if they resembled the religious 
 
 ^ and ® 1 Samuel, chap. xvii. verses 5. 38; et alibi. 
 
 3 2 Samuel, chap. i. ver. 10. 
 
 And king Solomon wade two hundred riDU targets of beaten gold] six hundred shekels of gold went 
 to one target : and three hundred shields of beaten gold, three pounds of gold went to one shield, 
 
 &c. 1 Kings, chap. x. verses 16 and 17. Hence it is evident, that the was larger than the — 
 the n:2''t3btZ7 in one passage seems to have been the same as the □“'3210 “ there hang a thousand pan 
 bucklers albX^'W shields of mighty men." Canticles, chap. iv. ver. 4. The mriD is a small shield, or 
 buckler : “ His truth shall be thy nD-!i shield [translated target above. Ed.] and n“inD buckler.” 
 Psalm xci. ver. 4. 
 
 ® Isaiah, chap xxi. ver. 5. ‘ Universal History, vol. III. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 liii 
 
 habits of the Eigyptians, the change then made in them will appear to have consisted 
 rather in the form and beauty of the garments than in the introduction of such as 
 were totally unknown before. 
 
 A tunic reaching to the feet, a pectoral, a robe of equal length with the tunic, 
 and a mitre with an asp upon the front of it, constituted, as we have seen already, 
 the habit of the Elgyptian deity Osiris, which is supposed to have corresponded 
 exactly with the habit of the high priest of the E]gyptians ; and the component 
 parts, with some few variations and additions, formed the magnificent vestments of 
 Aaron.* 
 
 The dress of the Jewish high priest included all the parts of the inferior 
 sacerdotal habits ; but such of them as belonged to him were made of richer mate- 
 rials, and much more splendidly decorated than those in common use. 
 
 The pontifical vestments were the femoralia, or drawers ; the tunic ; the robe 
 of the ephod ; the girdle for the robe ; the ephod ; the sacred pectoral ; the curious 
 girdle of the ephod ; and the mitre, adorned wdtli a lamina, or crown of gold.'^ 
 
 Tlie femoralia, according to Josephus, was called rnanachasin,^ because they were 
 made fast upon the wearer ; he describes them as being so constructed, that the 
 priest might thrust his feet through them ; and, when drawn up, they were fastened 
 about the loins, and also upon the thighs, which answers w^ell to the drawers now in 
 use, saving only that they do not appear to have descended so far upon the thighs. 
 'The feraor alia are expressly said to have been made of fine twined linen and they 
 were common to all the priesthood. 
 
 The tunic, or close coatd was so denominated, because it sat close to the body : 
 it had also strait sleeves, according to Josephus, and descended to the ancles. 
 “ This vestment,” says he, “has no loose or hollow parts, only a narrow^ aperture 
 about the neck tied with certain strings,^ hanging dowm from the edge over the 
 
 ^ See page and plate III. fig. 3. * Exodus, chap, xxviii. and xxxix to ver. 33. 
 
 ^ "Slavaxamqv. Joscphus, Antiq. Jud. lib. III. cap. vii. The Hebrew name is which is 
 
 rendered breeches in our Bibles. 
 
 ^ inn 'DD-n nST Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 28. 
 
 ^ The literal translation of n^riD is a coat of inclosiny ; in our version of the Pentateuch 
 
 it is rendered a hroidered coat ; but the adjective broidered does not agree well with the word the 
 primitive signification of which is to close, inclose, or straiten. Exodus, chap, xxviii. ver. 4, et alibi. 
 
 ® This is according to Whiston’s translation: the original word is ap-mloaiy. Josephus, ut supra. 
 
liv 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 breast and over the back, and it is fastened upon each shoulder ; this they call 
 massahazanis.''^ The tunic, according to Moses, was made “of fine linen of woven 
 work,” which Josephus calls “ fine linen double,”^ The tunic of linen w as worn by 
 all the priesthood; and to it was appropriated “ a girdle of fine twined linen, and 
 blue, and purple, and scarlet, of needle work.”^ This girdle, according to Josephus, 
 was about four fingers broad, and so loosely woven as to resemble the skin of a 
 serpent : it was interwoven with flowers of scarlet, of purple, of blue, and of fine 
 linen ; but the warp consisted of linen only : it was several times bound round the 
 tunic, the circumvolutions beginning at the breast where it was fastened, and the 
 remaining part of it hung loosely down to the ancles ; but at the time when the priest 
 was employed in his sacred functions at the altar, it was cast over his left shoulder, 
 lest it should be blown about by the wind, and interrupt him in his duty. The high 
 priest had a girdle of the same kind, which he girt upon the robe of the ephod ; 
 but this girdle, adds our author, was more richly embellished with gold.^ 
 
 The robe of the ephod^ w’as made of woven worW all of blue ; and there was a 
 hole'^ in the midst of the robe, as “ the hole of an habergeon,” with a band® round 
 about the hole, “ that it should not be rent and upon the skirts at the bottom of 
 the robe w^ere promegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of twined 
 linen, interchangeably placed between bells of pure gold, “ a bell and a promegranate 
 round about the hem of the robe.”® Josephus assures us, that this garment, like the 
 tunic, reached to the feet : “ It is not,” says he, “ made of two distinct pieces sewed 
 together at the shoulders and at the sides ; but it is one entire long garment, woven 
 throughout without a seam, so as to leave an aperture at the neck, not an oblique 
 one, but parted along the back and breast ; to which an edging, or border, was 
 affixed, to give the opening a more elegant appearance : it was also parted where 
 
 * Matro-ajSa^ovtc, or a coat open at the top, according to Whiston. Josephus also gives the name 
 ■yf.'dofjLevr]i chethomene, to this garment, which he derives from chethon, linen: hb. III. ut supra. 
 
 ® AittXtjc mv^ovoc l^vffmyoQ, duplicis syndonis hyssince. Ibid. 
 
 ^ Opt may equally be rendered variegated work woven in the loom, or brocaded, as well as 
 
 work wrought with a needle. Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 29. 
 
 Moses called this girdle aj^avrjd abaneth, says Josephus; and we, by a word borrowed 
 
 from the Babylonians, name it eyiav emian. Antiq. Jud. lib. III. cap. 7 ; and Exodus, chap, xxxix. 
 ver. 29. * Seepages xxxii and xxxiii. 
 
 ^ nWVfZ Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 22. ''Q or mouth in the original. Ib. ver. 23. 
 
 ® an edge, or border. Ibid. 9 Ibid, verses 24, 25, 26. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Iv 
 
 the hands came out;'” from which circumstance, one may he led to judge that 
 this robe had no sleeves, or, if any, that they were very large and loose. The rohe, 
 as we have seen in a former part of this chapter,^ was a garment common to all 
 persons of rank; but the robe, distinguished by the pontifical ornaments, belonged 
 to the high priest alone, and was not even worn by him but upon occasions of great 
 solemnity. 
 
 The ephod, according to Moses, was made of gold, of blue, and of purple, and of 
 scarlet, and of fine twined linen ; it had two shoulder-pieces “ to couple it together; 
 by the two edges was it coupled together;'’^ which seems perfectly to justify the 
 opinion that it had no sleeves, but was like the tabard of an herald, consisting of two 
 pieces, open on the sides, and joined together on the shoulders beneath the breast- 
 plate ; it was also made fast to the body by the curious girdle, which is expressly 
 said to have been “ upon the ephod,” and made precisely of the same materials. 
 Josephus differs from the sacred historian, and asserts that the ephod had sleeves, 
 and that it resembled the epomidis of the Grecians :* he describes it as woven to the 
 depth of a cubit with several colours intermixed with gold and embroidered. He 
 also adds, that it was not at all different from a short tunic. Two onyx stones, on 
 which were engraved the names of the sons of Israel, were set in “ ouches,” or sockets, 
 of gold,^ and placed upon the shoulders of the ephod ; also upon the front of the 
 ephod was affixed the sacred pectoral, which was four square and double ; “ a span 
 was the length of it, and a span was the breadth of it it was made of “ cunning 
 work,” like the work of the ephod, of gold, of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, 
 and of fine twined linen ; and there were set in it, in sockets of gold, four rows of 
 precious stones, three stones in each row ; and upon them were engraved the names 
 of the children of Israel, according to the twelve tribes : there were also four rings 
 of pure gold affixed to the pectoral, in which were inserted four wreathen chains of 
 gold ; the two uppermost chains were attached to the sockets of gold upon the 
 
 * Josephus, ut supra. The same author also informs us, that the name they gave to this robe was 
 
 fitOeip, or fjEEip. Ibid. * Page xxxii. 
 
 5 Exodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 2, et infra. The manner in which they prepared the gold for the pur- 
 pose of embellishing the sacred vestments deserves our notice : “ and they did beat the (jold into thin 
 plates, and cut it into wires, to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, with cunning 
 work." Ibid. ver. 3. 
 
 * ILWrjyiK fj ETTwyiSt, Antiq. ut supra. 
 
 ® am E,xodus, chap, xxxix. ver. 6. 
 
Ivi 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 shoulders of the ephod ; and the two lower chains, beneath the pectoral, to two 
 rings of gold, which were placed upon the lower part of the ephod, immediately 
 above the girdle, on purpose for their reception.^ The “curious girdle,” which 
 was also an appendage to the ephod, and sewed upon it, according to Josephus, 
 encompassed the body, and, returning, was fastened upon the seam ; and the ends, 
 decorated with fringes fastened in hollow loops of gold, were permitted to hang 
 downwards. The ephod, ornamented with the Sacred pectoral, and other magni- 
 ficent appendages described above, was appropriated to the high priest alone ; but 
 ephods of linen, with girdles of the same material, were wnrn, not only by the sons 
 of Aaron upon particular occasions, but also by persons w'ho had not the least pre- 
 tension to the priesthood.^ 
 
 The tiara, or bonnet, used by the Jewish priests when they officiated at the 
 altar, did not, according to Josephus, cover the head, but wns made of thick rib- 
 bands, or of linen often folded and sewed together, so as to resemble a chaplet ; the 
 upper part of the bonnet was covered with fine linen, which descended over the 
 front, and concealed the seams of the envelopement, because the appearance of them 
 was thought to be inelegant. The same kind of tiara w^as also worn by the high priest ; 
 to which w^as added a second, adorned with wreaths of blue, and round it a crown of 
 gold polished, consisting of three rows one above another, out of which arose a cup 
 of gold resembling the herb called sacchams, or hyoscyamus.^ Such is the descrip- 
 tion given by Josephus of the mitre and crown belonging to the Jewish pontiff ; and. 
 
 1 Exodus, chap, xxxix. verses 15, 16 ; et infra. 
 
 2 1 Chronicles, chap. xv. ver. 27. 
 
 3 SoxxMpw, called Inj the Greeks voaKvafioc. In another part of his writings Jose|)hus thus describes 
 the habit of the high priest when he officiated : he had breeches which reached to his thighs ; he wore a 
 linen tunic descending to his feet, and above it a blue round robe without a seam, reaching to his ancles: 
 this robe was ornamented with fringes at the bottom, and hung full of bells and pomegranates : upon 
 his breast he had l^wvnv, a zone, or girdle, of five rows of colours ; namely, gold, purple, scarlet, fine 
 linen, that is, ivhite, and blue. The ephod was composed of the same materials as the zone, but richer 
 with gold : it resembled the tunic, and reached to the thighs ; it was also fastened with two amriXiaKui 
 Xpvaai or fibulae of gold, embellished with the most precious sardonyx stones that could be procured, on 
 which were engraved the names of the twelve tribes of Israel ; on the other side did hang in four rows, 
 three in each row, twelve more precious stones, every one of them bearing the name of one of the twelve 
 tribes : upon his head was a tiara of fine linen surmounted with blue ; and above it a crown of gold, 
 whereon were engraved the sacred letters. These garments he used only once a year, when he went into 
 the sanctuary alone. Bel. Jud. lib. VI. cap. vi. 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Ivii 
 
 without doubt, it corresponded exactly with those splendid adornments as they 
 appeared in his day, for he was himself a priest, and could hardly he ignorantof the form 
 of sacerdotal vestments then in use ; but, probably, all of them had undergone several 
 material ehanges since the time of their first institution, which may account for the 
 variation that appears in several instances, when his description of them is compared 
 with that given by Moses. 
 
 The bonnets of the priests, and the turban, or mitre, of Aaron, certainly 
 differed from each other ; and they are therefore called by different names in the 
 Hebrew but how far the variation is properly distinguished, or the real form of 
 either justly given by Josephus, I cannot presume to determine ; there is nothing, 
 however, in the Sacred Text to justify the description of the trijde crown, which, he 
 tells us, was place 1 upon the turban ; neither is his representation of that crown 
 perfectly conformable to a second description given of the sacred mitre and its append- 
 ages in a succeeding part of his work.- 
 
 The priests and Levites were prohibited the use of woollen garments at the time 
 they officiated in their sacred offices : it does not, however, appear that the pro- 
 hibition extended beyond that time ; indeed the words of the prophet Ezekiel 
 afford a strong negative argument to the contrary ; they run thus : “ and it shall 
 come to pass, when they,” that is, the priests and Levites, “enter in at the 
 gates of the inner court, they shall be clothed with linen garments ; and no wool 
 shall come upon them whilst they minister in the gates of the inner court, and 
 within. They shall have linen bonnets upon their heads, and shall have linen 
 breeches upon their loins ; they shall not gird themselves with anything that causeth 
 sweat. And when they go forth into the utter court, even into the utter court to 
 the people, they shall put off their garments wherein they ministered, and lay them 
 in the holy chambers ; and they shall put on other garments ; and they shall not 
 sanctify the people with their garments to which is added : “ Neither shall they 
 
 shave their heads, nor suffer their locks to grow long ; they shall only poll their 
 heads.”* 
 
 Josephus speaks of a religious sect among the Jews, called Esseans, who, 
 contrary to the usual custom of the Asiatics, considered the anointing the body with 
 
 1 See page xxx. with the note ; and page xxxiii. with the note (5). 
 
 ~ See the last note but one. 3 Ezekiel, chap. xliv. verses 17, 18, 19, and 20. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 I 
 
Iviii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 oil as a defilement ; but were by no means so careful to wipe away the moisture 
 occasioned by perspiration ; their garments were white ; and they wore them, as 
 well as their shoes, without any change, until they were perfectly unfit for farther 
 service.^ 
 
 I cannot conclude this section without a few short observations concerning the 
 habits of the Philistines and other nations immediately bordering upon the country 
 possessed by the children of Israel ; the civil habits of the Philistines, indeed do 
 not seem to have differed very materially from those of the Jews ; for, when 
 Sampson had lost “thirty shirts and thirty changes of raiment,” which he had 
 promised to the Philistines upon the explication of his riddle, lie slew thirty men of 
 Askelon, and took their shirts and their changes of garments, which he gave to the men 
 who had expounded the riddle, without any notice being taken by them, that they 
 were such garments as belonged to their own nation ; neither was that circumstance 
 any part of the stipulation, when the wager was first proposed, and received the 
 consent of both parties.” 
 
 The religious habits appropriated to the Philistines are not specified ; but, 
 with respect to their military accoutrements, we have some little information left 
 upon record, I mean in the description given of the arms belonging to Goliath the 
 giant of Gath : they consisted of a helmet, a coat of mail, greaves, a small and 
 large shield, a spear, and a sword. 
 
 The helmet was made of brass, ^ and no otherwise particularised ; but the 
 coat of mail consisted of plates of brass, laid over each other in the form of scales, 
 which is expressed by a word in the original Hebrew^ that is totally omitted in our 
 translation ; and its weight was five thousand shekels of brass.^ The greaves, or 
 literally shining plates of brass,*’ which belonged to the Philistine, are expressly said 
 to have been “ upon bis feet and not like the Grecian greaves, which covered 
 the whole of the legs, and left the feet without protection.® The small shield (for, 
 
 * Bell. Jud. lib. II. cap. viii. 2 Judges, chap. xiv. verses 12, 13, and 19. 
 
 * riDilD 1^313 1 Samuel, chap. xvii. ver. 5. 
 
 C't27pLi7p scales ; and with the word properly rendered hy Espenius lorica squamatum, or 
 
 mail of scales: in the Vulgate it is called lorica hamata, that is hooked, or barbed, mail; but the 
 former interpretation agrees best with the original word. ® Or about 189 pounds Troy weight. 
 
 6 ntl^ns Samuel, chap, xvii. ver. 6. 7 Ibid. 
 
 ® See plate v. fig. 2, 4, and 5 ; and the three figures, plate viii. of the Introduction. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 lix 
 
 it seems that Goliath was provided with two shields) is said to have been borne 
 between his shoulders, that is, flung, I presume, at his hack by a strap, or belt, 
 whence he could easily take it when required in the time of action. The larger 
 shield was carried before him by his armour-bearer.^ His spear was headed with 
 iron, and seems to have been remarkable only for its size ; the head weighed five 
 hundred shekels.* The materials, from which his sword and the sheath belonging 
 to it were fabricated, are not specified : the sword, indeed, appears to have been of 
 excellent workmanship ; for, it is said that there was “ none like that but its 
 size was hardly in proportion to the rest of his arms, because David, at a future 
 period, made use of it instead of his own.^ 
 
 The Midianites and the Ishmaelites were rich from traffic ; and they seem 
 especially to have prided themselves in the sumptuousness of their garments and 
 valuable adornments annexed to them. The kings of Midian were clothed in 
 purple : they wore also drop-ornaments of gold, with chains, and bracelets, and 
 rmmd jewels, of the same metal ; and the Ishmaelites were particularly distinguished 
 by the ear-rings of gold with which their ears were decorated. 
 
 The Ammonites, and the Moabites," so far as any one may judge from the 
 prodigious abundance of gold and precious jewels found upon the dead bodies, after 
 they had been miraculously defeated in the wilderness of Tekoa,*^ were fond of 
 pompous apparel ; the crown of the king of the Ammonites, which David took from 
 him, was made of gold, and adorned with precious stones ; and Josephus assures us, 
 that there was in it a sardonyx stone of great value. ^ 
 
 ^ I am well aware, that Mr. Parkhurst aud Mr. Bate are of opinion, that the was not a shield, 
 
 according to the usual translations, nor yet a large spear, as others have thought, because, in this passage, 
 it appears to be distinguished from both : they conceive it to have been a missile weapon of some kind, 
 which, according to the latter, was not very short, because, says he, “Joshua stretched it out as a signal 
 to the ambuscade.” Joshua, chap. viii. ver. 18. The same word occurs also, Job, chap, xxxix, ver. 23; 
 and chap. xli. ver. 26 ; but, with all due deference to these learned writers, I cannot see why the giant 
 should not have had two shields, especially as his ai’mour-bearer carried one of them ; nor why a shield, 
 stretched out by the Jewish general, might not have been as easily perceived by the people in ambush as 
 a javelin. I have, therefore, retained the common translation : the shield borne before him was the 
 concerning which, see page lx. and the note (‘‘). 
 
 2 Or about 22 pounds Troy weight. 3 i Samuel, chap. xxi. ver. 9. •* Ibid. 
 
 5 Judges, chap. viii. ver. 26 ; Numbers, chap. xxxi. ver. 50. 
 
 ® 2 Chronicles, chap. xx. ver. 25. 
 
 7 2 Samuel, chap. xii. ver. 30 ; and Josephus, Antiq. Jud. lib. VII. cap. 7. 
 
lx 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Sabeans, or drunkards, as the word is rendered in the margin of our 
 Bihles, from the wilderness, are described with bracelets upon their hands, and 
 beautiful crowns upon their heads ; and the dress may probably refer to one or 
 other of the nations mentioned above.^ 
 
 The Phoenicians, and especially the Tyrians, were famous for their skill in the 
 clothing manufactures : the fine linen which they wore was the produce of their own 
 country ; and the purple dye belonging to them, which was probably an invention 
 of their own, was holden in universal estimation. We may judge of the excellence 
 of their productions by the admirable workmanship of the Tyrian, who super- 
 intended the fabrication of the sumptuous ornaments and sacred habits for the use 
 of the temple built by Solomon.^ It is highly reasonable to suppose, that a nation, 
 possessed of every requisite for finery, would appear in a manner corresponding to 
 its ability; and this indeed, we may be assured, was the case, if the people at large 
 followed the example of their sovereign ; for, the prophet Ezekiel, addressing him- 
 self to the king of Tyre, says, “ thy covering,” that is, the garments which he wore, 
 “is” a 'lorned with “every precious stone ; the sardius, the topaz, and the diamond, 
 the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle, 
 and gold.’’* 
 
 The habit of the priests of Phoenicia and Syria, according to Herodian, was a 
 tunic of linen, reaching to the feet, with long sleeves ; and in the middle of the 
 tunic there was a stripe of purple ; and their shoes were made of linen.* 
 
 The Phoenicians, and the Syrians, who inhabited Palestina, at least such of 
 them as went to the assistance of Xerxes by sea when he invaded Greece, had 
 helmets upon their heads nearly resembling the helmets of the Grecians, and 
 pectorals of quilted linen* upon their breasts : they were also armed with javelins, 
 and every one of them carried a round shield without a boss or protuberance at the 
 centre.^ 
 
 ^ Ezekiel, chap, xxiii. ver. 42. [These crowns, judging from the context, may have been crowns of 
 flowers, chaplets, or garlands. — Ed.] 
 
 2 2 Chronicles, chap. ii. ver. 14, &c. See also Josephus, Antiq. Jud. lib. VII. cap. 3. 
 
 3 Ezekiel, chap, xxviii. ver. 13. ♦ Herodian, lib. V. 
 
 5 Oioprimg Kiviovg. Herodotus in Polymnia, Ixxxix. 6 Ibid. 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 THE ANCIENT HAIilTS OF THE ASSYRIANS, OF THE PERSIANS, OF THE MEDES, ANT) 
 
 OF OTHER ASIATIC NATIONS. 
 
 If it be granted that the clothing arts existed anterior to the deluge, it will not 
 he unreasonable to suppose, that the first exertion of those arts, posterior to that 
 event was made upon the spot where the immediate descendants of Noah took up 
 their abode ; and especially in the plains of Shinar, where they were collected 
 together in one large mass, and remained a considerable time in union with each 
 other. Among the Ass\Tians we might therefore expect to find the clothing 
 manufactures flourishing at a very early period, and carried to a great extent of 
 excellence ; but history is silent upon this subject : and the inhabitants of Egypt 
 appear to have eclipsed the fame of all the Asiatic nations respecting their 
 productions from the loom ; and especially in the manufacturing of fine linen. 
 
 The first historical description we meet with concerning the Assyrian habits 
 occurs in the writings of Herodotus ; he informs us, that the Babylonians wore two 
 tunics ; the one was an interior garment made of linen,* and reached to the feet ; 
 the other was an upper vestment of woollen cloth but the form or length of it is 
 not specified. Over these tunics they wore a white chlandion, or small cloak.^ 
 Their shoes, or perhaps we ought rather to say sandals d the historian tells us, were 
 made in a fashion peculiar to the country, not unlike those of the Boeotians ; but 
 unfortunately the form of both is totally unknown at present. “ They wear,” 
 continues he, “ long hair, and cover their heads with mitres,” or turbans.^ “ They 
 anoint the whole body with perfumed oils; and every man has a ring with a signet, 
 and carries a staff, or sceptre curiously wrought, on the top of which is placed an 
 apple, a rose, a lily, or an eagle, or some other image : neither is he permitted to 
 carrv a sceptre without an adornment of the like kind.” 
 
 1 no^7}V£ic£i Xirfw, ad pedes demisso lineo Herodotus in Clio, cxcv. 
 
 2 llpiyeov Herodotus in Clio, cxcv. ^ Wavdiov XevKriy, penutam albam. Ibid. 
 
 * YTTocrj/iara. Ibid. * Kf^aXag jjirprjai Ibid. 
 
Ixii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The prophet Ezekiel, who lived upwards of a century earlier than the Grecian 
 historian, speaks of the large tiarce, or mitres of dyed clothe which the Babylonish 
 princes wore about their heads. ‘ In another place, he mentions the gorgeous 
 apparel, and long robes of the Assyrian chieftains.” 
 
 Daniel tells us, that three men, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, were, at 
 the command of Nebuchadnezzar, bound in their mantles, with their turbans, their 
 upper woollen tunics, and their under linen tunics : ’ which description well answers 
 to that above, given by Herodotus ; and, if the interpretation of the Sacred Text be 
 just, proves, that the habits of the Babylonians, in the time of the Grecian historian 
 were perfectly conformable to the habits of the ancient Assyrians, and not con- 
 founded with those of the Persians. Herodotus makes no mention of the birdie ; 
 but the prophet Ezekiel, in the passage cited above, assures us, that it formed a 
 part of the ancient Chaldean dress.* The Assyrian soldiers, in the time of Xerxes, 
 had helmets of brass to cover their heads ; every one of them had a short sword, a 
 buckler, and javelin, after the manner of the Egyptians, a pectoral made of linen, 
 and a truncheon of wood pointed with iron.s 
 
 History affords us no material information respecting the habits of the Assyrian 
 ladies ; it is natural, however, to conclude, that they were not inferior in point of 
 finery and elegance to those of the men ; and this opinion will appear more probable, 
 when we recollect that ear-rings, nose-rings, bracelets, and other jewels of gold, 
 formed part of their adornment at a very early period.® Semiramis, indeed, according 
 to an ancient Greek author, adopted such a garment as rendered the distinction of 
 her sex exceedingly doubtful.^ The same kind of robe, called the stole of Semiramis, 
 adds the historian, was holden in high estimation by the Medes when they became 
 lords of Asia, and by the Persians after them.'* 
 
 The Persian habits anciently were exceedingly simple, and the Persians them- 
 
 ^ Cn^{yS“i2 spreading or stretching oat to great extent ; that is, of the dged 
 
 attire about their heads. Ezekiel, chap, xxiii. ver. 15. - Ibid. ver. 6, and 12. 
 
 3 pnnbn-iDI pn''b::iD3 Daniel, chap. hi. ver. 21. 
 
 The Chaldeans girded with girdles upon their loins.'’ Chap, xxiii. ver. 15. 
 
 5 Herodotus in Polymnia, Lxiii. 6 Genesis, chap. xxiv. ver. 22 ; et alibi. 
 
 I This she did for political reasons, to give herself a more bold and masculine air, especially 
 when she appeared at the head of her army. Diodorus Siculus, lib. II. cap. I. 
 
 8 Ibid. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixiii 
 
 selves a rude and uncivilized people, if the description given of them by Sandanis 
 the Lydian be just ; “ You are preparing, O king,” says he, to Croesus king of 
 Lydia, “to make war against a people, who have no other clothing than skins,’ who 
 inhabit a barren country, and fare hardly.” Their military dress was composed of 
 leather, which was girt about the body with a leathern girdle ; this was anterior to 
 the reign of Cyrus f that monarch, having extended his conquests through great part 
 of Asia, introduced the Medean habit among his subjects ; but, during the whole 
 of his government, the Persian garments continued to he coarser and plainer than 
 those belonging to the Medes.® After his death the Medean luxury was cherished 
 in Persia ; for, says Xenophon, speaking of his own time, “it is not enough for 
 the Persians to have soft couches, hut they must have carpets at their feet, that the 
 floors may not by resistance make a noise, the carpets being placed to break the 
 sound. In the winter it is not sufficient for them to clothe their heads, their bodies, 
 and their feet, but they have coverings made of hair for their hands and fingers.* 
 In the summer the shade of the trees and of the rocks cannot satisfy them ; but 
 under these, men stand near them with umbrellas and, from this period, the 
 dresses of the Medes and of the Persians were so blended together, that it was 
 impossible to distinguish their forms from each other. 
 
 The Persians, according to Strabo, took their dress from the Medes, which, he 
 tells us, consisted of the tiara, the cidaris, the pileus, tunics with sleeves, and the 
 anaxyrides ; to which may be added the candys the three first were coverings for 
 the head ; the anaxyrides were breeches bound upon the loins, and frequently 
 reached to the ancles ; the candys was an exterior part of the habit, resembling the 
 pallium, or cloak, of the Greeks and Romans.^ In another place, the same author 
 describes the Persian dress in this manner ; “ the garments of their chiefs are the 
 anaxyrides, with a double or triple lining ; a tunic, with sleeves, lined, that reaches 
 
 ^ Ot (TKvTiynQ fjLEv aya^vpicac, (tkutivtjv Tr)v aWrjv eadrjTa, (popeovcri ; who wear subligacula, or 
 breeches of leather, and the rest of their garments are also of leather. Herodotus in Clio, Ixxi. 
 
 2 Ibid. 3 Xenophon, de Cyri institut. lib. I. 
 
 XtipibaQ bamiur yai caiCTvXrjdpaQ. Ibid. lib. VIII. ® Ibid. 
 
 ® Ti«pa yap tiq, kui KibupiQ, kui TrtXoe, cat ^eiptSinroi ■)(irwvtQ, Kai aral /pictQ, Kai KarbvtQ. Strabo 
 Geographus, lib. XI. 
 
 ^ The can dyes belonging to the Persian soldiers were fastened with a buckle ; and their colour was 
 a particular purple, called aXnrop(f>vpoQ ; whereas other persons wore their candyes of a common purple 
 colour. 
 
XIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to the knees ; an hypendites, which is a kind of under-tunic, white in the inside, 
 and on the outside flowered ; the candys for the summer is of purple or violet 
 colour, and that for the winter flowered; their tiarse are like those of the magi ; and 
 their shoes close and double.”" 
 
 The Persians, says Herodotus, wear the habit of the Medes, because they think 
 it more becoming than their owm f and Xenophon tells us, that Cyrus chose to wear 
 the Medean dress, and recommended it to his followers, alleging, that it hid the 
 defects of the person, and made the wearer appear more tall and handsome. They 
 had also a sort of shoes, or sandals, so contrived, that certain additional parts might 
 be placed in them beneath the feet, without being seen, to give them the appearance 
 of being taller than they really were.* 
 
 I'he dress of Cyrus, after he had adopted the Medean habit, and as he appeared 
 at a public procession, is thus described : his tiara was raised above his head, and 
 round the tiara was placed a wreath, or diadem p his tunic was of a purple colour 
 intermixed with white, which mixture of white was prohibited to every other person ; 
 and his hands were extended beyond the sleeves of the tunic ; his breeches, which 
 covered the whole of his legs, were yellow C and his candys, or mantle, was altogether 
 of a purple colour.® 
 
 Astyages, the grandfather of Cyrus, was arrayed in a purple tunic, with the 
 mantle called candys ; a wreath en collar^ surrounded his neck ; and his arms were 
 adorned with bracelets his complexion and his eyes were painted and his head 
 decorated with a peruke,^® which was probably no more than a kind of supplemental 
 hair added to his own ; for, painting the face and eyes, and wearing additional hair, 
 was a custom commonly practised by the ancient kings of the Medes and Cyrus, 
 according to Xenophon, permitted his followers to colour their eyes, that they might 
 appear to have finer eyes than they really had, and paint their faces to mend their 
 complexions."' 
 
 1 Strabo, lib. XVI. ^ Herodotus in Clio, cxxxv. ® Xenophon, ut supra, lib. VIII. 
 
 Op^rjv Tr}v riapav — Kai ctac)jpa Trtpi tt] Tiup(f. Ibid. Xen phon adds, that all the relations 
 of Cyrus were permitted to wear a diadem upon the tiara. 
 
 5 AyalvpiCoe vayivol3a<psiQ. Ibid. ^ Kuriivv oXoTropfvpor. Ibid. 
 
 ^ SrptTrroi. Ibid. lib. I. ** Ibid. 
 
 9 0(l)da\fxo)v vTToypafT}. Ibid. Kofiai TrpoadtToi. Ibid. 
 
 " The Medes and Persians were fond of long hair, which they constantly clipped close to the head 
 when they went into mourning. Quintus Curtius, lih. X. Ibid, lib VIII. 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Ixv 
 
 Alexander, says Diodorus Siculus, affecting the Persian manners, caused a 
 Persian diadem to be put upon his head, and wore a white tunic and belt resembling 
 those of the Persian monarchs, and adopted all the other parts of their dress, except 
 the anaxyrides and the candys p but Plutarch informs us, that he objected to the 
 tiara also.^ 
 
 There are several passages in Scripture, particularly in Esther and in Daniel, 
 which convey a clear idea of the astonishing pomp and splendour prevalent in the 
 courts of the Persian monarchs ; but, as they are too general for my purpose, I 
 shall content myself with the following quotation : “ Then having passed through 
 all the doors, she,” Esther, “ stood before the king, who sat upon his royal throne, 
 and was clothed in all his robes of majesty, all glittering with gold and precious stones, 
 and he was very dreadful : — and so he held up his golden sceptre”* Profane history 
 also perfectly coincides with the Sacred writings upon this subject, as the following 
 extracts selected from abundance of others will sufficiently prove. Quintus Curtius 
 informs us, that, when Darius was preparing his army to oppose the Grecians, who, 
 under the conduct of Alexander, had invaded Persia, Charidemus, a Persian statesman, 
 told him, “ that, although his soldiers were clothed in coloured garments, glittering 
 in armour of gold,Tar exceeding in brilliancy and riches any pomp that had gone 
 before, yet they would not readily affright the Macedonians, who,” continued he, 
 
 “ are a brave and hardy people.” The same author also describes the manner in 
 which Darius appeared with his army; “First,” says he, “there came three 
 hundred and sixty-five young men, habited in scarlet, equal in number to the days 
 of the year ; these were followed by others habited in white, bearing rods of gold ; 
 then came the grand guard of the Persians called immortal, because as fast as one 
 of them died, his place was filled up by another — the richness of their dress far 
 exceeded any of the rest ; they had all of them chains of gold ; their tunics were 
 embroidered with gold; and the sleeves of the tunics were adorned with pearls : 
 at a small distance from these followed a hand consisting of fifteen thousand, called • 
 Doripherii, reputed for the king’s cousins, all habited like women, who, for the 
 variety and splendor of their garments, were exceedingly remarkable ; and those who 
 were wont to receive the kind’s robes rode next before the chariot of Darius. The 
 
 O 
 
 1 Diodorus Siculus, lib. XYII. cap. viii. - Plutarch, in vita Alexaudri. 
 
 Rest of Esther, chap. xv. ver. 6 — 10. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 K 
 
Ixvi 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 monarch himself was apparelled in most sumptuous attire : his garments were 
 composed of purple impaled with white, on which were falcons fighting with each 
 other, richly embroidered with gold : he was girded with a girdle of gold ; and 
 from it hung his sword, the scabbard of which was composed of one entire pearl ; 
 upon his head he wore a diadem, called by the Persians cydarisy which had a roll 
 about it of green and white.”^ 
 
 We meet with no particular description of the garments appertaining to the 
 Persian and Median ladies : without doubt, they equalled those of the men in 
 richness, delicacy, and elegance ; those especially which belonged to the queens of 
 Persia must have been exceedingly sumptuous ; for, we learn from unquestionable 
 authority, that the revenues of whole cities were given to them ; the one to provide 
 them with girdles ; another to supply them with necklaces ; a third to procure 
 them shoes ; and in this manner the whole of their dress was completely furnished.'^ 
 
 'Pile robes belonging to the Persian ladies of high rank were long, and trailed 
 upon the ground, as we learn fi'om a passage in Esther : “ she, being gloriously 
 adorned,” in order to appear before Artaxerxes, king of Persia, “ took her two 
 maids with her ; and upon the one she leaned, as carrying herself delicately ; and 
 the other followed hearing up her train.”* 
 
 Linen, I presume, formed great part of the dress of the fair sex ; and an 
 ancient author assures us, that there was nothing more disgusting, or held more 
 dishonourable by the Persian women, than to put their hands to wool, or to be 
 forced to wear woollen clothes. 
 
 The Persians, according to Xenophon, had arms for a close fight, a pectoral 
 upon the breast, and a shield in the left hand and the same author, speaking of 
 the soldiers in the army of Cyrus, says, many of them had handsome tunics, and 
 
 ^ Quintus Curtins, Vita Alexandri, lib. III. I shall not presume to determine the ditference be- 
 tween the cydaris, the tiara, and the pileiis, the three coverings for the head, which Xenophon, and 
 . other ancient authors, assures us were used by the Medes and Persians : perhaps the reader 
 may meet with the representations of all of them among the curious figures remaining upon the ruined 
 walls of Persepolis, which are finely engraven in Le Brun’s Voyage to Persia, vol. II. and copied in the 
 ancient Universal History ; to which books the reader is referred [Vide also Sir Robert Kerr Porter’s 
 Travels in Persia, 2 vols. 4to. Ed.] I shall only add from Xenophon, that it was the prerogative of the 
 Persian monarch to wear an upright tiara. 
 
 - Ilerodot. ut supra. Plato in Alcib. p. i. ; et alibi. ^ Rest of Esther, chap. xv. verses 2, 3, 4. 
 
 * Quintus Curtins, lib. V. ^ Xenophon, ut supra, lib. I. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixvii 
 
 elegant pectorals, with helmets. The horses likewise, continues he, were armed 
 with forehead-pieces, and breast-plates ; the single horses with thigh-pieces ; and 
 those joined together in the chariots with plates upon their sides ; so that the 
 whole army glittered with the brass, and appeared beautifully decked with scarlet 
 habits. In another passage he says, all those that were with Cyrus were armed 
 with the same arms that he was ; they had scarlet tunics,* a pectoral of brass, 
 brazen helmets with white crests, and swords ; and every one of them had a spear 
 made of the cornel tree. Their horses were armed with forehead-pieces, breast- 
 plates, and side-pieces ; and the side-pieces served as thigh-pieces to the rider. 
 The arms of Cyrus, and those of his companions, were gilt, and differed in no one 
 particular, excepting that his were brighter and more highly polished.- 
 
 \Ve have good authority to prove that the offensive as well as the defensive 
 arms were often made of gold ; for, Herodotus expressly assures us, that many 
 golden swords were found among the spoils taken fi'om the Persians.^ 
 
 The Medean and Persian soldiers belonging to the army of Xerxes, according 
 to Herodotus, had every man a tiara for his head that was impenetrable ; a tunic, 
 covered with plates of iron like the scales of a fish, and adorned with sleeves of 
 various colours ; an Egyptian pectoral ; the anaxyrides, which covered the legs as 
 well as the thighs ; and a target* of cane, strongly compacted for a shield, which 
 served also to cover the quiver ; to which were added a javelin, a short bow with 
 long arrows made of cane, and a sword suspended from a belt from the right side p 
 hut the same author informs us, that some of the Persian cavalry wore helmets of 
 brass.** 
 
 The Sagartians, a people of Persian extraction who accompanied Xerxes, 
 had no weapon except a short sword, and a net made of cord,^ which they 
 threw over their opponents ; and having entangled them with tlie net, they were 
 presently slain. * 
 
 Xenophon describes the military dress of Abradates, king of the Susians, in 
 
 ^ Xirtucri Xenophon, lib. YII. - Qfnrep KUTourpov ii,t\afxTrtv — sho7iehtie a mirror. Ibid. 
 
 ^ Hei’odot. in Calliope, lx.xx. [This is net such “ good authority,” as Herodotus may have only 
 meant swords or cimeters hilted, scabbarded and highly ornamented with gold. Ed ] 
 
 * Feppa. TTerodot. in Polymn. Ixi. ^ Ibid. ^ Ibid. Ixxxiv. 
 
 ” H.eipp'Ti —ETrXsypEvrjfft ijn'it'nur. 
 
 Ibid. Ixxxv. 
 
Ixviii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the following manner : when he was about to put on his linen pectoral, Panthea 
 (his wife) brought him a golden helmet with arm-piexes,^ and broad bracelets for 
 his wrists, together with a purple tunic reaching to his feet, which hung in folds at 
 the bottom, and a crest of violet colour.'^ 
 
 The reliofious habits of the ancient Persians are little known. In the time of 
 Cvrus the Great, the principal lords of his court, who were called xEquales, usually 
 assisted at the offerings and festivals with crowns upon their heads, because it 
 was the general opinion, that the gods were delighted to behold the magnificence of 
 those who made oblations to them, and received them the more favourably 
 upon that account p and here may be added the following extract from Herodotus : 
 “ when a Persian is about to sacrifice he builds no altar, kindles no fire, makes no 
 libation, nor uses either flutes, fillets, or consecrated flowers ; but, wearing a tiara, 
 decorated chiefly with mjTtle upon his head, leads the victim to a clean spot of 
 ground, and invokes the gods.”"* 
 
 The Parthian habit consisted of a tunic with long sleeves, which was girded 
 about the loins, and reached to the knees : above the tunic they wore a mantle, or 
 chlamys, fastened upon the shoulder with a fibula ; and it descended as low as the 
 tunic ; the tiara belonging to this people, rising nearly to a point, was bent forward 
 after the fashion of the Phrygian bonnet ; their shoes were close on all sides ; and 
 their breeches reached to the feet.^ When the Parthians, says Justin, grew wealthy, 
 they clothed themselves in the Medean apparel, which he describes as garments 
 thin, translucent, and flowing.® According to Plutarch, the kings of Parthia 
 imitated the dress of the ancient kings of the Medes ; for, speaking of Surena, 
 he informs us, that he was dressed, after the manner of the Medes, with pictures 
 in his face, and a handsome peruke, very different in this respect from the other 
 Parthians, who wore their hair as the Scythians did, dishevelled and neglected, 
 which gave them a terrible kind of aspect. “ And though,” says Pere Montfaucon, 
 “ in this passage the historian does not speak of the king, but of him who was 
 next to the king in the empire ; yet it is not to be doubted that the kings of Parthia 
 were habited in like manner. The ornament for the head of the Parthian kings,” 
 
 ^ n£j(/3po]^to»'ta. Xenophou, lib . VI. - Aofov vaKiyOiyol^acpr}. Ibid. 
 
 ^ Xenopbon, ut supra, lib. III. * Herodot. in Clio, cxxxii. 
 
 5 See Montfaucon’s Antiquite Expliquee, vol. III. cbap. xiv. ® Justin, lib. XLI. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixix 
 
 continues he, “ is not always the same upon old monuments and medals : it seems 
 to have been subject to many changes ; and the king is sometimes represented with 
 a simple diadem without any other adornment than that of his own hair.”' 
 
 The dress of the Scythians and the Thracians was, in many respects, con- 
 formable to that of the Persians ; and, like them, they wore the anaxyrides and 
 the tiara ; their habits, says Montfaucon, whose authority is derived from ancient 
 sculptures, consisted of the tunic, which, in some instances, has sleeves that reach 
 to the wrists ; anaxyrides, or breeches, which descend as low as the ancles, and 
 served at once for breeches and stockings ; to these may be added the pallium, or 
 chlamys, which sometimes also served for a head covering. Persons of distinction 
 appear with a tunic reaching to the ancles ; in one instance the tunic appears to be 
 fringed at the bottom. Sometimes they are represented with a long mantle orna- 
 mented with fringes ; and in every instance the tiara, or bonnet, is the same as 
 that belonging to the Parthians. He then speaks of a Phrygian figure with two 
 tunics, one upon the other ; and the longest of them barely reaching to the knees ; 
 but, adds he, the most beautiful figure that I have seen, in the Phrygian dress, is 
 Paris seated, and holding the apple of discord in his right hand. His bonnet is 
 of the usual form ; and above his tunic he wears a chlamys, or mantle, fastened 
 with a round fibula upon his right shoulder ; and his shoes resemble those of the 
 Parthians.^ 
 
 Herodotus, speaking of the Thracians who accompanied Xerxes into Greece, 
 says, they covered their heads with a cap, or helmet, made of foxes’ skins, and their 
 bodies with a tunic and a mantle of various colours their shoes^ were bound with 
 thongs above the ancles ; and they carried small bucklers in the form of a half moon ; 
 and every one of them had a javelin and a short dagger. Those Thracians, con- 
 
 1 Montfaucon, ut supra. 
 
 - Montfaucon, ut supra, chap. xv. Many of the Scythians, according to Herodotus, clothed 
 themselves with the skins of men, as other nations did with the skins of beasts ; and with the skins 
 of the right hands of their enemies they made coverings for their quivers : they also made cups of the 
 skulls of those they had slain ; the poorer sort, adds he, clothed themselves with leather ; to which 
 the more wealthy added ornaments of gold. The Melanchlcenians, a nation bordering on Scythia, wear, 
 says the same author, no other clothing than black ; and the Gelonians, another neighbouring nation, 
 wear garments made of otters’ and beavers’ skins. Herodot. in Melpomene, cvii. 
 
 ^ Zeipcic TraiciXag. Herodotus in Polymnia, Ixxv. * Ilt^tXa. Ibid. Ixxv. 
 
Ixx 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tinues he, who retained their original name in Asia, came into the field with small 
 bucklers composed of untanned hides, two Lycian javelins for each man, with an 
 helmet of brass, having ears and horns like those of an ox of the same metal ; and 
 their legs were covered with Phoenician cloth. ^ 
 
 The Caspians, and the Pactyans, who were in the army of Xerxes, were clothed 
 in goats’ skins : the Colchians and the Saspirians had helmets of wood and the 
 Saranges were magnificently habited in garments of various colours ; and their 
 buskins reached to the knees.'’ The Lycians had a covering of goats’ skins upon 
 their shoulders ; they wore pectorals upon their breasts ; and their legs were covered 
 with greaves. They had also caps upon their heads, adorned with crests of feathers p 
 and every one of them carried a bow of cornel, with arrows of cane, and a dart, a 
 falchion, and a short sword. ^ The Mos^msecians wore double tunics that did not 
 reach to the knees ; and helmets of leather upon their heads like those of the 
 Paphlagonians, from the middle of which there rose a tuft of hair, braided to a 
 point, resembling a tiara ; their shields were made in the shape of an ivy leaf, 
 composed of the hides of white oxen with the hair on.® 
 
 The Typyrians were an Eastern nation ; and, according to Strabo, the men 
 were clothed in black, and wore long hair ; whereas the women, on the contrary, 
 wore white garments and short hair.^ The inhabitants of Panchaa, an island of 
 the Arabian sea, wear, says Diodorus Siculus, soft garments, owing to the excel- 
 lence of the wool produced in that country ; both men and women deck themselves 
 with ornaments of gold ; they use circular neck-bracelets,® and bracelets about 
 their wrists, like the Persians ; their ears are adorned with ear-rings ; and their 
 shoes are decorated with various colours : the priests wear robes of white linen, 
 and sometimes of pure soft wool ; their heads are covered with mitres embroidered 
 with gold their shoes, or rather sandals, are curiously wrought with exquisite 
 workmanship and their ear-rings are of gold, resembling those belonging to the 
 women. 
 
 ' VuKeaKboiviKtoLcn. Ibid. Ixxvi. ^ Ibid Ixxix. ^ IlE^iXa £ic yovv arrsu'orra. Ibid. Ixvii. 
 
 * riiXovc TrrepotfTi Trspitg e(pavu)neyovQ Ibid. xcii. ® Ibid. 
 
 ^ Xenophon’s Expedition of Cyrus the Younger, lib. V. ^ Strabo, lib. XV. ^ 
 
 ^ Tpai^jjXotc ffrpeTrrovc kvkXovc, Diodorus Siculus, lib. V. cap. iii. 9 IVhrpac Ibid. 
 
 Triv St vTTo^eaiv f^ovfTi (Tav^aXia (piXoTi^vwc eioyna^sva. Ibid. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 THE HABITS APPROPRIATED TO MOURNING BY THE ASIATIC NATIONS ; 
 
 AND THE DISTINCTIONS MADE BY DRESS. 
 
 The generality of mankind have agreed in setting apart some kind of clothing to 
 express their sorrow for the loss of their friends and relatives ; and this custom is 
 not of modern invention, but as ancient, at least, as the patriarchal ages : among 
 the Asiatic nations it consisted in throwing aside such garments as were best cal- 
 culated for ease and elegance, and substituting others unpleasant to the sight and 
 uncomfortable to the wearer. 
 
 The first token of sorrow, upon the reception of tidings of recent misfortunes, 
 was that of rending the tunic, or the robe. Thus Jacob, when he was persuaded 
 that his son Joseph was dead, “rent his rohe.”‘ Joseph’s brethren rent their 
 clothes, when they saw the cup produced from Benjamin’s sack.® Job also “ rent 
 his robe” when he heard of the death of his sons and his three friends, at the 
 time they first saw him in his distress, “lifted up their voices and wept, and rent 
 every one his robe.”^ Numberless are the instances that might be produced, from 
 sacred as well as from profane history, in proof of this circumstance ; but those 
 already cited, it is presumed, will be thought perfectly sufficient. 
 
 In cases of heavy affliction they laid aside the garments best calculated for 
 their ease, and put on sackcloth, which, in some instances at least, was black, and 
 made of hair,® and of course must have been exceedingly unpleasant to the wearer. 
 Jacob “put sackcloth upon his loins;”® and the same mode of expression is fre- 
 quently used, so that we may rest assured, it was usually substituted for the linen 
 garments that were next the skin, which the following extracts will abundantly 
 confirm ; Job, speaking to his friends, says, “ I have sewed sackcloth upon my 
 
 ^ [Clothes] Genesis, chap, xxxvii. ver. 34. - Ibid. chap. xliv. ver. 13. 
 
 3 [Mantle] Job, chap. i. ver. 20. * [Mantle] Ibid. chap. ii. ver. 12. 
 
 ^ Revelations, chap. vi. ver. 12. 6 Gen. chap, xxxvii. ver. 34. 
 
Ixxii 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 skin.”‘ Again, “ and it came to pass, when Ahab heard those words, that he rent 
 his clothes, and put sackcloth upon his flesh, and fasted, and lay in sackcloth, and 
 went softly.”^ In another passage it is said that Joram, king of Israel, “ rent his 
 clothes, and he passed by upon the wall, and the people looked, and, behold, he 
 had sackcloth within upon his flesh.”^ 
 
 Another token of deep humiliation, sorrow^ and mourning, was defiling 
 themselves with dust and ashes. The friends of Job “ sprinkled dust upon their 
 heads towards heaven and Job himself emphatically expresses his grief by saying, 
 “ I have sewed sackcloth upon my skin, and defiled my horn in the dust.” And 
 the king of Nineveh, when he heard of the denunciations of Jonah, arose from his 
 throne, and laid his robe from him, and covered himself with sackcloth, and sat in 
 ashes.^ 
 
 Shaving the head was also a customary mark of mourning ; Job is expressly 
 said to have “ shaved his head” when he heard of the calamities which had 
 befallen him ; and the Almighty, threatening the Israelites, says, “ I will bring 
 sackcloth upon all loins, and baldness upon every head, and I will make it,” that 
 is, the day of his vengeance, “ as the mourning for an only son.’'® 
 
 Shaving the eye-hrows and cutting the flesh, by way of mourning for the 
 dead, were anciently practised among the Asiatic nations, as we may judge from 
 both being strictly forbidden by the Mosaic dispensation : “ Ye are the children 
 of the Lord ; ye shall not cut yourselves, nor make any baldness between your eyes 
 for the dead.”^ The prohibition extended still farther to the priests ; for it is 
 expressly said, “ they shall not make baldness upon their heads ; neither shall 
 they shave the corners of their beards, nor make any cuttings in their flesh for the 
 dead.'^^ 
 
 The same methods of expressing their grief were common with the Asiatic 
 
 1 Job, cbap. xvi. ver. 1.5. ^ i Kings, chap. xxi. ver. 27. ^ 2 Kings, chap, vi ver. 30. 
 
 ^ Job, cbap. ii. ver. 12. It was customary also among the Egyptians, upon the death of their 
 monarch, to cover their heads with dust. Diodorus Siculus, lib. I. cap. vi. 
 
 5 Jonah, chap. iii. ver. 6. The preceding verse is also to the purpose, it runs thus : “ So the -people 
 of Nineveh believed God, and proclaimed a fast, and put on sackcloth from the greatest of them even to 
 the least of them." 
 
 6 Amos, chap. viii. ver. 10. 
 
 ® Leviticus, chap. xxi. ver. 5. 
 
 7 Deuteronomy, chap. xiv. ver. 1. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxiii 
 
 women ; for Tamar, David’s daughter, after she had been abused by Amnon, 
 “ put ashes on her head, and rent her tunic of many colours that was on her, 
 and laid her hand on her head, and went on crying.”^ And Athaliah “ rent her 
 clothes, and cried. Treason ! treason Judith also, when she mourned for her 
 husband, “ put sackcloth upon her loins, and wore her widow’s apparel.”^ And 
 Esther, at the time the Jews were persecuted, “ laid away her glorious apparel, 
 and put on garments of anguish and mourning ; and, instead of precious 
 ointments, she covered her head with ashes and dung ; and she humbled her body 
 greatly ; and all the places of her joy she filled with her torn hair.”^ So also it is 
 said, that, when Heliodorus was about to pillage the temple of Jerusalem, “ the 
 women, girded with sackcloth under their breasts, abounded in the streets.”^ 
 
 There are instances in which the persons who mourned appeared abroad bare- 
 footed ; and in general they forbore the use of oil or precious unguents until the days 
 of their mourning were completed.® 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to observe, that these tokens of sorrow were not 
 confined to mourning for the dead : the foregoing quotations prove that they were 
 practised by way of humiliation and penance, in consequence of private misfortunes, 
 and in the time of public calamities. 
 
 There is no trait in the character of the ancient Asiatics that reflects more 
 honour upon them than their hospitality ; it was not deemed sufficient to entertain 
 a guest, hut he was obliged at parting, to accept of some favour from the 
 munificence of his benefactor. The Sacred Writings abound with proofs of this 
 prevalent liberality ; and the same are confirmed by the whole tenor of history in 
 general. These gifts consisted chiefly in clothes, personal ornaments, cups, 
 arms, and the like ; but sometimes, indeed, they were far more extensive. 
 
 The patriarch Joseph gave to each man of his brethren “ changes of raiment ; 
 but unto Benjamin,’’ as a mark of especial favour, “ he gave three hundred pieces 
 of silver, and five changes of raiment. ’’’^ Gifts of this kind were not only considered 
 as marks of esteem, but were often presented by way of reward, or to obtain a 
 
 > 2 Samuel, chap. xiii. ver. 19. ^ 2 Kings, chap. xi. ver. 14. 
 
 3 Judith, chap. viii. ver. 5. ■* Rest of Esther, chap. xiv. ver. 2. 
 
 5 2 Maccabees, chap. iii. ver. 19. ® 2 Samuel, chap. xv. ver. 30. Ibid. chap. xi. ver. 2. 
 
