CEN 
 
 AS 
 

 T H E U P-TO-D AT E 
 HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 
 
 IN TWO PARTS 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 
 PART ONE 
 
 GIVING RULES AND METHODS FOR WORKING HARDWOODS, WITH DESCRIP¬ 
 TION OF TOOLS REQUIRED, THE METHODS OF USING, AND HOW TO SHARPEN 
 AND CARE FOR THEM, INCLUDING SAWS, PLANES, FILES, SCRAPERS, 
 CHISELS, GOUGES AND OTHER WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO CHOOSE 
 HARDWOODS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES, AND HOW TO WORK AND PROPERLY 
 MANAGE VENEERS. THE PROPER USE OF GLUE, DIRECTIONS FOR PRE¬ 
 PARING GLUE, BLIND OR SECRET NAILING, HOW DONE AND HOW FINISHED. 
 HOW TO SHARPEN AND USE SCRAPERS OF VARIOUS FORMS, WITH ILLUS¬ 
 TRATIONS SHOWING TOOLS AND HOW TO HANDLE THEM PROPERLY, ETC. 
 
 
 PART TWO 
 
 TREATS ON THE FILLING, STAINING, VARNISHING, POLISHING, GILDING, 
 ENAMELING AND FINISHING ALL KINDS OF WOODWORK. IT ALSO TREATS 