 7 Genesis, chap. xlv. ver. 22. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 L 
 
Ixxiv 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 particular favour : thus Naaman the Syrian, a Leper, took with him ten talents 
 of silver, six thousand pieces of gold, and ten changes of raiment, as a present for 
 the prophet Elisha in return for the cure of his leprosy.^ 
 
 It was also considered as an honour of the highest kind when persons of a 
 superior rank presented garments and personal ornaments to those of an inferior 
 station. Pharaoh, when he advanced the patriarch Joseph, and set him over all 
 the land of Egypt, “ took his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph’s hand, 
 and arrayed him in vestures of fine linen, and put a golden chain about his neck.”® 
 When Ahasuerus, king of Persia, asked Haman what should be done to the man, 
 “ whom the king delighteth to honour,” he replied, “ Let the royal apparel be 
 brought which the king useth to wear, and the horse that the king rideth upon, and 
 the crown royal which is set upon his head ; and let this apparel and horse he 
 delivered to the hand of one of the king’s most noble princes, that they may array 
 the man withal whom the king delighteth to honour which was done to Mordecai 
 ihe Jew ; and “ he went out from the presence of the king in royal apparel of blue 
 and white, with a great crown upon his head, and with a garment of fine linen and 
 purple and Belshazzar, the king of Babylon, promised to the man who interpreted 
 the hand- writing upon the wall, that “ he should be clothed with scarlet, and have 
 a chain of gold about his neck, and be the third ruler in the kingdom.’’^ So in 
 Esdras it is said, of the man who best answered a question proposed, that king 
 Darius should cause him to be “ clothed in purple, to drink in gold, to sleep upon 
 gold, to have a chariot with bridles of gold, and an head-tire of fine linen, and a 
 chain about his neck and that he should sit next to Darius because of his wisdom, 
 and be called Darius his cousin.” As an honorary reward to Judith, for the 
 destruction of Holofernes, the Jews crowned her and her maid with garlands of 
 olive.® 
 
 Particular colours, and especially purple, were restricted in different nations to 
 the blood royal, or to such persons as were permitted to wear them by the royal 
 
 * 2 Kings, chap. v. ver. 5. 2 Genesis, chap. xh. ver. 42, 
 
 ^ 2 Esther, chap. vi. verses 8 and 9 ; and chap. viii. ver. 15. * Daniel, chap. v. ver. 7. 
 
 2 KvSaptv ftv(7(Tirr}v Kai fiavaKnv nepi roy rpaxrjXop. 1 Esdras, chap. iii. verses G and 7. 
 
 6 Judith, chap. xv. ver. 13. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxv 
 
 authority. Thus, Antiochus the younger, when he confirmed Jonathan in the high- 
 priesthood of the Jews, among other great privileges, gave him leave to drink in 
 golden vessels, to be clothed in purple, and to wear a golden fibula and in the 
 Lamentations of Jeremiah it is emphatically said, “ they that did feed delicately are 
 desolate in the street; they that were brought up in scarlet embrace dmighills 
 expressive of the sad reverse of the state of the Jews." 
 
 Double garments are in Scripture opposed to garments of affliction and 
 mourning.^ Wedding-garments and garments of joy are placed in contradistinction 
 to garments of widowhood and of sorrow. The wedding-garment is also mentioned as 
 an indispensable requisite for every one who was a guest at a marriage-feast.^ The 
 attire of an harlot is spoken of in the Sacred Text and prison-garments, or 
 vestments appropriated to malefactors, are said to have been in use at a very early 
 period.® All these vestments differed, without doubt, materially from each other ; 
 but, as they are only mentioned by name, that difference cannot possibly be 
 specified. 
 
 Putting the shoes from the feet was a very ancient mode of religious worship, 
 and countenanced by the command of God himself.^ The shoes were also used in 
 remote times for the confirmation of contracts ; for, in the book of Ruth, it is said : 
 “ Now this was the manner in former time in Israel concerning redeeming, and 
 concerning changing ; for, to confirm all things, a man plucked off his shoe, and 
 gave it to his neighbour ; and this was a testimony in Israel.”® 
 
 1 Uopirrjv xpvarjy, 1 Maccabees, chap. xi. ver. 58. ^ Lamentations, chap. iv. ver. 5. 
 
 3 Baruch, chap. v. ver. 5. Matthew, chap. xxii. ver. 11. 
 
 ® nDIT n’'£i7 Proverbs, chap. vii. ver. 10. ® ''”123 2 Kings, chap. xxv. ver. 29. 
 
 7 Exodus, chap. iii. ver 5; et alibi. ® Ruth, chap. iv. ver. 7. 
 
SECTION VI. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE HABITS OF THE GREEKS AND THE ROMANS. 
 
 It would be perfectly inconsistent with my present design to enter upon a full 
 investigation of the habits of the Greeks and the Romans j neither, indeed, am I 
 in the least inclined to make such an attempt, because the world is already in 
 possession of many elaborate discussions upon this subject : ^ all that I shall pretend 
 to do will he merely to trace out a general outline of the different parts of dress 
 which were commonly used by both nations. 
 
 The principal habits of the Greeks were adopted by the Romans, with such 
 variations only as appear to have been made for fashion’s sake, rather than for real 
 utility ; and therefore a separate investigation of the garments belonging to either 
 will not be necessary ; but, on the contrary, many useless repetitions may be avoided 
 by treating them conjointly, as I shall endeavour to do. 
 
 The Tunic was a garment common to the Greeks and to the Romans : it was 
 of two kinds ; the short tunic reaching to the knees, which was most generally 
 used ; and the long tunic descending to the heels.*^ The Grecians anciently wore 
 only one tunic : in process of time, however, they introduced a second, and the first 
 answered the purpose of a shirt.® This people were well acquainted with the use of 
 linen ; which knowledge, it is said, and with great appearance of truth, they 
 derived from the Egyptians.* It is, however, very imcertain at what period they 
 employed that article for the fabrication of their tunics, or if they ever universally 
 adopted it for that purpose : we know, that tunics of linen were worn by some of 
 
 ^ See Bernard de Montfaucon, dans L’Antiquite Expliquee, vol. III. et IV. 
 
 * In the first instance, called in Greek iu Latin, tunica ; in the second, 7roSripr)c 
 
 tunica talaris. 
 
 3 Then called x‘rw>'t(r(coe. * L’Antiq. Expl. vol. III. part I. cap. i. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxvii 
 
 the Philosophers ; * but, generally speaking, I presume that vestments of linen were 
 much more frequently used by the women than by the men. A soft tuni& is 
 specified by Homer as part of the dress belonging to Agamemnon ; but this is no 
 proof that it was linen, for the epithet soft may be equally applied to any other 
 delicate fabric. The Grecian tunics, in their most ancient state, were certainly 
 made of woollen cloth : the Athenians wore them of various colours ; which usage 
 is condemned by ^Elian as an extravagance. The garments of the Greeks were 
 not only variegated in the colours, but often embellished with birds, beasts, flowers, 
 and different assemblages of imagery extending even to the representation of historical 
 subjects, which were interwoven, at the time of their fabrication, with threads of 
 gold, of silver, and of colours appropriated to the design and to some adornments 
 of this kind I apprehend Homer alludes, when he calls the tunic of Telemachus a 
 splendid tunic * — A beautiful specimen of the Grecian tunic, ornamented with 
 embroidery, is given upon the sixth plate appertaining to the Introduction. 
 
 The Exomis^ was a tunic without sleeves^ commonly worn by the Grecian 
 Philosophers, but not confined to them : it was also used by valets and servants of 
 all kinds. This garment occurs upon the figure dancing, at the bottom of the 
 Plate just referred to, where the sleeves of the under- tunic sufficiently specify the 
 difference between it and the exomis. 
 
 Among the ancient Romans, the tunic was made of white woollen cloth, and 
 without sleeves, which were afterwards added.® In general, the sleeves were loose 
 
 * Called oOoyri : but the othone was more properly part of the women’s dress. 
 
 * MaXo/v'oe xit(3)v, mollis tunica ; Iliad, lib. II. line 42. 
 
 * These sorts of garments are distinguished by Homer with the epithet itoikiXoc, variegatus and 
 wafxTToiKtXoc , vari^ pictus, and the like. Speaking of Andromache at her loom, the Poet says, 
 
 AtTrXa/ca, gapjjiaprjv, evBe dpoya ttoikiX’ evaaffe. — Iliad, lib. xxii. v. 441. 
 
 Which line Clarke renders thus : 
 
 Duplicem, splendidam, inque Jlores varies sparsim-intexebat. 
 
 And Pope loosely translates the passage : 
 
 A growing work employ’d her secret hours, 
 
 Confus’dly gay with intermingled flowers. 
 
 * XiTwva ffiyaXoevra tunicam splendidam ; Odyssey, lib. XV. ver. 60. 
 
 ^ E^wgiSa, Montfaucon, vol. III. part I. chap. vi. 
 
 ® Then called chiridota, or tunica manicata. 
 
Ixxviii 
 
 IJJTRODUCTION. 
 
 and short, reaching only to the elbow but their length and fashion seem to have 
 depended on the will of the wearer and, in the times of the Emperors, they were 
 brought to the wrists, and ornamented there with fringes.^ The tunic which was 
 worn by the Romans under the toga commonly hung down as low as the ankles : in 
 other cases, it does not appear to have extended beyond the knees. 
 
 After the Romans had introduced the wearing of two timics, they used the 
 words suhucula and indusium to distinguish the inner one,^ which was also of 
 woollen. Augustus in the winter season wore no less than four tunics at one time, 
 besides the suhucula, or under-tunic, and all of them of woollen.® Montfaucon is of 
 opinion, that the interior garments belonging to the men were rarely, if ever, made 
 of linen, until a late period of the Roman Empire.® 
 
 The Senators of Rome had a broad stripe of purple,^ sewed to the breast of the 
 tunic for the sake of distinction, which was called latus clavus but the Knights, 
 and such as had not reached the Patrician honours, wore a narrow stripe of the 
 same colour, and therefore denominated angustus clavus.^ The Roman citizens, 
 whose circumstances would not allow them to purchase a toga, wore the tunic 
 only;^® foreigners, it seems, when at Rome, appeared in the same manner so 
 also the slaves and the gladiators.^'^ In the country, however, persons of rank and 
 opulence laid aside the toga, and used the tunic alone.^® 
 
 1 Montfaucon thinks the difference between the tunics of the Greeks and those of the Romans 
 consisted chiefly in the sleeves ; those of the first being long and strait, those of the last short and 
 loose. Ubi supra, cap. I. 2 Horat. Sat. i. Propert. hb. IV. 
 
 3 After the example of Julius Caesar, ad manus JimbriatcB. Sueton. Jul. 45. [It is not quite 
 certain that by Jimbriatus are to understand The Tunic which Suetonius is speaking of was 
 the latus clavus, and as Caesar chose to wear it with long sleeves, it was more probably bordered with 
 purple at the wrists than fringed. — Ed.] 
 
 * And, in the later ages, interula and camisia. 
 
 ^ Sueton. Aug. 82. 6 ubi supra, cap. I. 
 
 7 Or, rather, two stripes, fasciae, vel plagulce. Varr. de Lat. Ling. hb. VIII. cap. 47* [Mr. Strutt 
 here dismisses in four hues a subject which has filled volumes. The controversy respecting the clavus” 
 may probably be ended one day by the discovery of some ancient Roman painting. — Ed.] 
 
 ® Ovid, de Trist. hb, IV. ver. 10, 29, et ahbi. 9 Montfaucon, ubi supra, cap. vi. 
 
 Hence called tunicatus popellus. Horat. Ep. I. ver. 7. et 65. 
 
 ” Thus homo tunicatus, for a Carthaginian, Plant. Poen. V. 3. 
 
 12 Id. Amphit. I. 213 ; Senec. de Brev. Vit. C. 12 ; and Juvenal, ii. 143. 
 
 Juvenal, Sat. hi. ver. 179. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxix 
 
 Young men when they assumed the toga virilis, and women, when they were 
 married, received from their parents a tunic, wrought in a particular manner, called 
 tunica recta, or regilla.^ 
 
 Montfaucon says, there was also a Senatorian habit called colohium, which was 
 a kind of tunic ; but its form is unknown to us, nor, indeed, is it often mentioned 
 by the ancient authors. The colohium, in the middle ages,*^ was a tunic without 
 sleeves, or with short ones reaching only to the elbow, and chiefly used by the 
 clergy : it formed with us a part of the coronation-habit, and was in after-times a 
 dress common with servants.® 
 
 The belt, or girdle, was a necessary appendage to the tunic. This part of the 
 dress was fabricated fi'om a variety of materials adapted to the rank and circum- 
 stances of the wearers. Among the Greeks, as far back as the time of Homer, 
 the girdles of superior personages were exceedingly splendid, either with respect to 
 their workmanship or to their colour, and frequently both these excellencies were 
 united. 
 
 It was not customary with the Romans to wear the girdle at home, but no 
 person appeared abroad without it ; and it was even thought indecorous and effemi- 
 nate to be seen in the street with the tunic loosely girded. In ancient times, the 
 girdle answered the purpose of a purse, wherein money and other valuables were 
 deposited.^ 
 
 The Toga, or gown. A garment of this kind is said to have been used by the 
 Greeks : it is certain, however, that it did not originate with them ; neither does 
 it appear to have been at any period universally adopted. Its ancient name was 
 Tehennos, derived from Temenus the Arcadian, who first brought it to Ionia.® 
 
 The Romans originally had no other clothing than the toga ; and, in imitation 
 of his progenitors, Cato the censor used the like abstinence, and not only appeared 
 in public, but sometimes sat upon the tribune,® when Praetor, habited in a toga, 
 
 * Plinius, lib. VIII. cap. 48. sect. 74. ® See Du Cange’s Glossary, in voce Colohium. 
 
 ^ Fortescue de Legibus Angliae, cap. 51. 
 
 * Pro marsupio, vel crumend. Aul. Gell. cap. xv. Plaut. Merc. v. 2. 84. And the Romans called 
 this part of the dress by several names ; as, cingulum, cinctus, zona, and balteus. 
 
 ® De Temenus, says Montfaucon, on fait Tebennon par un legere conmption. Uhi supra, vol. III. 694. 
 ® Arcon. in Cic. Val. Max. lib. III. cap. 6. 7. 
 
Ixxx 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 without any additional garment. After the Romans had adopted the tunic, and 
 other vestments which supplied the use of the toga, it was still retained by them, 
 and considered as an habit of honour ; and none hut citizens were permitted to use 
 it. In the remote times, the toga was worn in the field ; but latterly it became a 
 robe of peace.' 
 
 The learned have been much divided in opinion respecting the form of the toga ; 
 some supposing it to have been a large loose open garment ; others again contend- 
 ing, and I think with more appearance of truth, that it was a loose long gown, 
 round at the bottom, and open only at the top down to the girdle. It had no 
 sleeves, that the right arm might remain at perfect liberty ; but it covered the left 
 shoulder, and was gathered up from the bottom to admit the projection of the left 
 arm, falling nearly to the ground on either side of the arm in very ample folds. It 
 was not girded about the middle like the tunic, but, a portion of it being twisted 
 round the body, was bound in a kind of knot called umho^ beneath the left breast, 
 and the return formed a protuberance, divided into many folds, which was named 
 sinus, and occasionally answered the purprse of a pocket. The part of the toga 
 which passed over the left shoulder was sometimes drawn up over the head, to 
 protect it from the inclemency of the weather, or excessive heat of the sun.* 
 
 The size of the toga, and probably its form, was varied at difierent periods. 
 Anciently, when the Romans wore no other garment, it was straight and close : it 
 then covered the arms, and reached to the feet but, as it became more ample, 
 its folds, of course, were increased ; and these folds the wearer took great pains to 
 adjust properly, not only for elegance-sake, but because it should not draggle in 
 the dirt.® 
 
 The toga originally was made with white woollen cloth : but, in succession of 
 time, more costly materials were used for that purpose, and especially silk. Upon 
 certain occasions, the toga was embellished with embroidery : it was then called 
 toga picta,^ or toga palmata ; and the latter was worn by the emperors and 
 
 1 Liv. Hist. Rom. lib. VII. cap. 10. * Perseus, Sat. V. v. 53. 
 
 3 Montfaucon, vol. III. part i. cap. 5. Quinctil. xi. cap. 3. 
 
 3 Herat. Sat. xi. ver. 3. bexvii. v. i. 3. 31 ; Epist. I. v. 95. Macrob. Sat. xi. ver. 9, & Quinctil. 
 ubi supra. 
 
 6 The toga picta, Montfaucon says, was a Tuscan habit. Consuls and Tribunes were permitted 
 to wear it ; and Praetors, when they assisted at the sports. Ubi supra. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxxi 
 
 generals, when they triumphed.* Transparent togse and watered togai are also 
 mentioned by the ancient writers.* 
 
 The toga, as observed above, was white, except when it was used in time of 
 mourning : it was then of a dark colour, or black. ^ The toga prcetexta, worn by 
 young men of rank until they reached the age of seventeen, and by young women 
 till they were married, was distinguished by a purple border this dress, however^ 
 was not confined to the Roman youth ; it was sometimes used by the priests and 
 magistrates.® 
 
 When a young man laid aside the toga pretexta, he assumed the manly gown 
 called toga virilis,^ and various ceremonies were performed with great solemnity 
 upon the occasion ; however, as a mark of modesty, during the whole of the first 
 year, it was usual for him to keep his right arm within the folds of his gown.’ It 
 was customary with candidates for public offices to appear before the people clothed 
 with the toga only, to shew their humility on the one hand, and to expose, with 
 more freedom, such parts of their body as had been wounded in their country’s 
 service.® Under the Emperors, this garment was in great measure disused, except 
 by clients when they waited upon their patrons,^ and by orators when they pleaded 
 at the bar.*® The toga was usually laid aside in time of mourning,** and rarely, if 
 ever, worn at home, where its place was supplied by a domestic habit provided for 
 
 ^ Liv. lib. X. cap. 7. Martial, Lib. vii. Ep. 1. Plin. lib. IX. c. 36. 
 
 2 Varro in Nonius speaks of certain togse being so transparent, that the tunics might be seen 
 through them ; the watered toffce were called by Nonius Marcellus undulatm toga, and by Pliny undulatoe 
 vestes. Montfaueon, ubi supra. 
 
 3 [Called the toga pulla. Persons wearing it were termed atrati. The toga pulla, is often con- 
 founded with the toga sordida ; but the latter signifies only a toga black with age or dirt, and not a 
 garment dyed or stained for an express purpose. Ed.] 
 
 * Liv. lib XXXIV. cap. 7. Cic. Verr. I. And hence they were called prcetextati, Sueton. in Vit. 
 August, cap. 44. 
 
 5 And also by Augurs, Consuls, and Dictators ; to these may be added private persons, when 
 they exhibited in public games. Cic. Pis. IV. 
 
 6 Called also toga pur a, because it was white ; and libera, because he became his own master. Cic. 
 
 Att. V. and XX. Ovid, de Trist. lib. IV. Pers. Sat. v. ^ Cic. Coel. V. 
 
 ® Plutarch, in Vita Coriolani. 9 Suet. August, cap. 60 Martial, Ep. i. ii. 
 
 Senec. de Constant, cap. 9. Tacit. Annal. lib. XI. cap. 7. 
 
 ” [Or worn of a black colour. Vide ante. Ed.] 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 M 
 
Ixxxii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that purpose.^ Neither was it ever used at feasts ; for, the Romans had a particular 
 garment appropriated to such occasions, which they called 
 
 The Synthesis. This peculiar habit, though honoured with a Greek name, 
 was probably of Roman origin. It is generally thought to have been a loose dress, 
 of the pallium or mantle kind, which might be easily put on or off ; and the usage 
 of this garment at festivals appears to have been universal, not only in the city of 
 Rome, but throughout the whole of the Roman Empire, and by every rank of the 
 people who could afford the purchase.'^ 
 
 The Trabea was anciently a habit of honour and distinction among the 
 Romans, and thought to have received its name from certain stripes that were 
 wrought upon it across the breast. According to Servius, there " were three 
 sorts of this garment ; one, proper to the Gods, all of purple ; another, to the 
 kings, of purple mixed with white ; and a third, to the priests, of purple and 
 scarlet.® The learned are by no means agreed with respect to the form of the 
 trabea *, many are of opinion that it differed in nothing from the toga, excepting 
 only in the quality of its materials Rubenius, however, contends that it was shorter, 
 and bore a greater resemblance to the chlamys.® 
 
 The Pallium, or mantle,^ with the Greeks, was a garment of distinction, the 
 same as the toga was with the Romans. The Emperor Augustus, for political 
 reasons, caused the Romans to assume the Grecian habit, and the Greeks the 
 Roman habit, meaning that the former should wear the pallium, and the latter the 
 toga ; and from that period, the pallium came into common use among the 
 Romans.^ 
 
 The ancient Athenians wore purple mantles ; which ^lian censures as an 
 
 1 Called vestis domestica, in opposition to the toga and other garments usually worn abroad, which 
 were denominated vestitus forensis. Cic. de Sin. II. Sueton. August, cap. 73. Phn. Epist. v. 
 
 2 It was worn all the time of the Saturnalia, because the Romans were continually feasting. 
 Martial, Ep. xiv. 
 
 3 Be purpurd et cocco. Servius ad .lEneidos, vii. 
 
 * Dionysius Hahcarnassseus, lib. II. de Saliis. 
 
 * Alberti Rubeni de Re Vestiaria, lib. I. cap. v. 
 
 6 Called in Greek ipaTiov, and (papog, and, latterly, TraWioy. 
 
 T Sueton. in Vit. August, cap. 98. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxxiii 
 
 extravagance.^ The Grecian mantles were sometimes white but the colour, as 
 well as the materials, depended usually, I presume, upon the rank and circumstances 
 of the wearer. 
 
 The pallium was worn over the tunic, and was either double or single, accord- 
 ing to the season it was required to suit.^ It was fastened upon the right shoulder 
 with a fibula, or buckle, whence descending, both before and behind, to the 
 middle of the legs, it covered the greater part of the whole body, leaving the 
 right arm at perfect liberty. According to Homer, the pharos, or mantle, was 
 not always confined to one particular size ; for, in several places, he mentions the 
 great pallium* which evidently implies the existence of a smaller one. The great 
 mantle was used by persons of the highest rank. 
 
 The Tribon and Tribonion,^ or, the philosopher' s mantle, does not appear to 
 have differed materially in its form from the common pallium, but rather, perhaps, 
 in its colour, which was black or brown ; and derived its name from being usually 
 worn threadbare.® It was ostentatiously assumed by the Cynics and other phi- 
 losophers, to demonstrate their poverty and contempt for temporal vanities it 
 was not, indeed, confined to them ; for, though it was considered as a habit of 
 indigence, it was worn by many people above want ; and at Athens it was adopted 
 by the pleaders at the bar. 
 
 The Palliolum was a short mantle, or rather coivl, or hood, used to cover the 
 head. It was worn by sick persons, or by such as were first venturing abroad 
 after their recovery from sickness ; and also by women of ill fame at Rome, to 
 conceal themselves when they walked through the city.® 
 
 The chlamys was a species of cloak, or mantle, worn over the tunic. It was 
 used by the Greeks ; and from them it descended to the Romans. The form of 
 
 ‘ Var. Hist. lib. IV. cap. 22. 
 
 ® Aristander the Augur, at the battle of Arbela, was clad in a white mantle, with a crown of gold 
 upon his head. Plutarch, in Vit. Alexandri. 
 
 * Wlien double, it was called hwXoie, 
 
 * Mfya (papoe, belonging to Agamemnon ; Ihad, lib. II. ver. 43. The same epithet is given to the 
 mantle of Telemachus, Odyssey, lib. XV. ver. 6 1 ; and elsewhere used. 
 
 3 Tpi(iuv & rptfjoiyioy, ^ From the verb Tpij3w, to rub, or wear away by frequent use. 
 
 T And, not content with having it threadbare and dirty, they frequently wore it patched and torn. 
 ® Montfaucon, ubi supra, cap. iv. 
 
Ixxxiv 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the chlamys has never been clearly investigated; some contend, that it was like 
 the Roman toga ; others reject this opinion, and assure us that it did not differ 
 in any respect from the sagum, or paludamentum the last hypothesis is, I 
 believe, the most generally received, and apparently approaches nearest to the 
 truth. This garment was of two kinds ; the common chlamys, and the chlamys of 
 Macedon : the difference between them is thought to have consisted in the size 
 alone ; but this is mere conjecture. The chlamys was used by the Romans not 
 only as a military vesture, but also as' a garment for travelling.^ 
 
 The Mandyas, the Ephestris, and the Byrrhus, are all of them expressly said 
 by Artimedorous to have been different names for the chlamys however, the 
 byrrhus seems rather, from the cowl, or hood, annexed, to have resembled the 
 lacerna.'* 
 
 The Sagum, or Paludamentum, was a military mantle. The name and the 
 garment appear to have been both derived from the Gauls, and used by the 
 Romans, as some think, before that people were subjected to the Empire. It had 
 sleeves in its pristine state, which were taken from it when it was brought into 
 Italy.® It was a large open cloak, made with wool, and fastened with clasps.® In 
 dangerous times, it was worn in the city of Rome by all ranks of persons, excepting 
 those of Consular dignity.^ In the time of the Italic war, it continued in use for 
 two years without intermission.® This garment, when it was assumed by the 
 general, or chief officers of the army, was of scarlet colour, and bordered with 
 purple. 
 
 The Chlsena,® or Icena, as it was called in Latin, was a Grecian vesture, that 
 served not only for a mantle, but, occasionally for a coverlet, or bed-quilt ; and, the 
 better to answer both purposes, it was made square, being either single or double,^® as 
 the exigences of seasons required. The chlsena anciently was a military garment, 
 used in cold and wet weather as a surtout, being cast over all the other parts of the 
 
 ' Montfaucon, ubi supra, cap. iv. 
 
 2 V estis viatoria ; hence chlamydatus was used to express a traveller, or a foreigner. Plant. 
 Pseud, iv. 2. 8. s Lib. II. cap. 3. 
 
 * See Montfaucon, vol. III. p. i. cap. 7; who says, “ the ancients seem to have taken them indif- 
 ferently the one for the other.” 5 Ibid. cap. 9. ® Sueton. August, cap. 26. 
 
 7 Ciceron. Philip, viii. ^ Liv. Epist. 72 and 73. Paterc. lib. II. cap. 16. 
 
 XXau'«. That is, lined, I presume. 
 
INTTKODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxxv 
 
 dress. Homer frequently calls it the or shagged chlcena]' and full as often 
 
 he distinguishes it by the epithet of fair, or beautiful.' 
 
 The Grecians had another garment, of the same species, called Chlauis, or 
 Chlanidion, which was made of softer and lighter materials than the chlaina, and 
 was worn by the women as well as the men.* 
 
 The Sisyra is also thought to have been a mantle of the same kind as the 
 chlsena, but fabricated with a thicker and coarser stuff ; and, like that garment, it 
 was used equally for a part of dress and for a -coverlet.^ 
 
 The Lacerna of the Romans seems to have been greatly similar to the 
 Grecian chlsena : it was a large cloak, or mantle, worn over the other clothing as a 
 defence against the inclemency of the weather. It was open before, and fastened 
 upon the breast with fibulae, or buckles,® having a cowl, or hood,^ attached to the 
 hinder part, but in such a manner that it might easily be disengaged. It was 
 made of thick and warm materials when designed for the winter, but of softer 
 and lighter stuff when it was intended for the summer. The colours of the lacema 
 were also varied as well as its texture in general, they were black, or dark 
 brown ; but Senators and persons of rank, for distinction’s sake, wore purple.® The 
 lacema was anciently a military garment, and used only in the army it was 
 reckoned indecorous to appear with the lacerna in the city of Rome, where it was 
 first worn by the common people ; and even in Cicero’s time, the Patricians and 
 persons of distinction were ashamed to be seen in the streets so habited but, 
 soon after, during the civil wars, the toga being laid aside, the lacema was 
 universally adopted,^ and became so common in the days of Augustus, that he 
 was offended, and commanded the Aiidiles not to permit any person to enter 
 the Forum, or the Circus, clothed with such a garment.'- The lacema was 
 
 ^ XXaiyag ovXag. Iliad, lib. III. ver. 299. ^ KaXij ■^(Xaiya, Odyss. lib. X. 
 
 Montfaucon, ubi supra, cap. ii. * Ibidem. 
 
 ® Especially when it was used at the public spectacles. Martial, Ep. xiv. 
 
 ® Cucullus. Juvenal, Sat. vi. ; Mart. Ep. xi. ’ Juven. Sat. i. and ix. Mart. ii. 
 
 ® Lampridius tells us, that the Emperor Alexander Severus used frequently to go to the public 
 baths, and return to his palace, clothed in the common bathing-habit, over which he wore a scarlet 
 lacerna as a mark of royalty. 
 
 9 Paterc. lib. II. cap. 80. Propert. lib. III. 'o Cic. Phil. II. 
 
 Juven et Mart, ubi supra. 12 Sueton. in Vit. August, cap. 40. 
 
Ixxxvi 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 generally used by those who frequented the public shows ; but it was laid 
 aside, as a mark of respect, the moment the Emperor entered the theatre.' 
 
 The Penula*^ is generally thought to have resembled the lacema, saving only 
 that it was shorter, and not so full. It was worn, like the lacerna, above the 
 tunic ; it had also a hood,^ and was used in the army, and, by people travelling, 
 for protection against the cold and rain.^ It was sometimes covered with pile, 
 or fur, for warmth-sake and sometimes, for the same reason, it was made with 
 skins having the fur upon them.® This garment was not confined to any particular 
 colour, and it was worn by the women’^ as well as the men. The Emperor 
 Alexander Severus forbade the matrons of Rome to use the penula within the city, 
 but allowed them to wear it in the country without any restrictions.® 
 
 The Byrrhus. This garment Montfaucon conjectures to have been “ almost 
 the same thing as the lacerna, insomuch that the antients seem to have taken them 
 indifferently, the one for the other. It is also thought,” continues he, “ the 
 lacerna took the name of byrrhus from a Greek word signifying something 
 reddish,® it being usually made of a red colour. The byrrhus had a cowl 
 annexed, as well as the lacerna ; and hence it came to pass that the name of 
 byrrhus was given to a cowl, or cap, that was used for a head-covering.”'® 
 
 The Caracalla was also a kind of pallium, or mantle, of Gaulish origin, and 
 supposed to differ but little in shape from the lacema. It was introduced among 
 the Romans by the Emperor Antoninus, who, for that reason, obtained the 
 cognomen Caracalla. It was a large loose garment, having sleeves'’ and a hood. 
 In its original state, the caracalla reached only to the middle of the thighs j but 
 the Emperor caused his to be made long enough to touch his feet.'- 
 
 The Bracca,'* or Breeches, was a species of vesture well known to the ancient 
 
 » Sueton. in Claud, cap. vi. ^ <pevo\ri & (paiXoyr] in Greek. 
 
 3 Caputium. 
 
 * Cic. Att. XIII. Lucr. Sat. V. Senec. Epist. 87. 
 
 5 It was then called or Petron. cap. 28. Ovid, Ars Amandi, lib. II. 
 
 Pers. Sat. vi. ver. 46. 
 
 6 Scortea. Mart. Ep. xiv. 130. ^ Ibid. Epig. vi. 
 
 8 Montfaucon, hb. III. cap. xi. ® IIvppoc. 
 
 >« Montfaucon, ubi supra, cap. vii. 
 
 “ In this particular it certainly differed from the lacerna which had no sleeves. 
 
 Montfaucon, ut supra. Bpakoc, vel j3paKac, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxxvii 
 
 Greeks, though rarely used by them : indeed, it is mentioned as a proof of 
 moderation in Alexander, after the conquest of Persia, that he adopted the Persian 
 habit rather than the Median, and refused to wear the long vest, the hracca, and 
 the tiara, appertaining to the latter.^ Pythagoras wore the bracca and it is rather 
 extraordinary that the example of so eminent a man did not bring this garment 
 into fashion with his countrymen. The figure dancing, at the bottom of the sixth 
 plate belonging to the Introduction, is depicted with breeches, which apparently 
 were made of the same kind of stuff as the under-tunic : so are those worn by the 
 figure on horseback upon the seventh plate. The Roman players used a species of 
 breeches, as Cicero tells us, for decency-sake.^ 
 
 There are no parts of the ancient dress more difficult to define than those 
 appropriated to the legs and the feet. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans, 
 generally speaking, wore any covering for the legs below the tunic, or above 
 the ligature of the shoes, excepting in the time of war, when they used 
 the greaves, or military boots;* and, among the Romans, we must also except 
 those who encompassed their legs and thighs with bandages, or rollers of 
 cloth, ^ which they wrapped about them for the sake of w^armth : these bandages 
 were probably introduced by the unhealthy ; but the fashion was afterwards 
 adopted by a few luxurious and eflPeminate persons I say a few, because it does 
 not appear at any time to have been brought into general usage. 
 
 The people of ancient Latium wore shoes of unwrought leather,^ which were 
 called Perones and it was long before they learned the use of tanned leather, 
 which was made of various colours.® The Romans, in some instances, distinguished 
 the shoes appertaining to persons of rank from those of the plebeians by their 
 colour, if not also by their form ; for, no person, it seems, who had not served 
 
 ‘ Plutarch, in Vit. Alexandri. 2 Julian, Var. Hist. lib. II. cap. 32. 
 
 3 Subligaculum, \q\ subligar, verecundiae causa. Cic. Off. lib. I. cap 35. Juvenal, Sat. vi. ver. 60. 
 Martial, Epigram iii. 87. 
 
 * KvTigiStQ, in Latin, ocrea, see p. xcii. [And then shoes or sandals are rarely seen with them. Ed.] 
 ^ Fascia, vel fasciola ; and these fillets, or rollers, were named from the parts they covered ; 
 tibialia, when applied to the legs, and feminalia, or fernoralia, when they were placed upon the thighs. 
 Sueton. in Vit. August, cap. 82. 
 
 ® Such as wore mufiiers, to keep the neck and throat warm, focalia or focale. Cic. Att. II. 
 Horat. Sat. ii. Quinctil. cap. xi. Martial, Ep. xiv. 142. 
 
 7 Ex corio crudo. “ Virg. .®n, lib. VII. ver. 690. 
 
 9 Martial, Ep. ii. 29 ; vii. 34. 
 
Ixxxviii 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the office of an .^dile, might wear the shoes called Mullcei which were red. 
 These shoes, we are told, were first used by the ancient kings of Alba ; then by 
 the kings of Rome ; and, after the expulsion of Tarquin, they were worn by the 
 chief magistrates in that city. Black shoes, however, were used by the Senators 
 and people of rank* some time prior to the conclusion of the Republic ; and 
 therefore it was that the Senate took offence at Julius Caesar, because he, being 
 advanced in years, clothed himself in pompous apparel, like a young man, and 
 wore red shoes with high heels, resembling those of the kings of Alba, from whom 
 he pretended to derive his descent.^ Another author, speaking upon this subject, 
 says only, that he wore high-heeled shoes to make him appear the taller.* The 
 Senators wore shoes reaching to the middle of their legs ; they were also permitted 
 to use four latchets to their shoes ; and some of them had gold or silver crescents^ 
 fastened upon the tops of their feet but these ornaments, it is thought, were 
 confined to the Patrician Senators. 
 
 The shoes of the wealthy were not only painted with various colours, but 
 often sumptuously adorned with gold, silver, and precious stones.® Heliogabalus 
 had his shoes set with diamonds, interspersed with other jewels, beautifully 
 engraved by the first artists ; which certainly was a useless extravagance, for 
 the excellency of the workmanship, of course, was lost when the shoes were 
 upon his feet. 
 
 The Emperor Aurelian did not approve of the painted shoes, which he 
 thought were too effeminate for men ; and therefore he prohibited the use of the 
 mullsei, and of white, yellow, and green shoes — the last he called shoes of the 
 colour of ivy leaves? Sometimes the shoes were turned up with a point : they were 
 then called bowed shoes? 
 
 ‘ And, I apprehend, by the people in general. [The senators from the time of Cains Marius 
 (668 A. U. C ) are said to have worn black or buskins, io which custom Horace is supposed to 
 allude by the words, 
 
 “ Nam ut quisque insanus nigris medium impediit crus 
 Pellibus.” — Lib. I. Sat. 6. v, 27, 28. Ed.] 
 
 2 Dio. lib. XLIX. cap. 43. * Sueton. in Vit. Jul. 
 
 * Lunee vel lunulm ; Juven. Sat. vii. ver. 192. [The words are “ Appositam nigrse lunam.” Ed.] 
 
 5 Montfaucon thinks this ornament was worn behind the heel ; lib. II. cap. 4. 
 
 6 Plaut. Bacch. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. XXXVII. cap. 2. 
 
 7 Calcei hederacei. ® Calcei repandi. Cicer.de Nat. Div. lib. I. cap. 30. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ixxxix 
 
 The shoes used by the Greeks and the Romans may probably be divided into 
 two classes ; the one, including those that covered the whole of the foot, and 
 sometimes reached to the middle of the legs, called ypodematd^ in the Greek, and 
 in the Latin by several names, as calceus, mulleus, peroy phcecasium ; the other 
 comprehended such as covered the sole of the foot only, and were made fast to it 
 with thongs of leather, or of other materials : these were denominated pedilo'^ 
 by the Greeks, and by the Romans caliga, catnpagus, solea, crepiday sandaliurriy 
 gallica, baxea, and sicgonia ; and sometimes the calceus is taken for a general 
 appellation, including all the rest. 
 
 The Calceus of the Romans was probably the same as the Ypodema of the 
 Greeks ; for, both appear to have covered the foot, and were fastened with a 
 latchet, lace, or thong.* The calceus was also worn, with the toga, when persons 
 went abroad, “ unless they were about to take a long journey ; and then the solea 
 was sometimes used as its substitute.^ 
 
 The Mulleus resembled the calceus so far, as to cover the whole of the foot, 
 but differed from it in colour, and perhaps in form. These shoes, as we have seen 
 above, were not permitted to be worn by the common people ; their colour 
 commonly was scarlet,® but sometimes it was purple ; and it is thought they had 
 high soles made of cork, or some light material, to give an addition to the height 
 of the wearer. 
 
 The Phaecasium was a species of shoe worn by the priests at Athens,^ and 
 also used by the Romans. It was commonly made with white leather, thin and 
 light, and covered the whole of the foot. At Rome, it seems to have been adopted 
 principally by foppish and effeminate persons. 
 
 The Pero, as observed before, was made with untanned hides, and, in the latter 
 times, worn only by rustics and the lowest classes of the people. 
 
 The Caliga was a military shoe, or sandal, composed of a large sole, fastened 
 
 ’ YTToSrjfia. 2 Ile^tXa. 
 
 3 Corriyia, vel ligula. Cic. de Divin. 
 
 ■* Cic. Phil. ii. Plin. Epist. vii. Suet. Aug. cap. 73. ® Cic. Mil. 10. 
 
 ® Pers. Sat. v. ver. 1 69, and Dio, as before. 
 
 7 Senec. de Benef. lib. VII. cap. 21. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 N 
 
xc 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 with stronger fillets to the foot ; and the foldings of the thongs were usually carried 
 above the ankles, which, together with the top of the foot, appeared between the 
 interstices of the bandages. The caligse were sometimes strengthened with nails, ^ 
 and were chiefly appropriated to the common soldiers, though the Emperor Gallienus 
 wore the caligse ornamented with jewels instead of the campagi.^ 
 
 The Campagus was a shoe used by the emperors and generals of the army. 
 It does not appear to have difiered much from the caliga in its form ; but the 
 ligatures were more closely interwoven with each other, and oftener crossed over the 
 foot and the ankles than those appertaining to the caliga, and bore a greater 
 resemblance to net- work. 
 
 With the campagus I should be inclined to rank the beautiful pedilce,^ which 
 Homer gives to Agamemnon and the other Grecian commanders. The word 
 pedila, however, seems to have been a general denomination ; for, it is applied 
 by the Poet, with the same adjective, to the shoes, or sandals, of Juno.^ Hesiod 
 calls this Goddess the golden-sandal wearer.^ 
 
 The Solea, the Crepida, the Sandalium, and the Gallica, were all of them 
 species of sandals, fastened, like the caliga and the campagus, with fillets, or thongs, 
 about the feet and ancles ; but it is impossible, at this distance of time, to ascertain 
 the peculiar points in which the difierence between them consisted. 
 
 The solesB, it is said, might not, in strict decorum, be worn with the toga f 
 and, indeed, it was reckoned efieminate to appear with them in the streets of llome.^ 
 Caligula, however, was regardless of this rule, and not only wore the sole® in public, 
 but permitted all who pleased to follow his example, and use them in the theatre.® 
 The solese might be worn in the country, with the penula and the tunic, or by 
 
 1 Clavis suffixes. Plutarch informs us that Alexander the Great reproved Agnon the Teian for 
 wearing silver nails in his shoes. In Vit. Alexandri. 
 
 2 Saying, the Campagi were nothing but nets ; alluding to the redundant interlacing of the 
 bandages belonging to them. Montfaucon, lib. II. cap. 4. 
 
 ^ ITo(T(7i h' i/7rni Xitrapoicnv t^rfaaro KoXa ireciKa. Iliad, lib. II. ver. 44. ; et alibi, freq. 
 
 Iliad, lib. XIV. ver. 186 ; where the whole verse is precisely the same as it stands in the foregoing 
 note, and may be translated, Beneath her fair feet she hound the beautiful sandals. 
 
 ^ XpvaoTreBiXov. Theog. ver 454. ® Montfaucon, ubi supra. 
 
 7 Cic. Hor. Resp. cap. 21. Verr. lib. V. 1. 33. Liv. hb. XXIX. cap. 19. 
 
 ® Suet, in Vit. Calig. cap. 52. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XCl 
 
 persons on a journey and also at feasts ; but, in the last instance, they were to he 
 put from the feet when the repast began.'^ 
 
 The bandages of the crepida sometimes reached to the calf of the legs.’ 
 
 The gallica, like the solea, might not be worn with the toga.* 
 
 The Baxea w^as also of the sandal-kind, and worn, according to Arnohius and 
 Tertullian, by the Grecian philosophers ; and it appears from the former author, 
 that it was made of the leaves of the palm-tree. The baxea; are noticed by Plautus ; 
 hut nothing respecting their form is specified.® 
 
 The Sicyonia, Cicero tells us, was used in races ; which gives us room to 
 conclude, that it was a very light kind of sandal. Lucian speaks of it as adorned 
 with white socks.® 
 
 To these we may add the Scidponece, worn by the country people and the 
 shoes with soles of wood,^ used by the poor : the latter, it seems, were also put upon 
 persons condemned for parricide.^ 
 
 The Soccus, according to Montfaucon and other learned writers, was a plain 
 kind of shoe, and sufficiently large to receive the foot with the caliga, crepida, or 
 any of the other shoes upon it, like the galloches of the Franciscans ; and, in 
 support of the argument, we are told that, in some countries, the galloches are called 
 socci to this day. Cicero thought the soccus was a shoe derived from the Greeks : 
 it was, however, worn by the comic players,^” and, for that reason, the denomination 
 is classically used to signify Comedy ; as the word cothurnus is placed for Tragedy. 
 
 The Cothurnus,’- or buskin, was anciently worn by the Greeks, and became 
 famous, after it had been introduced upon the stage by Sophocles in his tragedies.” 
 The cothurni were made to fit either foot, and the soles were elevated ; which gave 
 an additional appearance of tallness to the wearer ; and, for this reason, they were 
 appropriated to the use of his heroes by the venerable Grecian Poet. They were 
 also used for the same purpose by the Roman tragedians. The cothurnus is thus 
 
 1 Cic. Mil. cap. 10. ^ Plaut. True. ii. 4. Herat. Lib. ii. Sat. 8. Martial, Lib. iii. Ep. 50. 
 
 Montfaucon, ubi supra. 
 
 ■* Montfaucon thinks it probable that the French word galloches, used for their wooden shoes, was 
 derived from the Latin ,• ibid. ^ Ibid. 
 
 ® Montfaucon, ubi supra. i Cato de Re Rustica, cap. 50. ® Solea lignea. 
 
 9 Auct. ad Herenn. lib. I. c. 13. Cic. de Invent, lib. II. cap. 50. 
 
 i** Soccus comicus. Plin. lib. II. Epist. i. Montfaucon, ubi supra. Kodvpyoc- 
 
 And hence, to this day, the tragedians are with us denominated the Heroes of the Buskin. 
 
XCll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 described by an ancient author ; — A ligature was fastened to the sole, which passed 
 between the great toe and the toe next to it ; where it was divided into two bands, 
 which, passing through the latchets, secured the sole upon the foot : these bands 
 were then carried high upon the legs, and crossed or platted over each other after 
 the manner, as it is thought, of the campagi. “ And probably,'* says Montfaucon, 
 “ the cothurni were anciently worn by the kings, princes, and magistrates of 
 Greece.”^ It is certain, however, that they were indiscriminately used by both 
 sexes. 
 
 The Romans used socks, or feet-coverings, made of wool or goats’ hair, called 
 udones ; but it was thought effeminate for the men to wear them.^ 
 
 The Knemis^ of the Greeks called by the Romans ocrea, was a greave, or part 
 of armour appropriated to the defence of the leg and the knee ; and sometimes it is 
 translated a military boot, or buskin : but the latter interpretation is certainly very 
 improper. According to Homer, the knemis was used in the Trojan war ; and, in 
 its ancient form, it bore but small resemblance to the boots of modern times. It was 
 calculated only to defend the fronts and sides of the leg, and therefore frequently was 
 not clothed behind. It was usually made of metal, and did not reach below the 
 instep, that it might be no impediment to the free use of the foot. Laertes, the 
 father of Ulysses, is described by Homer in a rustic habit, with greaves of leather;^ 
 and with us, the labourers in the country, when they are binding up bushes, or 
 making hedges with thorns, have a greave, or boot-leg, as I think it is called, upon 
 the right leg, with which they press the bushes together. It is generally made of 
 very thick, or double, leather ; reaches above the knee ; descends to the instep ; 
 and is fastened, at the back part of the leg, with straps and buckles ; forming, in 
 my idea, a very exact counterpart of the ancient Grecian knemis, which, we know 
 
 ^ Montfaucon, ubi supra, cap. 7. [The Cothurnus was a dooi laced up the front of the leg, in some 
 instances covering the toes entirely, in others a strap passed “between the great toe and the toe next to 
 it,’’ as described above, and connected the sole with the upper portion which met together over the 
 instep, and were from thence laced up the front like the half-boots worn at the present day. Vide 
 several specimens in Hope’s Costume of the Ancients. They were of Asiatic origin, and are seen on the 
 legs of the Amazons, Phrygian and Tyrian hunters, &c. Virgil thus alludes to them in the ^Eneid. 
 — Lib. i. V. 336, 7. 
 
 “ Virginibus Tyriis mos est gestare pharetram 
 Purpureoque alte suras vincire cothurno.” — Ed.] 
 
 2 Mart. Lib. xiv. Ep. 140. ^ Kvj/pe. 
 
 * Boeiac Kyrj/JiSag pawrag ; bovincE ocrex consutcB ; Odyss. lib, XXIV. ver. 228. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 xcni 
 
 from good authority, was sometimes worn upon the right leg only.^ Homer bestows 
 the epithet of beautiful upon the greaves belonging to the Grecian commanders ; 
 and tells us, they were well fastened upon the legs with clasps, or buckles, of silver;'^ 
 and this species of leg-armour was worn in common by the soldiers ; for, speaking of 
 the army collectively, he often called them well-yreaved Greeks? I have given 
 several specimens of the Grecian greaves ; and the most ancient of them I conceive 
 to be upon the figure at the bottom of the fifth plate belonging to the Introduction, 
 of which two views are given ; they are there represented exceedingly clumsy, and, 
 according to the appearance, were made of the rough hides of some animals, and are 
 fastened behind the legs with a single ligature upon the middle of the calf. In the 
 two ancient figures standing to the right, upon the same plate, we see the indication 
 of greaves, which seem to be of metal,^ and of much neater fabrication ; they do not, 
 however, cover so much of the legs : and the ligatures, by which they were confined, 
 do not appear. Upon the eighth plate we find them more perfectly represented : 
 those upon the middle figure seem to have an ornamented border at the top ; and 
 those belonging to the other figure, which are seen both before and behind, have an 
 indented border upon the posterior parts, but the appearance of the ligature is also 
 wanting. 
 
 The Greeks and the Romans commonly wore their hair short : it was, however, 
 combed with great care,® and sometimes perfumed 5 and this custom was prevalent 
 even in the army.® 
 
 Baldness was accounted a deformity among the Romans and it is said, that 
 Julius Caesar wore a crown of laurel to conceal his want of hair.® It is, indeed, 
 certain that, under the Emperors, such as were bald used a kind of peruke,^ made 
 
 ^ Veget. lib. I. cap. 20. 
 
 ® Kvr/jutSac (ipyvpsoiaiy eTriadvpiOLQ apapviac. 
 
 Ocreas pulchras argenteis fibulis aptatas. Iliad, lib. XL ver. 17, 18, et alibi freq. 
 
 3 EvKyrifiiSeg Axaioi. Iliad, lib. III. ver. 343. 370. et alibi freq. 
 
 * The greaves were made of several kinds of metal. Homer mentions brass, copper, and tin. 
 Among the Romans, they were frequently made of iron ; and Hesiod says, those belonging to Hercules 
 were made of a valuable kind of brass, opeixaXKoio, Scut. Her. ver. 122. 
 
 ® Senec. de Brev. Vit. cap. 12. 6 Suet. Cees. cap. 67. 
 
 7 Ovid. Ars Amandi, lib. III. ver. 250. Tacit. Annal. lib. IV. cap. 57. Suet. Vit. Dom cap. 18. 
 
 ® Sueton. in Vit. Jul. cap. 45. 
 
 9 Called capillamentum, or galerus, or galericulutn. Sueton. Vit. Calig. & Othon. Juvenal, Sat. vi. 
 ver. 120. 
 
XCIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 with false hairs fixed upon a skin.^ This contrivance probably was not known 
 in the time of Julius Caesar, and, for that reason, he had recourse to the laurel 
 crown. 
 
 The professors of philosophy let their hair and beards grow, to give themselves 
 the air of gravity.- Slaves, for distinction’s sake, wore long hair and beards ; but, 
 when any one of them was manumitted, he shaved his head and beard, and wore 
 a woollen cap called Pilens.^ Those escaped from shipwreck also shaved their 
 heads and those who had been accused of a crime, but were acquitted, cut off 
 their hair, shaved, and went to the Capitol to return thanks to Jupiter.^ 
 
 The ancient Romans permitted their beards to grow, until Publius Ticinius 
 Msenas brought barbers from Sicily, and first introduced the custom of shaving 
 at Rome,^ which prevailed till the time of Hadrian ; and that Emperor, to cover 
 certain excrescences on his chin, revived the fashion of wearing beards p hut, after 
 his decease, it soon died away, and shaving was again resumed. 
 
 There was no set time for the young men of Rome to shave their beards : they 
 sometimes did it when they assumed the toga virilis, or usually at the age of twenty- 
 one ; though Augustus, it seems, did not shave till he was twenty-five.® At the 
 first performance of this operation, it was usual with the person shaved to hold a 
 festival, and for his friends to send him presents.® They did not always shave the 
 beard, but sometimes clipped it with scissors,^® and sometimes they plucked it out 
 with nippers, or small pincers. They also made use of various arts to restrain the 
 growth of the hair, and to clear it away where they thought it looked unhand- 
 some ; but all these practices were reckoned effeminate. In great families, slaves 
 were kept on purpose to dress the hair, and to shave ; and these offices were 
 
 ^ Crines jicti, vel suppositi. Mart. Ep. xiv. 50. 
 
 * Horat. Sat. i. 3 ; Art. Poet. ver. 298 ; et alibi. 
 
 * Juven. Sat. v. ver. 171 ; Plaut. Amphit. Act I. sc. 1. * Plaut. Rud. Act I. sc. 2. 
 
 ® Mart. Ep. ii. 74. Plin. Epist. vii. 
 
 6 About the year of the city 454. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. VII. cap. 59. 
 
 7 Spart. Vit. Adrian, cap. 26. 
 
 ® Suet. Cal. cap. 10. Macrob. in Som. I. 6. Dio, lib. XLVIII. cap. 43. 
 
 9 Juven. Sat. iii. ver. 187. Mart. III. 6. 
 
 10 Tondentes forjice. Suet. Vit. Aug. cap. 79. 
 
 11 Called volsella. Suet. Jul. cap. 45, et alibi. Mart. VIII. 67. 
 
 ‘2 Cell. lib. VII. cap. 12. Plin. Epist. 29. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XCV 
 
 sometimes performed by females.’ For the use of poor people, there were 
 barbers’ shops, ^ which were much frequented, and where women also occasionally 
 officiated. 
 
 The Greeks and the Romans generally went bare-headed ; yet they were not 
 destitute of a variety of head-coverings, which they wore on particular occasions : 
 some of them appear to have been merely ceremonial ; but others, again, were 
 adopted, because they were useful. It is, unfortunately, true that we have little 
 more than the names of most of them remaining ; for which reason, very little can 
 be said on this subject. 
 
 The Petasus^ was a cap used by travellers, somewhat resembling the round 
 hat of the present day ; but, in its ancient state, the brims do not appear to have 
 been so deep. Alexander the Great, we are told, used the petasus when he 
 feasted ; Caligula permitted the people of Rome to wear the petasus at the theatre, 
 to shade their faces from the sun.* 
 
 The Romans had also another kind of cap, resembling a helmet, which they 
 used when they travelled, called Galeriis.^ 
 
 Respecting the Casia and Crobilum, which were coverings for the head, we 
 only know that the former was worn by the Lacedemonians, and the latter by the 
 Athenians.® 
 
 The Infula, or mitre, was a white woollen fascia, or riband, or, as some say, 
 a mixture of white and yellow, which was tied round the head, from one temple 
 to the other, and fastened with a knot behind, so that the two ends of the bandage 
 might hang down one on each side. This appears to have been a ceremonial orna- 
 ment, and worn only by such as sacrificed.'^ 
 
 The Pileus,” or woollen cap, was used by the Greeks, and sometimes it was 
 substituted for a lining to the helmet. This cap was worn by the Romans at 
 the public games, and at festivals,^ and by such as had been slaves, after they 
 had obtained their freedom.’® It was also used, for the sake of warmth, by the 
 
 1 Tonsores, Ovid, Met. XI. ver. 182 ; tonstrices, Cic. Tusc. ver. 20. 
 
 2 Tonstrince, Hor. Ep. i. Mart. Epigr. ii. 17. ^ Htrao-oe. 
 
 * Dio, lib. LIX. c. 7. ^ Virg. ^En. vii. ver. 688. ® See Montfaucon, as above. 
 
 I See Montfaucon, as above. ® DIXoc. 9 Hor. Epist. i. ver. 13. Suet. Nero, c 57 
 
 Thence caXleA. pileati ^ Liv. lib. XXIV. cap. 16. [Vide also, Persius, Sat. v. Ed.] 
 
XCVl 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 aged and infirm.^ Homer gives to Laertes, who is described in a rustic habit, 
 a cap made with goats’ skin, which he calls a helmet and probably it might 
 have resembled one or other of the helmets of leather, which the reader will find 
 mentioned below. 
 
 The Byrrhus was the name of a cap, or hood, used by the Romans in the time 
 of the Lower Empire.® 
 
 The Romans often covered their heads with a portion of the toga, which 
 they removed, as a token of respect, on meeting a person of superior rank •,* the 
 penula, the lacerna, and other garments, were also provided with hoods, which 
 answered the purpose of hats, and might be drawn over the head, or thrown hack 
 upon the shoulders, at pleasure. 
 
 In time of war, the head-covering worn by the Greeks and by the Romans 
 w as the Helmet. Several kinds of helmets, according to Homer, were in use among 
 the Greeks as early as the siege of Troy ; but that which occurs most frequently 
 is called by the Poet Kynein,^ and corresponded with the Galea of the Romans, 
 Upon the kynein, as well for the defence of the head as for ornament, there was 
 a kind of cone, or, rather, elevated ridge, extending from the posterior part over 
 the summit, and curving forward in the front. This protuberance, in the days of 
 Homer, was decorated with horse-hair,® or some other substance made in imitation 
 of it, which was called the crest. The crest belonging to the helmet made by 
 Vulcan for Achilles, is called by Homer the golden crest and the golden hair and 
 probably the Poet meant to express thin wires of gold resembling horse-hair. 
 Plumes of feathers, in the after-ages, often supplied the place of hair ; and this 
 kind of crest seems to have been first introduced among the Grecians by Alex- 
 ander the Great.® The helmets belonging to the chief commanders in the Grecian 
 and Trojan armies, Homer tells us, were distinguished by their having three cones 
 
 ^ Ovid. Ars Amandi. ^ Aiyeirjy Kwer/y. Odyss. lib. XXIV. ver. 230. ® [Vide p. bcxxvi. ante. Ed.] 
 
 4 Plutarch, in Vit. Pomp. Qusest. Rom. cap. 10. 5 Kuvt?? 
 
 6 iTTTrowptc, setis-equinis-comans, is an epithet continually applied to the helmet. 
 
 1 Xpvcrtoc Xo(j)oe, & edeipai -^pvasai. 
 
 ® Who, we are told, at the battle of the Granicus, was remarkable for a large plume of fine white 
 feathers upon his helmet. Plutarch, in Vit. Alexandri. 
 
 9 Then called rpv(pa\eia. The helmet of Achilles made by Vulcan, and that of Paris, are dis- 
 tinguished by this epithet ; Ihad, lib. III. ver. 376 ; lib. XIX. ver. 382. 384. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XCVII 
 
 and the helmet belonging to Agamemnon had four/ with a crest of horse-hair 
 above them all.^ The helmet of Menehius is, in one instance, distinguished by 
 the appellation of a crown of brass and probably it received this name from a 
 wreath, or radiated ornament, placed upon it. 
 
 The helmets at this period were fastened beneath the chin with a strap or 
 thong of leather, which, in some instances, was soft and thin, and decorated with 
 embroidery ; such a thong belonged to the helmet of Paris^ at the time he fought 
 with Menelaus ; but this seems to have been a kind of foppery : the same, I pre- 
 sume, may be said of the crest appertaining to the helmet of Meges the Trojan, 
 which, the Poet tells us, was “ new tinged with Tyrian die.”* 
 
 The ancient Grecian helmets were generally made of brass, though frequently 
 ornamented with gold or silver ; they had, however, others fabricated from less 
 expensive materials ; and two helmets of leather are particularized by Homer, 
 exclusive of the pileus worn by Laertes mentioned above. The first of these be- 
 longed to Diomed : it was made of a bull’s hide, and had neither a cone, nor a 
 crest.^ This kind of helmet, the Poet informs us, was called liataityx^ and 
 generally used, as a safeguard for the head, by young men approaching to man- 
 hood.® I am happy to have it in my power to present to my readers the true 
 form of this ancient helmet, taken from a curious bronze, the head being the full 
 size of nature.^ — When it is recollected, that Diomed was going as a spv to the 
 Trojan camp, the prudence of the warrior will readily appear, in using such a 
 head-piece, without any ornament to attract the sight. The Roman soldiers some- 
 times w'ore a cap, or helmet, of unwrought leather, which they called cudo this 
 cap probably did not differ greatly from the kataityx. 
 
 The second helmet of leather mentioned by Homer was given by Meriones to 
 
 ' T£rpa 0 aXa. ^ Iliad, lib. XL ver. 41, 42. ^ llrtfavr) j(aXK£ii] ; ibid. lib. X. ver. 30, 31. 
 
 ■* no\vk.£(r7-oe ifiuQ (.naXoc, acu-pictum ligamen tenerum. Iliad, lib. III. ver. 371. [Mr. Strutt has, I 
 think, transferred the epithet soft from the chin of the effeminate Paris to the thong of embroidered 
 leather, the words being iruXvKearoc, igag aTraXrjj' vtto ^eiptjv. Ed.] 
 
 ^ Ntov <t>oiyiKi (^UELVOQ ; recens, Puniceo colore fulgens. Iliad, lib. XV. ver. 538. 
 
 ^ A<j)aXoy /cat aXofov ; II. X. ver. 258. I Karatrv|. Ibid. 
 
 ® Putrai Kapt] BaXtpittv di^pioy ; II. X. ver. 259. 
 
 9 In the possession of Richard Paine Knight, Esq. who obligingly permitted me to copy it ; which 
 I did with great care ; the reader will find it engraved, upon a reduced scale, at the bottom of the 
 seventh Plate. Sil. viii. 494. xvi. 59. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 O 
 
XCVlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ulysses : it is said to have been strengthened within with many thongs strongly 
 interwoven, and without it was ornamented profusely with boar’s teeth, white, and 
 placed in curious order ; in the middle, there was also inserted a pileus,^ or cap of 
 wool, to answer, I presume, the purpose of a lining. The Greeks frequently placed 
 large ears erected and resembling those of fierce animals upon their helmets, to give 
 them a more terrible aspect. 
 
 The form of several Grecian helmets may be seen upon the fifth, sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth plates of the Introduction ; and the most ancient is that which appears 
 upon the dark rude figure at the top of the fifth plate ; it is taken from a vase 
 preserved in the British Museum ; and, from the inscriptions upon it, which are in 
 the Greek character, it is thought to he coeval with, if not anterior to, the Trojan 
 war. The helmet upon the figure facing him, taken from another vase of great 
 antiquity, seems to cover the whole of the face, excepting the eyes. Another helmet, 
 something resembling this, but without either the cone or the crest, having a part 
 in the front to defend the nose, is given at the top of the seventh plate ; the original 
 is brass ; and, from its size, belonged to a man of large stature. There is something 
 very singular in the helmet of the figure standing behind the man with the round 
 shield upon the fifth plate ; its form is not only exceedingly uncouth, hut, one would 
 think, it must have been very inconvenient to the wearer. 
 
 The warrior, who appears in two views at the bottom of the fifth plate, is taken 
 from a very ancient bronze ; beneath his helmet there is a kind of grating, or net- 
 work, of metal, which covered the whole of his face, and seems well calculated to 
 protect it from being injured by any weapon, excepting such a one as had a long and 
 slender point.^ Alexander the Great wore a helmet of iron, made by Theophilus, 
 so excellently wrought and polished, that it was as bright as silver ; and to it was 
 affixed a gorget of the same metal, set with precious stones.* The specimens of 
 ancient helmets above-mentioned are sufficient, I trust, to prove that the nasal helmet 
 of the Normans, and the helmets with face-guards which followed them, are by no 
 means modem inventions, notwithstanding they may have received many considerable 
 improvements in the latter times, 
 
 ' ITtXoc. 
 
 2 Another bronze, with a helmet having a similar defence for the face, is in the possession of 
 Richard Paine Knight, Esq. [These bronzes perfectly correspond with the representations of the 
 Gladiators discovered at Pompeii, and I should consider these helmets to have been especially appropriated 
 to the combatants in the Arena. Ed.] ^ Plutarch in Vita Alexandri. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XCIX 
 
 Before I quit this part of my subject, I wish to say a few words concerning the 
 body-armour anciently used by the Greeks. The dark figure before-mentioned, upon 
 the fifth plate, is undoubtedly of higher antiquity than those that accompany him ; 
 but, at the same time, the delineation is so rude, that one can hardly determine 
 whether the figure be naked, or whether the white lines upon the breast and upon 
 the thighs are intended as the indication of armour, and the other parts of the body 
 covered with a garment fitted to the shape. The figure below, which is very 
 ancient, is clothed with a short tunic, having no skirts on the sides below the girdle ; 
 it is remarkable, that the sleeve of the right arm is full of folds, and seems clearly 
 not to belong to the tunic, while that of the left arm as evidently forms a part of it. 
 The tunic, I presume, was made of leather, too thick and rigid to admit of sufficient 
 liberty for the sword-arm ; and, for that reason, the sleeve, probably, which belonged 
 to the inner garment, was made of some more flexible material.^ 
 
 Homer, speaking of the Greeks, frequently calls them the brazcn-tunic-wearers 
 and this species of tunic is rendered, in the Latin, tunica loricata ; and, with equal 
 propriety, in English, tunic of mail: it is, however, very extraordinary, that, where 
 he speaks at large concerning the warlike habits of his heroes, he has not specified 
 this tunic, nor given us the least hint respecting its form. In the long description 
 of Agamemnon arming himself for the battle, at the beginning of the eleventh Book 
 of the Iliad, we do not find it mentioned, unless the words by which this description 
 is introduced may be thought applicable to it ; “ He also clothed himself in splendid 
 brass’’^ The passage will, however, admit of a much more general interpretation, 
 and certainly, in my opinion, was so intended by the poet ; for, immediately after- 
 wards, he proceeds to particularize the several parts of that monarch’s armour, and 
 expressly says ; first* about his legs he placed the handsome greaves, neatly joined 
 
 ' The figure mentioned in the preceding note is clothed in the same kind of tunic, open at the side 
 below the girdle, and the sleeve of the right arm apparently disjoined from the tunic : it is considerably 
 smaller than this, and much neater respecting the workmanship. The protuberance on the top of the 
 helmet is, literally, a cone elevated from the head, and without a crest ; on either side arises a large ear 
 like those represented upon the eighth plate, but rather higher in proportion to the middle ; in the front, 
 they bear the appearance of three cones ; and probably this might be the form of the Tpv(pa\eia, or three 
 coned helmet, so frequently mentioned by Homer. See page xevi. 
 
 ^ \.yau>)v yixkK.o-yiTtj}vij}v, Achivorum eeneis tunicis indutorum ; Iliad, lib. III. ver. 127. 131. et alibi 
 frequenter. ^ Apysiovc ev avroc e^veaTO viopoTra Ihad, lib. XI. ver. lb 
 
 llpwra. Iliad, lib. XI. ver. 17. 
 
c 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 with clasps, ox fibula, of silver and then passes on to the thorax, upon which he 
 bestows no less than ten lines. There is no mention of the tunic of brass, in the 
 request made by Thetis to Vulcan for a new suit of armour to equip her son ; neither 
 is it noticed in the description of the arms as they were made by that deity ; nor in 
 a subsequent passage, where Aehilles is described putting them on. But let us 
 suppose, that the thorax, and the chalcochiton, or brazen tunic, were only two 
 denominations for the same armour, and we shall meet with no farther difficulty. If 
 we look at the figure, holding a spear and a shield, upon the seventh plate belonging 
 to the Introduction, we shall there see the ancient Grecian thorax. We find it large 
 enough to cover, not only the breast, but all the front, at least, of the body, down to 
 the navel ; and probably it extended over the back in the same manner. The 
 shoulder-parts are fastened in the front with thongs, or cords, to the bottom of the 
 thorax, and might, I presume when those ligatures were unloosed, be thro\Mi back 
 at pleasure, so that the arms might easily be withdrawn, and the armour put off over 
 the head of the wearer.* We also observe an appendage to the thorax, in imitation 
 of the skirts of the tunic, made with broad straps, perhaps of leather, and plated 
 with metal, reaching nearly to the bottom of the inner garment. Now, supposing 
 the front of this thorax to be made of brass, which metal composed the greater part 
 of the Grecian armour, we shall find no impropriety in the epithet the Poet so fre- 
 quently bestows upon his countrymen. In fact, I conceive the thorax to have been 
 a large breast-plate, affixed to a short and sleeveless tunic, made of leather, or some 
 other appropriate material, to which the shoulder-guards were connected at the 
 back,^ Or, if it be thought that the thorax was fastened with straps and buckles, 
 or Avith laces passing over the back, something resembling a woman’s stays, I have 
 no objection. We may, I think, with propriety, through the different aggi’andise- 
 ments of the thorax, trace the origin of the body-armour, which so completely 
 enclosed the warriors of the later ages ; but, even in that state, it w^as not unknowm 
 to the Greeks in ancient times, as the little bronze, twice represented upon the 
 eighth plate, will sufficiently demonstrate. 
 
 The thorax of Agamemnon, according to Homer, was splendidly ornamented. 
 
 I There are several passages in the Ancient Poets that justify this opinion in great measure. 
 
 ^ These shoulder-pieces were also made of metal. Hesiod, describing the arms of Hercules, says, he 
 placed upon his shoulders Ap?)c aXurripa ut^rtpov, the harm-repelling iron; Scut. Hercul ver. 128. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Cl 
 
 having- upon it ten rows of black cyanus,^ twelve of gold, and twenty of tin, 
 inclosed by three azure dragons" rising from either side to the summit of the 
 pectoral, in the form of a rainbow. The thorax appertaining to Menelaus is said 
 to have been double,^ having, if I understand the Poet clearly, a zone, or girdle, 
 plated with brass beneath it p in like manner, also, we find that Agamemnon had 
 a variegated belt,'^ strengthened with plates of silver, under his pectoral, whicli 
 repelled the point of a weapon that had passed through the latter. The thorax 
 was not always made of metal ; the Egyptians used pectorals of linen curiously 
 fabricated,® which, it is said, were not only lighter than those of metal, but better 
 calculated to resist the point of the enemies’ weapons. Alexander the Great, 
 having obtained a pectoral of this kind from the spoils of the battle at Isis, wore it 
 ever afterwards in preference to any other.^ 
 
 Even the word lorica, or mail, may aptly enough be applied to the ancient 
 thorax ; for, if we examine the little figure, with the head thrown back, upon the 
 eighth plate, we shall there find, upon the left side of the body, the indication 
 of chain-mail ; and the smoothness on the right side may, I think, be easily 
 accounted for. This figure, in its original state, was evidently supported by 
 another, whose left hand appears at the bottom of the thorax ; and part of the 
 right arm, broken otf near the elbow, is seen on the opposite side ; what is now 
 wanting of this arm, when perfect, was brought forward ; and, together with the 
 hand, covered, I presume, that portion of the armour which is plain. In process 
 of time, the thorax underwent variety of changes and enlargements, until it was 
 formed into a complete body-armour ; and in this state we see it exemplified by 
 the figure represented in two points of view upon the same plate ; where the back is 
 equally as well defended from danger as the front. 
 
 The dark figure upon the fifth plate, wdiich, as we observed before, is of very 
 high antiquity, has no shield, but a piece of white drapery is cast over his left arm 
 
 1 MgXctvoe fci'avoto. Iliad, lib. XL ver. 24. « KvaviOL ^paKovreg rpeig. Ibid. ver. 26. 
 
 ^ XittXooc ■JaipTyL Iliad, lib. IV. ver. 133. 
 
 ^ H^’ virevepdev i^wjja re Kai furpri ; Ibid. ver. 186, 187. Compare also lines 21.5 and 216. 
 
 ^ Ziijvpv ^upriKVQ evepQe ; Iliad, lib. XI. ver. 234 ; and, in the ne.xt line but one, it is called ^w/TTppa 
 TayawXog 6 Pages iv. and xvii. of this Introduetion. 
 
 7 Plutarch, in Vita Alexandri. 
 
Cll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to answer the purpose. The figure opposite to him, which is also very ancient, 
 has a prodigious large round shield answering exactly to the large shield} which, 
 Homer tells us, was used by the commanders at the Trojan war. The sevenfold 
 shield of Ajax is almost proverbial. The shield of Agamemnon was surrounded 
 with ten circles of brass inclosing twenty bosses of tin ; and in the middle there 
 was a bosse of black cyanus, having “ the terrible aspect of the fierce-eyed 
 Gorgon” upon it. The thong within the curve of the shield was of silver, and 
 above it an azure dragon with three heads growing from one neck.^ But the 
 shield of Achilles was infinitely more superb, and abounded with sculptures, even 
 to a great redundancy : the Poet seems to have been delighted with describing 
 it ; and has bestowed no less than one hundred and twenty lines of the eighteenth 
 book of the Iliad to that purpose. In like manner, Hesiod thought the shield of 
 Hercules a subject sufficient for a whole poem. 
 
 The Grecian shields varied not only in their form but in their size. We find 
 one upon the fifth plate that is an imperfect sexagon ; others we meet with that are 
 nearly square, and rather larger in proportion ; and others again are rectangular, 
 and wider than they are high. 
 
 The sword-hlades in general, according to Homer, were made of brass ; but 
 the hilts of the swords were embellished with studs of gold, or silver : and the 
 scabbards were richly adorned with the same precious metals.® In one passage, 
 however, the Poet speaks of young men who had swords of gold hanging from 
 straps of silver.^ 
 
 The sword-belt, or, more properly, baldric ; for, it was worn over the right 
 shoulder, and descended across the breast and back to the left hip, where it 
 
 * SoKoc fxeya. 2 Iliad, lib. XI. ver. 33 — 40. 
 
 ^ The Poet says of Agamemnon : 
 
 Afji([>i ap’ wfiotffiv jSaXero li<poc' tv dt oi r/Xoi 
 
 XpvatiOL 7rafi(j>aivov' arap nepi KovXtov rjtv, 
 
 Apyvptov, ■)(^pv(Ttoiaiv aoprtiptffffiv aprjpog. Iliad, lib. XI. verses 29, 30, 31. 
 
 Which passage may be rendered literally : 
 
 ^ ‘ About his shoulders he hung his sword, in which were glittering studs of gold; and to the silver 
 scabbard were fitted straps of gold." These straps, or lamince, of gold were for the purpose of fixing the 
 scabbard to the belt, or rather baldric, depending from the right shoulder. See the figure standing, 
 plate VII ^ Maj^aipac ■)(pvaiag t^ apyvptawv rtXagwvwv. Iliad, hb. XVIII. verses 597, 598. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cm 
 
 buckled ; and was made fast to the scabbard of the sword, as the reader will find 
 it represented by the figure holding a spear and a shield upon the seventh plate 
 of the Introduction. This part of the military habiliment was variously 
 decorated ; Homer sometimes calls it “ a variegated belt and sometimes “ a 
 belt ornamented with curious workmanship and sometimes “ a splendid belt 
 of Tyrian purple.”’ Plutarch tells us, that the sword-belt which Alexander the 
 Great wore in all engagements was much richer in workmanship than any other 
 part of his armour : it was made by old Helicon, and presented to him, as a mark 
 of their respect, by the Rhodians.^ 
 
 We learn from Herodotus, that the use of linen was very ancient in Greece : 
 it was imported, he tells us, from Colchis and from Egypt.® The women, it 
 appears, used garments of linen earlier than the men ; and, at all times, in much 
 greater quantities. Pliny, citing a passage from Varro, says, it had long been a 
 custom in the family of the Serrani, for the women not to wear robes of linen 
 which, being mentioned as a thing extraordinary, proves that linen garments were 
 used by the Roman ladies in times remote. It is difficult, however, to determine 
 at what time this article was first used as a shirt, or body-dress. A vestment of 
 this kind, called supparum, was worn by the unmarried Roman damsels as early as 
 the time of Plautus.^ 
 
 The tunics of the women were larger than those of the men, and reached to 
 the feet ; excepting those worn by the Lacedemonian girls, which were not only 
 very short, but divided at the sides so as to shew their thighs f and this indecency 
 was countenanced by the laws of Lycurgus. The Roman women had several kinds 
 of tunics, which are mentioned by Plautus, but, unfortunately, without any 
 description ; so that little more concerning them than their names is now 
 remaining. 
 
 The Regilla, according to Montfaucon, was a kind of white tunic, worn by 
 virgins the day before their marriage.^ The Impluviata and the Mendicula were 
 tunics ; but their colour, form, and texture, are totally unknown. The Ralla, 
 
 * ((oarrjp TravawXo^. Iliad, IV. ver. 186. ^ ZwffTTjp caiSnXeog. Ibid. ver. 135. 
 
 ^ Zioarrtp (paeivog. Iliad, lib. YII. ver. 305. In Vita Alexandri. 
 
 5 In Euterpe, cap. 81. ® Nat. Hist. lib. XIX. cap. 1. 
 
 “ Plaut. Rud. Act. I. sc. 2. Lucan. Phar lib. II. ver. 364. 
 
 ® Thence called (paiyoptripi^ag. 9 Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. VIII. cap. 48. 
 
CIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 which is thought to be the same as the Kara, and the Spissa, differed from each 
 other ; the first being of a thinner and looser texture than the latter. They had a 
 tunic also, called Crocotula, the diminutive of crocota ; which was an upper garment 
 in use among the Grecian women, and received its name, Montfaucon says, either 
 fi*om crocus^ saffron colour ; or from croce,^ the woof of any texture.^ 
 
 The toga, in the infancy of the Roman empire, was worn by women as well as by 
 men ; in after times, the former assumed a different robe, called stola, which reached 
 to the feet, having a broad fringe, or border, at the bottom.^ Courtezans, and 
 women condemned for adultery, were not permitted to wear the stola.^ 
 
 The Roman women, married as well as unmarried, used girdles ; and, besides 
 them, they sometimes wore a broad swath, or bandage, round their breast, called 
 strophium f which seems to have answered the purpose of the bodice, or stays, and 
 had a buckle, or bandage, upon the left shoulder.® 
 
 The Mitra, or girdle, of the Greeks, probably resembled the strophium of the 
 Romans ; the former was worn by the Grecian virgins. Hesiod applies an epithet 
 to the Muses, signifying that they were girt with golden mitresd Theocritus, in one 
 of his pastorals, introduced a damsel complaining to a shepherd of his rudeness, 
 saying he had loosed her mitra, or girdle ; and he tells her, he means to dedicate 
 the same to Venus.^ The plated belt worn by Menel'aus beneath the thorax was 
 also called initra.^ 
 
 The Zone’° was a part of dress of high antiquity : Homer describes the Goddess 
 Jmio binding round her waist a zone, elegantly formed, with an hundred foldings or 
 fringes.” It probably differed from the imas, which she afterwards borrowed from 
 Venus, and bound over the zone. The girdle that belonged to Venus was wrought, 
 or embroidered, with the needle and the Poet tells us, “ she loosed it from her 
 breast.” But I do not find any mention of clasps or buckles appertaining to 
 either. From the common use of the zone, Hesiod calls his fair countrywomen 
 handsomely girded fernales.^'^ 
 
 1 Kpoicr]. - Lib. I. cap. 11 and 12. 
 
 This Ihnhus, or fringe, was called instita. Hor. Sat. i. 
 
 * Hence called togata. Ibid. ; et Juv. Sat. ii. ver. 70. Mart. lib. I. Ep. xxxvi. ver. 8, 9. 
 
 5 Catull. LXIV. 65. ^ Called spinther, or spinier. Plant. Men. Act III. Sc. 3. 
 
 7 XpvaapnvKEc^ Theog. ver. 916. ^ Idyll, xxvii. ver. 54. 9 Seepage ci. 
 
 Zwvg. 71 Qv(javoQ; fimhria-, fringes, welts, or borders. Iliad, XIV. ver. 181. 
 
 lit<TTOv ipavra, acu pictum cingulum. Ibid. ver. 214. ^3 Eafwvota yvvaiKog. Scut. Hercul. ver 30. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 CV 
 
 The Peplus was a thin light mantle worn by the Grecian women above the 
 tunic. This garment, according to Homer, was in great repute as early as the 
 Trojan war; and was also worn by the ladies of Troy, who are called by the Poet lomj- 
 peplus-wearers and speaking of the peplus of Minerva, when she loosened it, he 
 tells us that it flowed upon the pavement.^ Antinous presented to Penelope, a 
 beautiful large and variegated peplus,"* having twelve buckles of gold, with tongues 
 neatly curved.® The magnificent peplus^’ of Juno was fastened with buckles of gohP 
 upon her breast ; but, generally speaking, I trust there was but one buckle used 
 for this purpose; for Minerva, deriding the wound which Venus had received from 
 Diomed, says to Jupiter : “ She has been wantonly playing with one of the fair- 
 peplus-wearing Grecian damsels, and has razed her soft hand against the golden 
 fibula.”" 
 
 If the Eanos of Juno be the same as the peplus, and such is the general 
 opinion, it certainly was a garment totally distinct from the Kredemnon,® or veil: 
 for Homer expressly tells us, that the Goddess had previously invested herself with 
 the former, before she put on the latter. The peplus, however, was a very splendid 
 part of the ladies’ dress ; and it is rarely mentioned by Homer without some epithet 
 to distinguish it as such : he calls variegated peplus, and painted peplusd'^ 
 alluding to the ornamental decorations, either interwoven or worked with the needle 
 upon it, which consisted not only in diversity of colours, but of flowers, foliage, and 
 other kinds of imagery ; and sometimes he styles it the soft purple peplus, which 
 was then valuable on account of the excellence of the colour. From a passage in 
 one of the Pastorals of Theocritus, it appears that the peplus was occasionally worn 
 by the men, and fastened on the breast with a girdle.*® 
 
 1 IlcTrXoc. 2 Tpwacac eXKtffiTTfTrXouc ; or, perhaps, more literally, dr awing, or trailing peplus, 
 
 from its sweeping upon the ground. Iliad, VI. 
 
 * Iliad, V. ver. 734. Mtyav Trepi icaWea ntTrXov ttoikiXov. Odyss. lib. XVIII. v. 291. 
 
 ® rifpoj^at ypvcTELai KXr]atv Ev-yyagirToig. Ibid. V. 293. 
 
 6 Eai^oc a^/3po(rioc ; Iliad, hb. XIV. ver. 178. The mwe is hterally a light thin vestment, and is 
 applied to the peplus. i XpvaETjai EVETqai. Iliad, XIV. ver. 180. ® Ibid. lib. V. ver. 424. 
 
 9 Kp^^eptw. ^9 UeTrXoc voiKiXog. Ibid. lib. V. ver. 735. 
 
 “ IlfTrXot TragiToiKiXoi, whieh hteraUy signifies a peplus all over variegated with painting . Ibid. lib. 
 VI. ver. 289. Tlop<pvpEoig TreTrXoiai gaXaicoienv. Ibid. hb. XXIV. ver. 796. 
 
 The Poet, speaking of Lyeidas the Cydonian, a goat-herd, says, he had a white goat-skin upon 
 his shoulders, and about his breast an old ttettXoq, peplus, bound, i^ojarrjpt TrXowpw, with a plaited, or 
 interwoven, girdle. Idyll, vii. 171 218. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 P 
 
CVl 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Palla, or Amiculum, of the Romans, was the same kind of garment as the 
 peplus, and with it the ladies sometimes covered their heads and their arms. 
 
 The Palliolum was a small cloak, or veil, worn by the women of easy 
 virtue, when they walked in the streets of Rome, for concealment’s sake/ 
 
 The kredemnon, which Juno put over her other vestments, was also used by the 
 Phieacian virgins, who threw it aside when they amused themselves with playing at 
 the ball.^ This is usually considered as a thin light veil, worn over the head, and 
 falling upon the shoulders. There was also a light kind of pallium used by the 
 Grecian women, called ampecone,^ and another anabole p but we find nothing more 
 concerning them than that they were upper garments. 
 
 The Chlamys, or Chlanidion, was also a species of mantle, and thought to 
 have resembled the chlsena in its form, but it was lighter and softer in its texture. 
 The chlamys was worn by both sexes.® 
 
 The Penula, which garment has already been described,® was worn by the women 
 as well as by the men. The Emperor Alexander Severus forbad the matrons to use 
 it in the city of Rome : they were allowed, however, to wear it at pleasure in the 
 country.'^ 
 
 We learn from Theocritus, that the Theristrion® was a veil, or light summer 
 cloak, worn by the women ; and, irom the thinness of the materials it was easily 
 torn, especially in a crowd.® The same author informs us, that the Tompechanon^® 
 was a summer mantle, used by the females both before and after marriage, which 
 does not appear to have covered the head, for they commonly wore the Tholian,“ 
 or hat, with this garment. 
 
 The Tarentine garment was used by the Greek women, and occasionally by the 
 men ; it is said by Lucian to have been white and comely, and so thin, that the 
 form of the body and the limbs might be discovered through it. 
 
 The Roman ladies, in the latter times, had a fine robe, or mantle, which was 
 called cyclas from the rotundity of its form.^^ 
 
 > Hor lib. I. Sat. xi. Virg. .®n. XI. ver. 576. et alibi. ® See page Ixxxiii. 
 
 * Odyssey, lib. VI. ver. 100, et infra. A/xTreKoyr], ava(5oXr]. ® Montfaucoii, chap ii. 
 
 See page lx.xxvi. ^ Montfaiicon, chap. xii. ® Oepiarpioy. Idyll, xv. ver. G9. 
 
 9 Such an accident is described by the Poet ; ibid. ver. 69. 
 
 ’0 To)/Lix«xavov, ibid. ver. 39 &71. “ 0o\iav ; ibid. Idyll, xv. ver. 39. 
 
 Juven. Sat. vi. ver. 259. Suet. Cal. cap. 52. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 evil 
 
 The Mayors, or Maforte, called also Ricinium, was a species of hood, or 
 veil, used in time of mourning, which covered the head, and reached to the 
 shoulders. ‘ 
 
 The shoes of the ladies, and especially among the Romans, formed a very 
 expensive part of their dress : in general, they were white but persons of opulence 
 did not confine themselves to any colour ; we find them black, scarlet, purple, yellow, 
 and green ; they were often not only richly adorned with fringes, and embroideries 
 of gold, but set with pearls and precious stones of the most costly kind and these 
 extravagances were not confined to persons of rank ; they were imitated by those of 
 lower stations, and became so prevalent, at the commencement of the third 
 century, that even the luxurious emperor Heliogabalus thought it necessary to 
 publish an edict, prohibiting the use of such expensive shoes, excepting to women of 
 quality.^ 
 
 The women wore the close shoe, or calceus, and the solea, and the crepida, 
 as well in the city of Rome as in the country ; but the form of their shoes does not 
 appear to have differed materially from those of the men. 
 
 Gloves® seem to have been first invented to protect the hands of labouring 
 people, when they were working among the bushes ; and Homer has described 
 Laertes, the father of Ulysses, in his retirement, with gloves upon his hands but 
 without giving us the least information respecting their form, their size, or the 
 material with which they were composed ; but most probably it was leather. 
 Among the Romans gloves seem to have been more common than with the Greeks ; 
 and under the Emperors they were made with fingers,’ though others were without 
 them, and resembled the mittens of the present time. 
 
 From the representation which Homer has given of Juno attiring herself, we 
 may form some faint idea of the fashionable dress among the ladies of quality in 
 his time. He follows her to her toilet ; and tells us, that she first combed her 
 hair, and then with her fingers interwove, or braided, the shining locks.®^ This 
 passage is paraphrased by Pope in the following manner ; and though it will 
 
 ^ Cicero, Leg, lib. II. cap. 23. Serv. in .®n. I. ver. 268. - Ovid. Ars Amandi, lib. II. ver. 271. 
 
 * Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. IX. cap. 35. * Montfaucon, vol. III. part ii. cap. 5. 
 
 5 XeipiSa^, vel y^eipodriKag ; and in Latin manicce. ® Odyss. lib. XXIV. ver. 229. 
 
 7 Then called digitalia. Var. I. 55. ® Iliad, lib. XIV. ver. 176, 177. 
 
CVlll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 not admit of a literal investigation, seems to convey the true meaning of the 
 Poet ; 
 
 “ Thus, while she breath’d of Heav’n, with decent pride. 
 
 Her artful hands the radiant tresses tied ; 
 
 Part on her head in shining ringlets roll’d, 
 
 Part o’er her shoulders wav’d, like melted gold.” 
 
 The ornaments which were usually added we find in another part of the Iliad ; 
 where Andromache is represented, in excess of grief, tearing them from her head : 
 unfortunately, however, little more than the bare names are recorded ; they are 
 four, exclusive of the kredemnon, or veil ; the first is called the desmata,'^ 
 distinguished by an adjective denoting splendour or elegance, and it is thought to 
 have been an embroidered fillet, or ribbon ; the second is named ampyx,'^ which is 
 usually rendered ahead-lace ; the third is the kecryphalon,^ generally taken for the 
 caul of net-work which inclosed the hair ; and the last is the anadesme,^ which, 
 from the epithet intertwined, or woven, applied to it by the Poet, may properly 
 enough, in my opinion, be considered as a wreath or diadem. 
 
 Among the ancient Romans, the women’s head-dress was exceedingly simple : 
 they seldom went abroad ; and, when they did, their heads were always covered 
 with a veil ; but, as riches and luxury increased, the lady’s toilet was propor- 
 tionally filled with ornaments for the person ; so that it was called The Womans 
 World.^ 
 
 They not only anointed the hair, and used rich perfumes,® but sometimes 
 they painted it they also made it appear of a bright yellow colour, by the 
 assistance of washes and compositions made for that purpose but they never 
 used powder, which is a much later invention. They frizzled and curled the hair 
 with hot irons,® and sometimes they raised it to a great height, by rows of curls 
 one above the other, into the form of an helmet and such as had not sufficient 
 
 * ^{(Tjuara aiyaXoevTa ; Ibid. lib. XXII. ver. 468. ^ ; in Latin vitta ; ibid. ver. 469. 
 
 ^ Kticpvt^aXov ; reticulum; ibid. ver. 469. * nXt/crr/ ; ibid. 
 
 5 Mundus muliebris ; Liv. lib. XXXIV cap. 7. ® Ovid. Met. V. ver. 53 
 
 7 Tibull. I. 9. 43 ; III. 4. 28. ® Val. Max. II. i. 5. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. VII. 20. 33. 
 
 y Calido ferro. Virg. .®n. XII. ver. 100. Cic. Brut. 95. 
 
 In gradus formahant — in galece modum suggerebant. Tertull. de Cult. Fcem 7> 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 CIX 
 
 hair of their own, used false hair to complete the lofty pile and these curls 
 appear to have been fastened by hair-pins.® The Grecian virgins used to bind, or 
 braid, their hair in a multiplicity of knots ; but that custom, as well as painting 
 the under part of the eye-lids with black paint, was discommended by an ancient 
 Poet.^ Persons of rank had slaves to perform for them the offices of the toilet 
 they held the mirror in their hand themselves, to give directions ; and Martial 
 tells us, that, if the slaves unfortunately placed a hair-pin wrong, or omitted to 
 twist the curls exactly as they were ordered, the mirror was thrown at the offender’s 
 head, or, according to Juvenal, the whip was applied with much severity.® It 
 appears, indeed, that sometimes a number of women attended on these occasions, 
 for no other purpose than to direct the operation.® The married women used a 
 kind of bodkin,^ which they managed very dexterously, to adjust and divide their 
 hair into two portions ; one turning to the right side, and the other to the left ; 
 and by this line of separation the married ladies were distinguished from those 
 that were unmarried. The hair was adorned with ornaments of gold, with pearls, 
 and with precious stones ; and sometimes with garlands, or chaplets of flowers 
 it was also bound with fillets and ribands of various colours, and of various kinds.® 
 The ribands appropriated to the head-dresses of virgins differed from those of the 
 married women.*® And the ribands seem to have been a distinguishing mark of 
 modesty ; as, on the contrary, a broad fillet, or mitre, was of immodesty, being only 
 worn by women of loose character,” excepting sometimes, indeed, by effeminate persons 
 of the other sex.” — The net, or hair-caul, for the purpose of inclosing the hinder part 
 of the hair, was in general usage with the Grecian and the Roman women. These 
 ornaments were frequently enriched with embroidery ; and sometimes made so 
 thin, that Martial sarcastically called them bladders.^* 
 
 ' Hor. lib. I. Sat. viii. 48. 2 Crinales acus, Propert. iii. 9. .53. Dio, lib. I. cap. 4. 
 
 3 Frag. Naumacbii, ver. 62 ; apud Poetas Minores Wintertoni. 
 
 * Hor. lib. I. Sat. ii. 98. ^ Mart. Ep. ii. 66. Juvenal, Sat. vi. ver. 491. 
 
 ® Juvenal, ubi supra t Acus discriminales. 
 
 ® KnXat aTt(f>avcu ; Horn. Iliad, lib. XVIII. ver. 597. Coronas et serta ; Plant. Ascn. Act IV. 
 sc. i. ver. 58. 9 Crinales vittoi vel fasciae. 
 
 Propert. IV. 12. Virg. .®u. II. ver. 168. ** Juvenal, Sat. iii. ver. 66. Serv. in ^En. IV. ver. 216. 
 
 Cic. Rub. Post. 10. 
 
 Called also reticulum auratum ; that is, a gilt caul, or, rather, ornamented with gold. Juven. ii. 
 
 Vesica ; Mart. viii. 33. 
 
 ver. 96. 
 
cx 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Among the adornments of the head, I know of none that claim priority to the 
 ear-rings : they have been fashionable, as Montfaucon justly observes, in all ages, 
 and almost with all nations : we find them not only common to both sexes, but 
 frequently worn by children also, and servants of the lowest class.' It is evident 
 from Homer, that the Grecian women bored their ears for the admission of these 
 ornaments. The Poet gives ear-rings to the Goddess Juno ; and the words he 
 uses on this occasion are literally these : “ In her well-perforated ears'^ she put the 
 ear-rings of elaborate workmanship, having three eyes’’ in each,^ that is, three 
 pendents, or jewels, either made in the form of eyes, or so called from their 
 brightness. Just such a pair of ear-rings, for the Poet uses precisely the same 
 words in both places, were presented to Penelope by Eurymachus, one of her 
 suitors."' The extravagancy of the Grecian and Roman ladies in the purchase of 
 these articles of adornment almost exceeds belief : Pliny says, “ They seek for 
 pearls at the bottom of the Red Sea, and search the bowels of the earth for 
 emeralds to ornament their ears;’’® and Seneca tells us, that “ a single pair was 
 worth the revenue of a large estate and that some women would wear at their 
 ears “the price of two or three patrimonies and this vanity was not confined to 
 the fair sex ; for, ear-rings of gold were worn by the young men of high rank.’^ In 
 the Asiatic nations, it is well known, they are common to both sexes even in the 
 present day. The fashion of the ear-rings, without doubt, was as variable as the 
 materials they consisted of, which were silver, gold, pearls, emeralds, and every 
 species of precious stones that could be procured. The ear-rings were not always 
 worn for ornament only, but, out of superstition, as amulets, or charms.*’ 
 
 Another expensive ornament, among the ladies both of Greece and Rome, 
 was the Monile,® or necklace ; which was commonly made of gold, and set with 
 gems. Homer mentions a necklace, curiously wrought with gold, intertwined with 
 
 ‘ Lib. II. cap. 3. ^ ILvrprjroKn \o/3oi(ti ; Iliad, lib. XIV. ver. 183. 
 
 3 Eppara TpiyXrjva fjLopotvTa ; ibid, verses 182, 183. Inaures trihus-gemmarum-oculis insignes 
 elahoratas; Clarke. * Odyss. lib. XVIII. verses 296, 297. 
 
 5 Nat. Hist. XII. Prsefat. 
 
 6 Senec. Vit. Beat. 17. ‘‘Uxor tua locupletis domus auribus cens\im gerit.” Vide Sueton. Vit. 
 Jul. cap. 50 ; et Plin. ubi supra. 
 
 7 “ Auri tantum quantum puer mollitice insigne in auriculd gestavit." Apuleius. 
 
 * August. Civ. Dei. 9 Oppov. 
 
lNTR()Di:CTIO\. 
 
 CXI 
 
 amber, which Eurymachus presented to Penelope.* The monile was also used by 
 the men, but then it was usually twisted it was bestowed by the Homans upon 
 the soldiers as a mark of honour and reward for their bravery. They had also 
 chains composed of rings, which were worn about the neck by both of the sexes.'* 
 There was an ornament called segrnentum, used by the matrons only, supposed by 
 some authors to he a kind of necklace ; but others take it for an embroidered 
 riband, or fringe of purple, sewed upon their garments.* 
 
 The Bracelet for the arms was an article of adornment of high antiquity, and 
 common both to the Greeks and to the Romans.^ Bracelets were worn by the men, 
 as well as the women, though not so frequently by the former ; and those apper- 
 taining to the latter were probably richer, and adorned with precious stones. 
 
 The women sometimes wore ornaments round their legs called pertscelides ; 
 but we know nothing respecting their form ; perhaps they resembled the tinkling 
 ornaments which were common enough in the Asiatic countries.® 
 
 Rings for the fingers are of great antiquity : it is thought, however, that the 
 Romans derived the use of them from the Sabines.^ At the time they were first 
 introduced, none but Senators and Equites were permitted to wear them of gold ; 
 the privilege was afterwards extended to the Legionary Tribunes.® The plebeians 
 wore rings of iron, excepting such a one as had been presented with a gold ring, 
 for his valour in war, or for some other desert.^ Under the Emperors, the liberty 
 of wearing golden rings became more general ; and was often granted for very 
 frivolous reasons.*** But Justinian gave permission to every citizen to use his 
 pleasure respecting them j** and some were so finical as to have light rings for the 
 summer, and heavier ones for the winter.*^ The ancient Romans rarely wore more 
 
 * Opuov ^pvffeoy ifKtKrpoiaiv eippieyov ; Odyss. lib. XVIII. ver. 294, 295. 
 
 * Torquis ; Virg. iSln. VII. ver. 351. Hence called torques. ^ Sueton. Galb. cap. 18. 
 
 * Serv. in iEn. lib. I. ver. 658. Juven. Sat. vi. ver. 89. Ovid, Ars Amandi, lib. III. ver. 169. 
 ^ '^'eXXtov, ^Xt^wv, et ftpaj(^iwvi(rrrjp ; artnilla, 
 
 ® See page xlvi. 7 Liv. I. cap. 2. 
 
 6 Ibid. lib. XXIII. cap. 12. Appian de Bell. Punic, cap. 63. Dio. XLVIII cap. 45. 
 
 9 Cic. Ver. III. 80. Sueton. Jul. cap. 39. Macrob. Sat. ii. ver. 10. 
 
 10 Plin. Nat. Hist. bb. XXXIII. cap. 1.4. Suet. Galb. cap. 14. Vitel. cap. 12. Tacit. Hist, 
 
 lib. IV. cap. 3. n Novel, cap. 78. 
 
 12 Hence called semestres. Juven. Sat. i. ver. 28 ; et vii. ver. 89. 
 
CXll 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 than one ring, and that upon the third finger of the left hand but afterwards the 
 number was increased, and sometimes they had one or more upon each finger ; but 
 this was always considered as an effeminacy.^ The rings were laid aside at night 
 and when the wearer bathed ; and, in the time of mourning, it was also indecorous 
 for a person supplicating a favour to appear with a ring upon his finger.* The rings 
 were not only of gold, but frequently set with precious stones of various kinds, 
 and embellished with curious sculptures, such as the images or busts of the wearer’s 
 ancestors and friends, the portraitures of princes and famous men, the representation 
 of great events, and a variety of other devices and they were of prodigious value. 
 Nonius a Senator, it is said, was proscribed by Mark Antony for the sake of his 
 ring, which was estimated at no less than twenty thousand sesterces.® 
 
 Rings were used for various purposes, and particularly for signets ; they were 
 also given as tokens, and in contracts and pledges, in any way.® It appears, that 
 any free-woman might wear a ring of gold ; and rings were worn by the females 
 both before and after marriage.^ A plain ring of iron without a gem, given to 
 an unmarried woman, was a pledge of union ; some say, the ring might be of 
 
 gold.® A ring given by a person at the point of death was esteemed a particular 
 
 mark of his affection.^ 
 
 An iron ring was worn by a general at the time of his triumph.^® 
 
 Face-painting does not appear to have been known among the Grecian ladies 
 in Homer’s time. In the dressing-room of Juno, as Eustathius justly observes, 
 we meet with no washes for the face, no dyes for the hair, and none of the 
 artificial embellishments since put in practice : the goddess had no mirror, and 
 performed the duties of the toilet with her own hands.“ A posterior Greek poet, 
 
 1 Hence called digitus anularis. Gel. X. 10. Macrob. Sat. vii. ver. 13. 
 
 2 Hor. Sat. lib. II. Sat. vii. v. 9. Mart. Ep. v. 62 ; et xi. 60. 
 
 2 Teren. Heaut. iv. 1. Liv. ix. cap. 7, et xliii cap. 16. Val. Max. viii. 1. Suet. Aug. cap. 101. 
 
 4Cic. Cat. iii 5. Plin. Epist. X. Suet. Tib. .56. Cic. Sext. 61. PUn. Nat. Hist. VII. 26. 
 
 5 Ibid. lib. XXXVI. cap. 6. 
 
 Macrob. Sat. vii. Liv. Lib. XXVII. cap. 28. Justin, lib. II. cap. 12. 
 
 7 Plant, cap. iii. sc. .5. Hor. Od. i. ver. 9. 23. Terentino Hecyra, IV. sc. 1. 
 
 8 Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. XXXI. cap. 1. Tertul. Apol. VI. Isidor. lib. XIX. cap. 32. 
 
 9 Justin, lib. XII. cap. 15. Val. Max. lib. VII. 88, et alibi. 
 
 >0 Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. XXXIII. cap. 1. “ Iliad, xiv. ver. 170, et seq. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 CXlll 
 
 directing his advice to a young virgin, counsels her against the waste of 
 time in contemplating her form in the mirror, or in making many knots 
 or braids with her hair ; and, above all, to avoid the painting or blacking 
 her eyes beneath the eye-lashes which was a fashion much practised in the 
 Asiatic nations." 
 
 The Roman women used variety of cosmetics, washes, and wash-balls, to im- 
 prove the colour of their faces as well as different kinds of paints, some of 
 which were composed of white lead, vermilion, and other pernicious ingredients, 
 exceedingly dangerous to use.^ They went so far as to cover the face with a 
 thick kind of paste, which they wore at home.® Poppeea, the wife of Nero, in- 
 vented an ointment to preserve beauty, made of asses’ milk, and from her 
 denominated PoppcBanum.^ The abominable fashion of face-painting was not 
 confined to women ; the men put the same in practice ; and not only daubed 
 their faces with paint, ^ but rubbed the skin with pumice-stones, to make it 
 smooth.® 
 
 The women had plasters to eradicate the small hairs from the cheeks ; and 
 sometimes they pulled them out with an instrument of the tweeser kind;^ their 
 eyes and their eyebrows they darkened with a black powder and, to conceal any 
 little deformity in the skin, they used patches in the form of a crescent but patches 
 were often worn for mere ornaments. 
 
 In time of mourning, the Greeks cut their hair, and shaved their beards P 
 The Romans, on the contrary, when they mourned, allowed both to grow, and wore 
 
 1 Frag. Naumachii, ver. 60, et infra. * See page xliv. 
 
 ^ Ovid, Met. Tacit. Ann. 51. Senec. Helv. 16. 
 
 ♦ Plant. Most. A. I. sc. 3. Ovid, Art. Am. 1. iii. ver. 199. Hor. Epod. 10, 12. Martial, 
 Ep. ii. 41, et alibi. 5 Juven. Sat. vi, ver. 462. 
 
 ® Plin. Nat. Hist. XI. 41 ; et XXVIII. 12. [And Juvenal, as before. Ed.] 
 
 I Sueton. Otho, cap. 12. Cic. Pis. ii. 
 
 8 Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. XXXVI. cap. 21. 
 
 Called volsellcB, Mart. viii. 67. 
 
 *“ Fiiligine collinebant. Tertul. de Cult. Foem. V. Juvenal, Sat. ii. v. 93. Plin. Epist. vi. 
 
 “ Lunatam; Mart. Ep. viii. 32, 33. Plin. ubi supra. is Seneca de Benef. V. 6. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Q 
 
CXIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the hair dishevelled, and sometimes covered it with dust and ashes and laid aside 
 all their ornaments of gold and purple.^ They also wore a black garment re- 
 sembling the lacerna, called pullata vestis. It seems, however, that this vestment 
 was not confined to the times of mourning, but was often used by the populace^ on 
 other occasions. The Ricinus, as we observed before, was a mourning garment worn 
 by the women. 
 
 The slaves in Rome wore habits nearly resembling the poor people; their 
 dress, which was always of a darkish colour, consisted of the exomis, or sleeveless 
 tunic, or the lacerna, with a hood of coarse cloth ; they wore the crepidse for their 
 shoes ; and their hair and their beards were permitted to grow to a great 
 length.^ 
 
 The Roman boys being the sons of noblemen wore a hollow ball, or bulla, of 
 gold, which hung from the neck upon the breast. Some think it was shaped like 
 a heart ; others that it was round, with a heart engraved upon it.^ This device, 
 according to Macrobius, was given to them, to put them in mind, as often as they 
 looked upon it, that the heart was the seat of manhood. The bulla was made 
 hollow for the reception of amulets against envy. Those belonging to the sons of 
 freedmen and of poor citizens were made of leather.® Macrobius gives us the 
 origin of this ornament, at least among the Romans ; and, as the passage refers to 
 another part of the young men’s dress, I shall cite so much of it as will answer 
 the present purpose. Tullus Hostilius, having conquered the Hetruscans, intro- 
 duced at Rome, among other things, the toga picta and the prcBtexta, which were 
 used by the Hetruscan magistrates ; for, at that time, the pretexta was not given 
 to the sons of noblemen, but was a habit of honour and distinction. Afterwards 
 Tarquinius Priscus triumphed over the Sabines ; and, in the oration which he made 
 
 > Liv. i. 26, et vi. 16. Sueton. Jul. 67. Aug. 23. Calig. 24. Virg, ^En. xii. ver. 609. Catul. 
 XLIV. 23. 2 Liy. lib, IX. cap. 7. Isidor. XIX. 31. 
 
 3 Montfaucon, vol. III. part i. chap. 7. 
 
 * Gell. lib. VIII. 12. Hort. Sat. ii. 7. 54. Juven. Sat. hi. v. 170 ; et v. ver. 171, &c. 
 
 ^ Cic. Verr. I. 58. Liv. lib. XXVI. cap. 36. Macrob. Sat. lib. I. cap. 6. [It was round. An 
 
 original and beautiful bulla is in the exquisite collection of Samuel Rogers, Esq. Ed.] 
 
 ® Bulla scortea, ye\ siffnum de 2)aupe7-e loro. Juven. Sat. v. ver. 165. Plin. Nat. Hist. XXXIII. 
 cap. i. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 CXV 
 
 to the army, he bestowed mueh praise upon his son who, at fourteen years of age, 
 had killed an enemy with his own hand. The eulogium being finished, he presented 
 to the youth the pretexta and a bulla of gold, to shew, by those marks of honour, 
 that his valour was superior to his years ; the pretexta being an ensign of 
 magistracy, and the bulla of triumph. Hence, adds he, the custom came of giving 
 the pretexta and the bulla to the sons of noblemen or, as Pliny says, of giving 
 a bulla of gold to the sons of those who had behaved valiantly in battle.^ 
 
 The habits of the Priests we are by no means well acquainted with. The 
 Flamines, it appears, received that appellation from a cap, or fillet, which they 
 wore upon their heads. ^ They used the toga, and over that a purple Isena, and 
 sometimes a conical cap called apex* 
 
 The Salii, or priests of Mars, on solemn occasions, danced through the city 
 of Rome, clothed in an embroidered tunic, girt with a brazen belt ; and over it 
 they wore the toga pretexta, or the trabea ; having on their heads a cap rising to 
 a considerable height with a sword by tlje side ; and holding in the right hand 
 a spear, or a rod, and in the left one of the sincilia, or shields of Mars but, 
 according to Lucan, this shield depended from the neck.'*' 
 
 The Luperci, or priests of Pan, at the Lupercal, ran up and down the city 
 naked, having only a girdle of goats’ skin about their waist, holding thongs of the 
 same in their hands, with which they struck those they met, and especially the 
 married women, to make them fruitful. 
 
 The Vestal Virgins wore a long white robe bordered with purple ; their heads 
 were decorated with fillets® and ribands f at their initiation their hair w^as cut off, 
 and buried ; but it was permitted to grow again afterwards.^® 
 
 The ancient Grecians, as well as the ancient Romans, used every method to 
 encourage industry among the women. According to Homer, spinning and weaving 
 constituted the chief employment of the ladies of the highest rank ; and, indeed, 
 the excelling in these qualities seems to have been one of the first recom- 
 
 ^ Macrob ubi supra. 2 piiu. ubi supra. 
 
 * Lucan, lib. I. ver. 604. Virg. .®u. VIII. ver. 664. 
 ® Dionys. II. 70. 
 
 ® Trfnla>, arefiiJicira. Diouys. II. 67 ; etVIII. 89. 
 riin. Nat. Hist.Ub. XVI. cap. 44. 
 
 s Varr. L. IV. c 1.5. 
 ^ Apex, &c. ; in Greek Kvppaa-iu. 
 7 Pharsal. lib. I. ver. 603. 
 
 9 VittcB. Ovid. Fast. III. 30. 
 
CXVl 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 mendations a female could possess. But, in the more modern times, the women of 
 quality of both nations became luxurious and indolent, and the management of the 
 loom, with all its requisites, was committed to slaves. The goddess of Wisdom 
 herself is described by the Poets as skilful in the production of fabrics of the 
 finest texture, and also in decorating them with ornaments of various kinds, either 
 interwoven by the mixture of different coloured threads, or embroidered with the 
 needle ; and this allegory was used, no doubt, as a stimulus for every woman to 
 imitate so illustrious an example and become a good housewife. 
 
 Silk appears to have been unknown to the Romans during the existence of 
 the Republic ; it is afterwards mentioned ; but the use of it was forbidden to the 
 men.' Vespasian and his son Titus wore robes of silk at the time of their 
 triumph but these, it is thought, were only embroidered, or embellished, with 
 silk intermixed with other stuff ; for, Heliogabalus is said to have been the first 
 Emperor who wore a robe of pure silk.’ It appears also, that the silk stuffs woven 
 in India were esteemed at Rome too thick and close for use ; and therefore they 
 were unravelled, and wrought over again with linen or woollen,^ and made so thin 
 that the body might be seen through the garment.’ In the time of the Emperor 
 Aurelian, a vestment of pure silk was estimated at so high a price, that he refused 
 to indulge his Empress on that account.® Silk-worms, it is said, were introduced 
 at Constantinople as early as the reign of Justinian ; but the Romans some-time 
 after appear to be perfectly ignorant of the method of making silk.^ 
 
 I shall conclude this chapter with the following description of a Grecian 
 farmer’s habit fi'om Hesiod 
 
 Wlien gusty winter frowns upon the land, 
 
 Such clothing use as I shall now command : 
 
 Soft let the chlena^ be ; and to the ground 
 The ample tunic shall descend around ; 
 
 ^ Tacit. An. lib. II. cap. 33. ^ page vi. [Where the reference should be to Bel. Jud. 
 
 lib. VII. cap. 5. sec. 4. Ed.] * Vestis koloserica : Laraprid. in Vit. Heliogab. lib. XXVI. 2.'). 
 
 * Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. VI. cap. 22. 
 
 ® Ut translucerent . These kind of garments were first made in the Island of Cos ; hence vcifts 
 Coe, for their silken and transparent vestments ; see page xxxvii. 
 
 ® Vospisc. in Aurel. cap. 45. i Procop. de Bell. Goth. lib. IV. cap. 17, 
 
 ® Works and Days, Book II. ver. 153, et infra. 9 XXatva. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 CXVll 
 
 In wearing these take largely of the fleece, 
 
 But sparingly of flax ; and work the piece 
 With care throughout, nor let the woolly part 
 Appear unseemly or devoid of art. 
 
 With shoes, well formed from an ox’s hide, 
 
 The pile turn’d inwards, be your feet supply’d. 
 
 Have ready next, your shoulders to defend. 
 
 Should the rough storm or heavy rains descend, 
 
 A cloak of goats’ skins, firstlings of the kind. 
 
 Sew’d with strong tendons,^ and completely join’d. 
 
 Then for thine head a pilom? wrought with care, 
 
 Both ears inclosing cautiously prepare ; 
 
 For, piercing are the morning winds which blow 
 Chill from the North, and drive the falling snow. 
 
 ‘ He^tXa l3oog. ® Nevpu) ftoog ; literally, the nerves of the ox. 
 
 ^ llfXoc ; a cap, or hat. 
 

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A 
 
 COMPLETE VIEW 
 
 OF 
 
 THE DRESS AN J ) HABITS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PEOPLE OF ENGLAND, 
 
 FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SAXONS IN BRITAIN 
 TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 PART 1. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS, TO THE 
 CONCLUSION OF THE EIGHTH^ CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THE STATE OF THE CLOTHING ARTS CONSIDERED. — HABITS OF THE MEN. — THE SHIRT. — 
 
 THE TUNIC. — THE SURCOAT. THE CLOAK, OR MANTLE. — THE HEAD-DRESS. — THE SHOES, 
 
 STOCKINGS, &C. 
 
 Among the various arts, to which the necessities of mankind gave birth, none 
 seems to have claimed more attention than those upon which the manufacturing of 
 cloth depended ; so that, if we had not the evidence of history in favour of our 
 
 ^ [The principal authorities upon which Mr. Strutt has relied for the Anglo-Saxon costume of the 
 eighth century are the following illuminated MSS. in the British Museum, and the Bodleian Library at 
 Oxford : — 
 
 1. The Book of Genesis, and other parts of the Mosaical History. Cotton Col. Claudius B. iv. 
 
 2. A Psalter in Latin according to the version of St. Jerome. Harleian Col. 603. 
 
 3. Book of Genesis, &c. Bodleian Lib. No. 5123. Junius xi. 
 
 4. A Calendar in the Saxon language. Cotton Col. Julius A. vi. 
 
 The four subjects on his first plate, inscribed “ Saxon Rustics of the Eighth Century,” are taken one 
 
2 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Saxon ancestors, we could hardly suppose them to have been altogether ignorant of 
 the clothing arts, even at the time of their first arrival in Britain. They were, 
 it is true, a rude, unlettered people ; but it is equally certain, that they were by no 
 means destitute of ingenuity ; nor is it probable that, while they were making con- 
 siderable advancement in other arts, they should totally neglect those, which were 
 highly essential to their comfortable enjoyment of life. At the time of their establish- 
 ment in England, we find that they were well acquainted with the manner of dressing 
 and spinning of flax,^ which they manufactured into cloth, and dyed of various colours 
 according to their fancy ; and, from the high price of wool enacted by the Saxon 
 Legislature,® a strong presumptive proof may be drawn, that the making of woollen 
 garments was also practised in this kingdom. 
 
 To what extent of delicacy they carried their manufactures cannot possibly be 
 ascertained in the present day ; but, that their skill in the art of weaving, so far 
 back as the latter end of the seventh century, was by no means inconsiderable, we 
 have the incontestable authority of an author of their own. Aldhelm, bishop of 
 Sherbourne, writing in praise of virginity, uses the following lines by way of simile : 
 “ It is not the web of one uniform colour and texture, without any variety of figures, 
 “ that pleases the eye and appears beautiful, but one that is woven by shuttles filled 
 “ with threads of purple and various other colours, flying from side to side, and 
 “ forming a variety of figures and images in difierent compartments with admirable 
 “ art.”^ It appears, however, equally certain, that silks, and the finest linen, and 
 
 from each of these MSS. Now, No. 3 has been acknowledged to be as late as the close of the tenth, 
 perhaps the commencement of the eleventh century. (Vide Archaeologia, vol. 24, in which the illumina- 
 tions are engraved, and the MS. described). No. 1 is considered to be not much its senior, and Nos. 2 
 and 4 Mr. Strutt himself has, in his reference at the end of the work, ascribed to the tenth century; and 
 on his 23rd plate actually given two warriors from the former in their true chronological order. In my 
 “ History of British Costume,” I have given my reasons for believing this Harleian MS. (603) to be of even 
 a still later date, namely of the time of Harold II. It is necessary, therefore, that our readers should bear 
 this notice in mind through the following chapters, as having placed this warning in front, I shall not 
 encumber the text with continual corrections of the same error, more particularly as there does not 
 appear to be any reason for supposing that much alteration took place in the dress of the Anglo-Saxons 
 between the 6th and 1 1th centuries, for as early as the close of the 8th they were reproached putting 
 on their garments in the manner of their pagan predecessors ; and the first serious innovation upon the 
 ancient costume appears to have been that so bitterly lamented by William of Malmesbury, in the time of 
 Edward the Confessor, when they began to ape the fashions of the Norman- French. Ed.] 
 
 1 Dr. Henry’s History of Britain, Vol. II. 
 
 * By some of the Anglo-Saxon laws it was valued at two-fifths of the price of the whole sheep. Dr. 
 Henry, as above. * Aldhelm de Virginitate, MS. in the Library at Lambeth. 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 S 
 
 other cloths, made a considerable part of the imports from foreign countries, not 
 only at this period, but even for some time after the Norman conquest : silk, we are 
 assured, was used soon after the conversion of the Anglo Saxons to Christianity, to 
 ornament the altars of their churches ; and in a short space of time it became one 
 of the luxuries of the wealthy in their dress ; but there is no sufficient authority to 
 support the supposition of its having been made in England during the Saxon iEra/ 
 
 When we look upon the delineations of the Saxons preserved in their manu- 
 scripts, (and there is no reason to believe that they are not the real transcripts of 
 their own times), we see evidently, that not only the conveniences, but even the 
 superfluities, of dress were adopted by them ; and it appears that the decoration 
 of the habit, with variety of redundant ornaments, was considered as an essential 
 distinction of superior rank. 
 
 I shall dose this short introduction with a few words upon the skill of the Anglo- 
 Saxon ladies in the art of embroidering. The teaching of this art appears to have 
 been one part of polite education among the fair sex, and their peformances therein 
 were often of such importance as to excite the notice of the ancient historians ; but 
 we shall have occasion to speak on this subject more fully hereafter : in order to 
 give some idea how far it was extended at this period, 1 shall only add here, that, 
 in a charter which Wiglaf, king of Mercia, granted to the abbey of Croyland, cited 
 by Ingulphus, mention is made of the king’s golden veil, embroidered with the His- 
 tory of the Destruction of Troy, which he gave to the said abbey, to be hung up 
 annually in the church upon his birthday.^ 
 
 THE SHIRT. 
 
 There is sufficient authority to prove that the shirt was a garment in use among 
 the Anglo-Saxons as early as the eighth century ; but the difficulty, at present, is to 
 distinguish it from the short tunic. The shirt was the clothing worn immediately 
 next the skin, and rarely drawn by the artists of antiquity without some other cover- 
 ing ; for which reason we cannot expect to see it in its perfect form. The sleeping 
 figure, represented at the bottom of the second plate of this work, was drawn by 
 the artist for a man in bed ; the garment he wears greatly resembles the tunic 
 
 1 Anglia Sacra, W. Malms. &c. 2 Ingulphus, Hist. Croil. p. 487. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 R 
 
4 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 without its customary appendage, the girdle, saving only that it appears to sit closer 
 to the body ; and the folds of the sleeves, from the elbow to the wrist, are much 
 smaller than they are generally depicted upon the tunic. From these circumstances, 
 I have been led to conclude, that the garment here represented is the shirt of the 
 i Anglo-Saxons,^ If this be not the fact, the appearance of a garment to sleep in is a 
 I good argument in favour of the decency of our ancestors in their uncultivated state, as 
 I the aera, we are now treating of, is usually called. We shall find, however, the shirt, 
 as a night garment, was entirely rejected in the succeeding ages — ages, when one 
 might have expected to have found mankind improved, and decency, at least, estab- 
 lished upon a broader foundation. 
 
 From the colour of this garment, which in the original is white, I conceive it to 
 have been designed to represent linen, of which material we may naturally conclude 
 the shirt, at this time, was usually made, because the wearing of a woollen shirt was 
 enjoined by the Canons as a very severe penance.- 
 
 I have observed, that the habit above-mentioned is white in the original, but the 
 colour, when applied to dress, seems entirely to have depended on the caprice of the 
 wearer ; for other instances occur in which the garment of this kind is painted red 
 and blue. We are not, however, to suppose that linen shirts, or even shirts at all, 
 were in common use, especially at this period. The wearing of linen was certainly 
 confined to the wealthy only, and seems to have been considered as a luxury of 
 the times. 
 
 THE TUNIC. 
 
 This garment certainly is not of Saxon origin ; we trace it in the monuments 
 of highest antiquity ; and, as far as we can judge of it, from the form and even 
 from the name which it bore among our ancestors, it was derived from the Romans.^ 
 It was of two kinds ; the short tunic, worn at times by all classes of people ; and 
 the long tunic, which appears to be the distinguishing mark of superiority of rank. 
 
 The short tunic, in its simplest state, bears no distant resemblance to the modern 
 
 ' This figure is taken from a Saxon MS. in the British Museum, marked Claudius, B. iv. 
 
 ^ Johnson’s Canons, A.D. 963. Can. 64. 
 
 ^ In the MS. from which the greater part of the specimens of the tunic are given upon the following 
 plates, it is called tunican. [It was also called Roc or Rooc. — En.] 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 shirt ; it was apparently put upon the body over the head in the same manner, and 
 the aperture at the top is sometimes drawn no larger than barely sufficient to admit 
 the passing through of the head ; but at other times we see it open upon the 
 bosom, and adorned with a border, of which, perhaps, the frill of the present day 
 may be considered as a remote imitation. 
 
 It was sometimes open from the hips downw^ard on either side ; and the wearer 
 frequently appears to have no other garment to defend him from the inclemency of 
 the weather : this form of the tunic might be adopted, because it gave full liberty 
 to the limbs, and was of course more convenient when agility was required. Two 
 specimens of the open tunic, selected from many which occur in the early Saxon 
 manuscripts, are given upon the first plate of this work. The figure to the left 
 represents a ploughman, and is the only instance, that I recollect, in which the 
 tunic is depicted without a girdle round the loins.‘ The third figure upon the 
 same plate is also a ploughman,*^ but I think of superior rank, and probably a free 
 man ; for the tunic open on the sides appears to have been, at this period at least, 
 the distinguishing badge of slavery or servitude. 
 
 From the short tunic of the Saxons originated, I doubt not, the garment so com- 
 monly worn at this day by the rustics in all parts of England, and known by the 
 name of round frocks, or carmen’s frocks. The collars and wrist-bands of such 
 frocks are very often curiously decorated with needle-work, and much in the same 
 manner we shall see the Saxon tunic ornamented hereafter. 
 
 The short tunic rarely descended below the knee ; and, being bound about the 
 waist with a girdle, the loose flow of folds from the hips were by no means un- 
 graceful : but frequent instances occur, especially where a person of superior quality 
 is represented, in which this garment appears to be decorated with borders of 
 various colours, embroidered, and sometimes set with precious stones ; which, how- 
 ever they may have added to its finery, totally destroyed the elegance of its form. 
 The third figure, on the second plate, exhibits an example of this kind, and several 
 others may be found in the succeeding engravings.^ 
 
 1 have hinted before, that the short tunic was a garment worn by all classes of 
 
 ' It is taken from a MS. in the Harleian Library, marked 603. 
 
 ® This figure is taken from an aneient Saxon MS. in the Bodleian Library, at Oxford, marked Junius xi. 
 and the figure in the middle of the plate is taken from the MS. mentioned in the last note but one, 
 marked Claudius, B. iv. 
 
 3 Three specimens of the short tunic, as worn without the mantle, are given on the second plate. 
 The figure in the middle is from the MS. at Oxford, mentioned before, marked, Junius xi. The other 
 two, and the figure sleeping at the bottom, are from Claudius, B. iv. 
 
6 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 people, from the slave to the monarch ; and,^from the great frequency of its repre- 
 sentation in the ancient delineations, it appears to have been more generally adopted 
 by the nobility than the longer tunic, which was by no means so convenient for 
 motion ; and, indeed, it is rarely seen where the figures are represented walking, 
 hunting, or in fact employed in any kind of exercise. I conceive it was only worn 
 on state-days and other solemn occasions ; and, whenever it is depicted, it appears 
 to be the habit appropriated to people of the most exalted rank. 
 
 The sleeves of the longer tunic were sometimes loose, and open ; at other times 
 close to the arms ; and most commonly to the wrist. This garment was bound 
 about the waist with a girdle, and descended in loose graceful folds to the ancles. 
 It is of various colours in the diflPerent delineations ; but the more general colour 
 appears to be white, which circumstance may lead us to conjecture that it was made 
 of linen. The same observation, with respect to colour, will hold good concerning 
 the shorter tunic, which is also very frequently painted white ; however, we are 
 well assured that the materials of that garment were varied according to the rank 
 and wealth of the wearer. But, as the longer tunic was always confined to persons 
 of superior stations, there can be little doubt that the materials of which it was 
 composed were of the finest texture and most esteemed workmanship. 
 
 THE SURCOAT.^ 
 
 The Surcoat was a garment worn over the tunic, and it was appropriated to 
 persons of the highest distinction ; from the nature of its construction it appears 
 to have been an ornamental or state dress ; like the tunic, it was put upon the body 
 over the head, a sufficient aperture being left at the top for that purpose. The 
 sleeves of the surcoat are usually depicted large and open, and do not descend 
 beyond the elbow ; some few instances must be excepted, in which they are made 
 closer to the arm, and reach to the wrist : we see the surcoat perfectly represented 
 in the third plate of this work, together with the longer tunic. To the dress of the 
 monarch of this period is usually added the mantle, either as it is exhibited upon 
 the fourth plate, or fastened with the fibula upon the right shoulder ; frequent 
 instances of which will be seen hereafter. I made choice of the present figure, 
 because it shews the longer tunic and the surcoat distinctly, without any part of the 
 
 ‘ [Properly, the super-tunic. Saxon, over-froc. Surcoat (sur-cote) was the Norman name for a 
 similar garment. — E d.] 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 7 
 
 latter being hid by the mantle. There is also a peculiarity with respect to the 
 surcoat, as here represented, which* occurs but once or twice more in any of the 
 Saxon drawings that I have seen. It has the appearance of a double garment : 
 that part of it which is most seen is blue, and the sleeves belonging to it are short 
 and open : the under part of it which appears upon the knees, and descends in 
 close sleeves covering those of the tunic, to the wrists, is yellow. The tunic reaches 
 below the border of the surcoat to the ancles, and is painted red. 
 
 The surcoat is depicted of various colours ; but, as it belonged to the nobility 
 only, we may depend upon its having been made of the most costly materials, 
 perhaps of silk, or finest linen ; and we often find it ornamented with rich embroi- 
 dery, and borders of gold. 
 
 The surcoat, as represented upon the third and fourth plates, reaches to the 
 middle of the leg ; but we find that a garment not so long, though perhaps of the 
 same kind, was worn by persons of distinction over the shorter tunic. It descended 
 below the waist, and appears to have been constantly ornamented at the bottom with 
 a border of embroidery, as may be seen upon the seventh plate. 
 
 THE CLOAK, OR MANTLE. 
 
 There is no part of the ancient Saxon habit that appears to have varied so much 
 in form and size as the Mantle. It is most usually depicted as a very partial cover- 
 ing, fastened with a fibula or buckle upon the right shoulder, whence it descended a 
 little below the skirts of the shorter tunic, and, covering all the back, it was 
 gathered into sloping folds over the left arm and part of the breast. This mode of 
 wearing the mantle gave perfect liberty to the right arm, while the various actions 
 of the left arm beneath it afibrded a succession of forms, the lines of which were 
 often very elegant. It is proper, however, to observe, that various instances occur, 
 in which we find the order of wearing the mantle exactly reversed ; the fibula being 
 affixed to the left shoulder, and the right arm covered, while the left remains without 
 any incumbrance. This might arise from the vanity of the wearer, to shew that he 
 could use the left hand equally with his right, a skill which our ancestors certainly 
 held in high estimation.^ 
 
 The mantle, as above described, was generally worn with the shorter tunic ; and 
 
 ‘ To use the weapon with both hands is given as part of the character of a great hero in the ancient 
 Chronicles of Norway. Pontoppidan’s History of Norway, p. 24€. 
 
8 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 even personages of common rank are rarely depicted without it. I do not mean to 
 say, that it was confined to persons of middling stations ; it was also adopted hy 
 those of the highest distinction, and frequently worn with the longer tunic and 
 surcoat, in which case it has the appearance of being longer than usual and more 
 flowing. 
 
 The nobility, especially when habited in their state-dress, are often distinguished 
 by a more ample cloak or mantle, which was usually fastened upon the breast with 
 a fibula, and it covered both shoulders equally ; sometimes it is delineated as 
 descending nearly to the ancles in the manner represented in the fourth plate : at 
 other times it appears to have been much curtailed, and extended but little below 
 the verge of the shorter tunic, as may be seen upon the seventh plate. Both these 
 mantles, from the manner in which they are fastened, must have been exceedingly 
 inconvenient to the wearer in all cases where activity was required ; whence we 
 may reasonably conjecture that they were used as ceremonial or state-dresses only. 
 
 There was another kind of large cloak, or mantle, belonging to the Anglo- 
 Saxons at this period ; but, as it is rarely represented in their paintings, I am 
 inclined to think it was by no means generally used. It was worn without any 
 buckle, and appears evidently to have been made with an aperture nearly in the 
 midst of it, for the head to pass through, over which it was put upon the shoulders ; 
 and, perhaps, (for I speak from conjecture only), it may be properly considered 
 as a winter garment. The representation of it is given upon the fifth plate. 
 
 Youth of distinction are usually depicted with a small cloak resembling the 
 herald’s tabard. It was fastened with a fibula upon either shoulder, and, hanging 
 down before, as probably it did behind in like manner, was open at the sides, and 
 left both the arms at liberty ; — this cloak did not reach below the girdle ; the 
 exact representation of it is given upon the fifth plate. Another drawing of a 
 youth, apparently older than the former, is copied on the sixth plate. His 
 cloak is fastened with a single fibula upon the right shoulder only, and it seems 
 to have been no otherwise distinguished from the mantle worn by persons arrived 
 at man’s estate than by its size ; for it is, as we may see upon examination, 
 considerably smaller in proportion to his stature. 
 
 I do not apprehend that the Saxons always unbuckled their mantles when they 
 took them from their shoulders, especially in case of any uncommon emergency. — 
 From the manner in which they appear to have been buckled, there could have 
 been no difficulty in putting them over the head, even in that state ; this conjecture 
 is strengthened by a drawing which I found in a Saxon manuscript of the tenth 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 9 
 
 century, in which David is represented fighting with a lion ; and, as his cloak 
 would have been inconvenient to him during the combat, he is supposed to have 
 taken it from his shoulders, and thrown it upon the ground, where it lies in the 
 form faithfully represented at the bottom of the fifth plate.' 
 
 The mantle, worn by the figure with his arms extended in the middle 
 compartment of the fifth plate, differs greatly from any of those already described. 
 Part of it was bound about the waist, and reached below the knees ; while the 
 other part of it, passing over the left or right shoulder, covered the back, and 
 descended to the middle of the leg. The same kind of mantle, but more perfectly 
 represented, is exemplified upon the eighth plate.*^ This garment may probably be 
 considered as part of the most superb habit of the monarch and grandees of this 
 period ; for, none hut a superior personage is ever depicted with it ; and it seems 
 especially to have been appropriated to the representations of the Deity and other 
 heavenly beings. If this observation should lead to the supposition that it was 
 only a fancy-dress, it will be necessary to add, that the Anglo-Saxon artists do not, 
 in any other instance, appear to have had the least distant idea of clothing their 
 figures in dresses differing from those they were constantly accustomed to behold. 
 But a stronger proof, that the garment under present consideration is not a dress 
 of fancy, may be deduced from the resemblance it bears to that before-mentioned 
 upon the fifth plate, which was executed by another artist of the same century, and 
 because it also corresponds exactly with the same kind of mantle represented in 
 many other Saxon manuscripts painted at different times, and probably in very 
 distant parts of the country. 
 
 1 The figure to the right upon the fifth plate, represented as running forward, is given to shew 
 the manner in which the mantle sat upon the shoulders, when seen sideways. A back view of the 
 same does not occur in any of the drawings of this period. 
 
 2 I should not make any apology for giving this figure to the public, even if it was not so essential 
 to the present work as I conceive it to be : extractedly, we may consider it as a curious specimen of 
 the arts at the time in which it was painted ; and, through the rudeness of the form, there is evidently 
 to be traced an idea of grandeur and strength of imagination far superior to what might have been 
 expected from a people so uncivilized as the Saxons are generally represented to be. Had the execution 
 been equal to the conception, this figure would not have disgraced the pencil of a Raphael. 
 
10 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE HEAD-DRESS. 
 
 The Saxon drawings of the eighth century contain no great variety of head- 
 dresses, and the few we find delineated are very simple in their form. No regard 
 seems to have been paid to beauty in their construction, nor much to common 
 convenience ; they scarcely covered the top of the head, and left the face exposed 
 to the weather, and unshaded from the rays of the sun. 
 
 Personages of all ranks, the king only excepted, who (for distinction’s sake) 
 is always represented wearing his crown, are frequently depicted bare-headed ; nor 
 will it appear extraordinary, that the custom of going with the head uncovered 
 should be prevalent among the Anglo-Saxons, when we recollect that long flowing 
 hair was considered by them as an essential beauty, and the fondness to display the 
 luxuriance of their locks might be the occasion of their paying so little regard to 
 any extraneous ornament. This taste they derived from their ancestors ; and so 
 forcibly had fashion impressed it upon their minds, that they were not prevailed 
 upon to curtail their hair for several centuries after their conversion to Christianity, 
 notwithstanding it was a continual topic of declamation among the clergy, who 
 reprobated the wearing of long hair as an unmanly and sinful custom. 
 
 The usual form of the hair, as we find it represented in the drawings of this 
 remote sera, is not inelegant ; it is parted upon the middle of the head, and flows 
 on either side the face upon the shoulders ; it appears to have been neatly combed, 
 and is very rarely represented with curls, or braided ; when it is so, it is evidently 
 intended as a mark of the highest distinction, as may be seen on the eighth plate, 
 where the figure is depicted with great exuberance of hair, far exceeding the usual 
 quantity ; it is also plaited or curled upon the crown and at the sides in a very 
 curious and singular manner. The hair and beard of this extraordinary figure 
 in the original drawing are blue, a circumstance not at all singular ; repeated 
 instances occur of the hair and beard being so coloured, not only in the book from 
 which the present engraving is taken, but in a variety of other manuscripts some 
 centuries posterior to it. This observation leads me to conjecture that the Anglo- 
 Saxons either had some method of dying the hair blue, or filled it occasionally with 
 powder of that colour. The custom of dying the hair of various colours is of 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 11 
 
 much greater antiquity than the times I am now treating of, and it was especially 
 prevalent in the eastern parts of the world. ^ 
 
 It has been said, that the Saxons always shaved their beards, leaving no part 
 untouched by the razor but what grew upon the upper lip." The authority of 
 William of Malmsbury in particular on one hand, and the tapestry of Bayeaux on 
 the other, is brought to prove this assertion ; which is certainly true, when applied 
 to the time in which the celebrated tapestry was manufactured f but, in the more 
 remote ages, and particularly in the eighth century, the very reverse prevailed 
 among our ancestors. The greater part of the figures which accompany this 
 chapter sufficiently demonstrate, that the upper lip and top of the chin were only 
 shaved, and that the rest of the beard was permitted to grow to a considerable 
 length ; it has the appearance of being very smooth and clean, and is continually 
 represented as forked, or divided upon the chin, and terminating downwards in 
 two points. 
 
 The cap, most commonly worn by the Saxons at this period, bears no distant 
 resemblance to the ancient Phrygian bonnet. With the lower class of people, it 
 has the appearance of roughness behind, and probably was composed of the skin of 
 some animal dressed with the hair upon the hide, and the shaggy part turned 
 outward. Such a cap is represented in the middle compartment of the first plate. 
 When the man of quality wore this kind of covering, it was usually enriched 
 with some species of ornament ; an instance of which is given upon the fifth 
 plate. 
 
 Another cap, in the form of a perfect cone, was worn occasionally by the 
 nobility ; but as this appears to have been a species of helmet, the description and 
 representation of it will be given in the third chapter, where the military habits of 
 this century are particularly considered.^ 
 
 1 Mohammed, the Arabian impostor, hy the application of Al Henna, or Cyprus Indigo, and the 
 herb Al Catam, gave a beautiful shining red colour to his hair and beard. His immediate successor, 
 Abu Beer, followed his example, which is practised by the Scenite Arabs at this day. Modern 
 Universal Hist. Vol. I. pages 252 and 379- 
 
 ® Dr. Henry’s History of Britain, Vol. II. 
 
 ® That is, soon after the Norman conquest. We shall have occasion to speak more fully concerning 
 this curious tapestry hereafter, when we come to the dress of the Normans. 
 
 * The crown and diadem, which are represented upon the third and eighth plates, will be fully 
 described at the end of the Saxon Mra., 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 S 
 
J2 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 SHOES AND STOCKINGS. 
 
 The Saxons of the eighth century are seldom represented barefooted : shoes 
 appear to have been very common, even among the lowest class of people. All the 
 different forms of the shoes, retained in the drawings of this period, are given with 
 the several figures which accompany the present chapter. They are usually painted 
 black, and are sometimes fastened round the instep, without the appearance of any 
 aperture farther than was barely necessary for the insertion of the foot. In general, 
 they are divided in the middle j at other times they have evidently two divisions, 
 one on each side ; and the upper leather forms a flap, which covers the instep, and 
 fastens upon it, where it is connected wdth the part attached to the soles. Some 
 few instances occur, where sandals are represented, especially in a very ancient 
 manuscript of the four Gospels but there is nothing particular in their form ; and, 
 from their being totally omitted in the more modern paintings of the Saxons, I con- 
 ceive that the wearing of them was also quite abolished. 
 
 There is nothing more certain than that stockings w’ere in use among the Anglo- 
 Saxons as far back as the eighth century : but it will not be an easy task to discover 
 the materials of which they were composed ; nor to determine whether the ancient 
 illuminators intended in general to represent the legs as bare, when neither marks 
 nor folds are delineated upon them ; for, there is rarely any distinction in such 
 cases made by colour. One instance, however, I have procured in the boy upon 
 the sixth plate ; his legs, in the original painting, are blue, a circumstance w’hich 
 clearly proves them to have been covered, though there are no marks of the folding 
 of the stockings. There are some faint indications of folds upon the legs of the 
 rustic to the right, in the first plate, which, however, do not extend higher than the 
 middle of the leg. The centre figure, upon the second plate, gives the most perfect 
 representation of a covering for the legs ; but, whether this was not a species of 
 boot or buskin, in addition to the stockings, I cannot certainly discover. 
 
 Gloves seem to have been unknown at this period, though undoubted authority 
 will be produced in the ensuing pages to prove that they were in use not long after- 
 ward ; but even then as a luxury only, imported from the Continent, and confined 
 to the highest class of people. 
 
 ^ This curious MS. is said to have been written at the instigation of St. Cuthbert, as early as the ' 
 seventh century ; figures, representing the four Evangelists, are rudely depicted and prefixed to the 
 Gospels. They are faithfully copied in the third volume of Strutt’s jjojiba Anjel-cynnan, or Manners 
 and Customs of the English. [The figures were copied most probably from Greek paintings, and 
 cannot be relied upon as authorities for Anglo Saxon costume. — Ed ] 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 13 
 
 CHAP. 11. 
 
 THE DRESS OF THE WOMEN OF THE EIGHTH CENTURY THE UNDER-GARMENT THE GOWN 
 
 THE MANTLE THE COVERCHIEF, OR HEAD-DRESS THE SHOES, STOCKINGS, &C. 
 
 The great want of materials for furnishing a complete history of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, and the confusion of circumstances arising from the various divisions of 
 Britain under their government, has deterred many of our best writers from making 
 deep researches into the abstracted reijjains of antiquity concerning them. The 
 Saxon annals are hastily passed over ; and we are led to conclude that they contained 
 nothing worthy the serious attention of an accomplished historian.* d'he records of 
 our ancestors, however, speak a contrary language ; and even a partial examination 
 of their drawings, though rude and imperfect in many instances, will demonstrate 
 the strongest evidence of natural genius under some degree of cultivation, and con- 
 vince us that more than the mere dawn of civilization had taken place among them. 
 
 The former chapter aflPords sufficient proof, that, as early as the eighth century, 
 considerable advances had been made beyond the requisites of mere convenience, 
 even to the appearance of luxury and magnificence in the garments of the men. 
 We shall now pass on to the habits of the Anglo-Saxon ladies ; and it gives me no 
 small satisfaction to assure the female part of my readers, that they will find the 
 strongest indications of modesty in the dress of their fair countrywomen, without 
 the least tincture of barbarism, and without (let me not offend in speaking) that 
 proneness to change of fashion which so forcibly characterises the later ages. 
 Content with native simplicity, which is rarely inelegant, the Anglo-Saxon ladies 
 adopted the fashions of their predecessors, and for several centuries posterior to the 
 era I am now engaged in, the habits of the females appear to have undergone little 
 alteration. The later Saxon manuscripts exhibit the same kind of garments, but 
 progressively adorned with variety of ornaments of embroidery and needle-work. 
 Ornaments of this kind depended entirely upon the skill of the ladies, and may 
 more properly be considered as a display of their taste than a change of fashion ; 
 they also reflect great credit upon the fair artists, and testify by the gradual 
 indications of improvement, that the elegant domestic employment of working with 
 
 ^ [Mr. Strutt made this observation before Mr. Sharon Turner had pubhshed his excellent “ His- 
 tory of the Anglo-Saxons.” — Ed.] 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
14 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 the needle was holden by them in very high estimation. It has been already hinted 
 in the preceding chapter, that the Anglo-Saxon ladies, so far back as the eighth 
 century, excelled in the arts depending upon the needle : the history of their dress 
 will therefore be, in some measure, a history of their ingenuity ; and will, I trust, 
 sufficiently demonstrate what has been asserted in their favour. 
 
 In the foregoing chapter it has been proved, that the shirt formed a part of the 
 dress of the men ; and surely we cannot hesitate a moment to conclude that the 
 women were equally tenacious of decency in their habit, and of course were not 
 destitute of body linen : the remains of antiquity, it is true, afford not sufficient 
 authority to prove the fact ; yet the presumptive argument, founded upon female 
 delicacy, weighs so strongly in the scale, that, concluding it to be consonant with 
 the truth, I shall proceed to the examination of those garments appropriated to the 
 fair sex, for which I have indisputable evidence. 
 
 THE UNDER-GARMENT. 
 
 This part of the dress, for which I know not the ancient name, bears no distant 
 resemblance to the longer tunic of the men.^ It has sleeves exactly similar, which 
 usually descend to the wrists, and are plaited in small folds to the elbow. Owing 
 to its situation, it is never represented simply by itself ; but, as far as one can judge 
 of it from its general appearance, it was bound about the waist, and reached 
 nearly to the ground, so as frequently to cover the greater part of the feet. It is 
 depicted of various colours, but the most common colour is white ; hence one may 
 be led to conclude that it was made of linen, which opinion is farther strengthened 
 by the smallness of the folds, and the frequent attempts to shew the appearance of 
 the limbs beneath it. The under-garment, as it is partially represented in the 
 drawings of this century, does not appear to have been ornamented even with the 
 common decorations of needle- work, which are frequently found upon the other 
 parts of the ladies’ habits, excepting only in the single instance given upon the 
 eleventh plate, where a female figure is represented sitting ; the open sleeves com- 
 pose a part of the under-garment, as the similarity of colour seems incontestably to 
 
 ‘ [The tunic was worn by women as well as by men ; but there was another garment, entitled the 
 Kyrtle, which, in the will of Wynflseda, is mentioned amongst the “other linen web and in one place 
 described as white. This would seem to have been an inner or under garment, as it was in the Anglo- 
 Norman times, when “ in kirtle alone” the ladies “served in hall.” But in the Saxon word Syrca, trans- 
 muted into the lowland Scotch we surely find evidence of that innermost garment so delicately 
 alluded to by Mr. Strutt in the preceding paragraph. — Ed.] 
 
Part i. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 1.5 
 
 prove ; and an ornament of plaiting, formed by the needle in lines nearly circular, 
 appears upon the shoulder ; the corresponding part of the same garment is seen 
 beneath the gown, but without the least indication of adornment. 
 
 The open sleeves are very rarely appropriated to this garment ; they usually 
 belong to the gown ; but the close sleeves, with which it is most commonly 
 delineated, are given in one instance upon the ninth plate ; in two more upon 
 the tenth plate ; and most perfectly upon the twelfth plate, where the lady is 
 represented in her full dress, and the four distinct parts of her habit are perfectly 
 discriminated. 
 
 THE GOWN. 
 
 I HAVE often considered myself, when engaged in the abstracted researches of 
 antiquity, in the situation of a traveller who has lost his way in a country totally 
 unknown to him, and, finding no prospect of information, is reduced to the necessity 
 of depending upon his own judgment with respect to the path he ought to pursue ; 
 and never did I feel the force of this similitude more than in the compilation of 
 the present chapter. Uncertain how far the names I apply to the different parts of 
 the dress, belonging to the females of this remote period, are consistent with reality, 
 I am still necessitated, for brevity’s sake, to adopt some names ; and, should any of 
 them eventually prove to be improper, I hope I may claim that indulgence which 
 candour never denies, even to the errors arising from a minute investigation of sub- 
 jects in themselves obscure and doubtful : I can safely assert, in my own defence, 
 that I have exerted every endeavour to be as accurate as possible ; and in all cases, 
 where I am under the necessity of delivering my own sentiments, unsupported by 
 authority, I submit them as such to the public, without presuming to impose upon my 
 readers, or mislead them by any false hypothesis of my own. This apology I thought 
 it my duty to make upon the present occasion, and beg it may be accepted in future ; 
 for I am confident that this is not the only part of the work in which the same diffi- 
 culties will occur. 
 
 The part of the ladies dress, which I call the gown merely from the resemblance 
 it bears to a garment so denominated in the present day,® is an exterior habit : it 
 
 2 [Mr. Strutt, who has so modestly professed his ignorance of the proper name for this garment, has 
 unconsciously hit upon the right appellation, our word gown being derived from the Saxon gunna, itself 
 perhaps founded on the British gwn, latinized by Varro gaunacum. The gunna was of various lengths, as 
 a Bishop of Winchester makes a present of “ a short gunna, sewed in our manner.” 16 Mag. Bib, 
 page 82. — Ed.] 
 
16 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 seems to have varied little with respect to its general form, except in the sleeves, 
 which are usually represented extending to the wrists ; at other times thev only reach 
 to the elbows ; and in one single instance seem to be totally wanting.^ The gown 
 is constantly bound about the waist with a girdle, and, when permitted to fall to its 
 full length, descended to the ground ; in which case it covered the under garment 
 entirely ; it is frequently adorned with ornaments of needle-work, which at this 
 period were extremely simple, consisting only of variegated stripes or small sprigs, 
 diverging from a centre, in imitation of foliage and flowers ; specimens of which 
 are given upon the bottom of the ninth plate. 
 
 The travelling habit of the ladies is represented upon the eleventh plate. The 
 sleeves of the gown, if it be the gown, and not another garment over it used instead 
 of the mantle as warmer and more convenient, are so long that they cover the hand, 
 and reach some distance below the end of the fingers. I call this the travelling 
 habit, because it is never represented but when the wearer is supposed to be 
 performing a journey, and probably might be the winter dress of the time, as I 
 think that of the lady seated, upon the same plate, was appropriated to the summer. 
 She sits upon a bank beneath a tree in full foliage ; and the gown she wears 
 has no sleeves : the long loose sleeves which are there represented, as has been 
 observed before, belong to the under garment ; they were probably made of linen, 
 and lighter than those which usually formed part of the gown. Upon the strength 
 of this conjecture, I have ventured to give it the appellation of the summer dress 
 at the bottom of the plate. 
 
 It is impossible, at this distance of time, to ascertain the materials which com- 
 posed the gown. Judging, however, from the size of the folds, which are usually 
 depicted much larger and thicker than those represented upon the under garment, 
 we may fairly conclude that it was formed of some less pliant substance.^ 
 
 There certainly was no particular colour appropriated to this part of the female 
 dress. In the paintings of the Saxons, the colour of the gown was varied as far 
 as the artists of the time possessed the power to diversify it. The girdle, which 
 may properly be considered as an appendage to the gown, and invariably corre- 
 sponds with it in colour, may easily be mistaken for part of it, though a small 
 
 ' See tlie figure seated, upon the eleventh plate, where the long loose sleeves do not belong to the 
 gown, but to the under garment. 
 
 2 Silk, as we have seen in the introduction, was certainly worn as early as the eighth century, but 
 we cannot suppose it to have been very general ; perhaps the gown might, in some instances, be composed 
 of woollen cloth of the finest manufacture. [A gown is mentioned made of otter’s skin. Mag. Bib, 
 p. 88 . — Ed.] 
 
hART 1. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 17 
 
 decree of examination will be sufficient to trace it out in most of the female figures. 
 It is, however, well ascertained by the figure, with her left arm elevated, upon the 
 ninth plate, where one end of it is represented loose and flowing from the gown, 
 and is the only instance in which I have seen it so depicted. A similar piece of 
 drapery appears upon the middle figure of the same plate, which is evidently part 
 of the coverchief, or hood, as the colour and situations sufficiently demonstrate.^ 
 
 THE MANTLE. 
 
 It was observed in the foregoing chapter that no part of the habits appropriated 
 to the men was subject to so much alteration as the mantle. The Anglo-Saxon 
 ladies had also their mantle ; and, indeed, it appears to have been a very essential 
 part of their dress, for persons of distinction are rarely depicted without it ; yet, 
 with them, this garment was the least varied of any that pertained to their dress. 
 The only material difierence, during three or four centuries, colour excepted, which 
 in most cases seems to have depended upon fancy, appears to have been in its size : 
 there is none in the manner of wearing it, and very little, if any, in its general form. 
 
 The coverchief constantly hides the upper part of the mantle ; for which 
 reason it is impossible to discover how high it terminated upon the shoulders, or by 
 what means it was fastened. I have never been able to trace out the least indication 
 of fibula, broches, or bandages ; judging from the usual appearance, I should 
 suppose that its form was round, or rather, perhaps, oval ; and that an aperture was 
 made in it, at some distance from the middle, of sufficient size for the head to pass 
 through when it was laid upon the shoulders ; and, in proportion to the distance of 
 the opening from the middle, the garment of course, when placed in its proper 
 situation, would be longer on one part than the other, agreeable to the manner in 
 which it is represented by the Saxon artists ; for, in their drawings, we find it 
 considerably longer and more ample behind, than at the sides and in the front. 
 There are very few exceptions to be found against the universality of this fashion. 
 Two instances, however, occur in the manuscript whence the larger part of the 
 dresses, belonging to the eighth century, are taken, which merit particular attention, 
 and for this reason I have engraved them both. The first may be found upon the 
 ninth plate, in the figure, with both arms elevated, towards the left hand ; and the 
 second, where the lady is seated, upon the eleventh plate. In both these figures 
 
 ' It is very coramon to see one end of the coverchief represented in the same loose situation; and it 
 frequently gives a degree of elegance to the form of the figure. 
 
18 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 the mantle appears in the front only, without the least indication of its passing over 
 the shoulders, or hanging down on the back, according to the general custom. This 
 might, it is true, have been a different garment, and used upon particular occasions; 
 but I do not think myself justified to give it as such, and must therefore leave the 
 reader entirely to his own judgment. 
 
 THE COVERCHIEF,^ OR HEAD DRESS. 
 
 The Coverchief, or, as it is often contractedly written, Kerchef, was an indis- 
 pensable part of the dress appropriated to the Anglo-Saxon ladies. Its breadth was 
 sufficient to reach from the top of the forehead to the shoulders, in such a manner 
 as to cover the head completely, so that no part of the hair could be seen : it was 
 then passed over both shoulders, and, when it was loose, hung down on each side as 
 low as the knees. In this state it is represented upon the first figure, on the left 
 hand, in the ninth plate. It was usually wrapped round the neck in such a manner 
 as to cover the whole of the bosom ; one end of it is sometimes left loose, and, from 
 the manner in which it is drawn, flowing on one side or the other, manifests some 
 conception of grace and elegance in the artist. An instance of this kind is given 
 upon the middle figure, in the plate before referred to : but it is most generally 
 represented with both ends concealed, as appears in several instances upon the 
 figures which illustrate this chapter.^ 
 
 The coverchief is generally distinguished from the mantle by a different colour; 
 yet instances are not unfrequent in which the colours of both are the same ; and 
 upon a cursory view the two garments appear as one only : it is true, indeed, that 
 the separation may be discriminated by attentive observation. An example of the 
 apparent connexion of the coverchief and mantle is given, in the standing figure to 
 the left, upon the tenth plate. 
 
 The coverchief, like most of the other parts of the Anglo-Saxon dress, is 
 depicted of various colours ; and probably was made of materials proportionable in 
 richness to the rank of the wearer ; but, that the materials differed in quality, the 
 folds, which are sometimes small and abundant, and at other times few and large, 
 sufficiently demonstrate. 
 
 ^ [Couvre-chef or Cover-chief the Norman name of the female head-dress. The Saxons called it 
 Heafodes roegel (Head rail,) and the veil wafles, from the verb wmfan, to cover. — Ed.] 
 
 See the seated figure, and the figure to the right, plate X. The standing figure, plate XI ; and 
 the lady in full dress, plate XII. 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 19 
 
 The cultivation of the hair, as we have already seen, was an important object 
 among the men. The ladies are also said to have been great admirers of long 
 hair and though the head-dress, which they constantly wore in public, concealed 
 the luxuriance of their locks, we have reason to believe that the management of 
 them was not the least part of the female dress. In the manuscript, whence the 
 larger part of the engravings already given are selected, a figure of Eve is depicted; 
 and her hair, dishevelled as it is there represented, reaches to her hips without any 
 bandage or apparent decorations. I do not mean to infer from this circumstance, 
 that no ornaments were used in the adornment of the hair among the Saxon ladies of 
 this period ; the contrary may, I trust, be fairly concluded from the frequent mention 
 made of half circles of gold® in the records of the succeeding centuries, and that 
 without any indication of novelty. But, giving the artist the credit to suppose that 
 he would not have deviated from the established rule of beauty, we shall readily 
 grant that the great lengtli and abundance of hair, given to this figure, is a pre- 
 sumptive proof, that in his day the growth and preservation of it was an object of 
 attention among the ladies. 
 
 SHOES AND STOCKINGS. 
 
 It is impossible to ascertain the exact form of the shoes appropriated to the 
 females of the eighth century : the only possible source of information is derived from 
 the manuscript drawings of that period ; and in them the under garment is usually 
 depicted of such length as to hide the greater part of the foot. In one or two 
 instances, where the shoe is represented more perfectly than usual, it appears to 
 have been fastened about the instep, immediately below the ancles, without any 
 larger opening than was absolutely necessary for the insertion of the foot. In an 
 ancient delineation, coeval with this sera,^ there are several female figures introduced, 
 
 * Among the ancient Germans, long hair was considered as a very essential ornament to the person ; 
 and no greater disgrace could be put upon a female than to shave her head : it was therefore the punish- 
 ment usually inflicted for adultery. — Tacitus de morib. Germ. 
 
 - Or gilt at least : they are called in Saxon healpne bcenb jylbenne, and are supposed, with good 
 reason, to be the hair-tiers of the women, as we shall see more fully hereafter. 
 
 5 Prefixed to a MS. of Aldhelm's Liber de Virginitate, or poem in praise of Virginity, written in the 
 eighth century. This MS. is preserved in the Lambeth Library. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 T 
 
20 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 whose shoes are very similar to slippers in use among the ladies of the present day.^ 
 One figure in the group, is represented with shoes differing from the rest ; they 
 appear to be fastened close to the ancles, and a dotted line is made upon the middle 
 of the foot, from the instep to the end of the toes ; but, whether it was intended 
 simply as an ornament, or in imitation of lacing by which the upper leathers were 
 drawn together, I cannot determine ; the colour of these shoes is equally singular, 
 being white. I met with only one instance in which the shoes of a female appeared 
 to be open, like those appropriated to the men ; this figure is given upon the 
 tenth plate. 
 
 The colour of the shoes, with very few exceptions, is black ; they are very plain 
 in their form, and unadorned, in general, with ornaments of any kind. 
 
 The under garment of the women, as they are usually delineated by the Saxon 
 artists, covered the greater part of the feet ; we cannot, therefore, of course, expect 
 to find any representation of stockings ; neither is history more favourable with 
 respect to information upon the subject ; yet, I trust, it will be readily granted that 
 the women would not appear with their legs uncovered, when a contrary example 
 had been set them by the men, even supposing it was for the sake of decency only, 
 and that the ideas of comfort and convenience were totally absented from the 
 question. 
 
 ^ The form of these shoes or slippers so nearly corresponds with those of Aldhelm, whose portrait, 
 extracted from the same drawing, is given upon the sixteenth plate of this work, that it was not thought 
 necessary to repeat them. 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 21 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE MILITARY HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS OF THE EIGHTH CENTURY. — THE TUNIC. — THE 
 
 MANTLE. THE HELMET. — THE SHIELD. THE SWORD AND THE SPEAR. — THE HORSE 
 
 SOLDIER, THE FOOT SOLDIER, AND THE MILITARY OFFICER ATTENDANT UPON THE KING. 
 
 What the real views of the Saxons might have been when they first came to the 
 assistance of the Britons, cannot easily be ascertained : their friendship, however, 
 was of very short date ; and the scheme of forming a settlement in this island followed 
 very soon after their arrival upon it ; such an arduous undertaking could only have 
 been executed by a people insensible of danger, whose courage and activity were 
 superior to the severest difficulties. The offensive arms of the Saxons were not in 
 the least superior to those of the Britons. They had no body-armour, an advantage 
 the latter derived from the Romans ; yet an handful of them soon secured a firm 
 footing in this country ; and in process of time, setting all opposition at defiance, 
 they made themselves masters of the greater and most profitable part of it. 
 The reason assigned for this extraordinary conquest by our best historians, and 
 which appears to be founded upon fact, is the total neglect of military discipline 
 among the Britons, who had been so long used to wear the yoke of foreign power, 
 that the love of liberty, which stimulated the hearts of their forefathers to resist the 
 Roman invaders, was extinguished in their breasts. An author of their own^ has 
 drawn their portraiture, at this period, with a sombre pencil it is true ; for he describes 
 them as a degenerate race of beings, sunk into such a shameful state of torpidity as 
 to supplicate, even with tears, a continuance of their bondage rather than exert 
 their own abilities to support themselves and oppose the progress of a domestic foe,'^ 
 who were daily making inroads upon their territories. When the Romans refused 
 to assist them, they had recourse to the Saxons, a fierce and active people, dependant 
 upon their swords and inured to the practice of war. From this imprudent step, 
 the origin of their total ruin may justly be derived. 
 
 The drawings of the eighth century represent the Anglo-Saxon soldier without 
 any other defensive armour than the shield and the helmet ; which latter seems in 
 
 * Gildas. 
 
 ® The Piets, ■who ravaged all the northern provinces of Britain. 
 
22 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 general to have been nothing more than leather.^ His offensive arms are the sword 
 and the spear. The bow was certainly known to the Saxons at this period, and 
 they seem to have been very expert in the use of it f but, as it does not appear to 
 have been considered by them as a weapon of war, I shall defer the description of 
 it to a future opportunity. 
 
 THE TUNIC. 
 
 There were few persons of distinction among the Anglo-Saxons of the eighth 
 century, who did not bear arms.^ The sword or the spear were the constant com- 
 panions of that warlike people whenever they quitted their houses ; and, if to these 
 we add the shield and the helmet, we shall have the soldier completely equipped 
 for the field. 
 
 The short tunic, as most convenient for action, was the constant military habit, 
 and equally adopted by persons of every degree. They were made of linen, says 
 an ancient Saxon author, and so well fitted to the wearer as to give every necessary 
 freedom to his limbs in time of battle ;* and this description corresponds exactly 
 with the representations of the tunic preserved in the drawings of the time ; the 
 variety of colours given to this garment is no proof that it was not composed of 
 linen ; it is, however, very frequently painted white. 
 
 We must not conclude, that defensive armour for the body was totally unknown 
 to the Saxons, because it was not adopted by them. We find the word lorica in 
 the ancient Saxon authors ; and this word is generally supposed to mean the coat, 
 or, as it is sometimes called, the shirt of mail. A single instance, however, only 
 occurs in the drawings of this period, where any martial garment is represented in 
 the least analogous to the mail. It is evidently a royal habit ; and, from its being 
 the most ancient delineation of the kind, is highly deserving of particular attention. 
 It is given upon the fourteenth plate of this work. 
 
 We shall have occasion hereafter to speak more fully concerning the body- 
 
 ^ It may be observed that the helmet, even in the representations of battles, is often omitted. 
 
 - In the MS. from v?hich the greater part of the plates relating to the eighth century are taken, 
 there is a figure of a young man shooting at a bird with a bow and arrow ; he has several birds he is 
 supposed to have killed hanging at his girdle. See Strutt’s Chronicle, Vol. II. plate xv. 
 
 ^ To lay aside their arms, and walk abroad with a staff only, was enjoined in the ancient canons as 
 a very severe penance. Canones dati sub. Edgaro. 
 
 * Sicut Solent habere milites tunicas tineas sic aptas membrisHt expediti sint dirigendo jaculo, tanendo 
 clypeam, librando gladium, ^c. Alcuinis, Lib. de Offic. Divin. 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 23 
 
 armour of the Anglo-Saxons, which makes it unnecessary to say any thing farther 
 upon that subject in this place. 
 
 THE MANTLE. 
 
 I CONCEIVE the mantle to have been a distinguishing mark of military rank : the 
 cavalry, which consisted of superior personages, are rarely depicted without it ; and 
 among the foot-soldiers it appears to have been appropriated to the officers only. 
 But, in the representations of real action, it seems to have been laid aside by every 
 rank of persons. 
 
 The military mantle was precisely similar to the mantle described in a former 
 chapter,^ which was fastened upon the right or left shoulder, and gave the sword-arm 
 perfect liberty. The repetition, therefore, of what has been already mentioned is 
 certainly unnecessary. 
 
 THE HELMET. 
 
 The helmet, if it deserves the name, as it is commonly represented in the draw- 
 ings of this sera, appears to have been nothing more than a cap of leather with the 
 fur turned outwards : but personages of rank have a different covering for the 
 head ; its form is conical, and apparently it was made of metal, and gilt ; for, the 
 colour of it is most frequently yellow. Both these helmets may be seen upon the 
 thirteenth plate of this work. 
 
 THE SHIELD. 
 
 The form of the shield, at this period, is constantly oval : it is usually surrounded 
 by a broad rim on the outside, and has a sharp boss protuberating from the middle ; 
 the chief material of which the shield consisted, I presume, was leather. One of the 
 laws of AEthelstan prohibits the making of shields of sheep-skin, under the penalty 
 of thirty shillings the rim and the boss were probably made of metal. The man- 
 ner in which they were often ornamented appears in the several specimens that 
 accompany this chapter. 
 
 1 See p. 1 . 
 
 2 Jje cpsebon -p nan pcylb pypihta na lec 5 e nan pceapej* peile on pcylb. ^ jip hir bo jylbe 
 XXX. pcill. — Leges iEthelstani apud Wilkins. 
 
24 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE SWORD AND THE SPEAR. 
 
 The only offensive weapons, given to the Saxon soldiers of this sera, are the 
 sword, and the lance or spear. The sword was so large and so long, that one would 
 conceive it to have been a weapon ill calculated for close fighting. The chief de- 
 pendance of the warrior rested, I trust, upon the vigour of his onset, or keeping his 
 opponent at bay with the shield, while he struck at him with his sword. The blade 
 of the sword was made of iron or steel j but the handle with the cross bar and knob 
 at the end, was composed of some different kind of metal, as the colour indicates, 
 which is often yellow : we may conclude that such of them as belonged to person- 
 ages of the highest distinction were made of gold, or, at least, that they were gilt. 
 The handles of the swords of state, as we shall see in the succeeding centuries, 
 were certainly made of gold, and embellished with precious stones. The sheath, 
 in which the sword was contained, and the girdle or belt, by which it was attached 
 to the side, were also ornamented in the same splendid manner. 
 
 The lance or spear has nothing in its form to require a particular description, 
 the representations of it, as given upon the thirteenth plate, will be perfectly sufficient. 
 I shall only observe, that the head of the lance is sometimes barbed ; and it will be 
 needless to add any thing farther upon this subject for the present.^ 
 
 THE HORSE SOLDIER, THE FOOT SOLDIER, AND THE 
 MILITARY OFFICER ATTENDANT UPON THE KING. 
 
 The horse soldier appears, in the drawings of the eighth century, without 
 either sword or shield. He is represented, completely armed, in the middle figure 
 upon the thirteenth plate. 
 
 The foot soldier is exhibited, upon the same plate, in the action of striking 
 with his spear. He has the sword and the shield added to his missive weapon. 
 
 The figure to the left, in the same plate, leaning upon his shield with his 
 sword upon his shoulder, I take to be the principal officer of the king’s guard. He 
 is there represented, in the position he usually appeared, at the right hand of the 
 throne, when the monarch held his court upon occasions of great solemnity. 
 
 1 The several kinds of spear heads are given at the top of the thirteenth plate. 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 25 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 THE ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE EIGHTH CENTURY. — A PARTICULAR DESCRIPTION OF THEM 
 
 CANNOT BE GIVEN. THREE FIGURES SUPPOSED TO BE ECCLESIASTICS; AND WHY. — A CURIOUS 
 
 PORTRAIT OF ALDHELM, BISHOP OF SHERBORN, DESCRIBED. 
 
 The ecclesiastical habits of this century can only be spoken of in a general 
 way : the information, derived from the early Saxon historians, is insufficient to 
 support a particular description of them ; and the drawings of the time, such at 
 least as have fallen under my examination, contain so few representations of ecclesi- 
 astical personages, and even those so undeterminate in general, that they afford 
 little matter for discrimination. 
 
 Three figures are given upon the fifteenth plate of this work, selected from 
 different manuscripts ; the figure in the middle I take to be the most ancient ; the 
 artist intended it for a representation of David playing upon the harp ; but the 
 habit differs so widely from the secular dresses, abundant in the paintings of this 
 period, that I am led to consider it as appropriated to the church, and a very early 
 specimen of the kind but the particular parts of which it consisted I cannot pre- 
 tend to explain. 
 
 The first figure to the left, upon the same plate, stands next in antiquity ; it is 
 extracted from a Saxon translation of the Pentateuch, and represents one of the 
 priests that supported the Ark of the Covenant ; for which reason I do not hesitate 
 to give it a place among the ecclesiastical habits of this period. 
 
 The figure to the right is the most modern of the three ; and the dress is much 
 more determinate. He is represented presiding at the altar, and holds the sacra- 
 mental wafer in his right hand, and the cup in his left. The surplice is ornamented 
 with a cross f and this is the most early instance, that I have met with, of its being 
 so adorned in the drawings of the Saxon artists. 
 
 1 The near resemblance also, that it bears to the dresses of the four Evangelists, existent in a MS. 
 coeval at least in date, may in some measure strengthen this opinion. It was a very common custom, 
 with the ancient illuminators, to represent the portraitures of saints and pious personages in the eccle- 
 siastical habits. This MS. has been already referred to (see the note to page 12); and is preserved 
 in the Cottonian Library, the press-mark is Nero D. iv. The MS. containing the figure of king David, 
 is in the same library; and the press-mark is Vespasianus A. i. 
 
 - [In my opinion it is not a surplice but a chasuble, and the Y shaped ornamental border of the 
 neck part is similar to that with which the vestment was occasionally furnished, resembling, more or less, 
 the pallium of the Archbishop. — Ed.] 
 
26 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART I, 
 
 THE PORTRAIT OF ALDHELM DESCRIBED. 
 
 The most valuable delineation, however, that I have met with relative to this 
 subject, and little inferior, in point of antiquity, to any of those above-mentioned, 
 is the curious portrait of Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborn, given upon the sixteenth 
 plate : the original is prefixed to his celebrated Poem in praise of Virginity. He 
 is represented in his episcopal habit, with his right hand elevated, as bestowing his 
 benediction, and his left rested upon a book, in which the poem is supposed to be 
 contained. The alba, or white tunic, is enriched with an embroidered border ; and 
 the sleeves of his surcoat are adorned in the same manner, the greater part of which 
 is covered with a mantle or surplice.^ 
 
 Aldhelm was a near relation, if not a nephew, to Ina, king of the West Saxons. 
 He received the early part of his education in the school of Macdulf, a learned Scot. 
 He afterwards travelled, for his improvement, into France and Italy; and completed 
 his studies, on his return to England, under Adrian, abbot of St. Augustine’s 
 monastery ; and the learning he acquired rendered him famous not only in England, 
 but also abroad.^ 
 
 He founded the abbey of Malmsbury on the spot where he received his early 
 education, and was himself the first abbot. Having resided thirty years at Malms- 
 bury, he was made bishop of Sherborn, in Dorsetshire, where he died in the year 
 of our Lord 709* 
 
 I shall not presume to detain the reader at present with any farther conjectural 
 remarks ; every part of the ecclesiastical habit occurs frequently enough in the draw- 
 ings of the two succeeding centuries, and a fuller description of it will then be given. 
 
 ^ The original MS. whence this portrait is taken, was written early in the eighth century. It is 
 preserved in the Lambeth Library, No. 200. 
 
 2 Several ancient writers, of the first authority, have spoken highly in praise of the learning and 
 piety of this prelate. Bede sums up his character in a few words : “ He was,” (says that author) “ a 
 man of universal erudition, his style was flowing and elegant, and he was wonderfully well acquainted with 
 books both on philosophy and religious subjects” Hist. Eccles. Lib. v. Cap. 19. 
 
 THE END OF THE FIRST PART. 
 
PART 11. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS, 
 FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE NINTH CENTURY TO THE 
 ARRIVAL OF THE NORMANS. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE MEN CONTINUED. — THE SEVERAL GRADATIONS OF RANK NOT POSSIBLE TO 
 
 BE TRACED BY THE DRESS. A PARTICULAR DESCRIPTION OF THE HABIT OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 — THE VARIATIONS IN THE SEVERAL PARTS OF DRESS DESCRIBED IN THE FORMER PART. 
 
 THE LEG-BANDAGES — THE SOCKS — THE BOOTS, OR BUSKINS — THE GLOVES, &C. 
 
 I HAVE already particularized, as far as lay in my power, the several parts of 
 dress peculiar to the eighth century. I found it impossible, even from the 
 minutest scrutiny of the Saxon delineations, to distinguish the various ranks of 
 persons by their dresses with any tolerable degree of precision. The difference 
 between the servant and his master in many instances may easily enough be 
 discovered. The crown also continually determines the monarch ; and the noble- 
 man is known by his forming part of the king’s court ; but the difficulty lies in 
 tracing the several gradations of rank from the free man to the sovereign. It 
 appears to me, and I believe the various passages from history, which I shall have 
 occasion soon to produce, will give some foundation for my opinion, that the chief, 
 if not the only, distinction of quality at this period was made by the costliness of 
 the materials which composed the dress, or the abundance of the ornaments wdth 
 which it was enriched, rather than by its particular form or variety of parts. 
 
 T he habits already described, with very few additions, and little variations in 
 their general appearance, constituted the Saxon dress for the succeeding centuries. 
 The chief alteration they underwent will be found to consist in such ornamental 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 u 
 
28 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 refinements of luxury as contributed abundantly more to show than to comfort or 
 convenience. 
 
 The Saxon historians have been very remiss in describing the dresses of their 
 own times ; the only information we can derive from their writings is contained 
 in a few casual observations which seem to have fallen inadvertently from their 
 pens, and of course cannot be supposed to be very extensive. The silence, how- 
 ever, of our own authors is in some degree compensated by a French writer^ of 
 the ninth century, who has given us a complete description of the dress of Charle- 
 magne ; and, as the habits of the French and the Anglo-Saxons of that time 
 were nearly, if not altogether, similar, it will throw much light upon the subject, 
 and be extremely serviceable in the explanation of several parts of those drawings 
 which will presently come under our consideration. 
 
 Charlemagne, as our author particularly observes, adhered strictly to the 
 ancient manners of his own country, and treated all foreign innovations, that related 
 to his dress, with the greatest contempt so that the description of his habit will 
 convey to us the French dress of much higher antiquity ; and we shall find that 
 many of the parts of it agree well with the ancient Saxon habits, given in the 
 former part of this work. 
 
 The dress that this great monarch wore in common consisted of the following 
 parts, which I shall endeavour separately to explain. — The Shirt — The Drawers — 
 The Tunic — The Stockings — The Leg-bandages — The Shoes — The Sword-belt, 
 and the Sword. In the winter he added the Thorax, and the Venetian Cloak. 
 
 The Shirt is expressly said to have heen made of linen. ^ Another ancient 
 author speaks of shirts made of hair cloth.'* We find in the canons of the Saxon 
 church, that shirts of hair cloth and of woollen were enjoined by way of penance 
 for crimes of considerable magnitude. 
 
 Shirt, or, as it was anciently written, sherte, is a word confessedly of Saxoti 
 origin ; it answered to the Latin word camisia, and certainly was a part of dress 
 worn next the skin.® Chaucer speaks of the shirt as a garment in which a new- 
 born infant was first wrapped.® It makes part of the child-bed linen, and serves 
 
 1 Eginhart. 
 
 ~ Vestitu patrio, hoc est Francisco, utebatur ; and, a little after, Peregrina verb indumenta, quatnvis 
 pulcherrima, respuehat. Eginhartus de vita Caroli Magni a Schminckio Edit. cap. 23. 
 
 3 Camisiam lineam. * Camisia cilicina. Monach. S. Galli, Lib. 1. cap. 36. 
 
 ® See p. 8. 
 
 ^ See Tyrwhitt’s Glossary to Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, under the word sherte. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 29 
 
 for the same purpose in the present day, and did so as far back as the eighth 
 century at least. 
 
 The Drawers. This part of the monarch’s dress is also said to have been 
 of linen.* I have no proof from the ancient Saxon delineations, that drawers 
 were in use in this country prior to the ninth century : about that time we meet 
 with the first indications of them ; for, the tunics of the soldiers are often repre- 
 sented so short, that much of their thighs are exposed to the sight : we find they 
 usually terminated a little above the knee, where the bandage that fastened them at 
 the bottom is frequently to be met with ; and in some few instances below it.- We 
 may, however, easily enough conceive that they formed a part of the Saxon habit 
 at a still earlier period. 
 
 The Tunic. Our author has not specified the materials that composed this 
 part of the Royal dress ; he informs us only, that it was ornamented with a border 
 of silk but, as this monarch generally appeared in the military habit, it is 
 highly probable that his tunic, according to the custom of the times, was made of 
 linen. We are assured that it was the short tunic ; for, the historian positively 
 asserts that he wore the longer tunic but twice in his life.^ 
 
 The Stockings® are simply mentioned without any reference to the materials 
 of which they were composed, or their length ; they probably reached to the 
 middle of the thigh, which we frequently find to be the case in the Anglo- 
 Saxon delineations of this period. In another French author I find mention 
 made of stockings and trowsers (if I rightly understand the word he there 
 uses) of linen, which he tells us were of one colour, but ornamented with precious 
 workmanship.*^ 
 
 ^ Feminalibus lineis. Eginhart. ut supra. 
 
 2 See the middle figure, plate XVIII. of this work. 
 
 * Tunicam, qucB limbo serico ambiebatur, Eginhart. Des Carrieres, iu his Epitome of the History 
 of France, says his tunic was made of woollen ; but upon what authority I know not. 
 
 •* Having told us that Charles the Great despised all foreign dresses, he adds, nec unquam eis inditi 
 patiebatur, excepto quod Romce seniel, Adriano pontijice petente, et, iterum Leone successore ejus 
 supplicante, longa tunica et chlamyde amictus, et calceis quoque, Romano more fonnath, induebatur. 
 Eginhart. ut supra. 5 Tibialia. 
 
 ^ Tibialia vel coxalia linea, quamvis ex eodatn colore, tamen opere pretiosissimo variata. Monach. 
 S. Galli, Lib. i. cap. 36. [Probably the long or brech-hosan of the Saxons, so called in contradis- 
 tinction to the short socca, as the conjunction vel seems to imply the uncertainty of the author under 
 which term, stockings or troswers, to class them. — Ed.] 
 
30 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The Leg-Bandages.’ For a particular description of this part of the ancient 
 French dress, which was also adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, we must refer again 
 to the author quoted in the preceding article : he speaks of them as long fillets, 
 variegated with checquer-work ; and informs us that they were bound over the 
 stockings cross-ways in such a manner as to keep them properly extended upon 
 the legs.* A curious specimen of this kind of cross-gartering is given upon the 
 seventeenth plate. 
 
 The Shoes are mentioned only in a general way. The author, above quoted, 
 speaks of them as gilt outside,^ and distinguished by long latchets ; but their 
 form is not even hinted. This defect is in some measure supplied by a more 
 modern writer, who particularly describes the shoes of Bernard, king of Italy, 
 the grandson of Charlemagne, as they were found upon opening his sepulchre ; 
 “ The shoes,” says he, “ which covered his feet, are remaining to this day ; the 
 soles are of wood, and the upper parts of red leather, laced together with thongs : 
 they were so closely fitted to the feet, that the order of the toes, terminating in a 
 point at the great toe, might easily be discovered ; so that the shoe belonging 
 to the right foot could not be put upon the left, nor that of the left upon the 
 right.”^ 
 
 The Sword-belt, and the Sword. Our author informs us that the monarch 
 never appeared without these warlike accoutrements. Indeed he seems to have 
 prided himself in their adornments, even at the times he neglected the other parts 
 of his dress. The belt was composed of gold or of silver ; and the hilt of the 
 sword corresponded with the belt, except upon solemn court-days ; he then wore 
 a sword, the hilt of which was embellished with jewels.^ 
 
 The Thorax was only used in the winter. It was made of otter’s skin, 
 and, according to our author, defended the breast and the shoulders from the 
 
 * Fasciolis crura. Eginhart. 
 
 - Et super quce, i, e. Tibialia vel coxalia, in crucis modum intrinsecus et extrinsecus ante et 
 retro hnyissimce illce corrigice tenebantur. Monach. S. Galli, ut supra. The leg-bandages were made 
 of linen and of woollen : for, an ancient author, quoted by Du Cange, informs us that the monks are 
 commanded to wear linen bandages, and not woollen ones Du Cange, Gloss, in voce Fasciola. 
 
 Calceamenta, forinsecus aurata, corrigiis tricuhitalibus insignita. M. S. Galli, ut supra. 
 
 * Joan. Puricello in Mon. Basil. Ambrosianse, p. 70. 
 
 5 Et gladio semper accinctus, cujus capulus ac baltkeus aut aureus aut argenteus erat ; aliquoties et 
 gemmato ense utebatur, ^c. Eginhartus, ut supra. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HAUITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 31 
 
 cold.’ The thorax is a garment of high antiquity. From Suetonius we learn that 
 it formed part of the winter dress belonging to Augustus f but at that time it was 
 made of wool. I must confess myself entirely at a loss respecting the form of the 
 thorax. I find no resemblance of such a garment in the Saxon drawings.^ Perhaps 
 it was worn beneath the tunic ; if so, the omission is easily accounted for. 
 
 The Venetian Mantle."* From what cause this garment derived its 
 denomination cannot easily be determined. We may, however, fairly conclude 
 that it was no innovation of dress amon<; the French in the time of Charlemagne ; 
 sufficient already has been said to prove that he would not, by his own example 
 at least, have been instrumental to the introduction of a foreign habit. We are 
 indebted to our author for the name only of this garment ; the description of it is 
 derived from another writer, frequently referred to in the preceding pages ; “It 
 was,” says he, “ of a grey or blue colour, quadrangular in its form, and so 
 doubled, that, when it was placed upon the shoulders, it hung down as low as the 
 feet before and behind ; but on the sides it scarcely reached to the knees such 
 w'as the dress in which this great man usually made his appearance. But upon 
 
 • Et ex pellibus lutrinis thorace confecto humeros ac pectus hy erne rnuniehat. Ibidem. 
 
 2 Hyeme quaternis cum pingui togd tunicis, et subuculce thorace laneo, et feminalibus et tibialibus 
 muniehatur. Sueton. in vita August. 
 
 * Unless the small cloak, •which I considered (p. 8.) as a garment appropriated to youth of 
 distinction, should be thought to bear any affinity to it. I can only add in its favour, that the wearers 
 are often represented with both hands beneath it. The want of gloves might certainly have been so 
 supplied ; and the breast have been defended by it from the cold, but not the shoulders, as the author 
 expressly declares they were. [Might it not have been a broad collar of fur, such as shortly afterwards 
 was seen upon all royal mantles ? In the work generally known as Titian’s Book of Dress, Habiti 
 Antichi e Moderne by Csesare Vecellio, Venice,^1598, is an engraving of an ancient Doge from a fresco in 
 the church of St. Mark, (built in 976), wearing a mantle different in shape to the later Ducal robe, but 
 having on it “ a collar of ermine like that,” says the author, “which is worn by the Doges of our time.” 
 “ Un bavaro di, pelle d' Armellini simile a quelli die usano i Dogi de nostri tempi.’’' Taken in 
 connection with the fact of Charlemagne’s wearing a Venetian mantle it is at any rate an allowable 
 conjecture. — E d.] 
 
 ■* Sago Veneto amictus. Eginhartus. [May not the epithet Venetian he used here iox Lombard ? 
 The dress of the Longobardi was precisely that of the Franks and Anglo-Saxons. Vide Paulus Diaconus. 
 De Gestis Longobardorum. — Ed.] 
 
 ^ Pallium, canum vel saphirinum, quadrangulum, duplex, sic formatum, ut, cum imponeretur 
 huineris, ante et retro pedes tangerit ; de lateribus verb vix genua contegeret. Monach. S. Galli, ut 
 supra. A garment, which I have called a winter garment, very similar to this, the reader will find 
 described, page 8 ; and its representation upon the fifth plate. 
 
32 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 solemn feast-days, and times in which the display of magnificence was required, 
 his garments were extremely splendid. The tunic, he then wore, was interwoven 
 with gold ; his shoes were adorned with gems ; his mantle was fastened with a 
 fibula of gold ; and a diadem of gold, ornamented with jewels, was placed upon 
 his head : his sword and belt, and the hilt of his sword, as we have seen already, 
 were also embellished in the same pompous manner. 
 
 In the description of the court dress of Louis le Debonnaire, the son of 
 Charlemagne, who is said to have followed the example of his father, we find 
 mention made of buskins of gold.^ His sceptre is spoken of as a rod or staff of 
 gold ; and his mantle appears to have been woven with threads of gold.^ 
 
 I have been the more particular in the description of the several parts of 
 the dress of Charlemagne, because I conceive it gives us a just idea of the general 
 habit of an Anglo-Saxon monarch of the same period, and that with little or no 
 variation ; for, excepting the thorax or stomacher,^ there is no part of the dress of 
 the French king that cannot easily be traced in the drawings of the Saxons. 
 
 The seventeenth plate contains the royal habit of the ninth century.^ The 
 tunic, as we there find it, is ornamented with an embroidered border ; the 
 stockings adorned with needle- work ; and the leg-bandages, crossing each other 
 upon them, agree exactly with the above description ; the mantle also probably 
 is similar to the state-mantle of Charlemagne, and, like that, it is fastened upon 
 the shoulder with a fibula of gold : the sword and embroidered belt, with the 
 shoes embellished with jewels, are all that appear to be wanting to complete the 
 habit ; the golden bracelets upon the wrists form indeed an ornamental part of the 
 dress that the French monarch never adopted ; at least we may judge so much 
 from the silence of his historian. 
 
 1 Ocreas aureas. Theganus in vita ejus. cap. 19. lam well aware that the word ocrea signifies 
 literally a greave, as well as a boot or buskin ; but this part of the ancient Saxon habit, as it is 
 represented in the drawings of the time, bears more resemblance in general to the boot or buskin 
 than the greave. 
 
 - Baculum aureum, et chlamydem auro textam. Thegan. ut supra. 
 
 3 Perhaps this translation of the word thorax may be thought inadequate, because it is said to 
 have covered his shoulders as well as his breast ; and yet I know not any English word more proper 
 to substitute in its place. 
 
 4 The Saxon MS. which contains this valuable delineation was written at the conclusion of the 
 ninth, or very early in the tenth, century. It is preserved in the British Museum, and is marked 
 Tiberius, C. vi. 
 
TART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 33 
 
 I shall briefly mention the variations which took place in the several parts 
 of the Anglo-Saxon habit already mentioned, during the ninth and tenth centuries, 
 and then proceed to describe in a similar manner such other parts appertaining 
 to it as have not been spoken of in the former part, and appear to be subsequent 
 additions. 
 
 THE SHIRT. 
 
 To what has already been said concerning this garment' I shall now only 
 add a few general observations. The shirt I have supposed to have been made 
 of linen, because the wearing of woollen garments next the skin was enjoined 
 as a severe penance ; but at the same time I meant it to be understood, that shirts 
 of linen were confined to persons of superior rank, and they only could be affected 
 by this injunction ; for, shirts of woollen, the want of which the tunic only often 
 supplied, were worn by the common people, not by way of penance, but for comfort 
 and conveniency ; and in the present day we have innumerable examples to prove, 
 that use will soon reconcile the wearing of a flannel waistcoat next to the skin. 
 The hair-cloth shirt, however, seems to have been considered as a very unpleasant 
 garment by every rank of persons.^ 
 
 1 Page 3, and 28. The shirt is a garment of high antiquity, and it is called hy several names in 
 the ancient Latin authors, among which the most common are Camisia, subucula, and interula, the 
 Saxon word I^aam also signifies a shirt or body garment of linen, and appears to have been chiefly 
 confined to the clergy. The pyjic or pypic, and pmoc, whence our modern word smock is evidently 
 derived, seem rather to have been outer garments than such as were worn next the skin. [Why should 
 it not have been applied to both, as it was in after times ? The “ Syrcas of Battle ” mentioned in 
 the song of Beowulf, for instance, are undoubtedly shirts of mail, but it does not follow that the word 
 shirt was not used for an interior garment, also, as it has been for centuries. See note to page 14. — Ed.] 
 The figure at the bottom of the second plate proves, that the shirt was a garment used for sleeping 
 in. There are other night garments mentioned in the Saxon records, namely, the nditep hpae^l or 
 night -rail, and the hj-psegel, or night-gown. 
 
 - In the Saxon version of Genesis, published by Junius, where Jacob, supposing his son Joseph 
 to have been slain, is said to have clothed himself with sackcloth, it is translated pcjiibbe bine mib 
 hepan, he clothed himself with hair-cloth. 
 
34 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE DRAWERS AND TROWSERS. 
 
 The feminalia, or Drawers, formed, as we have seen, an indispensable part 
 of the royal habit in the ninth century and it is equally certain, that they were 
 no new invention at that time, nor confined to the nobility. Suetonius, an ancient 
 Latin author, assures us, that the emperor Augustus wore drawers in the winter 
 season and the Saxon delineations of the ninth and tenth centuries give them 
 to personages of inferior station. 
 
 They appear to have been made to fit the thigh with great precision, and 
 were usually fastened some distance above the knee ; but several instances may- 
 be produced in which they descend below the knee, and then they bear no small 
 resemblance to the breeches of the present day.^ 
 
 The coxalia, or Trowsers, were certainly a species of garment distinct from 
 the drawers, and worn it seems in place of drawers and stockings ; for, in general, 
 they appear to have been the two parts of dress comprised into one. The coxalia, 
 from the name, must in some measure have been applicable to the hips ; and 
 from the preceding description we find, that they covered the legs also, and were 
 fastened upon them by the Icg-handages. A very perfect representation of the 
 trowsers is given upon the eighteenth plate, where the figure to the right, 
 intended for Job in his state of humiliation, is depicted without any other part 
 of his habit.^ The illuminator has, and I think with propriety, ornamented them 
 with embroidered flowers ; the waistband is also adorned with work of a difierent 
 colour, and they are edged with a border at the bottom corresponding with the 
 waistband. The garment, as it is here given, one may reasonably conclude, was 
 appropriated to persons of distinction only. Over the trowsers the leg-bandages 
 were fastened from the feet, and reached to the middle of the leg, by which 
 means they were secured at the bottom, and answered, as 1 have already observed, 
 
 ^ The word bjiec, whence the hrecty of Chaucer, and breeches, in the modern language, derive their 
 origin, occurs in the early Saxon writings, but whether it ought to be applied to the drawers or 
 trowsers I will not take upon me to determine. ^ See the second note, page 31. 
 
 ^ As may be seen exemplified in the middle figure upon the eighteenth plate. 
 
 * [This figure is from the Royal MS. 6. c. vi. and assigned by Mr. Strutt himself to the eleventh 
 century, and I should say it is of quite the latter part of it, and ka^o-Norman. Ed.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 35 
 
 the double purpose of drawers and stockings, in the manner represented by the 
 figure to the left hand on the same plate.^ 
 
 In the description of Charlemagne’s habit we find, that the draw'ers and 
 trowsers are expressly said to have been made of linen, and probably w^re so in 
 general when appropriated to the nobility and gentry ; but that the same species of 
 garment, consisting of coarser materials, was used by the inferior ranks of people, 
 will, I trust, be readily admitted. The trowsers given to the figure of Job, above 
 described, are blue, with a red waistband and borders ; and the drawers of the 
 middle figure are brown, which is no proof that they were not in both cases designed, 
 by the illuminator, to represent linen ; for linen at this period was frequently dyed 
 of different colours. 
 
 THE TUNIC. 
 
 The form of the tunic, generally speaking, underwent little or no alteration 
 during the whole of the Saxon eera. The short tunic continued in use among every 
 class of people, and the longer tunic remained a mark of superiority of rank. We 
 find them both occasionally varied with welts and borders of different colours,^ 
 and with embroideries also, and ornaments of needle-work, as the plates, appro- 
 priated to the ninth and tenth centuries, which accompany this work, will sufficiently 
 demonstrate. 
 
 The wearing an upper and under tunic appears to have been common among 
 the Anglo-Saxons, a custom they derived from high antiquity, and which, probably, 
 never originated with them.^ Agreeable to the manner of our ancestors, two coats, 
 or two waistcoats, and very often both, form part of the present winter garments. 
 The two tunics are very distinctly represented upon the figure towards the left hand 
 in the eighteenth plate.^ 
 
 1 Feminalia is the Latin name which Eginhart gives to the drawers of Charlemagne, see the first 
 note, page 29 ; and coxalia is the word here translated trowsers, which the reader will meet with 
 in the last note of the same page. 
 
 * Reapep-peneb, or fringed garments, are repeatedly spoken of ; but I have never met with 
 any thing like fringe in the Saxon drawings ; perhaps the word pneb, means only the welt or border. 
 
 * Augustus in the winter wore four tunics, according to Suetonius ; see the second note, page 3 1 . 
 
 * Roc or pooc (whence rochet, a species of surplice, and the more modern word frock, are derived) 
 was the Saxon name for the outer tunic or surcoat. [Roc or froc was, in my opinion, the tumc. The 
 mrcoat or super-tunic was the over-froc. See note 3, page 4, and the note to page 6 . — Ed.] 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 X 
 
36 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The middle figure, upon the same plate, I have given as a singular instance of 
 the appearance of buttons upon the front of the tunic. The manuscript it is taken 
 from is certainly as ancient as the tenth century, and, probably, coeval vrith its 
 commencement.^ The figure is included in the ornamental part of an initial letter, 
 and drawn with great precision.'^ 
 
 THE MANTLE. 
 
 The general form of the Saxon mantles has already been spoken of and the 
 subsequent examples given upon the plates, appropriated to the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, prove that little or no variation was made in them during that time. We 
 trace in them, it is true, as well as in every other part of the Saxon habit, a 
 luxuriancy of adornments with embroidery and borders of various colours, 
 particularly of gold. 
 
 Early in the ninth century the French had adopted a short kind of variegated 
 cloak or mantle, which is called by the writers of that period saga Fresonica. 
 This garment was, however, highly reprobated by Charlemagne, who spoke of it in 
 the following contemptuous manner ; “ Of what use are such trifling little cloaks ? 
 “ when we are in bed they cannot cover us, when we are on horseback they are 
 “ insufficient to defend us from the wind and rain ; and when we retire to ease 
 “ nature they will not secure our legs from the cold and frost which rebuke, 
 probably, soon put an end to the fashion of wearing such useless garments. The 
 sagum Qallicum, or French mantle, on the other hand, was large and square, and 
 said to have been often four times double.^ But whether either of these garments 
 were introduced into England by the Anglo-Saxons cannot easily be determined ; 
 perhaps the bratt, which is generally supposed to have been a short coarse mantle, 
 w'as an humble imitation of the saga Fresonica.^ The double mantle was certainly 
 
 ^ This MS. is in the Royal library at the British Museum, and marked 6 B, VI. 
 
 2 This is the earliest specimen of the kind that I have seen. The tunic with buttons in the front 
 will be seen frequently in the succeeding centuries. [I question this being more than a tunic with an 
 embroidered or, at most, a studded hand down the centre. — Ed.] 
 
 ^ Page 7. Monachus Sangallensis, lib. i. cap. 36. 
 
 ^ See Du Cange in voce Sagum. 
 
 ® Urry, in his Glossary upon Chaucer, informs us that in Lincolnshire they give the name of bratt 
 to a coarse kind of apron. A child’s stomacher is called by the same name in Yorkshire to this day. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 37 
 
 used by the Anglo-Saxons and I take it to be tbe same kind of garment as the 
 reader will find described in the first chapter of this work,- which w'as put over the 
 head upon the shoulders, and worn without any fibula or buckle ; and this mantle 
 seems to have been appropriated solely to the highest class of personages. It was 
 not confined to the men ; the women of quality frequently appear with it ; but I do 
 not recollect a single instance in which it is given to people of inferior rank. 
 
 The mantles at this period, those especially which belong to the females, were 
 frequently lined with materials of different colours, if not of different quality, from 
 the outer part ; a remarkable instance of which may be seen in the lady represented 
 upon the twentieth plate ; the outer part of her mantle is rich crimson, the inner 
 part or lining is deep blue. 
 
 THE HEAD-DRESS. 
 
 We have already seen that long hair, and great abundance of it, was considered 
 as a beautiful ornament of the person by our Saxon ancestors ; and that the clergy, 
 on the other hand, affecting self-denial, divested themselves of their locks, and 
 preached vehemently against the cultivation of the hair.^ It appears, however, 
 that some of them were not insensible of the beauty of long hair, and wished to 
 indulge their propensity to follow the fashion in some degree at least, which made 
 the interdicting article necessary against concealing the tonsure by permitting the 
 hair to grow, which is found in the Canons of the Saxon church.^ 
 
 The hair appears to be shortened in the drawings of the ninth century, and in 
 the beginning of the tenth to be generally curtailed. But when the Danes obtained 
 an establishment in this country, they revived the customs of their ancestors, and 
 long hair was again introduced, and the fashion of wearing it soon became very 
 prevalent. It appears, that, towards the conclusion of the tenth century, the Danes 
 were the greatest beaux of the time ; they combed their locks at least once a day, 
 and decorated them carefully, in order, say the ancient historians, to captivate the 
 hearts of the Saxon ladies ; and so strong was the attraction of those luxuriant 
 beauties, that w'e find they frequently succeeded in their attempts.^ 
 
 In the reign of Edward the Confessor, the hair was permitted to grow to a 
 
 * rpyjrealbum mentil. 
 
 2 Page 8. 
 
 * Johnson’s Canons, A. D. 9(50. c. 47. 
 
 3 See pages 10 and 21. 
 
 ® John Walingford, apud Gale. 
 
38 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 very great length by almost every rank of persons, which induced Wulfstan, bishop 
 of Worcester, to preach with great severity against such an effeminate fashion ; and 
 finding, perhaps, that his sermons had not the full effect that he wished them to have, 
 an ancient author assures us, that, when any one bowed down before him to receive 
 his blessing, he cut off a lock of his hair with a little sharp knife that he carried 
 about him for that purpose, and enjoined him, by way of penance, to cut off the rest 
 of his hair in the same manner, denouncing dreadful judgments against such as 
 refused to comply with this requisition. ‘ 
 
 Long hair, in the early ages, was a mark of high rank in France : by a certain 
 law," then existing, none but the nobility of the first class, and princes of the blood 
 royal, were permitted to wear their hair at its full length ; other personages were 
 obliged to cut their hair round upon the middle of the forehead,® which made a 
 manifest distinction. The beard also, at the same time, was held by the French in 
 equal reverence: to touch the beard, was not only a mark of high respect, hut 
 stood in place of a solemn oath."* 
 
 The law for prohibiting the inferior rank of people from wearing of long hair 
 does not seem to have ever taken place among the Anglo-Saxons; the frequent 
 examples, which the reader may refer to in the plates which acompany this work, 
 evidently prove the contrary. It will also be needless to enter into any farther 
 description of the manner in which the hair and beard were worn by the Saxons 
 during the ninth and tenth centuries ; the same means of information will doubtless 
 he found to be the most satisfactory. 
 
 We have already spoken of the cap, or rather, perhaps, hat, of the Saxons,® 
 a word which occasionally occurs in their writings. The hat was, I doubt not, made 
 of various materials ; and by no means seems to be a part of dress universally 
 adopted : from its general appearance, I have supposed it to have been made of 
 skins, wdth the shaggy part turned downwards, and probably it often might be so : 
 but they had also felt or woollen hats at this period, which their own records 
 testify.® 
 
 1 Vita Wulfstani, Anglia Sacra, vol. II. - Jus CapiUitii. 
 
 3 Adfrontem inediam circumtonsos . Hence also the ancient kings of France are called by Claudian 
 crinigero Jlaventes vertice. De laud. Stilici, lib. i, v. 203. 
 
 * Aimoin, lib. i, cap. 4. ® liset. 
 
 6 Fellen beet, a felt or woollen hat. See Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, under the word hser. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 39 
 
 THE STOCKINGS. 
 
 I HAVE already said that stockings,^ certainly formed a part of the Anglo-Saxon 
 habit as early as the eighth century ; that they were of much higher antiquity is 
 proved by an ancient Latin author.'^ 
 
 The stockings of the ninth century appear to have been of various kinds, and 
 probably the materials, of which they consisted, were equally different. Stockings 
 of linen, and linen-trowsers, which often supplied the place of stockings, are spoken 
 of as worn at this period;^ but, from the costliness of linen habiliments, we may 
 easily conceive that they were confined to persons of wealth. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons gave the same name of hose not only to what may properly 
 be called the stockings, but also to the boots or buskins, and indeed to any part of 
 dress applied to the legs. The word skin-hose* however, seems to convey a perfect 
 idea of stockings, and probably was the real name by which they were distinguished 
 in the Saxon sera. 
 
 The stockings, appropriated to persons of quality, according to the drawings 
 of the time, extended above the bottom of the short tunic, and were, I apprehend, 
 made fast to the drawers upon the middle of the thigh. The inferior class of people 
 appear to have worn shorter stockings, reaching only to the middle of the leg ; and, 
 from the largeness and unevenness of the folds, one may be led to conclude that they 
 were composed of thick and coarse materials, perhaps worsted or yarn, and put 
 upon the leg without any bandage or garter. 
 
 The stockings, worn by the nobility, always appear to set very close to the legs 
 without any wrinkles or marks of folds above the leg-bandages : this circumstance 
 distinguishes them from the coxalia, or trowsers, which did not fit the legs so 
 exactly; and the marking of the folds are easily enough to be traced ; a remarkable 
 
 1 In the first chapter of this work the shoes and stochinc/s are spoken of under one head ; in the 
 present chapter I have thought it best to divide them. The additional account of the shoes will be found 
 under the article of Boots or Buskins. 
 
 - Suetonius ; who tells us that stockings, fibialia, formed part of the dress of Augustus. See the 
 second note, page 31, of this work. ^ See the last note, page 29. 
 
 * Scinhope as it is written, in the Saxon charaters : the word banjiipr seems rather to signify 
 buskins than stockings and panhopa Lye explains by the words caligce laciniosce which may be properly 
 rendered greaves. Leajjeji hopa, or leather hose, is a name more generally applicable to boots or splat- 
 terdashes than to stockings, though I am well aware that leathern stockings are worn by the rustics in 
 this country to this day. [Skin-hose means the same thing. — Ed.] 
 
40 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 instance of which is given in the figure to the left, upon the eighteenth plate, where 
 the folds of the trowsers are very evident above the bandages of the leg. 
 
 The stockings are depicted of various colours in the drawings of the Saxons ; 
 but blue and red seem to be chiefly appropriated to the nobility. 
 
 THE LEG-BANDAGES. 
 
 The garters, or more properly leg-bandages, of the Anglo-Saxons are called in 
 their own writings by three diflferent names which names, I doubt not, were given 
 purposely to distinguish three different kinds of bandages then in use; and examples 
 of all of them may, I think, be plainly pointed out from the figures which 
 accompany this part of the work. 
 
 We have already spoken of the leg-bandages crossing each other, which 
 formed part of the habit of Charlemagne,*^ and two representations of the manner in 
 which these bandages were applied to the legs are given from Saxon drawings of 
 the ninth century,^ which are a sufficient proof that the fashion of cross-gartering 
 prevailed at that time in England ; and it appears to me to have then been confined to 
 kings and princes, or the clergy of the highest order, and to have formed part of 
 their state habit. — There was, I believe, only one bandage for each leg: the binding 
 began at the toes, and was crossed backwards and forwards, being continued nearly 
 to the knee; but how it was fastened there is not so clearly determined. The shoe 
 of course hides all below the ancles ; but in the portrait of Wulfstan, bishop of 
 Worcester, who is represented in his study, and without his shoes, the cross gartering 
 is very perfectly represented even upon the foot, and bound in the self-same 
 manner.^ 
 
 The next method of applying the bandages to the legs may he seen, very 
 perfectly represented in the figure to the left, upon the eighteenth plate. This 
 bandage, like the former, was made fast upon the foot, and then wrapped round it, 
 every turn rising higher than the other, until it extended to the middle of the leg, 
 or, in some instances, beyond it ; the two ends were then crossed upon each other in 
 the front, and turned down on either side below the calf, where they were severally 
 
 1 Scanc-beaga]-, Scanc-benbaj-, and Scanc-gegijielan : they are called in Latin fasciolcB erurum . — 
 See the first and second notes, page 30. ® Page 30. 
 
 3 The one upon the seventeenth plate, and the other upon the nineteenth plate of this work. 
 
 * See the twenty-seventh plate of this work. [Where he is styled Archbishop of York, having held 
 both Sees, A.D. 1002.— Ed.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 41 
 
 fastened beneath the former windings of the bandages. This mode of gartering 
 seems only to have been adopted by persons of superior rank. 
 
 The third and most common leg- bandages seems to have been a fillet or garter, 
 simply fastened upon the stocking about the middle of the leg, and, perhaps, differed 
 but little from the garter of the present day, saving only that there is not the 
 appearance of more than one revolution, and sometimes it is made obliquely instead 
 of being borizontal.^ This kind of leg-handage seems to have been worn occa- 
 sionally by all classes of people, and particularly by the soldiers.^ 
 
 We have already seen that the leg-bandages were made of woollen ; they were 
 also made of linen ; because the ancient canons commanded the monks to wear 
 linen bandages about their legs, and not woollen ones, to distinguish them from the 
 laity ; by which it should appear that woollen bandages were commonly adopted at 
 that time.^ In the Saxon Manuscripts the leg-bandages are depicted of various 
 colours, and, in some instances, have the appearance of being adorned with spots 
 or flowers of needle work. 
 
 THE SOCKS. 
 
 The pedules, or socks,* were a part of the ancient dress appropriated to the feet, 
 as the name itself plainly indicates; and they are frequently mentioned by the writers 
 of the ninth and tenth centuries. It has been thought that the pedules were probably 
 that part of the stockings which received the feet, and not distinct from them f and a 
 quotation from an old author is given in Du Cange to support this opinion but, in 
 proof of the contrary, variety of authorities might be produced ; let one suffice : the 
 pedules and the stockings are clearly mentioned as two distinct parts of the dress in 
 the ancient Carthusian Statutes, quoted in the margin.^ 
 
 1 In many instances the stockings appear to reach something higher than the bandage, and are 
 turned down over it. See the figure to the left, plate 23. 
 
 2 See the middle figure, plate 19 ; and the figure to the right, plate 23. 
 
 3 Du Cange, in voce Fasciola. 
 
 •* The Saxon word plype pceo is said to mean a sock or sandal ; but I do not see much analogy to 
 either : the true word is poccap, whence the modern sock is evidently derived. [Certainly. The pceo is 
 a shoe, and the plype pceo {slip-shoe,) clearly a slipper. — Ed.] 
 
 ^ Pedules; pars caligarum quse pedes capit. 
 
 ^ Id etiam mandare curavit, ut de caligis pedules ahscinderet, quatenhs prater pedes totus jaceret 
 vestitus. Du Cange, in voce Pedules. 
 
 7 Among other parts of their habit the monks are ordered to have 2 paria caligarum, et 3 paria 
 pedulium. Ibidem. 
 
4'2 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The socks, I apprehend, were generally worn with the trowsers, which, as we 
 have seen before, did not cover the feet; and at times also with the stockings, 
 especially by the clergy, who were obliged day and night to officiate in the 
 churches. 
 
 In the Saxon delineations, those especially which belong to the tenth century, 
 we find this part of the dress very frequently depicted. The sock usually rises a 
 little above the ancle, and appears to he turned down towards the shoe, without 
 being restrained by a garter or bandage, in the manner represented, upon the 
 middle figure, in the eighteenth plate ; and the socks are there drawn without the shoes ; 
 which is not often the case. A different kind of socks, ornamented with fringes or 
 borders, are spoken of in the ancient records and a specimen of them, so adorned, 
 is given upon the nineteenth plate. The reader is referred to the middle figure, 
 where he will find the stocking, the sock, and the shoe, very distinctly shewn. The 
 socks are said to have been made of woollen, and, generally speaking, they might 
 be so ; but, when they were adorned in the manner spoken of above, it is probable 
 they might consist of some more precious materials. 
 
 THE BOOTS, OR BUSKINS. 
 
 The buskins of Louis le Debonnaire, the son of Charlemagne, was certainly 
 made of gold, or gilt at least.- In the drawings of the Saxon artists, this part of 
 the leg-dress cannot easily be distinguished from the stockings, which frequently 
 reach to the middle of the leg only. It is also remarkable, that, where the boots or 
 buskins appear the most decidedly marked, they are never, that I recollect, depicted 
 without the addition of shoes. The Anglo-Saxons gave the name of hose not only to 
 the stockings and buskins, but also to the greaves or leg-armour; and the hose appear 
 at all times to have been a part of dress distinct from the shoes, and bore a nearer 
 affinity to the spatterdashes than to the boots of the moderns. 
 
 The leather-hose and the pan-hose,^ names mentioned by the Saxon writers, I 
 presume, are both of them leg-dresses of the buskin kind, the latter differing from 
 the former by adornments only. The figure bearing a sword upon his shoulder, 
 given upon the nineteenth plate, .exhibits the most perfect example of the boots or 
 
 1 Pedules Ihnhati. ^ Ocreas aureas. See page 36, and the first note of that page. 
 
 3 Pan-hopa, which Lye renders caliga laeiniosce. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 43 
 
 buskins that has occurred in my researches and probably they may have been 
 intended to represent the ■pan-hose^ or ornamented buskins. 
 
 The leg-guards,^ which are also spoken of by the later Saxon authors, may be 
 properly considered as the greaves or armour for the legs, and probably were made 
 of metal, at least that part of them which came upon the front of the legs. We 
 find no indication of any defensive armour of this kind in the Saxon drawings prior 
 to the tenth century ; about which time some few instances occur. It is, however, 
 very plainly marked upon the legs of the Danish chieftains, given upon the tw'enty- 
 fourth plate ; the figures there represented are taken from a very curious Saxon 
 reliquary, which, from the workmanship and other circumstantial proofs, is with 
 good reason supported to have been fabricated about the close of the ninth 
 century.® 
 
 High shoes, reaching nearly to the middle of the legs, and fastened by lacing 
 in the front, and which may also properly enough be considered as a species of half- 
 boots, w'ere in use in this country as early as the tenth century ; and the only 
 apparent difference between the high shoes of the ancients and the moderns seems 
 to have been, that the former laced close down to the toes, and the latter to the 
 instep only.* 
 
 I shall close this subject with some few additional observations concerning the 
 shoes of the Saxons:® they appear in general to have been made of leather, and were 
 usually fastened beneath the ancles with a thong which passed through a fold upon the 
 
 * [Tliey appear to me on the contrary to be merely stockings with ornamented tops drawn over the 
 
 longer hose, for they are worn with shoes, which surely would not be the case were they themselves boots 
 or buskins. Indeed from the engraving one might deem the studded bands to be distinct ornaments. 
 The boot or buskin of the Anglo-Saxons I take to be the high laced sort described by Mr. Strutt a few 
 lines lower — Ed.] 2 Scanc-beop^. 
 
 This plate is more particularly spoken of in the third chapter of the present part of the work, 
 where the military habit of the ninth and tenth centuries are fully described. [Not having seen the 
 original it would be presumptuous to offer a decided opinion. I am under a strong impression, however, 
 that the reliquary here mentioned is not of Anglo-Saxon workmanship, but a production of (at the 
 earliest) the twelfth century, exhibiting the Anglo-Norman costume of that period in lieu of the Danish 
 of the ninth century. — Ed.] 
 
 * An instance in which the high shoes are pei’fectly represented occurs in a MS. in the Harleian 
 Library, marked 2908 ; but, as there was nothing farther remarkable annexed to the figure, I did not 
 engrave it ; frequent specimens cf the half-boots will necessarily occur hereafter. 
 
 ^ Lepcy, according to Lye, is a Saxon name for shoes; but from pceo or j-coh the modern word shoe 
 evidently derives its origin. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Y 
 
44 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 upper part of the leather encompassing the heel, and was tied upon the instep. 
 'I'his method of securing the shoe upon the foot was certainly well contrived both 
 for ease and convenience. 
 
 Wooden shoes'^ are mentioned in the records of this sera ; but probably they 
 derived that appellation from the soles only being made of wood, while the upper 
 parts might consist of some more pliant materials; and shoes with wooden soles 
 were worn by persons of the most exalted rank.’^ 
 
 The calopedes, spoken of by the ancient Latin authors, are thought to have 
 been a species of wooden shoes ; but perhaps bore a nearer affinity to clogs or 
 galloches. The sotulares, or subtalares, appear evidently to have been a thick kind 
 of shoes calculated chiefly for warmth, and were used by the clergy when they 
 officiated in the churches in cold weather, or at night ; and, as well as the calopedes, 
 were, I conceive, large enough to receive the foot with the common shoe upon it.^ 
 Whatever the materials might be that composed the soles of the shoes at this period, 
 it is certain that they were often rendered more durable by the assistance of nails : 
 the nailing of shoes is a custom so prevalent among the rustics of the present dav, 
 that nothing farther need to be said by way of explanation. 
 
 THE GLOVES. 
 
 This article of dress certainly did not originate with our Saxon ancestors ; the 
 use of gloves was derived from the continent ; and there is good reason to believe 
 that gloves were unknown in England, prior to the close of the tenth century : that 
 they were then conflned to persons of the most exalted stations will, I trust, be readily 
 granted, when we find, by the laws of H^thelred the Second,^ for the regulating of 
 commerce, that five pair of gloves made a considerable part of the duty paid to that 
 prince by a society of German merchants for the protection of their trade.® There 
 
 ‘ Tnijjen j^ceo. 
 
 - See the description of the shoes of Bernard, king of Italy, the soles of which were of wood, p. 30 
 of this work. 
 
 3 The calopedes, and the subtalares, of the Latin authors might probably answer to the plype-pceo 
 and unheje-pceop, or short shoes, of the Saxons ; both of which names will be proper enough, if we 
 suppose them to resemble the women’s clogs, easily slipped on, and shorter than the shoe by not rising 
 above the heel. 
 
 ^ 41thelred the Second, surnamed the Unready, was crowned A. D. 979, and died A. D. 1016. 
 
 5 Leges 4]thelredi, apud Brompton. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 45 
 
 is not the faintest indication of cloves in the various drawings of the Saxons that 
 have fallen under my inspection which I consider as a corroborating proof that they 
 were not used, at least not in common, at the time those delineations were made, or 
 they would not have been totally omitted. 
 
 There is no doubt, I believe, that gloves were occasionally worn by the Saxon 
 clergj^ towards the close of the eleventh century, or perhaps rather earlier ; and 
 they appear to have been made of linen : but I shall have occasion to speak more 
 fully upon this subject in a subsequent part of this work. 
 
 1 [There is an instance in the Harleian MS., 2908, which Mr. Strutt has overlooked when inspecting 
 that volume. It is engraved in my History of British Costume, page 34, fig. b. — Ed.] 
 
46 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 The habits of the anglo*saxon women continued. — the several parts of their dress 
 
 NOT INCREASED IN NUMBER DURING THE SAXON AIRA. A RECAPITULATION OF THOSE 
 
 PARTS OF THE FEMALE DRESS DESCRIBED IN A FORMER CHAPTER, AND THE ALTERATIONS 
 
 THEY UNDERWENT FROM THE EIGHTH, TO THE CLOSE OF THE ELEVENTH, CENTURY. 
 
 It has already been premised that the Anglo-Saxon ladles were much less 
 capricious, wdth respect to the fashion of their garments, than the men,^ We have 
 seen four distinct parts of dress appropriated to the females of the eighth century, 
 exclusive of those belonging to the feet and legs ; and the subsequent delineations, 
 even to the close of the eleventh century, do not exhibit a single additional garment.- 
 The little variation also, which those very parts of dress underwent during a period 
 of nearly three centuries, is a manifest proof that our fair country-women were 
 strongly attached to the manners and customs of their predecessors. It will 
 therefore be sufficient, after what has been said upon this subject in a former part of 
 the work, to recapitulate only the several parts of dress therein mentioned, and briefly 
 point out the nature and extent of the variations I have found in them. 
 
 The Under Garment does not appear to have suffered the least change in its 
 general form ; the observations made upon this garment, from the drawings of the 
 eighth century, may be equally applied to the remainder of the Saxon sera, excepting 
 only that, towards the conclusion of the tenth, and in the eleventh centuries, we 
 meet with some few instances wherein it is ornamented at the bottom with borders of 
 different colours, which w^ere probably worked with the needle. A specimen of this 
 kind is given upon the twenty-first plate of this work: the reader is referred to the 
 figure leaning upon her knee, and standing towards the right hand. 
 
 ’ See the second chapter of the first part of this work, p. 13. 
 
 2 The halpado, a part of dress belonging to the neck, as the name, derived from halj- the neck, 
 denotes, and taeppeT, an upper garment, are mentioned by the Saxon writers ; but I am totally at a loss 
 to apply the names to any of the parts of the ladies’ habits, as they are represented in the drawings of 
 the times; the tippet in particular is said, in some cases, to have been half rough or shaggy : in the 
 Saxon language it is then called, healp lipuh tBeppet. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 47 
 
 The Gown.’ The drawings of the ninth century exhibit this part of the 
 ladies’ dress precisely the same as it appears in those of the century preceding. 
 Towards the conclusion of the tenth century we find an alteration made in the gown, 
 and especially in the sleeves, which are broader at the bottom, and in some instances 
 resemble a fan w^hen half opened. The sleeves of the lady’s gown, given upon the 
 twentieth plate, are of this kind ; and something approaching to the same fashion 
 are those of the lady towards the right hand upon the twenty-first plate. The ends of 
 the sleeves, and the bottoms of the gowns, in both examples, are richly adorned with 
 borders of different colours ; the latter had also a collar of the same kind, and 
 appears indeed to be entirely ornamented with sprigs and flowers of needle-work. 
 The gowns of the tenth century were frequently lined with materials of different 
 colours, if not of different texture, as may be seen in both the figures just 
 referred to.'^ 
 
 The Mantles. There seem evidently to have been two sorts of mantles worn 
 by the ladies of the ninth and tenth centuries : the first differed in no respect from 
 the mantle described in a former chapter the second was bound about the waist, 
 and thence was passed over the right or left shoulder, and flowed loosely at the side, 
 as may be seen exemplified by the figure kneeling, upon the twenty-first plate.'* 
 
 d'he figure to the left, upon the same plate, exhibits the former kind of mantle 
 larger than I have seen it generally represented ; it not only extends over the whole 
 back, reaching to the ground, but is ample enough in the front to cover the arms 
 and the hands also. 
 
 The CovERCHiEF.^ The variations of appearance, which occur in the drawings 
 of this garment, seem evidently to have arisen from the mode in which it was 
 fastened about the neck, rather than from any material difference in the form of the 
 garment itself : sometimes it is gathered very close to the chin ; sometimes it is 
 more loose ; and not unfrequently one end of it is left at liberty ; but both of them 
 very rarely are so. A singular instance of wearing the coverchief occurs upon the 
 
 ^ Perhaps the Saxon name for the gown was uppee pcpub, which properly signifies an upper 
 garment. [It was yunna, vide page 15, note.] 
 
 - The gown of the lady, plate XX. is crimson ; the lining deep blue. The gown and lining of the 
 other lady, plate XXL are nearly similar. ^ Chap. II. p. 17. 
 
 The Saxon word Lach signifies also a cloak or mantle, and may be justly applied to this garment. 
 
 3 The projjer Saxon word for tliis part of the female dress was probably heapobep ppigelp or 
 hpsejel, which signifies a covering for the head, and is generally said to have been made of linen ; the 
 nihtep-hpgejl, or night-rad, was, I presume, the night head-dress of the ladies. 
 
48 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II, 
 
 twenty-first plate ; where it is represented as perfectly loose, and both the ends are 
 passed over the shoulders so as to leave the collar of the gown and the front of 
 the neck exposed to the sight. ^ 
 
 The manner in which the Anglo-Saxon ladies dressed their hair cannot by any 
 means be ascertained from the drawings of the time. The coverchief, a part of 
 dress that they are rarely drawn without, concealed it entirely. History is also 
 deficient in point of information upon this subject ; however, from the golden hair- 
 tiers, and crisping needles,'^ to curl and platt the hair withal, which are mentioned in 
 the writings of the Saxons, we may, as I have before observed,* fairly conclude that 
 the ladies of this sera considered the adornment of their hair as an object of some 
 consequence. 
 
 The Shoes. On this subject I can add but little to what has been said 
 already.* During the ninth and tenth centuries, they appear to have varied more 
 in colour than in the century preceding ; we meet with them red, brown, light 
 orange, and blue ; but the more general colour continued to be black, 
 
 Clogs® are mentioned in the Saxon writers as worn by the women ; but I have 
 not met with the representation of them in any of the drawings of this period. 
 
 ’ The jjaepelj-, or Jjepelj-, from Jjsepan to cover, signifies a veil, and is mentioned in the Saxon 
 writings ; hut I have not met with any part of the head-dress distinguishable from the cover-chief, that 
 seems to bear any analogy to it. 
 
 2 hseji-nebl. * Page 19. * Pages 19, and 20. 
 
 ^ Wipep pceop, clogs or shoes with w'ooden soles, wdiich Lye exphains by the word haxea. 
 
PART ir. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 49 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE MILITARY HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE NINTH 
 
 CENTURY TO THE ARRIVAL OF THE NORMANS. — -THE COAT OF MAIL. — THE BREAST-PLATE. 
 
 THE GREAVES. THE HELMETS. — THE SHIELDS. THE SWORDS; AND THE SPEARS. THE 
 
 MILITARY HABITS OF THE DANES DESCRIBED FROM A CURIOUS SAXON RELIOUARY. 
 
 The civil and military habits of the Saxons differed little from each other prior 
 to the introduction of body-armour ; for, as every man of rank, the clergy excepted, 
 considered himself a soldier, the bearing of arms was esteemed by him as an 
 indispensable privilege, and therefore he was rarely found at any great distance 
 from home without such accoutrements as became his character. Body-armour, 
 though spoken of by the early writers, was not, so far as we can judge from their 
 own delineations, brought into general use among the Anglo-Saxons before the 
 conclusion of the tenth, or rather the commencement of the eleventh, century. 
 
 The Tunics of the Saxon soldiers are said to have been made of linen and 
 in some instances, in the drawings especially of the tenth and eleventh centuries, 
 they are depicted partly open at the sides, and so short as scarcely to reach to the 
 middle of the thigh. This habit, I presume, was appropriated to the light infantry 
 of the time ; for, the same observation does by no means hold good respecting the 
 horse-soldier. 
 
 The Mantle, when it was used, does not appear to have undergone the least 
 alteration during the whole of the Saxon aera. 
 
 THE COAT OF MAIL. 
 
 The word lorica frequently occurs in the writings of the most ancient Saxon 
 authors ; and, when it is applied to the defensive armour of the body, appears to be 
 perfectly synonymous with the military habit, called in English the coat or shirt 
 of inail.^ The lorica consisted of plates or wires of iron, brass, or some other 
 introduced among the Saxons ; and, from the frequency of its appearance in the 
 * See page 22. 
 
 ® The Saxon word byjin or bypna ; the jehyiynjeb-byjin, or mail, with rings, seems to be that 
 speeies of it that was formed of wires intersecting each other. [And why not of rings as the word 
 itself distinctly asserts ? Ed.] 
 
50 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 metal, interwoven with each other, as we may learn from a curious senigma, written 
 towards the conclusion of the eleventh century by Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborn ; it 
 may be translated thus: “ I was produced in the cold bowels of the dewy earth, 
 “ and not made from the rough fleeces of wool ; no woofs drew me, nor at my birth 
 “ did the tremulous threads resound ; the yellow down of silk worms formed me not; 
 “ I passed not through the shuttle, neither was I stricken with the wool-comb ; 
 “ vet, strange to say! in common discourse I am called a garment; and I fear not 
 “ the darts that are taken from the long quivers.”^ 
 
 It is highly probable that the coat of mail, at the time of its first introduction 
 into this country, was a very cumbrous habit, which might prevent its being hastily 
 brought into use among our Saxon ancestors, who seem to have placed their chief 
 dependence in battle upon their own agility and personal courage : for this reason 
 they were usually clad in garments of the lightest kind, contrived in such a manner 
 as least to impede the exercise of their arms.* 
 
 A very ancient and a very singular representation of body-armour is given 
 upon the fourteenth plate of this work. It is of the eighth century, and the first 
 specimen I have met with of the kind, and, as far as one can judge from its appear- 
 ance in the delineation, consisted of small rings of wire interwoven with each other, 
 or quilted upon a tunic or jerkin of leather in such a manner as to be rendered 
 pliable.'* I speak, however, with great diffidence upon this subject, because I have no 
 historical authority to support my opinion. 
 
 Towards the conclusion of the ninth, or about the commencement of the tenth, 
 century, a body-armour, differing from the coat of mail already described, was 
 introduced amongst the Saxons, and from the frequency of its appearance in the 
 
 1 The original runs thus : 
 
 De Lorica. 
 
 Roscida me genuit gelido de viscere tellus ; 
 
 Non sum setigero lanarum vellere facta ; 
 
 Licia nulla trahunt, nee garrula fila resultant ; 
 
 Nee croeea seres texunt lanugine vermes ; 
 
 Nee radiis carpor, duro nee peetine pulsor ; 
 
 Et tamen, en ! vestis vulgi sermone voeabor ; 
 
 Spicula non vereor longis exempta pharetris. 
 
 B. Aldhelmi Jilnigmatum, published at Mentz, A. D. 1561 : and in a MS. in the Royal library, 
 marked 15. A. xvi. ^ See page 22. 
 
 3 In either case, this speeies of the lorica, or mail, may properly be applied to the jehpynjeG- 
 bypn, or armour with rings, mentioned by the Saxon authors. [Certainly ; as I have noticed at the 
 foot of the preeeding page : but the figure here mentioned is from a MS. of the close of the tenth or 
 beginning of the eleventh eentury, and not of the eighth. Vide note 1, page 1. — Ed.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 51 
 
 drawings of that period, we may fairly conclude that it was more generally adopted. 
 I have selected two specimens which vary in some degree from each other : they are 
 given upon the twenty-third plate. And whether this armour w^as composed of thin 
 plates of metal, fastened upon the interior garment or tunic, which appears below in 
 such a manner as to move upon each other, or whether it was entirely detached 
 from the tunic, cannot easily be ascertained ; but, whatever the materials were of 
 which it was composed, certain it is that they were by no means confined to colour. 
 This part of the military habit is sometimes blue, as it appears upon the figure to 
 the right; and sometimes of two separate colours at once, as upon the figure bearing 
 the standard, where the upper part of it, which encompasses the body and descends to 
 the hips, is a deep reddish brown ; the lower part, which forms three rows like the 
 scales of a fish and covers the thighs, is of an orange colour, and corresponds with 
 the tunic; in other instances it is painted red, and sometimes green. This variety of 
 colour, however, does not amount to a proof that the habit itself was not formed of 
 metal plates. ‘ The Saxon artists were certainly very skilful in colouring of metals, 
 and inlayed them with much ingenuity ; and if, at the same time, we recollect how 
 highly our ancestors held their military accoutrements of every kind in estimation, 
 it will not in the least excite our astonishment that they should pride themselves in 
 the beauty of their adornment. 
 
 Upon the twenty-second plate is exhibited an armour of the same kind, but 
 probably much more ancient ; the original statue, finely carved in alabaster, was 
 found in Monmouthshire, near a place called Forth Sini Kran. From the descrip- 
 tion given of it when it was perfect, we find that the figure “held in his right hand 
 “ a short sword, and in his left a pair of scales : in the right scale appeared a maiden’s 
 “ head and breast, and in the left (which was outweighed by the former) a globe.”- 
 It was afterwards broken, and presented, in the mutilated state in which it appears 
 
 ^ [I consider these illuminations to represent the leathern armour called corium and corietum, of 
 which description was that recommended by Harold (according to Ingulf, p. 68 ) to be worn instead of 
 the heavy tunic of iron rings by his troops when pursuing the Welch into their fastnesses. Similar 
 armour appears in the Bayeux tapestry, on the figures of Guy Count of Ponthieu and Odo Bishop of 
 Bayeux, and specimens are to be found as late as the thirteenth century. See plate LXV.of thiswork. — Ed.] 
 
 2 This account is copied from bishop Gibson’s additions to Camden’s Britannia, in which is given 
 a very imperfect representation of the figure itself. The learned prelate seemed inclined to think the 
 statue was intended for a female, and perhaps the goddess Astrma ; but Mr. Gough, with infinitely more 
 probability, conceives it to have been part of a tomb, and the figure of St. Michael weighing a human 
 soul against the world. [This statue is now acknowledged to be of a much later date, and to represent 
 St. Michael, either in scale armour or covered with feathers as he was frequently depicted. — Ed.] 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 z 
 
50 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 at present, to the Ashmolean Museum, at Oxford, where it remains to this day.^ 
 The mail was certainly gilt when the statue was in perfection ; for, evident marks 
 of the gilding are still visible in the interstices of the armour. 
 
 THE BREAST-PLATE. 
 
 If the thorax, mentioned as a part of the habit of Charlemagne, had not been 
 expressly spoken of as a winter garment only, and said to have covered his shoulders 
 as well as his breast, I should readily have concluded it to have been a species of 
 body-armour, and analogous to what is called, in the modern language, the breast- 
 plate.- I have met with several words that appear to be perfectly applicable to this 
 kind of armour ; and they very frequently occur in the Saxon records.^ If the 
 application be granted, it will amount to a proof that the breast-plate was known to 
 our ancestors ; but how far it was generally adopted by them cannot so easily be 
 determined ; it certainly does not appear in their drawings ; from which circumstance 
 I am led to conclude that it was not in common use at the time those drawings w'ere 
 made, because, on the other hand, the breast-plate occurs continually in the military 
 paintings, subsequent to the Norman Conquest, when we know that it formed almost 
 an indispensable part of the soldier’s habit. 
 
 The Saxon authors are by no means explicit with respect to the form of the 
 breast-guards, mentioned in their writings, nor concerning the materials of which 
 they were composed ; they are spoken of in a cursory manner, and the only qualities 
 applied to them, that I recollect, are that they were rigid, and rough or shaggy,* 
 
 ' The plate which accompanies this work was engi’aved from a drawing accurately made from the 
 original figure. 2 ggg page 35. 
 
 ® halp-beaph, halp-beopj, or neck guard. Bpeopt-benen defence for the breast, and Bpeopt-pocc, 
 which seems to be perfectly the breast-plate. [In the Bayeux tapestry, both Normans and Saxons are 
 seen armed in the tunic of rings with a cowl or hood to it drawn over the head. This I take to be tlie 
 Saxon halsberg or neck guard, as it effectually protects that part of the wearer. (From whence the 
 Norman halbers and haubert or hauberk, latinized alberium or halbercum.) Besides which, many of 
 these halsbergs are furnished with a square pectoral either quilted or covered with rings and surrounded 
 by apparently a metal border, and which may very properly be entitled to the name of breast beden or 
 breast-defence. The epithets rough or shaggy apply only to the breast-roc, which as its name suggests, 
 must have been some sort of tunic. The Danish roc was a rough or hairy garment worn at sea in bad 
 weather. The prototype of the modern P-jacket or North-Easter. — Ed.] 
 
 * Sri^e q puje Bpeopr poccaj*. 
 
PART 11. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 53 
 
 which indicates their formation from wool or hair, but totally precludes the idea of 
 their having been made of metal. 
 
 THE GREAVES. 
 
 The greaves, or leg-guards, are decidedly mentioned by the early Saxon 
 wT'iters but, as I observed in a former chapter, there is not the least indication of 
 such kind of armour in the drawings prior to the tenth century.® The twenty-fourth 
 plate, on which the representation of Oscytil the Dane and two of his companions 
 is given, contains the first specimen of the leg-guards that I have met with ; they 
 form a partial covering only to defend the front of the leg ; and, as far as one can 
 judge from their appearance, they were made of thin plates of metal fitted to the 
 skin and attached to the stockings, though the manner in which they were fastened 
 is not shewn ; we see, however, that they reached from the instep to the bottom of 
 the knee, where the foldings of the hose are evidently to be traced. These figures 
 are taken from a curious reliquary, of which they form part only of the front ; the 
 whole subject represents the murder of Theodore, abbot of Croyland, and the 
 attendant monks by the Danes.^ The reliquary itself was formerly preserved in the 
 abbey of Croyland, and there is, I trust, no doubt of its having been the work of a 
 Saxon artist C it bears every mark of authenticity, and probably w^as fabricated not 
 long posterior to the event it commemorates.® If we suppose the sculptor in giving 
 the leg-guards to the Danes intended them as marks of distinction, it will not be 
 unreasonable to conclude that they were first introduced by that people, or, at least. 
 
 > The word lioj-e is sometimes thought to mean the greaves ; but the Scauc-beopg may properly be 
 rendered leg-guard ; and of course it is synonimous to the greave. ~ Page 43. 
 
 ^ The abbot is represented officiating at the high altar ; and the figure with the sword, intended, as 
 it is supposed, for king Oscytil, is in the act of striking off his head. The workmanship is admirable ; 
 the figures are chased in gold upon a blue ground ; the heads are of silver, and protuberate in high relief. 
 This event took place A. D. 890. 
 
 * [As I before mentioned (page 43, note 3,) I entertain the greatest doubt of this reliquary being of 
 Anglo-Saxon workmanship. The lines supposed by Mr. Strutt to indicate greaves upon the legs of the 
 figures in question, would, I suspect, on e.xamining the original turn out to be only the artist’s attempt to 
 describe the swell of the calf of the leg. Such being more or less visible in nearly all the illuminations or 
 enamels of the 12th century, and in this instance exaggerated in the engraving. There is no instance of 
 anything like a greave in any Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, or Danish figure I ever saw, and I conceive 
 the Sa.xon Scanc-beorg, leg-guard, to be another term for the leathern bandage before noticed. — Ed.] 
 
 3 Probably under the du ection of abbot Goodric, the successor of Theodore. 
 
54 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 more commonly adopted by them than by his own countrymen ; and this may in 
 some measure account for the omission of the greaves in the Saxon paintings, where 
 the figures are constantly drawn conformably to the common customs of the country. 
 
 THE HELMET. 
 
 The ancient Saxon artists made no distinction between the royal helmet^ and 
 the crown : the monarch is depicted by them in his court, and in the field of battle, 
 with the same kind of head covering, even when every other part of his dress is 
 marked with decisive variation : the paintings indeed of the subsequent centuries 
 exhibit the royal helmet with some indications of improvement ; and, upon the 
 twenty-eighth plate, it is given in its most perfect state ; the figure there represented 
 is the portrait of Edward the Confessor, taken from an original impression of his 
 great seal : we may observe an ornament upon his helmet, analogous to the crown 
 or diadem of that time. The crown, considered simply as a civil ornament, and 
 detached from the helmet, was worn by the Saxon monarehs long before the reign 
 of the Confessor ; but the royal helmet is never, that I remember, delineated without 
 the appearance of the crown. 
 
 The helmet, appropriated to the nobility of the eighth century, is usually 
 depicted in the form of a cone ; and it was probably made of brass or some other 
 kind of metal.^ The same species of helmet appears in the drawings of the tw o 
 succeeding centuries, but we find it gradually improved, if ornaments of gold or 
 gilding, and embellishments of precious stones, may be deemed improvements. 
 
 I do not believe that the helmet was universally adopted by the military at any 
 period of the Saxon sera ; for the soldiers of every class, the king alone excepted, 
 are frequently represented bare-headed ; especially in those drawings that bear the 
 greatest marks of antiquity. The head-covering, which occurs most generally in 
 the Saxon drawings, bears more resemblance to a cap or hat of leather or woollen 
 than to a helmet ; and I am induced to think that occasionally it answered the 
 purposes both of the hat and of the helmet. The hat^ is mentioned in the records 
 of the ninth and tenth centuries as a covering for the head, and sometimes spoken 
 of as being ornamented with a crest.* 
 
 1 Cyne-jjealm, or felm. 
 
 - The Lejjeji-jjelme, or helmet of leather, is mentioned by the Saxon writers, but perhaps the term 
 is more applicable to the hat mentioned in the next note, which was sometimes made of leather, and 
 sometimes of woollen. ^ Fellen-haet, that is a felt or woollen hat. 
 
 * Camb on haette, and Camb on helme, the word camb signifies a comh or crest. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS- 
 
 5.5 
 
 THE SHIELDS. 
 
 In the first part of this work I observed, that the general form of the Saxon 
 shields was oval the same form prevailed, with few exceptions, until the Norman 
 Conquest, when a new system of tactics was introduced, which required of course a 
 changement in the military habiliments. The uniformity of appearance respecting 
 the form of the shields cannot be applied to their size ; for, the size is continually 
 varied, not only in the drawings of different centuries, or different manuscripts of 
 the same century, but even in the different delineations which occur in one and the 
 same manuscript ; especially in those manuscripts that belong to the tenth and 
 eleventh centuries, where the shield, in some few instances, is represented full as 
 tall as the bearer, and of sufficient latitude to cover him entirely from the sight of 
 his enemy. The size most commonly represented is such as would cover the head 
 and body completely ; some are much smaller, and some so diminutive as not to 
 exceed the length of the lower arm. The variation of the size is also supported by 
 historical authority. We find mention made of little shields,^ and smaller shields.^ 
 In the will of prince HEthelstan, the son of the second ^thelred,^ the shoulder- 
 shield^ is included among the legacies, and it is distinguished from the target.^ It 
 was, I apprehend, a shield of the larger sort, and might receive its appellation from 
 being usually slung upon the shoulder. 
 
 With respect to the materials which composed the Saxon shields, the silence of 
 history prevents my enlargement. We have already seen that leather was certainly 
 used by the shield makers,^ and it might compose the body of the shields in general ; 
 but the rims and bosses were certainly made of metal, which, as far as one can judge 
 from the colour, was often gilt or plated with gold. Some few instances indeed 
 occur in which th6 whole shield appears to have been covered with gold or metal 
 gilt. 
 
 The ornamental adornments of the Saxon shields, in addition to the bosses and 
 rims or borders of gold and silver, appear to have been very few, and those very 
 simple ; and, as they are given upon the several military figures which accompany 
 this work, they do not require any farther disquisition.® 
 
 1 Page 23. 2 pcylft. ’ Sa laeffan j-cylba]-. 
 
 * The original, dated 1015, is in the possession of Thomas Astle, Esq. 
 
 5 Mmep boh pcyloep. 6 Mmep oapgan. Page 23. 
 
 8 See plates XIII. XIV. and XXIII. 
 
56 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE SWORDS ; AND THE SPEARS. 
 
 The form of the Saxon sword was not subject to much variation, as the reader 
 may easily see by referring to the several military figures which are given in this 
 work.^ There are, however, several sorts of swords specified in the Saxon records ; 
 such as the shining sword f the sharp-pointed svmrd f the dull, or perhaps rather, 
 pointless sword the two-edged sword the broad sword f and the small sword, or 
 dagger J 
 
 When I described the habit of Charlemagne, I observed that, at the time he 
 neglected every other part of his dress, he prided himself in the beauty and adorn- 
 ments of his military accoutrements. His sword, which was his constant companion, 
 and the belt, from which it was suspended, were enriched with gold or silver ; and, 
 upon particular occasions, ornamented with jewels.® The same kind of pride was 
 prevalent among the Anglo-Saxons ; and their arms are frequently distinguished by 
 epithets, alluding to their beauty or their goodness : nor is it indeed the smallest 
 matter of wonder, that a warlike people should consider their weapons as the most 
 essential part of their habit. 
 
 Every man of rank possessed a number of swords suited to different occasions. 
 Upwards of a dozen, the property of prince A^thelstan, are bequeathed in his will ; 
 and the sword-cutler appears to have been an artist held in high estimation. In the 
 ancient records, his name is frequently added to the arms he fabricated, as a mark 
 of their superior excellence.® 
 
 The sword itself, I presume, was anciently made of brass ; but, in the more 
 modern times, of iron or steel ; and, in some instances, it was polished but the 
 
 1 See plates XIII. XIV. XIX. and XXVIII. - Fajum-ppeor&mn. 
 
 3 Spurbep-orb. * Speopibum appep&e. ^ Spopi&e tpy ecje&ep. 
 
 Bpiab-ppypib. i baep-peax, or liype-peax, literally hip-seax. [The word seax 
 
 has been the subject of much dispute. It has been described as a curved sword carried by the ancient 
 Saxons, and that the name of the nation was derived from it. Mr. Sharon Turner has exploded the 
 latter hypothesis. With regard to the former, I have elsewhere remarked that no instance of a curved 
 sword occurs either in Anglo-Saxon drawings, or sepulchral remains. jEder-seax signifies a lancet, 
 literally, Vein-seax. Sword is itself Saxon. Seax would seem to imply a knife or dagger. — Ed ] 
 
 3 See page 30. 
 
 9 Thus, in the wiU of prince Jilthelstan, spoken of in the former page, one of the legacies is a silver- 
 hilted sword which WoJfricke made. 
 
 19 It was then called the shining sword. See note 2, above. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 57 
 
 hilts, which admitted of more adornments, were composed of great variety of ma- 
 terials. Silver-hilted swords are particularly specified in the will of prince ^thelstan, 
 mentioned above ; and swords with hollow hilts, ^ or rather hilts ornamented with 
 fret-work : hilts of gold are also spoken of by the writers of this sera. A sword, 
 with its hilt, and the belt belonging to it, embellished with jewels, taken from a 
 Saxon manuscript of the tenth centur}^, is given upon the twenty-ninth plate of this 
 work. 
 
 The manner in which the sword was girded upon the side is exemplified by the 
 figure, with the spear and shield, upon the thirteenth plate. Some few instances 
 indeed occur in the Saxon drawings, in which it is suspended from the shoulder ; but 
 this does not appear by any means to have been a prevalent fashion. 
 
 The sword-belts are frequently spoken of by the Saxon authors, as adorned with 
 gold, silver, and jewels ; yet, singular as it may appear, they are rarely so represented 
 in the manuscript drawings of the time, or distinguished at all from the common 
 girdle with which the tunic was usually bound about the waist. An ornamented 
 belt, intended to represent, I presume, the studding of jewels, and the only one I 
 have met with so perfect, is given upon the twenty-ninth plate : the sheath of the 
 sword, when it is represented, is generally black ; for, variety of instances occur, in 
 which the sword appears to have been worn without any sheath at all. Its orna- 
 ments, generally speaking, are few and simple, consisting of a few lines only at the 
 top, with a cross between them. We must, however, except the sword-sheath of the 
 Danish chieftain upon the twenty-fourth plate, which seems to be more superbly 
 adorned. 
 
 The Spears have been spoken of in a former chapter and the various forms 
 of the spear-heads, as they appear in the manuscript drawings of the Saxons, are 
 given upon the thirteenth plate. The spear was by no means confined to persons of 
 superior rank ; but seems to have been borne by every person who was able to 
 purchase it. As a weapon of war, it is fi’equently given to the foot-soldiers ; and 
 the cavalry are very rarely depicted without it. 
 
 There are three sorts of spears mentioned by the Saxon writers, namely, the 
 war-spear, the boar-spear, and the hunting-spear : but in what particulars they 
 differed from each other cannot easily be determined.^ 
 
 ' ^ Jjsej- j-pufibef nlib ^atn pytteban hilran. 
 
 ^ Wij-rpeyie — bap-ppepe and hunrinj ppepe. 
 
 ~ Page 24. 
 
58 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE MILITARY HABITS OF THE DANES. 
 
 There is not a sufficiency of authentic materials remaining at present to afford 
 a particular illustration of the Danish habit ; but, as all the Northern nations were 
 subject to the same manners and customs, there can be little reason to suppose that 
 the Danes and the Saxons should have differed essentially in their modes of dress. — 
 The early writers, who have spoken largely concerning the transactions of the Danes 
 from their first invasions of England to their establishment in the island, are silent 
 upon this head ; and their silence may be considered as a corroborating proof that 
 the habits of the Danes were at that time similar to those of the Saxons ; at least, 
 so much so as not to require a separate description.^ We learn however from 
 history, that the Danes paid great attention to the cultivation of their hair and the 
 adornment of their persons ; in short, they seem to have been considered as the 
 complete beaux of the tenth century. The three Danish chiefs, given upon the 
 twenty-fourth plate of this work, are richly habited.^ Their tunics are embellished 
 with embroidered collars and borders ; and their hair is combed and platted in a 
 very particular form. The figure striking with the sword is the portraiture of 
 Oscytil, who bears the title of king in the Saxon records ; his tunic is open before, 
 and discovers the under-tunic. The folds of the femoralia, or drawers, are also 
 very distinctly marked. The ornaments upon his breast, I am apt to believe, are 
 intended to represent the thorax, or breast-plate ; and probably it was constructed 
 of linen, folded many times, and quilted together ; for such was the manner in 
 which the thorax was anciently made. 
 
 The greaves, which are very plainly marked upon all the three chieftains, have 
 already been spoken of and, excepting them, and the opening of the tunic of 
 Oscytil in the front, there is no difference between the habits of these figures and 
 the habits of the Saxon nobility of the same sera. 
 
 The Danish swords were made in the same manner with those of the Saxons ; 
 but the scabbard, whence the middle figure upon the twenty-fourth plate is drawing 
 his sword, is more richly ornamented than any I have met with of equal antiquity. 
 
 The hattle-axe has been generally attributed to the Danes, and considered by 
 
 ^ [Nearly all the information that can be gleaned upon the subject of Danish, or Norse, military 
 costume will be found in the 24th Vol. of the Archaeologia, in Sir Fred. Madden’s erudite and interesting 
 paper on the chess-men found in the Isle of Lewis in 1831.— Ed.] 
 
 2 See noted, page 53. ^ Page 53. [See note as before. —E d.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 59 
 
 modern writers as a certain mark, by which the representations of that people may 
 be distinguished from those of the Saxons ; this opinion cannot however, I conceive, 
 be supported by good authority. In the Saxon drawings, it is no uncommon thing 
 to see the battle-axe given to the military figures, and in cases where the artists 
 certainly intended to delineate their own manners and habits, without the least 
 reference to those of the Danes ; however, if it should be said that the Danes more 
 generally used the axe as a weapon of war than the Saxons did, I will by no means 
 dispute the point for, indeed, I do not recollect an instance in which the Danes 
 are represented in a military capacity without one or two of the soldiers having a 
 battle-axe. 
 
 The axe, and the double-axe, or bipennis, are both of them frequently mentioned 
 by the Saxon writers the form of the first may be seen on the twenty-fourth plate, 
 and that of the latter upon the twenty-ninth plate of this work. 
 
 1 [There can be little doubt of the axe having been the characteristic weapon of the Danes and 
 Northmen. The Welsh bard Gruflyd ap Merredydd speaks of 
 
 “ the men of Lochlyn (Denmark) 
 
 With their keen-edged axes.” 
 
 And Giraldus says the Irish had “ broad axes excellently well steeled, the use of which they borrowed 
 from the Norwegians and Ostmeu.” We learn also from the same writer that the Danish shields were 
 usually painted red, for he tells us the Irish carried “ red shields in imitation of the Danes.” — Ed.] 
 
 2 The axe is called in Saxon bill ; and the double axe rpi-bill, or tpy-bill. 
 
 VOL. 
 
 2 A 
 
 r 
 
60 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SaXONS. 
 
 PART H. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 THE ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES. THE ARCHBISHOP, 
 
 BISHOP, ABBOT, MONKS, AND INFERIOR CLERGY. 
 
 The eighth century afforded very few materials towards the illustration of the 
 ecclesiastical habits. — From a manuscript of the tenth I have taken the figure of an 
 archbishop, engraved upon the twenty-sixth plate : he is depicted in the full dress, 
 the mitre excepted; the place of which is supplied by a nimbus, or circle of glory. The 
 several parts of the habit are very distinctly marked, and divested of that load of 
 ornamental enrichments which appear upon the garments of superior clergy in the 
 succeeding centuries.^ 
 
 The portrait of Wulfstan, the second archbishop of York of that name, given 
 upon the twenty-seventh plate, is extracted from a manuscript of the eleventh cen- 
 tury ; and the striking difference which appears in the habits of the two Metropolitans 
 does not, I apprehend, arise from any material change having been made in the 
 ecclesiastical vestment during the elapsment of half a century ; but rather from the 
 one being drawn in his official habit, and the other in the dress he was accustomed 
 to wear in his retirement from the duties of the church : agreeable to this idea, we 
 find archbishop Wulfstan depicted as seated in his study, and writing in a book 
 which is open before him. The portrait is prefixed to a code of synodial decrees for 
 the reformation of the church, which were probably drawn up by him, and afterwards 
 confirmed by H^thelred the Second.'^ 
 
 1 The MS. in which the original drawing is preserved, belonged formerly to the monastery of St. 
 Augustine at Canterbury ; and was probably presented to the cathedral church by abbot Elfnoth, when 
 it was dedicated anew, and the name of St. Augustine added to that of St. Peter, to whom for several 
 centuries it had been solely appropriated. The portrait of the abbot appears in the frontispiece, pre- 
 senting the book itself to his new-adopted patron, who is depicted in \xi% pontificalia, seated in his chair of 
 state, and attended by the assistant clergy, and receiving it from him. The nimbus, or circle of glory, 
 about his head, denotes his having been honoured with the title of Saint. Augustine was the first arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, and the founder of this monastery, which received its name from him. Abbot 
 Elfnoth died A. D. 980. 
 
 * Wulfstan, or Wulstan, was the twenty-second archbishop of York ; he came to that see A. D. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 61 
 
 The habit of the Anglo-Saxon monks is exemplified by two figures, given 
 upon the twenty-fifth plate : the border of the cowl, the bottom of the sleeves, and 
 the lower verge of the outer tunic belonging to one of them, are ornamented in a 
 peculiar manner ; but, whether such ornaments were merely optional, or were a mark 
 of superiority of the rank or order of the wearer, I cannot pretend to determine : the 
 garments of both these figures are white, and the outer tunic is lined with red. 
 It is necessary, however, to observe, that the outer garments, appropriated to the 
 Saxon monks of this lera, though uniform in their general appearance, were not 
 confined to the colours just mentioned ; in other manuscripts of the same period 
 they are frequently painted black, and in some instances dark brown and grey ; but 
 the inner tunic, so far as one can judge of it from the small portion of the sleeves 
 usually seen below the outer garment, was white : we must indeed except the 
 attendant clergyman, bearing the crosier of abbot Elfthnoth, on the twenty-sixth 
 plate ; his tunic is light blue, and the outer garment, or surplice, is white. 
 
 I do not apprehend that the external habits of the inferior ecclesiastics were 
 limited to precise form or colour ; we find them difiering materially in both, and 
 even in the same painting, where more than one are depicted : thus in the twenty- 
 sixth plate there are two attendants represented behind the archbishop ; the 
 garment of the one is blue, and that of the other is green. 
 
 The calopedes, and the sublalares, were species of coverings for the feet ; they 
 seem both of them to have been chiefly calculated for warmth and they were much 
 used by the clergy in the performance of their nocturnal duties, and in the winter ; 
 so were also the socks in addition to the stockings, or rather trowsers,^ which covered not 
 only the legs, but the thighs also, and were well adapted to answer the end proposed 
 by the interdiction confirmed in the council of Chalcuith, which runs in the following 
 manner : “ Let no minister of the altar presume to approach it to celebrate mass 
 with naked legs, lest his filthiness should appear, and God be offended.”^ 
 
 In the canons, instituted under the patronage of king Edgar, the priests are 
 commanded “ to wear, at the celebration of mass, a garment called the corporate,* 
 in addition to- the subumlem,^ under the alba and it is farther insisted upon, 
 
 “ that all these garments shall be kept clean and in good order. Another clause 
 
 1002, and died May 28, A. D. 102,3. The MS. from which this portrait is extracted was probably 
 written, and the drawing made, during the hfe-time of the prelate. ^ See page -IS. 
 
 - See pages 38, and 46. ^ This council was held A.D. 785. Wilkins, vol. I. p. 147. 
 
 ♦ The same, I presume, as the camisia or shirt. See page 37. 
 
 5 Or inner tunic. 
 
 Alba, vestis seu tunicas species, a candore sic nuncupata. Du Cange in voce Alba. 
 
62 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO SAXONS. 
 
 PART II, 
 
 expressly commands “ that no priest shall come into the church or chancel without 
 his surplice”^ 
 
 The ancient ecclesiastical law^s required the inferior ministers to shave their 
 heards to distinguish them from the laity ; hut this restriction does not appear by 
 any means to have extended to the superior clergy ; for, they are more frequently 
 depicted by the Saxon artists with heards than without them ; perhaps the wearing 
 the beard was a privilege confined to the higher order of ecclesiastics. I am also 
 inclined to think that the mandate, contained in the forty-seventh canon, published 
 during the reign of Edgar, forbidding such persons as entered into holy orders to 
 permit their hair to grow, was confined to those who had, at the same time, received 
 the tonsure ; for, in the drawings of that period, the ecclesiastics are generally 
 represented with their hair sufficiently long to cover the whole head, and fall upon 
 the shoulders. 
 
 The garments appropriated to the church, were chiefly made of linen ; 
 particularly the surplice, the alba or tunic, and the shirt. Woollen shirts, it is true, 
 are spoken of by the Saxon writers ; but it is equally true that the wearing of them, 
 whenever it was enjoined, was considered as a very severe penance. It is, however, 
 very probable that the external garments of the dignified clergy were made of silk ; 
 such especially as w^e find ornamented with borders and fringes of gold, and adorned 
 with needle w^ork. These garments, we are assured, were sometimes edged, if not 
 lined, with furs and sables ; but, as this subject will be more fully treated upon in a 
 subsequent chapter, it is unnecessary to dwell any longer upon it in the present 
 instance.*^ 
 
 1 Ope)i-]-lipe in the Saxon ; See Lambard de Leg. Saxon. 
 
 2 [The fact is that we are at present greatly in the dark respecting early ecclesiastical costume. It 
 is a subject replete with interest, and I am happy to find that a most intelligent antiquary has for some 
 time past been directing his attention to it, and will shortly favour us with the result of his enquiries. — Ed.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 63 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 THE MOURNING HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS NOT KNOWN. — HOW THE BODIES OF THE 
 
 DEAD WERE APPARELLED. THE MANNER IN WHICH CHARLEMAGNE WAS BURIED. THE 
 
 APPEARANCE OF THE BODIES OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OF DUNSTAN ARCHBISHOP OF 
 CANTERBURY, AND OF WITHBURGA, SISTER TO ETHELDRIDA ABBESS OF ELY, UPON 
 OPENING OF THEIR TOMBS. 
 
 I HAVE already mentioned the difficulties which occur in the attempt to investi- 
 gate the various ranks of people among the Anglo-Saxons from their habits that 
 distinctions of this kind did exist, we can hardly doubt ; but the want of sufficient 
 materials, from which they might be exemplified, stands as an insuperable bar to 
 obstruct the researches of the curious. The article of dress forms only an accidental 
 part, as it w'ere, of the Saxon history ; and the names of such portions of it as do 
 occur were considered by the authors as well known to their readers ; and of course 
 a minute description of them was thought unnecessary. The general form of the 
 Saxon garments is not sufficiently varied, in the drawings of the time, to throw 
 much light upon the subject ; and particular colours, such as purple and scarlet, 
 which anciently were determinate badges of distinction, do not appear to have 
 retained their prerogative among our ancestors ; for, they are indiscriminately worn 
 by every rank and class of people. One would naturally suppose, that the mourning 
 dresses would have been decidedly different from the common habits of the time, 
 and on this supposition expected to have found that difference marked in the 
 manuscript drawings. This, however, is by no means the case; the representations 
 of burials and of the previous ceremonies thereupon dependant are frequently enough 
 to be met with ; but, from the minutest examination of the attendant figures, I 
 cannot trace the least material alteration made in the habits of either sex upon this 
 occasion : widows' garments" and nuptial garments,* are mentioned, it is true, in the 
 Saxon records ; but by what particular marks they were distinguished from the 
 usual dress csmnot be discovered. 
 
 The funeral customs of the Anglo-Saxons, so far as they relate to the treatment 
 
 ' Pages 27, and 28. 
 
 2 pybepan-pcap. 
 
 ^ 5 yptlic-peap 
 
64 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 and habit of deceased persons, are in various instances described by their writers, 
 and frequently represented in the drawings contained in their manuscripts ; I shall 
 not therefore be at any loss to investigate this subject, as fully at least as the nature 
 of the present work requires. 
 
 The corpse, being washed with pure water, was covered with the camisia, or 
 shirt : it was then clothed with such garments as the rank of the person required, 
 and finally enveloped in a sheet or wrapper of linen cloth the face, however, was 
 usually left uncovered by the wrapper till the time of burial, in order, I presume, 
 that the friends and relations of the deceased might be gratified with a sight of the 
 corpse previously to its being desposited in the tomb. A dead body in its funeral 
 habit may be seen at the bottom of the twenty-ninth plate of this work ; and again, 
 entirely covered in the manner it was buried, at the top of the same plate. Before 
 the face of the deceased was enveloped with the wrapper, it was covered with a 
 sudarium, or napkin ; and this seems to have been the constant practice. ^ 
 
 The ablution and clothing of the corpse were performed with every due regard 
 to decency. In a manuscript of the eighth century^ we meet with several repre- 
 sentations of this ceremony : it appears to have been performed by two persons 
 whose sex, I apprehend, accorded with that of the deceased. They are drawn as 
 kneeling, one at the head, and the other at the feet of the dead body ; and over 
 them was placed a large sheet to conceal them from the attendants, and prevent any 
 interruption during the performance of the ceremony ; this sheet in some instances 
 was supported by the attendants, but still in such a manner as to exclude the body 
 from their sight : it is to be observed, that the wrapper or winding-sheet, is frequently 
 painted white ; but in several instances blue, red, and pink. 
 
 The corpse represented on the twenty-ninth plate seems to be habited in 
 the shirt only ; but it was a common custom with our Saxon ancestors to clothe 
 the bodies of the deceased in those habits of dignity and splendour to which they 
 
 1 The Saxon word is pcyran, which signifies a sheet ; it may, therefore, with the strictest propriety, 
 he called in English the winding-sheet. 
 
 2 The sudarium is constantly mentioned by the Saxon writers, when they minutely describe the 
 funeral habit of the time. An ancient historian informs us, that, upon the opening of the tomb of Acca, 
 bishop of Hagulstad, who died A.D. 741, besides the bones of the prelate, were found the casula, or 
 surplice, the tunic and sudarium, with which the corpse had been habited previous to its interment. 
 Hist. Simon Dunelm. sub anno 741. The proper Saxon word for the sudarium ppat-claS ; but in 
 Alfred’s translation of Bede’s Eccles. Hist. On&pleton is used to express the words vultus indumento. 
 Lib. 4. c. 30. 
 
 3 Claudius, B. iv. \Tenth Century. Ed.] 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 65 
 
 had been entitled in their life-time : and this practice was not confined to perso- 
 nages of exalted rank ; it extended also to those of inferior degree, as well of the 
 clergy as of the laity : kings were buried in their royal robes ; knights in their 
 military garments ; bishops in their pontifical vestments ; priests in their sacer- 
 dotal habits ; and monks in the dress peculiar to the order to which they belonged. 
 
 The manner in which the obsequies of Charlemagne were performed is 
 recorded by a cotemporary author.^ We have no description of the kind so perfect 
 among the Saxon writers ; and, as the forms of sepulture adopted by the French 
 at that period corresponded exactly with those of the Saxons, I shall translate the 
 passage as a curious relique of antiquity ; and trust, that it will throw much light 
 upon the funeral ceremonies of this country. His body was washed with great 
 solemnity, and carefully prepared for the burial.^ It was then clothed with a 
 garment of hair-cloth next the skin ; which ceremony it is said ought always 
 to be secretly performed.^ He was afterwards habited in the imperial vestments ; 
 and his face was covered with a sudarium or napkin, over which a diadem w’as 
 placed upon his head ; and in the diadem was enclosed a portion of the wood 
 which composed the holy cross.^ His sword enriched with gold was girt about 
 him ; and in this dress he was seated upon a gilt throne.® His shoulders were 
 reclined on the back of the throne ; and his head was supported in an erect 
 position by a golden chain fastened to the diadem.® In his hands he held the 
 holy gospels embellished with gold, which rested upon his knees ; he w^as 
 then placed, together with the throne on which he was seated, within the cavity 
 of the sepulchre.^ The gilt travelling pouch,® which he used to wear when he 
 went to Rome, was laid by him ; and the sceptre of gold, with the golden shield 
 which Pope Leo had consecrated, was suspended before him.® These ceremonies 
 being performed, the sepulchre was filled with aromatic drugs of various kinds, 
 together with considerable quantities of gold ; it was then closed and sealed.’® 
 
 1 Monachus Egolimensis, page 282. ® More solenni lotum et curatum. 
 
 3 Cilicium ad carnem ejus positum est, quod secreto semper induebatur, &c. 
 
 ^ Et in diademate lignum sanctse crucis positum est. 
 
 5 Sede aurea ; — it is afterwards called cathedra, 
 
 Reclinatis humeris in cathedra, et capite honest^ erecto ligato aurea catena. 
 
 I In curvatura sepulchri. ® Pera peregriualis. 
 
 9 Sceptrum aureum et scutum aureum quod Leo papa consecraverat ante eum posita sunt 
 dependentia. 
 
 10 Et repleverunt sepulchrum ejus aromatibus, pigmentis, et balsamo, et musco, et thesauris 
 multis in auro. — Et clausum et sigillatum est sepulchrum ejus. — Monach. Egolimensis, p. 283. 
 
66 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Linen of the finest quality^ was prepared for the obsequies of Edward the 
 Confessor; and his best mantle^ was appropriated to the envelopement of his 
 body. When his tomb was opened about six and thirty years after his interment, 
 the mantle which covered the corpse was found entire ; and, being removed, his 
 body appeared clothed in the regal vestments, with the ornaments belonging to it, 
 together with the sudarium which covered his face and head, in a perfect state. 
 The old mantle was taken away as a precious relique, and the body, with all its 
 other ornaments, was re-wrapped in a mantle of silk.’’ And, in the year 1 688, 
 several pieces of gold-coloured and flowered silk were drawn out of the tomb, which 
 probably were part of the envelopement just mentioned.'* 
 
 The body of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, after his decease was 
 completely apparelled in his pontifical habit ; the mitre, and other insignia 
 belonging to his office, such as the ring and bracelets, are mentioned among the 
 adornments ; and the sandals, which were put upon his feet, are particularised 
 for their beauty and elegance. In this array the body was finally inclosed in a fair 
 linen cloth, and so committed to the tomb.^ 
 
 The body of Withburga, sister to queen Etheldrida, abbess of Ely, when 
 examined by the order of abbot Richard, several centuries after her sepulture, 
 was found with a cushion of silk beneath her head ; and the veil, together with 
 all the vestments in which she had been interred, were perfectly whole and as 
 good as new.® 
 
 1 Preciosis lintheis. — Ailredus abbas Rievallis de vita et iniraculis Edw. Confess. 
 
 * Optirais palliis corpus involvitur. — Ibid. ^ Vestimento holoserico. — Ibid. 
 
 * See the Introduction to Mr. Gough’s Sepulchral Monuments, vol. 1. p. 48. ; and his account 
 of Edward the Confessor’s tomb, &c. in the body of the work, p. 1. 
 
 5 An ancient author, who was present at the opening of Dunstan’s tomb long after his interment, 
 informs us, that they found the body of the saint — “more summi poutificis, infulatum, annulatum, 
 palliatum, spindulatum, sandaliis venustissime adornatum.” — Eadmeri Epistola de corpore Dunstani, 
 Anglia Sacra, vol. II. 
 
 ® PulviUo serico ad caput apposito, velo et totis vestibus Integra novitate renitentibus, &c. — 
 Malmesb. de gest. Pont Angl. 1. 4. p. 167. 
 
PART II, 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 67 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MATERIALS WHICH COMPOSED THE SAXON HABITS. — THE ART OF 
 
 W'EAVING. THE ART OF EMBROIDERY. THE ANGLO-SAXON LADIES FAMOUS FOR THEIR SKILL 
 
 IN THIS ART. THE SUBJECTS EXECUTED BY THEM. THE USES TO WHICH EMBROIDERED 
 
 GARMENTS WERE APPROPRIATED. THE TANNER’s ART. THE DAEr’s ART. 
 
 Linen certainly formed a very large part of the Anglo-Saxon habits ; it was an 
 article indiscriminately w'orn by every class of people whose circumstances allowed 
 them to purchase it ; and it was particularly appropriated to such garments as 
 w'ere worn next the skin. The use of linen is of liigh antiquity among the 
 Saxons ; for, a writer of their owm, w'ho flourished during the eighth century, 
 informs us that the military tunic in his time consisted of linen. ^ Another ancient 
 wTiter, describing the manners of the Longohards, says their vestments were 
 loose and flowing ; that they consisted chiefly of linen like those of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, and were ornamented with broad borders woven, or embroidered with 
 various colours.'^ 
 
 The garments of the women, such I mean as Avere of superior rank, consisted 
 chiefly of linen ; and many of the vestments belonging to the clergy were certainly 
 composed of the same material. Linen was also in common use among the 
 religious devotees : it is noted by Bede as a rare instance of humility and self- 
 denial in Etheldrida, abbess of Ely, that she never w^ould wear linen garments, hut 
 contented herself wdth such as were made of wool.® 
 
 It is impossible, from the drawings of the Anglo-Saxons, to ascertain how 
 large a portion of their garments consisted of linen : the colour will by no means 
 determine the matter ; for, we are well assured, that many of their ivoollen 
 vestments w^ere white, and their linen habits were frequently dyed of various 
 colours. The shirt and other interior garments were certainly made of linen, 
 because the w^earing of woollen vestments next the skin was enjoined as a penance.'* 
 
 ^ Alcuini lib. de offic. div. Sec page 22, note d. 
 
 * “ Ornato institis latioribus, vario colore coiitextis.” — Paul Diaconns de gestis Longobardi, lib. 
 iv. cap. 23. ^ Bede, Eccles. Ilbst. lib. iv, cap. 19. * See pages -1, and 33. 
 
 ^ B 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
68 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Woollen cloth occasionally composed the external garments of all ranks 
 of persons ; and was, I trust, in much more general use than any other production 
 of the loom ; there is good reason therefore to believe, that the manufactory of 
 woollen cloth was carried to very high perfection by the Saxon artists. I am 
 indeed inclined to think, that the fineness of the materials, and the costliness 
 of the workmanship, rather than any particular colour or form of the garments, 
 made the chief distinction of rank among the Anglo-Saxons.^ 
 
 Silk, as we have observed before, was in use among the Anglo-Saxons soon 
 after their establishment in Britain ; but so expensive an article, we may reasonably 
 suppose, must have been confined to the highest rank of people. Coronation 
 vestments and mantles, the external garments of the dignified clergy, and the 
 robes of the queens and princesses were often made of this valuable material ; 
 it was also used for the adornment of the altars, and other religious purposes.® 
 
 Haircloth was certainly manufactured by the Anglo-Saxons: it seems to 
 have been chiefly in use among the clergy ; it formed part of their bed, and was 
 even worn next the skin by way of severe penance. The hair-cloth shirt composed 
 part of the funeral habit of Charlemagne,^ and might probably be often used upon 
 such occasions in this country. 
 
 The art of weaving was not confined simply to the working of cloth of one 
 colour ; it was well understood in all its branches ; we have already seen, that, so 
 far back as the eighth century, variety of colours forming different figures were 
 produced from the loom.* In an ancient Saxon translation, or rather paraphrase, 
 of the Pentateuch,® the garment which Israel made for his son Joseph, called 
 in our modem version a coat of many colours^ is rendered a tunic adorned with 
 rings and, agreeable to this idea, the illuminator, in the representation of 
 Joseph, has given him a short blue tunic, covered with dark rings encircled in 
 white narrow borders ; and such a dress was probably worn by the Anglo-Saxon 
 young men of distinction ; it has every appearance in the drawings of having been 
 the product of the loom without any extraneous aid. 
 
 ' How far the art of variegating the colours and ornamenting of cloth without 
 the assistance of the needle extended cannot be ascertained.® It is certain, 
 
 ' See page 28. - Anglia Sacra. 
 
 * See page 65. * See page 2. 
 
 ^ Cotton MS. Claudius, B. iv. 
 
 ® Genesis, chap, xxxvi. ver. 3. ’> hpinj pa 3 e tunecan. 
 
 8 The words intexo, intertexo, contexo, and even texo, frequently used by the ancient authors, will 
 admit of a more extensive construction than that of weaving only, and may signify not only the manu- 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 69 
 
 however, that garments ornamented with needle work were held in the highest 
 estimation by the Anglo-Saxons ; and it is equally certain, that the Saxon ladies 
 excelled in the performance of these elegant manufactures. I have already 
 slightly spoken upon this interesting subject ; ^ and I presume that the following 
 enlargement will not be thought improper in the present instance : 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon ladies of the first quality employed much of their time in 
 carding of wool, spinning, and working with the needle ; and some of them also 
 encountered the labours of the loom ; these exercises do not appear to have been 
 so general among the Continental ladies, as in England ; however they were 
 occasionally practised abroad ; and Eginhart assures us, that the daughters of 
 Charlemagne were no strangers to the use of the distaff*.^ The four princesses, 
 daughters of Edward the elder, and sisters to Aiithelstan, are highly celebrated 
 for their skill in spinning, weaving, and embroidering and Edgitha the wife of 
 Edward the Confessor was perfectly mistress of the needle.^ 
 
 The eulogiums bestowed upon our fair countrywomen on this account are not 
 confined to our own authors ; we may add the additional testimony of several 
 foreign wTiters. I shall, however, content myself with the selection of two passages, 
 which will, I trust, be thought sufficient to prove how highly the Saxon 
 embroideries were esteemed upon the Continent. “ The French and Normans,” 
 says an ancient author, “ admired the beautiful dresses of the English nobility ; 
 for,” adds he, “ the English women excel all others in needle-work, and in 
 embroidering with gold.”^ Another writer tells us, that “ the Anglo-Saxon 
 ladies were so famous for their skill in the art of embroidery, that the most 
 elegant productions of the needle were called by way of eminence The Tjtglish 
 WorhT<^ 
 
 The operations of the needle were not confined to the mere variegation of 
 
 facturing of brocades, but the adornments of the needle also. In this light I consider the following 
 passages: “ Unum regium pallium auro textam.”— Carta regis .Sthelstani. “ Unum vestimentum de 
 serico aureis aquilis intextum.” — Ingulphus, Hist. Croyland. And particularly the standard of Harold 
 the Second ; in which, says Malmesbury, was the figure of a man fighting, “ auro et lapidibus arte 
 sumptuosa contextam.” — De Gestis Regum Anglise, lib. II. Acupictus, or wrought with the needle, 
 is a term sometimes used ; and properly expresses the work of embroidery : in Saxon it is called 
 jolb-popba ; that is, sewed or embroidered with gold. ^ See pages 3, and 13. 
 
 2 “ Filias verb lanificlo assuescere.” — Eginhart, Vita Caroli Magni, cap. 19. 
 
 ^ Malmesb. de Gestis Rerum Anglise, lib. II. p. 26. * Ibid. lib. II. 
 
 ^ Gesta Gulielmi Ducis apud Duchen. p 211. 
 
 “Anglicum opus.”— Guil. Pictavens. p. 211. 
 
70 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 colours ; they extended to the representations of flowers, foliages, buildings, birds, 
 beasts, and men ; and sometimes even to historical subjects,^ which were embroi- 
 dered upon cloth with threads of gold and silver intermixed with silk, cotton, and 
 worsted, of such colours as the nature of the design required. The outlines of 
 the subject to be worked were first drawn upon the cloth ; but this part of the 
 operation was not always performed by the ladies, whose office it was to fill up 
 those outlines with the needle. The celebrated Dunstan, when a young man, 
 was considered as an artist of some degree of eminence for drawings of this kind, 
 and assisted a lady in designing the embellishments which she embroidered with 
 threads of gold upon a sacerdotal vestment.® It is highly probable (though 1 
 speak indeed from conjecture only), that there w^ere Saxon artists who made 
 this branch of the art of embroidery their profession, and not only drew the outlines 
 upon the cloth, but furnished the fair workwomen with designs, by way of patterns, 
 shaded and painted in their proper colours. 
 
 The costly manufactures of the needle were chiefly appropriated to the regal 
 and ecclesiastical vestments. The mantles used by the Anglo-Saxon monarchs at 
 their coronations and upon other great solemnities were frequently embellished 
 with superb embroideries. The golden veil of Wiglaf king of Mercia, on which 
 was represented the destruction of Troy, has already been spoken of.’ The 
 vestment which Cnut the Dane presented to the abbey of Croyland was made of 
 silk, embroidered with eagles of gold the coronation-mantle of Harold Harefoot 
 the son of Cnut, which he gave to the same abbey, was also made of silk, and 
 embroidered with flowers of gold ; ^ and the garments of Edward the Confessor, 
 which he wore upon occasions of great solemnity, were sumptuously embroidered 
 with gold by the hands of gentle Edgitha his queen.® 
 
 Religious zeal produced many splendid works of this kind, which ivere 
 dedicated to the service of the church. The altars enriched with embroideries, 
 and the sacerdotal habits of the clergy beautified with needle-work, bore testimony 
 at onee to the piety and skill of our fair countrywomen. Queens, princesses, and 
 other ladies of high rank, employed their time to this benevolent purpose ; and 
 memorandums of their donations are frequently enough to be met with in the 
 ancient records of the church.^ 
 
 ’ Tlie Destruction of Troy was embroidered upon the veil of Wiglaf king of Mercia. See page 3. 
 
 2 Osburnus de Vita Dunstani, Anglia Sacra, vol. II. p. 9.i. ^ See page 3. 
 
 * “ Unum plenum vestimeutum de serico aureis aquilis intextuin.” — Ingulplius, Hist. Ab. 
 Croyland. ^ Ibid. ® Guil. Malmesb. de Gest. Reg. lib II. cap. xiii. p. 51. 
 
 t Annales Eccles. Winton in Anglia Sacra, p. 290. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 71 
 
 The tanner’s art must certainly have been well understood by the Anglo- 
 Saxons ; for, leather not only formed part of their habits, but was used for a 
 variety of other purposes ; and connected with it was probably the art of dressing 
 the skins of animals with the hair upon them. The garments of the nobility 
 and dignified clergy, (such of them especially as were appropi'iated to the winter), 
 were often fringed and even lined with furs of various kinds ; those of sables, of 
 beavers, and foxes were the most esteemed ; ' the inferior sorts were made from 
 the skins of cats and of lambs ; but we shall have occasion to speak more fully 
 upon this subject hereafter. 
 
 From what has been said in the foregoing pages, it is evident that the art 
 of dying cloth of various colours must have been carried to a considerable degree 
 of perfection at this period. A modern author informs us, that a scarlet dye, 
 extracted from a small insect of the kermes or cochineal kind, was discovered 
 about the commencement of the eleventh century, and fomid its way into England 
 soon afterwards;* but, if the manuscript paintings of the Saxons be faithful 
 respecting the colours of their garments, a scarlet dye of much higher antiquity 
 was known and used in this country. Scarlets and reds of various kinds, 
 purple, green, yellow, pink, brown, and several other colours, are exhibited upon 
 tbe habits of the figures that appear even in the earliest manuscripts.^ 
 
 ^ “ Sabelinas, vel castoriuas, vel vulpinas, &c.” — Anglia Sacra, tom, 11. p. 259. 
 
 * Dr. Henry’s History of Britain, vol. 11. book ii. chap. 5. 
 
 3 The words tpe-bleo, rpi-bleo, or rpeo-bhj, which signify twice or double-dyed, occur in the 
 Sa.xon MSS. 
 
72 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PABT II. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 THE ORNAMENTAL PARTS OF DRESS CONSIDERED. BODY-PAINTING. — COLOURING OF THE HAIR. 
 
 CROWNS AND DIADEMS. -HEAD-TIRES. EAR-RINGS. GIRDLES. — POUCHES. BRACELETS. 
 
 RINGS. BUCKLES AND SPURS. 
 
 Exclusive of the embellishments immediately connected with the garments of 
 our Saxon ancestors, we meet with a variety of ornaments which may properly be 
 considered as parts of their dress, and ought of course to be particularly described ; 
 but, before I enter upon this part of the work, I beg leave to offer the following 
 short observations to my Readers, which I hope will not be considered as 
 improper or unnecessary, because it must be granted, that the subjects from 
 which they are taken owed their very existence to the prevalent admiration of 
 personal adornments. 
 
 Body-painting and puncturating of the skin with ornaments of various kinds 
 were both of them practised by the Britons. The origin of these barbarous 
 customs cannot be traced with any degree of certainty, nor the period of their 
 introduction into this island determined ; but we have undoubted authority in 
 favour of their high antiquity.^ Among the various usages that the Saxons 
 derived from the Britons, these fashionable adornments of the body may certainly 
 be included. Soon after the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, the practice 
 of painting the body fell under the ecclesiastical censure ; and it was prohibited 
 by a law enacted as early as the year 785.^ This interdiction, however, did not 
 produce a total abolition of skin-painting, as we may learn from Malmesbury, an 
 historian of good authority ; who, enumerating the prevalent vices among the 
 English at the time of the Norman Conquest, ranks in the dark catalogue that 
 of marking their skins with puncturated paintings by way of ornament.® In the 
 subsequent centuries, the puncturating of the skin and body-painting seem to 
 
 1 Caes. bell. Gall. cap. 10. Pliny, Nat. Hist. lib. XXII. cap. 1. Herodian, lib III. cap 46. 
 Wilkins’s Concilia, tom. I. 
 
 ^ “ Picturatis stigmatibus cutem insigniti.” Will. Malmesb. de Gest. Reg. Angloruni. Lib. 
 III. p. 57. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 73 
 
 have been entirely abolished, except those vestiges of the latter that we find 
 to this day retained by the ladies ; such, I mean, as paint their faces, and 
 make use of various arts to give the skin a more delicate appearance than is 
 natural to it. 
 
 It has been previously observed, that, in the manuscript paintings of the Saxons, 
 the figures frequently appear with blue hair in some instances, which indeed are 
 not so common, the hair is represented of a bright red colour ; and, in others, it is of 
 a green and orange hue. I have no doubt existing in my own mind, that arts of 
 some kind were practised, at this period, to colour the hair ; but, whether it was 
 done by tinging or dying it with liquids prepared for that purpose according to the 
 ancient Eastern custom, or by powders of different hues cast into it agreeable to the 
 modern practice, I shall not presume to determine. All that has been said upon 
 the subject relates entirely to the men ; for, the hair of the Saxon ladies was so 
 effectually concealed by the coverchief, or veil, that we have not a fair opportunity 
 of forming our judgment concerning them. It is probable, however, that the same 
 kind of arts were adopted by them, and for the same purpose ; for, the only female 
 figure that I recollect, represented with her hair dishevelled, is Eve, in the 
 Saxon manuscript of the Pentateuch so often referred to ; and her hair is painted 
 blue.* 
 
 Crowns and Diadems. These ornaments are frequently enough to be met 
 with in the manuscript paintings of the Saxons ; and, from the close of the seventh 
 century, we may be able to ascertain their form with some degree of accuracy ; but 
 we have no source of information previous to that period, except we refer to the 
 coins of the Saxon monarchs, the workmanship of which is so exceedingly rude, and 
 the lines in many instances so undetermined, that it is hardly possible to distinguish 
 the ornament of the head from the hair itself. Ethelbert, the fifth king of Kent, is 
 thought to have been the first Saxon prince that coined money.* His profile, executed 
 in a very unskilful manner, appears upon his coins. In these one may trace the 
 faint resemblance of a, fillet, or tiara,* upon his head, fastened on the hinder part, 
 where the two ends of it are plainly to be discovered. Something like a garland or 
 crown of laurels decorates the head of Guthred, king of Kent, upon his coins ; but 
 a diadem, embellished with jewels, is seen upon the coins of Offa the Great. A 
 radiated diadem, or crown, which was fastened at the back part of the head by a 
 fillet or ribband, appears upon the head of Egbert the Great ; and on the coins of 
 
 * Page 10. * This figure is more fully described, p. 19. 
 
 * He reigned from A. D. 568, to A. D. 616. ■* The Saxon word tyji signifies a tiara. 
 
74 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART ir. 
 
 Ludican, the eighteenth king of Mercia, a diadem of the same kind without the 
 rihhand, hut adorned with jewels. The first representation of what may properly 
 he called a crown I met with upon a coin of .Tldred, the son of Edward the elder 
 it is a circle of gold surmounted with three small globes, without any indication of 
 farther emhellishment.’^ That the croAvn, however, was a regal ornament among the 
 Saxons for two centuries at least prior to the time of ^dred, the ancient manuscript 
 drawings hear sufficient testimony as the reader may see by referring to the third 
 plate of this work. The crown appears Avith some small variation, and embellished 
 with jewels, in the ninth century, as may be seen upon the seventeenth plate ; and 
 two specimens more of its form are given upon the twenty-ninth plate ; which 
 are all the material variations I have met with in the Saxon drawings. The Diadem, 
 or circle of gold,^ was worn occasionally by the Saxon monarchs after the introduction 
 of the crown ; an example of which is given upon the eighth plate ; it was worn also 
 by princes and noblemen of very high rank, and that even in the presence of the 
 king. In an old Saxon poem, Avritten in celebration of the victory obtained by 
 ./^Ithelstan and his brother Edmund over Anlaf the Dane, and Constantine king of 
 Scotland, at Brunanburh, Edmund is said to have worn a long tiara,* which, I 
 presume, was meant to express the diadem, or golden circle ; besides the diadem 
 given upon the eighth plate, the reader Avill find two more upon the twenty-ninth 
 plate, one of which appears to be studded with jewels. 
 
 The Head-tire. We are altogether at a loss respecting this ornamental part 
 of the ladies’ head-dress, because it never appears in the drawings of the Saxons, 
 being at all times completely hid by the coverchief, or veil ; but head-tires, or half 
 circles of gold, were certainly used by the fair sex at a very early period of the Saxon 
 sera, because mention is frequently made of such ornaments in the ancient wills and 
 charters.^ We may, however, I doubt not, very justly conclude that the head-tires, 
 which occur in the ancient Norman drawings, were ornaments of the same kind : 
 they appear to have been only half circles rising up in the front, and were probably 
 fastened on the hinder part of the head Avith a fillet or ribband. The most ancient 
 specimen of the half circle of gold, that I have met with, is given upon the thirty- 
 
 * lie reigned from A. D. 946, to A. D. 955. These observations are made from a very perfect coin 
 of this monarch in the possession of Mr. Thane. 
 
 2 Cyne-hsend, the king's diadem, seems to be the proper Saxon word for the crown. 
 
 * heapob-bejh head-bracelet, and jeheapob pinje head-ring, are the Saxon names for the 
 
 diadem. * Lan^ne-ryp. 
 
 5 This ornament is called in Saxon healpne basnb jylbenne. See p. 19. 
 
PART ir. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 eighth plate : the reader is referred to the middle figure holding a child in her 
 arrns.^ 
 
 Fillets or hair-bandages,^ hair-needles or bodkms,^ and a diadem or circle of gold 
 for the top of the head,^ are all enumerated among the ornaments belonging to the 
 Saxon ladies. 
 
 Ear-rings.® The names only of these ornaments occur in the Saxon records ; 
 but, as they are spoken of without the least indication of novelty, we may conclude 
 that they formed part of the ancient head-dress. The ear-rings, like the head-tires, 
 are always so completely concealed by the coverchief, that the form of them cannot 
 by any means be ascertained. 
 
 The Girdle, or Belt, formed an indispensable part of the Saxon habit ; and 
 it was equally common to both sexes : it was bound about the waist ; and frequently 
 with the men answered a double purpose, that of confining the tunic, and of sup- 
 porting the sword. In other instances, however, the sword was supported on the 
 left side by a second belt, which passed over the right shoulder, and crossed the 
 body both before and behind. 
 
 The girdles which belonged to the ladies of high rank were usually enriched 
 with embroideries, and set with precious stones ; nor were those belonging to the 
 kings and noblemen less costly. The girdle of Charlemagne was composed of gold 
 or of silver others are spoken of as studded with gold and others again as 
 adorned with jewels.® The sword, with the embroidered or studded girdle, is 
 represented at the bottom of the twenty-ninth plate. 
 
 Pouches. There is not the least appearance of pockets belonging to the 
 garments of the Saxons ; though certainly some contrivance of the pouch or purse 
 kind must have been in use among them ; for, it is hardly possible to conceive that 
 they could have dispensed with them entirely ; accordingly, we find mention in the 
 
 The MS. from which this figure is extracted, was written at the conclusion of the eleventh, or 
 early in the beginning of the twelfth, century. It is preserved in the Cotton Library at the British 
 Museum, and marked Caligula, A. xiv. [I take this figure to be Anglo-Norman. — Ed.] 
 
 2 Redimicula vittce. Aurelii Prudentii Psycomachia, in MS. 
 
 ^ haep-nae&l crinalis acus, in MS. ■* Ferticis aurum, in MS. 
 
 5 Ep-jiinj, or epiun 5 . <5 gge p_ 39 . 
 
 7 Baltheus bullifer, or studded belt, is mentioned by Aldhelm, Lib. de Virginitate ; which book was 
 written at the conclusion of the seventh century. 
 
 8 When iElfred knighted his grandson .®thelstan, he girded a girdle ornamented with jewels upon 
 his loins, with a Saxon sword in a sheath of gold — gemmato baltheo, ense Saxonico cum vagina aured. 
 Will. Malmcsb. de gest. Reg. Ang. Lib. 2. Cap. VI. 
 
 2 c 
 
76 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 old authors of leather bags or purses, and purses for money.' They were probably 
 worn under the garments, for I never found anything in the least analogous to them 
 in the Saxon drawings. In the description of the burial of Charlemagne, the gilt 
 travelling pouch, which he used to bear when he went to Rome, is particularly 
 mentioned ; but the size or form of it is not ascertained.^ 
 
 Bracelets. These ornamental parts of the Saxon habit were of two kinds, 
 the bracelets for the arms, and the bracelets for the neck the first were common 
 to both sexes ; but the latter were appropriated chiefly, if not entirely, to the service 
 of the ladies. In the early part of the Saxon aera, the wearing of bracelets appears 
 to have been confined to persons of distinction ; and, when made of gold, were 
 considered as proper presents for the sovereign or his consort ; and accordingly at 
 times bequeathed to them in the wills of the wealthy. They were also frequently 
 bestowed as badges of high honour upon the civil and military officers of the state 
 by kings and princes of the blood royal ; for which reason they are called, in the 
 poems of that age, the “ hracelet-givers.'’* In the succeeding centuries, the fashion 
 of wearing bracelets became more extensive ; and it was afterwards adopted by the 
 inferior classes of the people. 
 
 The clergy inveighed against the useless luxury of these adornments ; and 
 William of Malmesbury, speaking of the vices generally prevalent among the English 
 at the time of the Conquest, adds to the number that of “loading of their arais with 
 bracelets of gold.”^ 
 
 The bracelets of both sorts were probably made of a variety of materials, 
 according to the fancy or wealth of the wearer ; but those that are particularised 
 by tbe Saxon authors are said to have been made of gold ; and were, at times, so 
 heavy as to become exceedingly cumbersome. An arm-bracelet, mentioned in the 
 testament of a Saxon nobleman,® weighed one hundred and eighty mancuses of gold, 
 or about twenty ounces Troy- weight ; another, bequeathed to the queen, thirty 
 mancuses of gold, or about three ounces and a half ; and a neck-bracelet forty 
 
 ’ Lejjeji co&oap a leathern purse, Sceat-cot> a money purse. ^ See page 65. 
 
 3 The Saxon words beaj, beah, beh and bij signify a bracelet ; and, when they stand by themselves, 
 a bracelet for the arm : if the word ppeoji, or ppup, which is the neck, be added, the signiBcation of 
 course is a neck-bracelet, healp msejeS is another name for the neck-bracelet. The Latin names chiefly 
 used are armilla, monile, and torques. 
 
 * iEjjelpran cyning eopila bpihten beopna beah jypa, .^thelstan the King, Lord of Earls, the child 
 of the bracelet-giver. Chron. Sax. sub an. 938. 
 
 5 Armillis aureis brachia onerati. Guil. Malraesb. de gest. Reg. Angl. lib. III. page 57. 
 
 ® Testamentum Byrhtrici et jElfswythse uxoris ejus. Hickesii. Dissert, p. 51 ; and the appendix to 
 Lye’s Saxon and Latin Lexicon. 
 
PART ir. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 77 
 
 mancuses of gold, or nearly five ounces. The bi'acelets of gold upon the arms of 
 the soldiers, belonging to a magnificent galley which Avas presented by earl Godwin 
 to Hardicnut, weighed eight ounces each.^ 
 
 Rings for the finders were in common use among; the Anglo-Saxons at a very 
 early period.^ In their form they differed but little from those of the present day. 
 The signet, or seal-ring, as it occurs in a manuscript of the tenth century, is given 
 upon the twenty-ninth plate.^ Rings are rarely represented in the Saxon drawings, 
 so that we cannot determine clearly upon which of the fingers they were worn, or 
 whether upon more than one finger at once : we are equally at a loss to know if 
 these ornaments were confined to one hand, or indiscriminately worn upon both : 
 the yold-jinger,* or ring-finger, is spoken of by the Saxon authors. In a manuscript 
 of the tenth century^ a drawing occurs, in which the servant of Judah is represented 
 as bringing to him the staff, the bracelet, and the ring, which he had left as pledges 
 with Tamar his daughter-in-law ; the servant wears the bracelet upon his right 
 arm, and the ring upon the third finger of the left hand, which, it is highly 
 probable, was its proper situation.® Rings were common to both sexes, and, I 
 trust, by no means confined to the nobility ; they were also made of various metals, 
 and frequently adorned with engravings and chasings agreeable to the taste of 
 the times. 
 
 Spurs. It is not possible to ascertain the time that spurs were first introduced 
 among our Saxon ancestors ; they appear in the earliest drawings of their Horsemen ; 
 and were, I doubt, not of much higher antiquity than any of their manuscripts now 
 existing. 
 
 Certain it is, that the rowel at the end of the spur was totally unknown to them, 
 excepting which the general form of the Saxon spur differed but little from the spur 
 in present use ; and it was fastened upon the foot by a leathern thong'^ much in the 
 same manner ; instead of the rowel, the hinder part of the spurs were lengthened 
 to a sharp point,® in the manner they are represented upon the feet of the middle 
 figure in the thirteenth plate ; and this form is not materially varied in any of the 
 Saxon drawings. 
 
 ' Malmesb. lib. II. c. 12 ; aud Simon Dunelmeusis, de gest. Reg. Aug. sub an. 1040. 
 
 - hjiinc, hpmg, and hpmcj, are the proper Saxon names for the ring. 
 
 3 See fig. 15. ■* joln-pyogep. ^ Claudius, B. IV. British Museum. 
 
 ® The whole of this drawing is copied upon plate XV. of the hop&a Anjel-cynnan, or Manners and 
 Customs of the English, vol. I. 
 
 7 Called in the Saxon ppup-le^Sepa. 
 
 ® And this point was called in Saxon the ppuyi-ppepe, or spur-spear. 
 
78 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Spurs, answering to the above description, have been found in different parts 
 of England : such as have fallen under my examination were made either of iron or 
 of brass ; though it is probable they might occasionally have been constructed of 
 more precious metals. The spurs, however, of Bernard king of Italy, grandson to 
 Charlemagne, are expressly said to have been made of brass.^ 
 
 1 Joan. Puricello in Mon. Basil. Ambrosianee, p. 70. 
 
PART U. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 79 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. THE VARIOUS MANNERS IN WHICH THE ANGLO-SAXON MONARCH IS 
 
 DEPICTED. THE APPEARANCE OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS WHEN ABROAD, AND IN THEIR RURAL 
 
 EXERCISES. THE MANNER IN WHICH THEIR BATTLES ARE REPRESENTED. THEIR STAN- 
 DARDS. THEIR APPEARANCE ON HORSEBACK. THE MANNER IN WHICH THE LADIES RODE 
 
 ON HORSEBACK. GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE LADIES. DOMESTIC AND STATE HABITS. 
 
 When the king is represented in his robes of state, and seated upon his throne, 
 he generally holds a sceptre in his left hand. When he has no sceptre, the place 
 of it is usually supplied by a sword ; but in some few instances he is drawn without 
 either the sceptre or the sword ; and on the other hand, when he is represented in 
 a judicial character, he has both of them, the sceptre in the left hand, and the sword 
 in the right. When the sword is not held by the king himself, we constantly find 
 it borne by an officer of the court upon his shoulder ; and the officer stands at the 
 king’s left hand. 
 
 The sceptre, in the early manuscripts, has the appearance of a long staff 
 surmounted with a round knob, as in the third plate of this work ; or a sort of 
 ornament resembling a fleur de lis ; in other instances it is shorter ; see the seven- 
 teenth plate. In a manuscript of the tenth century, where Pharaoh is represented 
 receiving Jacob in a friendly manner, his sceptre is surmounted with a dove.' 
 
 The martial habit of the monarch has been already described ; but, when he 
 is supposed to be abroad, and not depicted in armour, he is constantly represented 
 in the short mantle and tunic ; and, saving the crown upon his head, which is always 
 given him for distinction-sake, his habit differs no way from the military habits of 
 the officers specified in a former chapter. 
 
 The men, when they are represented walking or engaged in any rural exercises, 
 constantly appear in the short tunic ; to this in general is added the smaller kind 
 of mantle which left one arm at perfect liberty. They are, at times, depicted 
 without the mantle, especially when they are supposed to be in the field of battle ; 
 they are often represented, within their houses, and at the king’s court, with hats 
 or bonnets on ; and as often abroad without any covering for their heads. The 
 
 1 Cotton Claudius, B. iv. See the hojioa An 5 el-cyauan, vol. I. 
 
80 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 sword, or the spear, they seldom left behind them when they went abroad ; they 
 are frequently seen with both ; and in warlike excursions the shield is also to be 
 added. 
 
 Religious subjects in general engaged the pencils of the Anglo-Saxon artists. 
 The representations of battles of course were seldom attempted ; the few that do 
 occur are rudely enough depicted ; and the soldiers on both sides are exhibited in 
 perfect confusion, fighting hand to hand, as if every man was individually engaged 
 for himself, without the least consideration of his being under the conduct of a 
 leader. 
 
 The Saxon standards were small, and their form in general was nearly square 
 they seem to have been made of some inflexible material, which was fastened at the 
 top of the pole in such a manner as to turn with the wind. It is remarkable that 
 the standard is not to be found in the most ancient Saxon manuscripts, though there 
 is good reason to think that the use of it was of high antiquity. John Brompton 
 speaks of the Saxon standards as painted, or perhaps, rather embroidered, with 
 gold and the same author expressly tells us, that the standard of Cuthred, king 
 of the West Saxons, was a golden dragon.^ The standard of Harold the Second 
 had upon it the representation of a man fighting, sumptuously interwoven with gold 
 and precious stones."* 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon horsemen are almost constantly depicted with the short tunic, 
 and the small mantle which covered one shoulder only ; they usually have a spear, 
 and sometimes a shield ; but rarely a sword. The form of the bridle, and the 
 trappings of the horses, differed little from those of the present day, the saddle 
 excepted, which was hollow in the middle where the man sat, and elevated before 
 and behind. The Saxons constantly rode with stirrups depending by straps of 
 leather from the saddle, in every respect resembling those in common use at this 
 time. 
 
 It has been asserted that the English women, prior to the fourteenth century, 
 rode on horseback astride like the men. This is an error, however, which appears 
 to have originated among the modern historians ; for, the testimony of antiquity 
 abundantly proves the contrary. The Saxon and the Norman women, whenever 
 
 ^ I remember only one or two instances where the Saxon standard is depicted otherwise ; which 
 may be seen in the first volume of the hop&a An3el-cynnan, or, Manners and Customs of the English. 
 
 - “ Vexillis auro resplendentibus depictas.” Chron. J. Brompton, part III. 
 
 ^ Draconem aureum. Ibid. 
 
 ■* Vexillum — in quod erat hominis pugnantis figura auro et lapidihus ante sumptuosd contexta. W. 
 Malmesb. de gest. Reg. Angl. lib. II. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 81 
 
 they are represented on horseback, are seated sideways upon the horse, agreeable 
 to the present custom. 
 
 Both at home and abroad the women are frequently depicted without the mantle, 
 but never without the coverchief, or veil, which, in some instances, is loose, and 
 then the wearer appears to be walking ; the sleeves of the tunic, which the ladies 
 wore when they were travelling from place to place, were long enough to cover the 
 hands entirely, and supplied the want of gloves ; which part of dress does not appear 
 to have been adopted by the women of this country for several centuries, posterior 
 to the sera we are now treating of. 
 
 To the list of ornaments belonging to the dress of the Anglo-Saxon ladies, 
 given in the foregoing chapter, may with great propriety he added the article of 
 heads. They do not appear, it is true, in the Saxon manuscript paintings ; hut 
 there is every reason to suppose that they constituted part of the paraphernalia of 
 females of ancient times, because they are frequently found in the places of their 
 interment,^ and were probably worn by them about the neck according to the modern 
 practice. 
 
 Superior personages of both sexes, when represented in their own dwellings, 
 and especially when they are seated, are usually depicted in their full dresses ; the 
 servants and common attendants are drawn without mantles ; and the male servants 
 constantly with the short tunic, frequently bare-footed, and rarely with any covering 
 for the head. 
 
 We now close the description of the Saxon dresses, which we have traced 
 through nearly four centuries ; and I doubt not but the reader will, upon the perusal 
 of the foregoing pages, be convinced that the assertion which is made at the head of 
 the work, concerning the skill of the Anglo-Saxons in the clothing arts, is fully 
 justified by the authorities produced in their favour. I have dwelt the longer upon 
 this important subject, because so little notice has been taken of the Saxons by our 
 best authors ; on the contrary, they have passed over the history of this extraordi- 
 nary people with unjustifiable haste, as if there was nothing remaining of their 
 manners and customs worthy the perusal of a modern reader, the contrary of which 
 is manifestly the case. Their habits, as we have seen, were more simple and less 
 varied than those of the succeeding seras ; and the alterations which were made in 
 their dress, under the government of the Normans, justly forms a new epocha in the 
 history of Great Britain. 
 
 > See the Nsenia Britannica, by the Rev. J. Douglas. 
 
 END OF THE ANGLO-SAXON ^RA. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE CIVIL, MILITARY, AND ECCLESIASTICAL, HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NOUM A NS, 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM THE FIRST TO THE THRONE OF ENGLAND, 
 
 TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THE MANNERS AND DRESSES OF THE SAXONS CHANGED BY THE NORMANS. A BRIEF REVIEW OF 
 
 THE CLOTHING MATERIALS. — THE PROGRESS OF THE CLOTHING ARTS. — LAWS RELATIVE TO 
 THE MANUFACTURING OF CLOTH, &C. 
 
 The total subversion of the Saxon government, which followed soon after the 
 establishment of the Normans in England, would not in all probability have been so 
 easily eflFected, had it not been facilitated by the innovations previously introduced 
 by Edward, surnamed the Confessor. During the long residence of that prince in 
 Normandy, he imbibed a strong partiality for the dress and manners of the Normans; 
 and upon his accession to the throne of England he continued to adhere to them : 
 his example was followed by the nobility ; and, as the fashions of the great are 
 usually adopted by those of inferior degree, the people may be said to have been in 
 some measure Normanized, if I may be allowed the expression, before the Conquest. 
 William the Norman, however, and his successors, taking the advantage of those 
 innovations which the love of novelty had voluntarily produced, by the cruel 
 exertion of tyrannical policy, abolished the ancient customs of the country, and 
 completed the introduction of their own ; so that under the government of the 
 Normans not only the dress and manners, but the laws, and even the language of 
 our Saxon ancestors, were entirely changed. 
 
 It does not appear that any new materials for clothing were introduced by the 
 Normans at the time of their first establishment in Britain. The fact, I trust, is 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 83 
 
 they had none that were unknown to the Saxons ; and, generally speaking, the 
 best existing were the produce of this island. Linen formed the body garments both 
 of the Saxons and of the Normans ; and woollen cloth the external parts of their 
 habits. The hair of animals was certainly manufactured into cloth in this country 
 previous to the Conquest ; and, in some instances, worn by way of severe penance 
 as a garment. 
 
 We have already seen that furs of various kinds were known to the Saxons : it 
 must, however, be acknowledged that they were brought into more general use by 
 the Normans. 
 
 The shoes, and other parts of the Saxon dress, were occasionally made of 
 leather ; but how far it constituted the hody-garment of that people cannot easily he 
 ascertained. Tunics and mantles of leather were worn by the Norman rustics, as 
 appears by the manuscripts of the twelfth century : the skins of which they were 
 composed were dressed with the hair upon them, and the shaggy part turned 
 outward. Shepherds are often depicted with garments of this kind. The leathern 
 mantle appears also to have formed part of the habit of the early Pilgrims.^ 
 
 Silk \yas much more generally used in England after the Conquest, than it had 
 been previous to that event. It was purchased by the Norman prelates, not only 
 for their own garments, but for the adornment of their churches f neither was it 
 confined to the church and the clergy ; but it was worn also by kings, queens, 
 princes, and other personages of high rank, especially upon solemn occasions.^ 
 There is not, however, the least reason to suppose, that silk was manufactured in 
 England at this period ; it was probably imported from Spain, Sicily, Majorca, and 
 other countries. 
 
 It has been sufficiently proved in the former part of this work, that the 
 clothing arts were carried to no small degree of perfection by the Anglo-Saxons : — 
 it will also appear by the following pages, that these arts were not by any means 
 impaired, but rather improved, by the Norman Conquest ; and this circumstance 
 was chiefly owing, I presume, to the great number of weavers who came over from 
 Flanders in the army of the Conqueror, and settled in this kingdom ; for, even at 
 that remote period, the Flemings were so famous for their skill in the manufac- 
 turing wool, that one of our ancient authors says, “ the art of weaving seemed to be 
 a peculiar gift bestowed upon them by nature.*'^ After their settlement in England, 
 
 ‘ See plate XLIX. 
 
 - Anglia Sacra, vol II. p. 416. and 4,21 ; W. Malmesb. — Hist. Csenobii Burg, a Jos. Sparke. edit, 
 p. 100, &c. ^ Maddox, Hist. Excheq. Gervas. Cliron. page 1349. 
 
 VOL. T. 2d 
 
84 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 where they found the most excellent materials for their manufactures, they pursued 
 their original occupations with great advantage to themselves and to the kingdom. 
 The body of clothiers who came over with the Conqueror, were increased by several 
 considerable emigrations from Flanders into this country ; particularly in the reigns 
 of Henry the First, and of Stephen.^ 
 
 For the farther improvement of the clothing arts, the weavers in all the 
 principal towns in England were formed into gilds, or corporations ; they had also 
 several extensive privileges granted to them, for which they paid certain sums of 
 money into the Exchequer. In the fifth year of the reign of Stephen, the weavers 
 of Oxford paid a mark of gold for their gild ; in the twelfth year of the same reign, 
 those of Winchester fined two chaseures, or hounds, for the same purpose ; and, in 
 the fifteenth, those of London sixteen pounds. In the twelfth year of Henrv the 
 Second, the weavers of Winchester paid one mark of gold as a gresome, and tw-o 
 marks, as their annual rate ; for the rights of gild and the privilege of choosing 
 their own aldermen. In the same year, the Fullers of the same city, who had 
 formed another corporation, paid six pounds for their gild.® 
 
 In the reign of Richard the First, it was enacted that all woollen cloths should 
 evei*y where be made of the same breadth, namely, two ells within the lists, and of 
 the same goodness in the middle as at the sides ; and that no merchant should stretch 
 before his shop or booth,^ a red or black cloth, or any other thing by which the 
 sight of the buyers might be deceived in the choice of good commodities : it was 
 also enacted, that the ell measure should he of the same length throughout the 
 kingdom, and that it should be made of iron : by the same law the merchants were 
 forbidden to vend cloth of any other colour than black in any part of the kingdom, 
 excepting in cities and capital burghs ; and that in all cities and burghs four or six 
 men, according to the size of the place, should be appointed to enforce the observa- 
 tions of these regulations by seizing the persons and goods of all that should 
 transgress.'* 
 
 These laws were strictly adhered to till the reign of John, when the merchants 
 and manufacturers purchased licences to make their cloth as broad or as narrow as 
 they pleased ; and this indulgence was productive of great sums, which were paid 
 into the Exchequer.^ 
 
 The ancient historians of this country say nothing respecting the art of bleach- 
 
 • J. Brompton, Chron. page 1003. Gervas. ut supra. 
 
 - Maddox, History of the Exchequer, chap. XIII. sec. 3.p. 323. ^ Seldasuce. Mat. Paris. 
 
 ^ Hoveuden. Annal. p. 440, col. 2. Matthew Paris has it, corpus illius capiatur, et in carcerem 
 detrudatur, ^'c. Hist. Angl. p. 101. ^ Hovedon, p. 467, col. 2. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 85 
 
 ing of linen cloth : their silence upon this head cannot, I presume, be construed 
 into a positive proof that this art was unknown to the Saxons and the Normans, 
 especially when we recollect, that fine white linen is frequently mentioned by them. 
 With respect to the fuller's art, we have ample proof that it was very extensive in the 
 time of the Normans, as far back as the twelfth year of Henry the Second ; the 
 fullers of the city of Winchester, as we have seen above, formed themselves into a 
 corporation, and paid a large sum of money for their gild. 
 
 The dyer’s art was carried to a great degree of perfection in the Saxon sera, if 
 the testimony of their manuscript-paintings are to be credited; and history itself will 
 abundantly support this opinion respecting the succeeding centuries. 
 
 The tanner’s, the furrier’s, the goldsmith’s, and the jeweller’s arts, so far as 
 they relate to dress, will appear to have been practised with great success by the 
 Normans ; and, so far as one can judge from record, with no less honour than profit. 
 
86 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE MEN GENERALLY CONSIDERED. — -THE INTERIOR PARTS OF THEIR DRESS NOT 
 
 CHANGED. — THE TUNICS; THE SUPER-TUNIC; — THE GOWN. — THE MANTLE. THE COVER- 
 INGS FOR THE HEAD, AND HEAD-DRESS. — THE GLOVES. — THE STOCKINGS. — THE BOOTS. 
 
 THE SHOES. — THE GIRDLES. — THE APRONS, &C. OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 The Normans and the Flemings, who accompanied the Conqueror into England, 
 and those who followed him in great numbers after his establishment upon the 
 throne, are said by our early historians to have been remarkable for the beauty 
 and elegance of their persons, and not less so, for their ostentation and love of 
 finery. Personal decorations, we are assured, formed an essential part of their study ; 
 and new fashions of course were continually introduced by them.^ How far the 
 people of England at large departed from the simplicity of their ancestors during 
 the government of the elder William cannot be perfectly ascertained : we may 
 easily enough conceive that the Norman habits were adopted by the greater part 
 of the nobility, and especially by those who attended upon his person, or frequented 
 his court. 
 
 The reign of his son and successor William Rufus is stigmatised by the 
 writers of that period for many shameful abuses and ridiculous innovations, which 
 were then made in the dresses of the people. The mania was caught from the 
 court, where Rufus himself first set the example, and it extended rapidly through 
 the whole kingdom ; the clergy, as well as the laity, were infected with the malig- 
 nant influence ; and their fondness for novelty, not to say absurdity, is equally 
 reprobated by the Monkish writers f but nothing seems to have attracted their cen- 
 sure so generally as the sharp pointed shoes then introduced, and the preposterous 
 length to which the men permitted their hair to grow — so that, says Malmesbury, 
 “ they resembled women rather than men.” He adds farther, that “ they also 
 adopted a mincing gait and loose dresses, and seemed to pride themselves in the 
 effeminacy of their appearance. ”■’ 
 
 * Malmesb. lib. V. p. 98. Hen. Hunt. p. 222. ^ Malmesb. lib. IV. p, 72. 
 
 3 Tunc fluxus crinium, tunc luxus vestium, tunc moUitia corporis certare cum fseminis, gressum 
 frangere, gestu soluto, &c. — Malmesb. de gest. Reg. Anglorum, lib IV. cap. I. page 69 ; and, in another 
 part, criniti nostri, obliti quid nati sunt, in mulieribus sexhs habitum capillorum longitudine seipsos 
 transformant. Hist. Novel, page 66. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-XORMANS. 
 
 87 
 
 These enormous vices (for as such they are considered by the ancient writers) 
 were so generally adopted by the churchmen and the laity, and so powerfully 
 supported by the court, that all the endeavours of the more serious part of the 
 clergy to suppress them in the life-time of Rufus were exerted in vain. They 
 met, however, with a temporary restraint during the reign of Henry the First, 
 who, after the death of Rufus, ascended the throne of England. This judicious 
 monarch discountenanced the ridiculous modes of dress which were prevalent 
 among the people ; and by a proper example in his own person, to which were 
 added several sumptuary edicts, brought the fashions to a more reasonable standard.^ 
 In the succeeding reigns, these restrictions were by degrees obliterated, the love 
 of pomp again predominated, and the same extravagances, reprobated so strongly 
 by Malmesbury, became the subject of complaint to the future historians.'^ 
 
 The shirt and the drawers, to which we may add the coxalia, or trowsers,^ do 
 not appear to have undergone the least material alteration during the early part 
 of the Anglo-Norman sera ; and, as they have been so fully described in the former 
 part of this work, there is not the least occasion for enlargement in the present 
 place ; I shall only add, that the trowsers, posterior to the Conquest, ceased to 
 form a part of the gentleman’s habit, and were confined to the rustics and lower 
 classes of the people ; indeed, I believe, that they were the only interior garment 
 that the Norman rustics wore beneath the tunic ; for I do not find any just reason 
 to conclude that shirts formed any part of their dress. Whenever they are drawn 
 without the tunic, from the waist upwards they appear to be quite naked. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons, as we have seen in the former part of this work, had two 
 sorts of tunics, which were distinguished from each other by their length ; both 
 of these garments w^ere in common use among the Normans, and without any great 
 variation being made in the general form of either. 
 
 The Short Tunic of the Normans, as we find it usually represented in their 
 manuscript delineations, was somewhat longer than that of the Saxons ; and in the 
 twelfth century it reached to the middle of the legs : at the same time it was also 
 richly adorned with broad borders and collars, superbly ornamented with em- 
 broideries of gold, and of silver ; to which were even added the embellishment of 
 precious stones. It will easily be conceived, that these remarks refer only to the 
 garments of the nobility and personages of distinction. The tunics of the 
 
 ^ Orclerici Vitalis Eccl. Hist. 2 Ibid. 
 
 ^ Perhaps the modern word pantaloons may be thought preferable to trowsers. [The Norman name 
 was “ chaussees .” — Ed.] 
 
88 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Norman rustics and slaves do not appear to have differed in the least from those of 
 the Saxons. 
 
 The Long Tunic was a garment never worn by the lower order of people, 
 though I have observed, that, under the government of the Normans, it appears 
 to have been more generally adopted by persons of rank than at any period 
 prior to the conquest. This garment was also lengthened by the Normans ; for which 
 innovation, among others of like kind, they are accused of effeminacy, and severely 
 censured by the historians of the time. It is perfectly unnecessary, I presume, to 
 enter into a particular description of the long tunic, after what has been said upon 
 this subject the reader, without doubt, will form a clear idea of its form and 
 embellishments from the representations referred to in the margin." The Norman 
 monarchs and the nobility frequently wore two of these garments at one time ; and 
 both of them were nearly of the same length the inner tunic was probably made 
 of linen, and appears to be perfectly correspondent with the interula, mentioned 
 by Orderic Vitalis as worn in his time, and which, he tells us, was so long, that it 
 trailed upon the ground ; its sleeves were also of length and breadth suf- 
 ficient to cover the whole hand.^ The association of the long tunic with the 
 mantle that reached to the heels, according to Fitz Stephen, originated from 
 Gennany : we need not therefore wonder that it was a custom adopted by the 
 ancient Saxons.® 
 
 At the conclusion of the eleventh, or at the commencement of the twelfth, 
 century, the men as well as the women wore the sleeves of their tunics enormously 
 long, which were often richly ornamented with broad embroidered borders ; an 
 instance of which may be seen upon the thirty-fourth plate : this ridiculous fashion 
 does not however appear to have been of long continuance. 
 
 A Saxon nobleman, towards the conclusion of the eleventh century, presented 
 to the abbey of Ely a tunic, which was composed of red and purple threads inter- 
 woven in the shape of rings, and surrounded on every part from the shoulders with 
 embroideries of gold.® We may hence form some idea of the richness of this part 
 of the Saxon and Norman habit, 
 
 ' Pages 5 and 6. s See plates XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. &c. 
 
 ^ As may be seen, plates XXXIII. and XXXIV ; which are early instances of this fact. 
 
 * Oi'deric Vitalis, Eccl. Hist. lib. VIII page 682. 
 
 5 Tunicam et pallium, ab humeris more Alemannorum dependens, ad talos demissum, &c. Stephanide 
 in \ita S. T. Cantuariensis, p. 60. 
 
 Tunicam ex rubea et purpura per gyrum, et ab humeris aurifriso undique circumdatam. Hist. 
 Eliensis, lib. II. cap. 31. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 89 
 
 The short tunic of the Normans is represented at the bottom of the thirty- 
 second plate. 
 
 THE SUPER-TUNIC, OR SURCOAT. 
 
 I AM by no means certain whether this garment ought to be considered as 
 originating from the surcoat of the Saxons, spoken of in a former part of this 
 work,^ or given as a new one introduced by the Normans into this country. The 
 reader wall find a perfect representation of the Norman surcoat, as it appeared 
 towards the close of the twelfth century, upon the forty-second plate of this work 
 it is without sleeves, and, in this example, of equal length with the tunic ; the 
 sleeves of which, being of a different colour from the surcoat, are the only dis- 
 tinguishing marks of that garment. The figure referred to holds the gown, a part 
 of dress that appears to have been purely Norman, in his hand ; this garment was 
 worn over the super-tunic, which it entirely concealed, as we see in the middle 
 figure upon the same plate, where the skirts of the tunic are represented longer 
 than the super-tunic, or the gown. I am inclined to think, that the super-tunic, or 
 surcoat, was a garment chiefly, if not entirely, confined to the winter. 
 
 THE GOWN. 
 
 This garment was very commonly worn towards the conclusion of the twelfth 
 century ; though I do not recollect to have met with it in a much earlier period : 
 it bears great resemblance to the tunic, but it was much looser ; and the sleeves, 
 which were long and large, appear to have been contrived in such a manner that 
 the arms might either be inserted in them, or left at liberty,^ as we see they are in 
 the middle figure upon the forty-second plate : the gown had also a large hood 
 belonging to it, which occasionally was drawn up over the head to defend it from 
 the weather ; at other times the hood was thrown back upon the shoulders, as we 
 find it represented upon the same figure. 
 
 The gowns of the succeeding centuries, as we shall find hereafter, were made 
 of various precious materials, and lined with furs ; they then became marks of 
 
 ’ Page 6. 2 See t)^e figure to the left. 
 
 ^ Tlie official gown of the chief magistrate of the city of London is made much in the same manner 
 to this day. 
 
90 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 distinction ; but, how far they were so at this early period, I dare not take upon 
 me to determine, they are painted, in the ancient manuscripts, of various colours ; 
 and it is abundantly evident, that they were not common among the lower classes 
 of the people. 
 
 THE MANTLE, OR CLOAK. 
 
 The Normans can lay no claim to the introduction of this garment into 
 England : we have already seen that it formed a very material part of the Saxon 
 dress ; but, though it was neither invented nor introduced by the Normans, yet it 
 underwent so many changes and innovations soon after their arrival, that, in several 
 instances, it may be considered as a new kind of habit. 
 
 The regal mantles of the Normans, and those worn by the nobility, were not 
 at all times of equal length : in some instances we meet with them so long that 
 they would trail upon the ground in others they do not appear to have descended 
 below the middle of the legs they are distinguished by the epithets of larger and 
 smaller mantles in the writings of the ancient authors.^ The Norman mantles, like 
 those of the Saxons, were sometimes fastened upon the middle of the breast, and hung 
 equally over both shoulders ;* at other times they covered the left side only, and 
 were fastened upon the right shoulder, leaving the whole of the right arm at perfect 
 liberty ; and, again, we meet with them thrown over both shoulders without any 
 fastening at all.® 
 
 The hoods, which we frequently find added to the mantles, I take to be 
 perfectly Norman : like the hoods of the gown mentioned in the preceding article, 
 they were, as occasion required, drawn up over the head, or thrown back upon the 
 shoulders ; an example of the former we find in the figure elevating his right hand, 
 upon the thirty-second plate of this work. 
 
 The hooded cloaks, or mantles, are usually represented sufficiently long and 
 large, not only to cover the whole of the shoulders, but great part of the back 
 also. The hooded mantle, was, I apprehend, chiefly worn for warmth ; and, 
 agreeable to this idea, we frequently find the rustics, in the paintings which 
 
 1 See plates XXXII. XXXIV ; and the figure of Henry II. plate XXXV, 
 
 - See plates XXXI. XXXII ; and the figure of Henry I. plate XXXV. 
 
 3 Pallia majora et minora. — Du Cange in voce Pallium. 
 
 ^ See plates XXXIII. XXXIV. ® See the middle figure, plate XXXI. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 91 
 
 ornament the old Calendars, clad in these garments during the winter months ; 
 and particularly the shepherds, whose occupations required their attendance in the 
 fields by night. The figure to the left, leaning upon his staff, in the thirtieth 
 plate, is designed to represent a shepherd : in this instance, the hood is thrown 
 back upon his shoulders ; but, when it was drawn up, it covered the whole of the 
 head except the face, as we see in the middle figure of the same plate, where it 
 rises up in two points bearing some resemblance to horns : this figure is also in the 
 manuscript intended for a shepherd. 
 
 The hooded mantles of the rustics were probably made of thick and warm 
 materials, and not unfrequently of leather with the shaggy part of the skin turned 
 outwards. 
 
 A cloak or mantle of the same kind, and probably of the same form, but made 
 of richer materials, and frequently lined with furs, was worn by the Norman 
 nobility of the twelfth century this garment was, I presume, the capa, or cappa, 
 frequently mentioned by the Norman writers, if not the reno, or rheno^ of Orderic 
 Vitalis, and similar to the short mantle of Anjou, said to have been introduced by 
 Henry the Second, who was from that circumstance surnamed court or short mantle. 
 The following curious anecdote, recorded by Fitz Stephen, will, I doubt not, in 
 some measure justify my opinion concerning the identity of the ancient capa, and 
 the hooded mantle : “ One day, as Henry the Second, and Thomas Becket, who 
 was at that time his favourite and Chancellor of England, were riding through the 
 streets of London in the depth of winter, the king saw a poor old man at a 
 distance, clad in a mean and threadbare garment he pointed him out to the 
 chancellor, saying, how poor, how feeble, and how naked that man is ! would it 
 not be a great act of charity to bestow upon him a thick and warm mantle Yes, 
 certainly, replied the chancellor ; and added, that it was highly honourable for a 
 monarch to commiserate the sufferings of the miserable. In the mean time, they 
 came up to the pauper ; and the king, stopping his horse, requested to know 
 whether he would not gladly accept of a new mantle. The poor wretch, perfectly 
 ignorant that it was the king who spake to him, supposed the question to have 
 been put to him merely as a joke, and returned no answer ; the king, then, 
 addressing himself to Becket, said, it is now in thy power to perform this great act 
 
 * See plate XXXII, the figure with his right hand elevated. 
 
 2 Veste trita et tenui. — W. Stephanide in vita S. Tho. Cantuariensis, edit, a Sparkes, p. 16. 
 ® Crassam et calidam capam. — Ibid. 
 
 2 E 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
92 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 of charity ; and laid hold upon the hood'^ of his mantle to take it from him ; but, 
 as it was quite new, made of the finest scarlet, and lined with furs,^ the chancellor 
 on his part endeavoured to retain it. At length, however, when he perceived 
 the king to be in earnest, he permitted him, though reluctantly, to take the mantle, 
 which he instantly gave to the poor old man. The contest between the king and 
 the chancellor occasioned no small tumult among their attendants, who were at a 
 distance behind ; but, when they came up, the king related the circumstance to 
 them, and they made themselves exceedingly merry at the expence of the chan- 
 cellor, who had lost his hooded mantle ; and the poor man departed full of joy, 
 giving God thanks for his good fortune.” 
 
 The Reno, or Rheno, was a garment made of the most precious furs j and, 
 consequently, it could not have been purchased but by persons of great wealth. 
 Orderic Vitalis, an ancient writer of good authority, places the reno among the 
 royal habiliments,^ and clearly distinguishes it from the chlamiSy or long mantle ; 
 an ancient author cited by Du Cange, informs us, that the reno covered both the 
 sides of the body and the shoulders ; and another writer expressly says, that it 
 descended as low as the navel it must, therefore, have been a garment as much 
 calculated for warmth as for ornament, and probably appropriated to the winter 
 only, — especially if it had a hood like the capa, which might occasionally be drawn 
 up over the head. 
 
 The mantles, worn by the Norman monarchs and the principal nobility, were 
 made of silk, of linen, ^ and of the finest cloths that could be procured, embroi- 
 dered often with silver and with gold, and lined with the most costly furs : 
 they were also in many instances ornamented with fringes, and decorated with 
 pearls.® 
 
 We may form some idea of the richness of the mantles, used in the twelfth 
 century, from the two following extracts : “ Robert Bloet, second bishop of Lincoln, 
 made a present to king Henry the First of a mantle'^ of exquisitely fine cloth, 
 
 1 Capicium, — Ibid. 2 Capani — uovam de scarlatta et grysio, &c. — Ibid. 
 
 ^ Regalia ornamenta, chlamydem sericamque interulam, et renonam de preciosis pellibus perigri- 
 norum murium. — Ord. Vital. Eccl. Hist. lib. IV. p. 535. 
 
 * Reno, vel rheno, pellicium vestis ex pellibus confecta, quae bumeros et latera tegebat ; and after- 
 wards, rheno est pellicium vel vestis facta ex peUibus pendensque ad umbilicum. — Du Cange, Gloss, 
 in voce. 
 
 5 Palleas lineas, serico cobpertas — Palleas lineas sine serico. — Ibid, in voce 'Pallium.. 
 
 ® Pallium unum cum friso et margaritis. — Ibid. 
 
 7 Pallium peregrinis sabellinarum pelhbus nigris admodum, atque interjecta canitie respersis, et 
 exquisitissimo panno consertum. — Anglia Sacra, Vol. II. p. 417 
 
PART lit. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 93 
 
 lined with black sables with white spots, which cost one hundred pounds of the 
 money of that time and, “ Richard the First possessed a mantle still more 
 splendid, and probably more expensive, which is said to have been striped in strait 
 lines adorned with half-moons of solid silver, and nearly covered with shining orbs, 
 in imitation of the system of the heavenly bodies.”*^ 
 
 The mantle of the nobleman upon the thirty-second plate, is richly ornamented 
 with an embroidered border of gold ; and that of the monarch, on the thirty-fourth 
 plate, is lined with furs, and appears to be the resemblance of a very costly 
 garment. 
 
 Exclusive of the hoods connected with the gowns and mantles, the Normans 
 had a variety of coverings for the head ; and most of them, I believe, were 
 included under the general name pileus by the authors of the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, who usually wrote in Latin. Pileus literally signifies a hat, a cap, or a 
 bonnet; and it may be equally applicable to them all. Two examples are given 
 upon the forty-second plate, in which the pileus resembles a modern nightcap. 
 At the bottom of the same plate it appears in a different form : it is there tied 
 beneath the chin, and may properly enough be called a bonnet : it is by no means 
 unlike a cone, as we see it worn by the figure, to the right, upon the same 
 plate ; and, in some instances, it retained the form of the ancient Saxon hat,^ 
 while, in others, it bore no small resemblance to the round hat of the present 
 day. 
 
 The pileus, or hat, was worn by the laity only ; for, we find that it was 
 prohibited to the clergy, and to the monks especially, — the capa or hooded 
 cloak being the only covering for the head that they were permitted to wear ; 
 but upon this subject it will be necessary to speak more fully in a subsequent 
 part of the work. 
 
 The Normans had also a cap, which does not seem to deserve the name of a 
 hat, distinct from any of those above-mentioned : it fitted close to the head, and 
 was tied under the chin ; its use was principally to confine the hair ; and it was 
 worn by such persons as we find engaged in the sports of the chase, or rural exercises, 
 and by messengers ; to all of whom the hair, blowing about by the wind, would be 
 exceedingly troublesome, especially when they were passing through the w'oods and 
 
 1 Equal in value to ^61500. of present money. 
 
 * Vinisaub. — Iter Hierosol. lib. II. cap. 36, p. 325. 
 
 * See plate LV. 
 
94 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART HI. 
 
 forests.^ In some instances this cap was worn by the light-armed military instead 
 of the helmet ; but I do not by any means conceive that this practice was universal. 
 
 The hats, or bonnets, it is said, were generally made of cloth those belonging 
 to the lower class of people were probably made of leather, and perhaps of felt ; for, 
 felt hats certainly were in use among the Anglo-Saxons hut the hats of the kings, 
 the earls, and the barons, especially those that they wore at public solemnities, were 
 made of the finest cloth, lined with most costly furs, and adorned with pearls and 
 precious stones. The Jews at this period, it is said, were obliged to wear square 
 caps, of a yellow colour, for distinction-sake.^ 
 
 In speaking concerning the Head-dresses of the Anglo-Normans, I wish the 
 expression to be understood in a limited sense, and to refer simply to the modes 
 adopted by that people of adjusting the hair, exclusive of any extraneous ornaments 
 or coverings for the head. It has been premised already, that the Saxons and the 
 Danes considered the luxuriancy of their locks as an important personal adornment ; 
 nor were they easily prevailed upon to retrench them, though instigated thereto by 
 the repeated admonitions of the clergy and in the beginning of the present chapter 
 it was observed, that the Normans were equally tenacious of their hair, and prided 
 themselves equally in the length and beauty of it.® 
 
 In the ostentatious reign of William Rufus, the men in general permitted their 
 hair to grow to such an extravagant length, that they appeared like women ; their 
 flowing tresses they also curled and plaited with no small degree of attention, which 
 excited the indignation of William the Monk of Malmesbury, as we have seen 
 above J that author severely reproached his countrymen for their effeminacy ; nor 
 was he by any means singular in the condemnation of this unmanly custom. Early 
 in the reign of Henry the First, the successor of Rufus, a Norman bishop, whose 
 name was Serlo, acquired great honour by a sermon preached before that monarch, 
 in which he inveighed with great fervency against the popular vices of the time, and 
 especially against the detestable fashion, as it was then called, of wearing long hair.® 
 He concluded his discourse with a solemn address to the king, beseeching him to set 
 
 1 See two examples of this cap, plate LIII ; and a third, plate LII, where the figure kneeling is a 
 messenger, with the badge or arms of his master hanging at his girdle, 
 
 ~ Dr. Henry, Hist. Brit. Vol. III. ^ See page 38. 
 
 Du Cange, Gloss, tom. VIII. p. 483. ® See pages 10. and 37. 
 
 6 Page 86. 7 Ibid. 
 
 ® Omnes (says he) femineo more criniti estis, quod non decet vos, qui ad similitudinem Dei facti 
 estis, et virili robore perfrui debetis. Viros quippe crinitos esse quam incongruum et detestahile sit. — 
 Orderic Vital. Eccl. Hist. lib. XI. p. 816. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 95 
 
 an example to his subjects, that from him they might learn to dress themselves with 
 decency the remonstrances of the orator had so great an effect upon the king and 
 his courtiers, that they consented to part with their flowing locks ; and the prudent 
 prelate, not willing to give them an opportunity of changing their resolution, in- 
 stantly drew out a pair of shears from his sleeve,® and performed the operation upon 
 the major part of them with his own hand, beginning first with the sovereign him- 
 self : the king’s attendants and the servants of his household followed his example, 
 and, by virtue of a royal edict, the people in general were prevailed upon to curtail 
 their hair ; and those precious ringlets, adds my author, which formerly had been 
 their pride, became the objects of their aversion, and were trodden under their feet. 
 
 The prevalency of fashion, however, cannot be easily overcome ; for, though 
 the prohibitory edicts of King Henry against the wearing of long hair produced a 
 temporary reform : they certainly were not sufficiently coercive to eradicate from 
 the minds of the people the predilection they had imbibed in its favour. In less 
 than twenty-five years after the event above related, the cultivation of the hair was 
 revived ; and at that period^ it received a temporary check from a circumstance 
 which may appear to the modern world exceedingly trifling (the fact is recorded by 
 Malmesbury, an historian of good authority ; and he assures us, that it happened 
 in his life-time :) “ A young provincial soldier,” says he, “ who had very long and 
 beautiful hair, dreamed that a person came to his bed-side, and strangled him with 
 his own luxuriant ringlets ; the vision was so strongly impressed upon his mind 
 when he awoke in the morning, that he trimmed his locks to a decent length. Ilis 
 companions followed his example ; and it became a second time a fashion throughout 
 the kingdom to curtail the hair. But this reformation,” adds the author, “ was of 
 very short duration ; for, scarcely had one solitary year elapsed, before the people 
 returned to their former wickedness ; and such especially, as would be thought 
 courtiers, permitted their hair to grow to a shameful length, so that they resembled 
 women rather than men ; and those, to whom nature had denied abundance of hair, 
 supplied the deficiency by artificial coverings.’’* 
 
 Towards the conclusion of the twelfth century, the men curled their hair with 
 crisping-irons ; they also bound it up with fillets, or ribbands ; and appeared abroad 
 without hats, that the beauty of its adornments might not be concealed.^ In the 
 
 > His words are rather remarkable — Unde, gloriose Rex, obseero te, ut exemplum subjectis prsebeas 
 laudabile, et imprimis videant in te, qualiter debeant prseparare se.— Orderic Vital. Eccl. Hist. lib. XI. 
 
 ~ De mantica forcipes extraxit. — Ibid. 3 \ j)_ 1129. 
 
 * Et, ubi crines deficiunt, involucra qusedam innodabant. Will. Malmesb. Hist. Novell, lib. I. p. 99. 
 
 5 Crispant crines calamistro ; caput velant vitta, sine pileo, &c. Orderic Vital!?, lib. VIII. p. 682. 
 
96 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 early drawings of the twelfth century, the appearance of the hair is by no means 
 ungraceful : it is parted from the front of the forehead to the crown, and flows on 
 both sides of the face upon the shoulders ; but not of sufficient length to justify the 
 severe reflections of the historians. Towards the conclusion of the same century, 
 we find the hair more decorated with curls, and extended farther from the face, 
 though not materially lengthened. 
 
 It is an opinion generally adopted by the modern historians, that the custom of 
 shaving the heard, excepting only so much of it as grew upon the upper lip, was 
 universally adopted by the Anglo-Saxons of the eleventh century ; and that the 
 Normans, at the time of the Conquest, shaved the beard entirely without any excep- 
 tion. The great seal of Edward the Confessor, where that monarch appears with 
 a large heard, exclusive of the mustachoes, militates against the universality of the 
 custom among the Saxons and the figure of William the Conqueror, upon his 
 seal represented with a short heard and mustachoes, may be thought equally decisive 
 respecting the Normans.- The assertion of Malmesbury upon this subject, which 
 has been indiscriminately adopted by the succeeding authors, appears to me to have 
 been taken in too general a point of view, and, perhaps, in both instances, ought to 
 be restricted to the military : The spies of Harold, he tells us, were admitted into 
 the Conqueror’s camp ; and, upon their return, declared that they had seen “ an 
 army of priests rather than soldiers, because their beards were shaved entirely, con- 
 trary to the usage of the Saxons, who permitted their mustachoes to grow upon 
 the upper lip.”^ We can hardly credit that the spies were permitted to see the 
 whole of the Norman army : it is more probable that they saw no more than the 
 archers, who undoubtedly formed a large part of it, and might be shaved for the 
 conveniency of drawing their hows in time of battle.'‘ William the Conqueror com- 
 pelled the Saxons to shave their beards entirely ; but it is equally certain, that the 
 
 1 See plate XXVII ; and Malmesbury, describing the person of the Confessor, speaks of his harhd 
 et capillis cygneus, lib. II. 
 
 ^ In Speed’s Chronicle, a representation of the great seal of the Conqueror is preserved, which has 
 been copied for Sanford’s Genealogy. 
 
 3 Pen^ omnes in exercitu illo Presbyteros videri, quod totam faciem cum utroque labro rasam 
 haberent. Angli enim superius labrum pilis incessant^r fructicantibus intonsum dimittunt. Malmesb. 
 de Gest. Reg. Anglorum, lib. III. p. 56, second column. 
 
 ^ [It was not merely the absence of mustachoes or beard that made the spies of Harold describe the 
 Normans as an army of priests. — The words of Wace are “ tons rez et tondus,” and the Bayeux Tapestry 
 with which this metrical chronicle exactly tallies, illustrates his words by exhibiting the Normans with 
 the backs of their heads shaved, a Poitevan fashion which they had adopted, according to Glaber Rodol- 
 phus, and which naturally reminded the spies of the clerical tonsure. — Ed.] 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 97 
 
 edict was considered as a wanton act of cruelty/ and strenuously opposed by many 
 who in other cases readily adopted the Norman fashions, and perhaps would not 
 have refused obedience to this, had it really been one of them, and universally 
 practised. The manuscript drawings of the Saxons, and those of the Normans 
 coeval with the time alluded to, will abundantly prove, that the beard was regarded 
 as a great personal ornament, both prior and posterior to the Conquest. 
 
 The mandate of the Conqueror appears to me to have been a contemptuous 
 mark of distinction, and introduced by him for some political purpose, which indeed 
 has not been properly explained by the writers of that sera: it was therefore justly 
 considered by the people at large as an infringement upon their native liberties ; and 
 that may well account for numbers of them leaving the kingdom, rather than comply 
 with the disgraceful requisition. I do not, however, believe that the edict continued 
 long in force, or that it was ever universally obeyed. 
 
 Early in the reign of Henry the First, it was customary with the English 
 people to wear long beards ; at that period we find them reprobated by the clergy / 
 but, when the king shortened his own hair and caused his beard to be shaved, we 
 may rest assured that his courtiers followed his example ; and fashion, in process 
 of time, reconciled the very custom which force had made so odious. Matthew 
 Paris, it is true, and other historians inform us that, in the reign of Richard the 
 First, a citizen of London, whose name was William, let his beard grow to a great 
 length ; for which reason he received the cognomen cum barhd but this seems to 
 have been done as an insult upon the monarch and his courtiers, who were all of 
 them close shaved, rather than to set at defiance a law then existing, by which the 
 wearing of beards was interdicted ; and, indeed, no such law is mentioned by the 
 historians. This circumstance, however, seems to prove that beards were less worn 
 at that period than they had been prior to it, or than they were in the succeeding 
 century. 
 
 Gloves were by no means generally worn by the Normans during the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries ; on the contrary, they appear to have been confined to 
 persons of the most exalted rank : they are mentioned as part of the regal habit 
 of Henry the Second, when his body was laid in state after his decease / and we 
 find them ornamented with jewels upon the hands of Richard the First, as his 
 
 * Mat. Paris, in vita Abb. Albani, p. 46. 
 
 2 Serlo, in bis sermon referred to above, page 94, says, in barba prolixa hircis assimilantur ; and 
 Orderic Vitalis compares tbe men of his time, because of their long beards, to “ stinking goats ” Ord. 
 Vit. Ecc. Hist. lib. VIII. p. 682 ; and lib XI. p. 815. 
 
 * Mat. Paris, in vita Ricardi Primi, &c. 
 
 * Ibid. p. 151. 
 
98 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 portraiture is given from his monument by Montfaucon.^ Archbishops, bishops, 
 and other dignified clergy, are said to have used gloves ; hut, I apprehend, upon 
 occasions of great solemnity, and more for ornament than for comfort or con- 
 veniency. 
 
 Stockings, or rather hose, which appellation is most agreeable to the ancient 
 idiom, formed a part of the Saxon habit ; and of course have been introduced 
 already to the reader.^ It has been observed, that the hose of the Saxons were of 
 two kinds ; the one only covered the lower part of the legs from the bottom of the 
 calf downwards, and the other extended beyond the skirts of the short tunic : both 
 these kinds of hose were worn by the Normans, and without any great appearance 
 of variation. 
 
 The stockings, worn by the Norman nobility, must have been a very expensive 
 part of their habit, if we may be allowed to draw any inference from the example 
 of William Rufus, who disdained to wear a pair of less value than a mark, which 
 was nearly equal in value to ten pounds of the present money. His chamberlain, 
 says Malmesbury, brought him one morning a new pair of stockings ; ® but, when 
 he was told that they cost only three shillings, he was exceedingly angry, ^ and com- 
 manded the officer to purchase a pair for him worth a mark. The chamberlain, 
 adds the historian, brought him a pair inferior in quality to the former, and 
 declaring that they cost a mark, the king was perfectly satisfied with them. 
 
 The stockings of the twelfth century were probably made of cloth. In some 
 instances, however, it is certain they were variegated with stripes.^ 
 
 The leg-bandages, so frequently found in the Saxon delineations, are rarely 
 to be met with in the drawings of the Normans : hence we may naturally con- 
 clude, that the use of them had in great measure subsided after the Conquest. 
 The rustic, to the left, upon the thirtieth plate of this work, exhibits a very 
 
 1 Monarchie Fran^oise, tom. II. [The effigy of Richard as well as those of the other English 
 sovereigns at Fontevraud, are very incorrectly engraved in Montfaucon’s book ; a splendid and accurate 
 print of the effigies will be found in Stothard’s Sepulchral Monuments. — Ed.] Fitz Stephen particularly 
 mentiones gloves as part of the pontifical habit of Thomas Becket at the time of his interment. 
 Stephanide, in vita S. Tho. Cant. p. 89. 
 
 2 Page 39. See also page 12. 
 
 3 Novas caligas. Will. Malmesb. de Gest. Reg. Angl. lib. IV. cap. 1. 
 
 I might have said abusive : the words of the historian are — indignabundus et firemens, fili, ait, 
 meretricis ! ex quo habet rex caligas tarn exilis pretii ? Vade, et asser mihi emptas marca argenti. — Ibid. 
 
 5 See the middle figure, plate XXX ; the figure to the left, plate XXXI ; and the figure to the 
 left, plate XXXII. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 99 
 
 singular species of leg-bandages ; something of the same kind, however, I have 
 seen worn by the ploughmen of the present day, especially in wet weather : they 
 are usually made of hay -bands, or of straw twisted like hay-bands, and wound round 
 the legs from the ancles upwards. 
 
 Boots were much used by the Normans ; for, they are frequently mentioned 
 by the ancient historians : they do not appear to have been confined to any par- 
 ticular classes of people, but were worn by persons of all ranks and conditions, as 
 well of the clergy as of the laity, especially when they rode on horseback. The 
 boots, as they usually occur in the Norman drawings, are very short, rarely 
 reaching higher than the middle of the legs.^ In some instances, we meet with them 
 enriched with embroidery.*^ 
 
 The soldiers also of the eleventh century are often depicted with short 
 boots,'’ which were discontinued in the century immediately succeeding when 
 the mail was fitted to the legs and covered them entirely, so that boots be- 
 came useless. 
 
 We are assured by the early Norman historians, that the cognomen Curtu 
 Ocrea, or Short-boots* was given to Robert, the Conqueror’s eldest son ; but they 
 are entirely silent respecting the reason for such an appellation being particularly 
 applied to him. It could not have arisen from his having introduced the custom 
 of wearing short boots into this country ; for, they were certainly in use among 
 the Saxons long before his birth : to hazard a conjecture of my own, I should 
 rather say he was the first among the Normans that wore short boots, and derived 
 the cognomen by way of contempt from his own countrymen, for having so far com- 
 plied with the manners of the Anglo-Saxons. It was not long, however, supposing 
 this to be tbe case, before his example was generally followed. The short boots 
 of the Nonnans appear, at times, to fit quite close to the legs ; in other instances 
 they are represented more loose and open ; and, though the materials of which 
 they were composed are not particularised by the ancient writers, we may reason- 
 ably suppose them to have been made of leather ; at least it is certain that about 
 this t'me a sort of leather boots, called Bazans,^ were in fashion ; but, as these 
 
 * See the middle figure, plate XXX ; and the figure to the left, plate XXXII. 
 
 2 See the figure to the right, plate XXXI. [These are not boots but a sort of short stockings or 
 socks worn over the chausses and. with shoes. — Ed.] 
 
 ® See plate XLIII. 
 
 * Some of the old English writers call him curt-hose; but Malmesbury names him Robehnus 
 Curtd Ocreil, lib. V. p. 86. 
 
 5 Ocreis de cute quam vulgus bazan appellant. Matt. Paris, in vita Guarini Abbat. p. 100. 
 
 2 F 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
100 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART HI. 
 
 appear to have been chiefly confined to the clergy, they will be more fully spoken of 
 at a future period. 
 
 The ocrece restratce, or picked-pointed boots, were in general use in the reign 
 of Rufus : they were, however, severely condemned by the writers of that age ; 
 and w^e find them strictly prohibited to the clergy.^ 
 
 The Shoes. — Among the various innovations made in dress by the Normans 
 during the twelfth century, none met with more marked and more deserved dis- 
 approbation than that of lengthening the toes of the shoes, and bringing them 
 foiwvard to a sharp point. In the reign of Rufus this custom was first intro- 
 duced and, according to Orderic Vitalis, by a man who had distorted feet, in 
 order to conceal the deformity ; but, adds he, the fashion w'as no sooner broached, 
 than all those who were fond of novelty thought proper to follow it ; and the 
 shoes were made by the shoemakers in the form of a scorpion’s tail. These 
 shoes were called pigacice^ and adopted by persons of every class both rich and 
 poor.^ Soon after, a courtier, whose name was Robert, improved upon the first 
 idea by filling the vacant part of the shoe with tow, and twisting it round in the 
 form of a ram’s horn : this ridiculous fashion excited much admiration. It was 
 followed by the greater part of the nobility : and the author, for his happy in- 
 vention, was honoured with the cognomen Cornardus, or horned.® The long- 
 pointed shoes were vehemently inveighed against by the clergy, and strictly 
 forbidden to be w^orn by the religious orders. So far as one can judge from the 
 illuminations of the tw'elfth century, the fashion of wearing long-pointed shoes did 
 not long maintain its ground. It was, however, afterwards revived, and even carried 
 to a more preposterous extent. 
 
 The sotulares, or subtalares, of the Saxons were certainly a species of slippers, 
 distinct from the shoes commonly worn by that people but in the more modern 
 times they appear to have been confounded with each other. Orderic Vitalis 
 mentions shoes of Cordivan -d in general, I suppose, they were made of leather ; 
 and in some instances, we find them curiously ornamented.® 
 
 1 Matt. Paris, in vita Guarini Abbat. p, 175. 
 
 - Tunc (that is, in the reign of Rufus) usus calceorum cum arcuatis aculeis inventus. Will. 
 Malmesb. lib. IV. c. 1. 
 
 3 Unde sutores in calceamentis quasi caudas scorpionum, quas vulgo pigacias appellant, faciunt. 
 Ord. Vit. Eccl. Hist. lib. VIII. p. 682. 
 
 The author speaks of him with much contempt : Robertus quidam nebulo in curia Rufi Regis, 
 &c. Ibid. * Ibid. ® See p. 44. 
 
 7 Sotulares Corduanos, Eccl. Hist. lib. V. p. 596. ^ gee the middle figure, plate XXXH. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 101 
 
 The Girdles of the Normans differed little from those of the Saxons ; 
 especially during the twelfth century : they were probably formed of the 
 same materials ; and we are well assured, that such of them as belonged to the 
 kings, earls, and great barons, were not only embroidered with gold, but also 
 adorned with precious stones. 
 
 The Apron. I have little to say at present upon this part of the Norman 
 habit. Towards the conclusion of the twelfth century we find the apron was in 
 use ; and probably it had been long before, though it does not occur in any 
 drawings that I have seen prior to that period : the reader will find an ac- 
 curate representation of the apron upon the fifty-first plate. It is fastened round 
 the middle, and part of it passes over the shoulders, where it is attached under the 
 hood like a stomacher. 
 
102 
 
 THE HAUITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE NORMANS. — THE SURCOAT. A NEW GARMENT. THE ALTERATIONS MADE 
 
 IN THE OTHER PARTS OF THE SAXON DRESS BY THE NORMAN LADIES. — THE UNDER-GAR- 
 MENT. THE GOWN. — THE SURCOAT. — THE GIRDLE. — THE MANTLE. — THE COVERCHIEF AND 
 
 OTHER DECORATIONS FOR THE HEAD. — THE HAIR-DRESS. — THE STOCKINGS.— THE SHOES, &C. 
 
 I KNOW not well how to account for the inconsistency of the ancient Norman 
 writers, who, at the time they are most severe in their censures upon the habits of 
 the men,^ pass over those of the women without any decided marks of disapprobation. 
 Perhaps we ought to attribute their silence to their gallantry, and imitate so good 
 an example by placing the foibles of the fair sex in obscurity. But, whatever 
 motives restrained the pen of the historians upon so delicate a subject, the same 
 impulse was not sufficiently efficacious with the illuminators of the twelfth century 
 to prevent the pencil from explaining what the pen had concealed ; and from this 
 source of information it appears, to a demonstration, that the ladies had their share 
 in the introductions of new fashions — fashions — dare I say it ? equally preposterous, 
 and equally ungraceful as those so severely condemned by the Monastic authors! 
 
 In the twelfth century we find only one garment that can at any rate be con- 
 sidered as additional to those of the Saxon ladies already described,® which is the 
 surcoat. The gown, the mantle, and the coverchief, underwent great alterations 
 during this period. It will, therefore, be best to speak of them separately, and 
 point out how far they differed from the same parts of the Saxon dress : but pre- 
 viously it may be thought necessary to say a few words concerning the tunic, or, as I 
 have called it before, the under -garment. 
 
 The Under-garment was the only part of the Saxon habit that retained its 
 general form throughout the whole of the twelfth century : in some few instances it 
 appears rather longer in the Norman than in the Saxon .Tlra, and, in others, more 
 richly ornamented with embroidered borders.’’ 
 
 The Gown formed an indispensable part of the ladies’ dress, posterior to the 
 
 1 See the former cliapter. 
 
 2 Pages 13 and 46. — [Why should the surcoat be considered additional. — It was surely the same 
 thing as the super-tunic for which the Norman name is a literal translation. — Ed.] 
 
 3 See the lady holding a sceptre, plate XL. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 103 
 
 Conquest. It was worn by the Norman as well as the Saxon ladies immediately over 
 the under-garment, or tunic ; every part of which it frequently concealed, excepting 
 the sleeves, which were generally longer than those of the gown, and reached to 
 the wrist. At the time of the Conquest, it is probable that the gowns of the Norman 
 women varied little in form from those that had been in use at the commencement 
 of the eleventh century : the first material alteration, observable in this garment, is 
 in its sleeves ; and they appear in the drawings, towards the conclusion of the above 
 mentioned century, more wide, more open, and more richly adorned with ornamental 
 borders of embroidery, than we find them at the commencement of it.^ The sleeves 
 are represented still wider, and terminating in a kind of pocket, by the figure to the 
 left, upon the thirty-sixth plate ; and again by two figures upon the thirty-ninth 
 plate, where it is to be observed, that the pursey parts of the sleeves, belonging to 
 the figure on the right, are of a different colour from the gown, and seem to have 
 been separate parts of the dress : this is, however, a singular instance of the kind. 
 The pocketing sleeves, if I may be allowed the term, were carried to a preposterous 
 length by tbe ladies of quality in the twelfth century, as we may see fully exemplified 
 in the two figures upon the fortieth plate. These figures prove also that the pocket- 
 ing sleeves did not exclusively belong to the gown. In the front figure they are 
 evidently part of the surcoat ; and in the same figure the gown is represented neatly 
 embroidered, and much shorter than usual ; while, on the contrary, the gown of the 
 lady bowing her head is sufficiently long to trail upon the ground ; and this fashion 
 appears to have been almost universally adopted by the females of the succeeding 
 century. 
 
 The Surcoat. — If this garment did not originate from that part of the Saxon 
 habit, distinguished in a former chapter by the appellation of the summer dress , it 
 certainly must be considered as purely Norman, and to this opinion I shall readily 
 subscribe. The earliest representation of the Norman surcoat, that has occurred 
 to me, is given upon the fortieth plate, where it appears extremely short ; and the 
 long pocketing sleeves, which in the opposite figure form part of the gowm, in this 
 instance certainly belong to the surcoat. We shall have occasion to speak more 
 fully upon this subject hereafter ; for, in the succeeding centuries the surcoat came 
 into general use ; and we often find it with a long train descending to the ground. 
 
 The pocketing sleeves, whether applied to the gown or to the surcoat, were cer- 
 tainly very ungraceful ; and nothing but custom could reconcile so vitiated a taste. 
 To the honour, however, of the ladies of this country, the fashion does not appear 
 
 See plate XXXVI. 
 
 2 Page 10. 
 
101. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 to have originated with them ; for in a curious illuminated manuscript of the Gos- 
 pels, which, from the writing and the style of the drawings, appears to have been 
 made in Italy, and as early at least as the tenth century,’ we meet with a figure of 
 the Virgin Mary ; and the sleeves of her gown correspond exactly with those of the 
 lady bowing her head, upon the thirty-eighth plate. From Italy, it is probable, 
 the fashion of wearing long sleeves was imported through France into Normandy, 
 and brought by the Norman ladies into this country, where, in the profligate reign 
 of Rufus, it appears at first to have taken root, and arrived at full maturity, towards 
 the middle of the twelfth century ; after which period, like most other fashions that 
 have nothing more than novelty to recommend them, it died away. The ladies, as 
 I observed above, escaped, it is true, the lash of historic censure ; but their long 
 sleeves, and the trains of their gowns and surcoats trailing upon the ground, were 
 held up to ridicule by the illuminators of the twelfth century : a remarkable instance 
 of this kind occurs upon the thirty-eighth plate. The figure to the left, which 
 composes part of the ornamental border, is intended in the original manuscript to 
 represent the Devil ; and the artist has thought proper to dress his infernal majesty 
 in a lady’s surcoat, with one sleeve short and wide, and the other so enormously 
 long, that it is absolutely necessary for it to be tied in a knot to prevent its trailing 
 upon the ground. The surcoat itself is caricatured in a similar manner, insomuch 
 that it would be impossible for the wearer to step forward, if the objection were not 
 removed by the skirts being bound up in a knot to shorten them. Another curious 
 circumstance attends the body-part of the surcoat, which in this instance, and 
 singular indeed it is, resembles the bodice, or stays, of the more modern times : it 
 is laced in the front from the top to the waist ; and the lace itself, with the tag at 
 the end of it, hangs carelessly down from the bottom of the interlacing. This fashion 
 was certainly not common at the present period ; and, from its being appropriated 
 to the prince of darkness by the satyrical artist, we may naturally conclude, that in 
 his day it was considered as indelicate or improper to he followed by the ladies. 
 
 The Girdle, which constantly formed part of the female dress among the 
 Saxon ladies, appears in several instances to have been dispensed with by the Nor- 
 mans ; or at least to have been worn beneath the outer garment : the girdles ap- 
 propriated to queens, princesses, and other ladies of high rank, are spoken of as 
 being richly adorned with gold, pearls, and precious stones. In this state, however, 
 they do not appear in the drawings so early as the twelfth century. The girdles 
 
 ' This MS. is preserved in the Harleian Library at the British Museum, and marked 2821. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 105 
 
 belonging to the girls and young women unmarried seem to have been a simple 
 cordon, which hangs down in the front : an example of which is given upon the 
 forty-first plate. 
 
 The Mantle. This garment was subject to less change than any other of the 
 external parts of the dress appertaining to the Saxon ladies before the Norman 
 conquest ; posterior to that event it was varied continually, not only respecting its 
 length and its breadth, but also in its general form ; so that we rarely find that it 
 retained the same appearance for the space of half a century. It seems by the 
 middle figure, upon the thirty- sixth plate, to have been of an oval form, and put 
 over the head upon the shoulders ; a perforation being made in it near the middle 
 for that purpose. In the figure to the left, upon the same plate, it is simply thrown 
 over both shoulders, and fastened upon the breast with an embroidered collar. A 
 mantle nearly of the same kind is appropriated to the queen upon the thirty-seventh 
 plate. The corners of the mantle are square in the figure to the right upon the 
 fortieth plate. In the figure to the right, upon the forty-first plate, it appears to 
 have been thrown over one shoulder only, so as to cover but one half of the body. 
 In the middle figure of the same plate it is extended farther to the right shoulder, 
 which, however, it does not cover ; and it is fastened upon the breast by a double 
 cordon : there is also a hood belonging to this mantle, which is thrown back in the 
 present instance, but which might occasionally be drawn up over the head so as 
 to cover every part of it, the face excepted. The hooded mantle, appropriated 
 perhaps to the winter, was in common use towards the conclusion of the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 The mantles of the women of quality at this period were made of silk and 
 other valuable materials, and embroidered with variety of figures, especially at the 
 borders and not unfrequently lined with costly furs of various kinds. 
 
 The Coverchief, or veil, formed, as we have seen, an indispensable part 
 of the female habit before the Conquest ; in the subsequent centuries, it not only 
 underwent a great variety of alterations, but was often totally thrown aside. In 
 some instances, and even prior to the commencement of the twelfth century, the 
 coverchief is represented open in the front, so as to disclose the neck, and exhibit 
 to the eye the richly embroidered collars of the gowns and mantles." At other 
 times it bears a closer resemblance to the coverchief of the Saxons, and conceals 
 the neck, together with the upper part of the breast.^ It is represented by the 
 
 1 See plates XXXVI, XXXVII, and XL. 
 
 2 See the middle figure, and the figure to the left, plate XXXVI. 
 
 3 See the queen, plate XXXVII ; and the middle figure, plate XXXVIll. 
 
106 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 middle figure, upon the thirty-ninth plate, as hanging very low down on the left 
 side of the head, while on the right it is thrown back over the shoulder. In the 
 figure to the left hand, upon the same plate, one end of it is wrapped round the 
 neck, and the other falls upon the right breast ; but, on the opposite figure, one 
 end of it is thrown across the breast and over the left shoulder so as to cover the 
 other end completely : it is also gathered into two folds upon the top of the head, 
 and confined by a diadem, or broad circle of gold. Part of it is wrapped about the 
 neck like the wimple, or muffler ; as we find in the figure, holding a sceptre, upon 
 the fortieth plate ; and probably the wimple, which in the succeeding century 
 became a distinct part of the female habit, took its origin from this method of 
 wearing the coverchief : indeed, as it is represented by the opposite figure upon 
 the same plate, it has much the appearance of being separated from it. The 
 coverchief in this instance which is a very singular one, falls on either side of the 
 face, descending to a great length j insomuch, that on the right side it is bound in 
 a knot to prevent its reaching to the ground. 
 
 Towards the conclusion of the twelfth century, the form of the coverchief 
 was totally changed : it became much smaller, and was tied under the chin like 
 the cap, or bonnet, of the modern day.^ But, as we have observed above, it was 
 by no means uncommon for the women at this period to appear without the 
 coverch ief . 
 
 When the hair is exposed to view, we find it constantly parted from the front 
 of the head, and turned on either side of the face upon the shoulders. In the 
 figure to the right, upon the thirty-sixth plate, two large locks of hair are brought 
 forward, and fall loosely upon the breast without any additional embellishment ; 
 but it is very rare that we find the head-dress thus represented, and therefore may 
 justly conclude that it was not commonly adopted. The figure bowing, upon the 
 thirty-eighth plate, exhibits a very curious mode of decorating the hair ; it is 
 parted from the forehead, and falls at the hack in two large masses, which are 
 bound about with fillets or ribbands in the form of two tails, reaching nearly 
 to the ground, and both of them ending with three small curls ; and this kind 
 of head-dress occurs more than once in the manuscript fr^m which the present 
 figure is selected. 
 
 Towards the conclusion of the twelfth century, the hair of persons arrived to 
 the age of maturity was usually inclosed within a net, or cawl, in the manner it is 
 represented at the bottom of the forty-first plate ; over which the cap or coverchief 
 was placed, and bound under the chin, as we find it exhibited by two women of 
 
 ‘ See the two women-figures, plate XLI. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 107 
 
 distinction upon the same plate. It was certainly indecorous for women of 
 character at this time to appear with the cawls upon the hair without the coverchief, 
 because, wherever we find them so depicted, they are constantly the representatives 
 of common prostitutes. 
 
 The girls of the twelfth century wore their hair without any covering : it 
 was parted from the forehead, and curled with great precision, as we find it 
 delineated upon the forty-first plate. ^ 
 
 It is not possible to determine how the hair was dressed and decorated beneath the 
 larger coverchief, but probably not without some degree of attention ; for, whenever 
 any part of it is accidentally discovered, it appears exceedingly neat and formal. 
 
 There were several ornamental decorations for the head in use among the 
 Anglo-Norman ladies as early as the twelfth century. The richest and most 
 splendid of them all was the Crown, appropriated only to the queen : it was worn 
 over the coverchief, as we see it represented upon the thirty-seventh plate. The 
 HALF Bend or Circle of gold ; this ornament was also frequently used by the 
 Saxon women ; but at the same time it was so completely concealed by the cover- 
 chief, that we meet with no representations of it in the drawings executed before 
 the Conquest.*^ The manner in which it appeared at the close of the eleventh 
 century may be seen upon the thirty-eighth plate : the circular ornaments, with 
 which the front of it is decorated, are probably intended for pearls or precious 
 stones. The Diadem, or complete circle, which, like the crown, was worn upon 
 the coverchief, as we see it depicted upon the thirty-ninth and fortieth plates : this 
 ornament was generally made of gold, hut not always : for, it is of a bright red 
 colour in the figure bowing her head, upon the fortieth plate.^ — To these may be 
 added a kind of Tiara, which adorns the head of the lady to the right, upon 
 the forty-first plate : this ornament, from the general appearance of it, seems 
 to have been covered with linen, and probably it was attached to the coverchief. 
 
 The Stockings. If this part of the dress, appertaining to the Norman ladies, 
 in reality underwent any material variation posterior to the Conquest, the variation 
 cannot be traced ; for the modesty of the ladies, who at that time adopted long 
 garments, precludes the possibility of information. 
 
 The Shoes, in use during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, differed so little 
 from those of the Anglo-Saxon ladies, spoken of in the former part of this work, 
 that no particular description of them needs be made at present. 
 
 ' [The MS. from which all the figures ou this plate are taken is of the thirteenth century. — E d.] 
 
 See pages 18 and 74. 
 
 ^ [Red was occasionally used by the ancient illuminators as a substitute for gold. — E d.] 
 
 VOL. I. 2 G 
 
108 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 THE MILITARY HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE CONCLUSION OF 
 
 THE TWELFTH CENTURY. — THE MAIL ARMOUR. — THE MILITARY SURCOAT. — THE HELMETS. 
 
 THE SHIELDS. — THE SPEARS, SWORDS, AND OTHER IMPLEMENTS OF WAR. 
 
 It has already been proved from incontestable authority, that a species of 
 armour for the defence of the body was in use among the Saxon soldiery P it was 
 called in Latin lorica ; and the same word occurs in the writings of the Normans, 
 to express the coat of mail. 
 
 The mail armour, however, as we find it in its improved state, posterior to 
 the Conquest, differs so materially from the lorica of the Saxons, that we may with 
 great propriety attribute it to the Normans, and proceed to consider it as a new 
 kind of martial habiliment. 
 
 THE MAIL ARMOUR. 
 
 The military accoutrements of a warrior in the days of the elder William, 
 were the hauberk, the helmet, the shield, the spear, and the sword.- 
 
 The Hauberk, originally the coat, or, perhaps, rather the tunic of mail, 
 defended the body only : the hood was afterwards added, which protected the 
 neck and the head. In this state we find it towards the conclusion of the eleventh 
 century ; at which time the sleeves of the hauberk were loose and wide, and so 
 short that the hands and the wrists were left without protection : it was also open 
 from the hips downwards on both sides, and of course afforded very little safeguard 
 to the thighs ; the legs and the feet at the same time were totally destitute of any 
 kind of armour.^ 
 
 ^ See p. 54 ; where this subject is fully investigated. 
 
 2 We find them thus enumerated in the laws enaeted by that monarch — “ de releif al Cunte, que al 
 Rei afeist VIII. chivalz selez e enfrenez, les IIII Halbers, e IIII Hammes, e IIII Escuz, e IIII Launces, 
 e IIII Espes.” — Leges Gulielmi I. cap. xxii. 
 
 3 See two figures, the one to the right, and the other to the left, plate XLIII. [The latter figure 
 is from a MS. of the commencement of the 13th century. — Ed ] 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 109 
 
 The coat of mail, so far as one can judge of it by the earliest paintings, 
 appears to have been composed of rings of metal quilted upon cloth or leather, 
 in such a manner as to conform readily to the shape of the body : an example 
 of which is given upon the forty-third plate in the figure to the right ; in other 
 instances, nearly as ancient, it seems to have consisted of small square plates of 
 metal, attached in like manner to an under-garment, as we find it exhibited by 
 the middle figure of the same plate : hut, in the figure to the left, the coat of 
 mail assumes its more usual appearance, and is evidently made of small rings, or 
 chains of metal inserted one within the other, so as to be perfectly pliable ; and 
 at the same time so completely connected together as to form a habit of itself, 
 independent of any other assistance. 
 
 Soon after the Conquest, the ancient lorica, or coat of mail, being found, I 
 presume, inadequate to the purposes required from a defensive armour, other parts 
 were added, which covered not only the thighs and the legs, but the feet also ; 
 and, at the same time, the sleeves of the coat itself were made to fit the arm with 
 more precision, and so far lengthened as to secure the hand completely.^ In this 
 state we find it represented by the middle figure, upon the forty-third plate ; and 
 more perfectly by the three monumental figures, upon the three succeeding plates. 
 
 In the three figures, upon the forty-third plate, the chaperon, or hood of mail, 
 which covers the neck and head, appears to be attached to the coat of mail, or 
 rather to be a component part of it ; and, perhaps, in ancient times it might 
 occasionally be so ; but, on the other hand, it is equally certain, that a far 
 greater variety of instances may be produced in which the chaperon decidedly 
 formed a separate part of the military habit. The coat of mail, in the example 
 produced at the bottom of the forty-fourth plate, which is taken from a manuscript 
 written and illuminated towards the conclusion of the eleventh century, appears 
 without the chaperon. 
 
 In the time of action, the chaperon was drawn up over the head, and frequently 
 supplied the place of an helmet. It was also occasionally thrown back upon the 
 shoulders to give the warrior air ; as we find it represented by the monumental 
 figure of one of the Knights Templars, upon the forty-fourth plate. 
 
 The ringed armour of the ancient Saxons, and the mail armour of the 
 Normans, as we find it depicted immediately posterior to the Conquest, bore great 
 
 ^ The part which covers the thighs, the legs, and the feet, was called chausses, or breeches of mail ; 
 and the part which covered the hands, the gauntlets, or gloves of mail, as W'e shall see more fully exem- 
 plified hereafter 
 
110 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART 111. 
 
 analogy to each other.' It also seems clear that the Saxons had some faint 
 idea of plated armour^ derived probably from the Romans, but never carried by 
 them to any great degree of perfection.® In the twelfth century the mail formed 
 a complete defensive armour, and invested every part of the warrior, his face 
 excepted ; so that he may literally be said to have been armed cap-a-pie. The 
 plated mail, in the form of small diamonds, appears to have been the first species 
 of defensive armour completed by the Normans ; and a curious specimen of it in 
 its most perfect state is given upon the forty-third plate.^ It disappeared, however, 
 about the middle of the twelfth century, and was superseded by the chain 7nail, 
 which was then introduced with additional improvements, and universally adopted. 
 The monuments of the twelfth century, many of which are now in existence, 
 convey a perfect idea of the chain mail : and from this source of information I 
 have collected three curious specimens, which, I presume, will be deemed 
 sufficient. The first is given upon the forty-fourth plate : the original of this 
 figure is carved in stone, and may be found among the ancient monuments in the 
 I'emple church, at London. Tradition attributes it to Robert de Ros, who 
 certainly was buried there •* and the armorial bearings upon the shield seem to 
 justify that opinion. The two following plates are taken from monumental effigies 
 existent in the church at Danbury, in Essex : they are probably something more 
 ancient than the Knight Templar just mentioned, and, without doubt, belonged 
 to the family of St. Clere, for in the twelfth century this family resided at Danbury 
 Place.® These valuable reliques of ancient sculpture are carved in wood, a cir- 
 cumstance by no means uncommon ; and, considering the little care that has been 
 
 ^ See pages 50 and 51, and plate XIV. 
 
 ® See plates XXII. and XXIII. [Plate XXII. exhibits a figure of St. Michael in what Sir S. 
 Meyrick has denominated tegulated armour, i. e. small overlapping pieces of metal of a tile form ; 
 a mere variety of the lorica squamata : but the warriors on plate XXIII. are not armed in metal, but in 
 leather. Vide page 51, notes 1 and 2. — Ed.] 
 
 3 See the middle figure, which is taken from a curious MS. of the twelfth century, in the possession 
 of F. Douce, Esq. The resemblance this figure bears to the generality of the soldiers, represented 
 upon the famous tapestry at Bayeux, imperfectly copied in the Monarchic Francois of Pere Montfaucon, 
 would naturally lead one to conclude that both the tapestry and the MS. were nearly of the same date. 
 [Sir S. Meyrick has designated this species of armour “mascled,” and the Heraldic bearing, termed a 
 mascle, being a metal plate of the lozenge form, with a hole in the centre, is supposed with much 
 probability to have been assumed from the hauberk of this period. — Ed.] 
 
 * Mr. Gough, in the first volume of his Sepulchral Monuments, has given all the figures of the 
 Knights Templars, that are remaining in the Temple Church, upon a large scale. [I believe nearly all these 
 effigies belong to the thirteenth century. Vide Stothard’s work for an accurate representation. — Ed.] 
 
 5 See Morant’s History of Essex. Camden, in Essex, with Mr. Gough’s additions. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 taken for their preservation, it is really wonderful to find them so perfect as they 
 now remain. I have spoken warmly in commendation of these admirable monu- 
 ments in a former publication and I hope the engravings, however they may fall 
 short of the perfection of the originals, will at least convey some idea of the ease 
 and elegancy with which they are executed ; at the same time I must confess 
 myself perfectly at a loss to account for the peculiar excellency of these 
 figures, when compared with others of the same sera, or set in competition with 
 the drawings and paintings of the time, which were greatly deficient both in taste 
 and correctness. 
 
 THE MILITARY SURCOAT. 
 
 This garment was certainly introduced by the Normans; and indeed it does 
 not appear to have been generally adopted before the middle of the twelfth 
 century : it was made apparently of cloth, without sleeves, and reached below the 
 knees ; it was also open in the front from the girdle to the bottom, and fitted to 
 the neck so closely, that the top part of it is usually hid by the chaperon, or hood 
 of mail. I am by no means well acquainted with the utility of the surcoat at 
 the time of its Qrst introduction. It the twelfth century it does not appear to 
 have been marked with the arms or insignia of the wearer, which was usually the 
 case in the succeeding centuries, when it may properly be considered as a badge of 
 distinction.'^ 
 
 There are three representations given of the military surcoat, as it appeared 
 in the twelfth'* century, upon the forty-fourth, forty-fifth, and forty-sixth plates ; 
 which will, I trust, convey a clear idea of its form, and the manner in which it was 
 worn upon the mail, and preclude the necessity of any farther description. 
 
 ‘ See the liopba Anjel-cynnan, or Manners and Customs of the English, vol. I. [These also are 
 effigies of the thirtenth century. — Ed.] 
 
 2 I apprehend that the military surcoat, prior even to its being embroidered with the armorial 
 bearings of the wearer, was a garment used for distinction sake, and worn only by the principal officers 
 in the army ; and indeed the frequent appearance of the mail without the surcoat, in the drawings of 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may be thought to strengthen this opinion ; nor need we wonder in 
 the least that the monumental effigies, which of course were the representatives of distinguished per- 
 sonages, should rarely be divested of this garment. [The received opinion is that the surcoat was first 
 worn over the armour by the early crusaders to veil the iron from the heat of the Syrian sun, as well as 
 to distinguish the many different leaders in those expeditions. King John is the first English monarch 
 who is represented in a surcoat. A. D. 1199 . — Ed.] 
 
 ’ [Thirteenth. — Ed ] 
 
112 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 THE HELMETS. 
 
 The conical helmet of the Saxons, deserihed in a former part of this work,^ 
 was adopted by the Normans at the time of their establishment in England, with 
 the improvement of a small plate of metal added to the front which descended to 
 the bottom of the nose, and protected the upper part of the face from a cross blow 
 of the sword, and may properly enough be called the Nasal Helmet. There are 
 four specimens of the nasal helmet given upon the forty-third plate, one of which 
 is flattened at the top, and apparently ornamented with a circle, or diadem, enriched 
 with precious stones.^ 
 
 The Chap de Mailles, or mail cap, succeeded the nasal helmet, and was 
 worn over the chaperon, as we find it represented in great perfection upon the forty- 
 fifth and forty-sixth plates. 
 
 The Flat Helmet. I really do not know by what name more appropriate 
 to distinguish the head-piece, given at the bottom of the forty-fourth plate : I 
 mean the head to the left, where the part of the mail, which in other instances 
 forms the chaperon, in the present can be considered as a gorget only ; the inter- 
 mediate space between the gorget and the helmet is filled up with a hood of leather, 
 or some material apparently of equal substance, which covers the greater part 
 of the face and mouth itself entirely. This head-piece is copied from one of the 
 monuments existent in the Temple church at London. 
 
 The Cylindrical helmet occurs among the monumental figures in the 
 Temple church. It is flat upon the top, excepting a small ridge extending over 
 the surface ; it is rather larger above than at the bottom, from which an appendage 
 passes on both sides of the face beneath the chin, on purpose, I suppose, to keep it 
 firmly upon the head, and a small piece of metal in the front covering only the 
 upper part of the nose. 
 
 All these helmets, the chap de mailles excepted, were evidently made of metal 
 plates, either of brass or iron ; and in some instances they appear to be gilt.^ 
 
 ‘ Page 54. ^ See the figure to the left hand. 
 
 3 The helmet belonging to the middle figure, upon the forty-third plate, in the original MS. is gold. 
 The helmet, on the figure to the left, is enriched with a circle of gold set with precious stones : the 
 lower rim of the helmet, at the top of the same plate, is yellow ; and the helmet of the figure to the 
 right is blue. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 113 
 
 THE SHIELDS, SWORDS, SPEARS, &c. 
 
 The oval shields so generally used by the Anglo-Saxons were totally laid aside 
 by the Normans, who introduced others of a quite different form, which continued 
 in fashion for several centuries : they were broad and flat at the top, and diminished 
 gradually to the bottom, where they ended in an apex, or point. They were, 
 undoubtedly, of various sizes, but rarely smaller than the one we find represented 
 upon the forty-third plate, which is also bent round the body in a very singular 
 manner p for in general they appear to he flat or nearly so. 
 
 The Norman shields were often richly ornamented with gilded borders ; and, 
 towards the conclusion of the twelfth century, such of them as belonged to the 
 nobility were usually decorated with the armorial bearings, adopted by the wearer, 
 or appropriated to his family. 
 
 The Swords of the Normans differed little either in size or in form from those 
 of the Saxons. I shall only observe, that in general they appear to have been rather 
 larger towards the conclusion of the twelfth century. 
 
 The Spears. If we may judge from the spear-heads represented upon the 
 forty-third plate, and especially from that supported by the middle figure, we shall 
 not hesitate to say that they were considerably increased in size by the Normans : 
 their form also appears to be different from those of the Saxons ; and they are 
 rarely represented like them with a jagged part, or barb, at the bottom. 
 
 The Bow, as a weapon of war, was certainly introduced by the Normans and, 
 indeed, the elder William is said to have chiefly owed his victory at Hastings to the 
 skill of his archers. 
 
 If the Cross-bow was not brought into this country at the time of the 
 Conquest, it is certain that it made its appearance here soon after that period ; but, 
 as I have not met with the representation of it in any manuscript delineations so 
 early as the twelfth century, I shall decline entering any farther upon the subject 
 at present. 
 
 ‘ [This figure is from a MS. of the 13th century as I have already remarked : hut the semi- 
 cylindrical shield may be seen on the seals of Richard the First and others of the close of the 1 2th 
 century. — Ed.] 
 
 ° [It would be sufficient, perhaps, to say that the how had fallen into disuse amongst the Saxons 
 for some time anterior to the Conquest. — Ed.] 
 
lit 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 THE ECCLESIASTICAL HABITS OF THE ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES GENERALLY 
 CONSIDERED — INCREASED IN SPLENDOUR, AND ALTERED IN THEIR FORM. — ANECDOTE OF 
 
 W'ULFSTAN, BISHOP OF WORCESTER.'=^THE HABIT OF AN ARCHBISHOP. THE ADMISSION OP 
 
 ST. GUTHLAC INTO PRIESt’s ORDERS. THE HABIT OF AN ABBESS. THE HABIT OF A LAY 
 
 PREACHER, AND OF A PILGRIM. 
 
 From the middle of the eleventh to the close of the twelfth century, the 
 ecclesiastical habits of this country underwent several material variations : they 
 were not only composed of richer materials than those of the preceding centuries, 
 and more elegantly decorated with embroidery and jewels ; but they differed also in 
 their form, as may be seen in the various examples referred to in this chapter. 
 
 It is certain, that the habits of the clergy increased in splendour in proportion 
 as the love of finery became prevalent among the people at large. The reign of 
 Rufus is notorious for its luxuries, and for those especially that relate to dress. 
 
 this time,'’ says the editor of an old chronicle, priests used hushed and 
 breyded hedes, long tayled gowns, and hlasyn clothes, shinyng and golden girdelles, 
 and rode with gulit spurres with useing of dyverse other enormities.”^ The sumptuary 
 laws of Henry the First are said to contain some few restrictions relative to the 
 habits of the clergy, such as confining the external parts of them to one colour, and 
 reducing their shoes to a decent length, but these restrictions seem to have respected 
 those garments only that were worn by the ecclesiastics when they were not 
 employed in the performance of their religious duties, and may properly enough be 
 called their secular dress ; for, their official habits, especially such of them as 
 belonged to the prelates and other dignified clergy, were profusely rich, and decorated 
 with all kinds of expensive ornaments they were lined with furs, and those also 
 
 ^ Fabian’s Chron. in the life of Rufus. And this account is confirmed by Malmesbury, who assures 
 us, that neither the preaching nor the authority of Anselm could correct these vices. — De Gest. Reg. 
 Anglise, hb. IV, cap. i. 
 
 2 The regular hahits of the monks, the friars, and the nuns, were governed by the ecclesiastical 
 canons ; and, indeed, the only restrictive passage I find in the laws of Henry the First, respecting the 
 clergy, is in the fifth chapter ; which is thus expressed : De halitu et vestitu nihil legimus imjieratnm 
 divinitus ; qucB ad pompom sunt proliilentur. — Lambert de Legibus Anglorum. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 115 
 
 of the most expensive kind, as we may learn from the following curious anecdote 
 related by William of Malmesbury. This author, speaking of Wulfstan bishop of 
 Worcester, assures us, that he avoided all appearance of pride and ostentation in 
 his dress ; and though he was very wealthy, he never used any furs finer than 
 lambs’ skins for the lining of his garments. Being blamed for such needless 
 humility by Geoffry bishop of Constans, who told him that “ he not only could 
 afford, but even ought, to wear those of sables, of beavers, or of foxes,”^ he replied, 
 “ it may indeed be proper for you politicians, skilful in the affairs of this world, to 
 adorn yourselves with the skins of such cunning animals ; but, for me who am a 
 plain man, and not subject to change my opinion, the skins of lambs are quite 
 sufficient.” “ If,” returned his opponent, “ the finer furs are unpleasant, you might 
 at least make use of those of cats.” “ Believe me,” answered the facetious prelate, 
 “ the Lamb of God is much oftener sung in the church than the cat of God.” 
 This witty retort put Geoffry to the blush, and threw the whole company into a 
 violent fit of laughter. 
 
 The official habit of an Archbishop, as it appeared towards the close of the 
 twelfth century, is given upon the fiftieth plate of this work : the original delinea- 
 tion is executed with great care, and apparently with equal exactness. The artist 
 designed this curious specimen of his abilities for the portrait of Dunstan archbishop 
 of Canterbury ; but, from his total ignorance of the Saxon costume, he has substituted 
 that of his own time, and contented himself with copying faithfully the archbishop’s 
 habit as it appeared before him ; for, upon comparison, we shall find it differs 
 greatly from the dresses of higher antiquity already given,- not only with respect to 
 the richness of its adornments, but also in the form and adjustment of its several 
 parts. The mitre especially, which was flat at the top in the time of the Saxons,* 
 approaches, in the present instance, more nearly to the modern form, and is elevated 
 considerably above the head, where it terminates in two points. 
 
 The forty-eighth plate is taken from an ancient parchment roll, which contains, 
 in seventeen similar circles, the legendary life of St. Gutlilac :* this is the eleventh 
 circle ; and in it is represented Guthlac’s admission into Priest’s orders. He 
 appears to be kneeling before the altar, and holds the sacramental cup in both his 
 hands. The prelate, designed by the artist for the portraiture cf Hedda, bishop of 
 Winchester, is arrayed in the pontifical habit, and drawn in the act of bestowing his 
 benediction. The figures behind St. Guthlac are, I presume, the deacon, the sub- 
 
 ‘ Sabellinas, vel castorinas, vel vidpinas pelles. — Guliel. Malmesb. de vita S. Wulfstani, p. 259. 
 
 ~ See plates XXVI. and XXVII. ^ See the middle figure, plate XXV. 
 
 « [This 5IS. is of the early part of the thirteenth century. — E d.] 
 
 VOL. I. 2 H 
 
116 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 deacon, and others of the inferior clergy. The middle figure also of the forty- 
 seventh plate represents a priest in his canonical habit. 
 
 The habit of a Monk of the twelfth century is given upon the forty-seventh 
 plate, where the reader is referred to the figure on the right hand holding a book, 
 and pointing : the cowl, or hood, annexed to the external garment, is here repre- 
 sented thrown back upon the shoulders ; but the manner in which it appeared, 
 when it was drawn up over the head, may be seen at the bottom of the same plate. 
 The middle figure of the forty-ninth plate exhibits another monk, who was probably 
 of a different order, because we find a manifest difference in the dress of the two 
 figures ; the cowls, for instance, are dissimilar in their shape ; and the garments of 
 the latter are considerably shorter than those of the former. 
 
 The figure to the left, upon the forty-seventh plate, is the representation of an 
 Abbess, as she appeared towards the conclusion of the twelfth century. Her habit 
 is perfectly simple, consisting only of a long white tunic with close sleeves, probably 
 ijiade of linen ; and a black surcoat of equal length with the tunic, which she holds 
 up with her left hand for the conveniency of walking. The sleeves of the surcoat 
 are large and loose ; and the hood belonging to it is drawn up so as to cover the 
 back part of the head completely. 
 
 The figure holding a purse to the left, upon the forty-ninth plate, is habited in 
 a very singular manner, bearing little or no analogy to the ecclesiastical habits 
 appropriated to the present century ; but he is called a preacher in the original 
 manuscript, and for that reason I have given him a place in this part of the work. 
 He is reproachfully spoken of by the author as one of the hypocritical deceivers 
 of that time, who preached merely for gain which is indicated by the full purse 
 that he holds in his hand. This is probably the ancient habit of the lay-preachers, 
 a class of men not holden in the highest estimation by the monastic fraternities. 
 
 The Pilgrim’s habit, represented by the figure to the right upon the forty- 
 ninth plate, is exceedingly curious, being the earliest painting of the kind that 
 I have met with. His tunic is short for the conveniency of travelling ; but the 
 sleeves are wide and loose : his mantle is ornamented with a broad welt, or border; 
 it is fastened in the front, and reaches below the tunic ; it is composed of skins 
 dressed with the fur part outwards, and has the appearance of being lined : the 
 hood is thrown back, and his head is defended from the weather by a hat, which is 
 
 ^ Ttvo bisliops are represented in the act of reproving him, and those also that are listening to him; 
 the inscription opposite runs thus: hoc signifcat, qnod prelati ecclesice dehent prohibere falsos prcedicatores; 
 et maxime eos, (pd pro quccstu predicant. 
 
PART III. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE ANGLO-NORMANS. 
 
 117 
 
 however, by no means well fitted to it : he wears the coxalia, or trowsers, which 
 reach to his ancles, and are bound upon his legs by leg-bandages in the manner 
 already described ; ^ but his feet are entirely naked, agreeable to the ancient custom 
 of performing penance. A staff was the constant companion of these religious 
 itinerants : the one we see in the present instance is large enough to be rather 
 cumbrous than useful ; it is, however, pointed at the top, and appears to be 
 curiously decorated with carved work. 
 
 1 See page 41. [With the exception of the Pilgrim taken from the Cotton MS. Nero C. IV. 
 all the figures on plates 47, 48, and 49, are from MSS. of the early part of the thirteenth century. — E d.] 
 
 END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 G. NORMAN, PRINTER, MAIDEN DANE, COVENT GARDES 
 

 
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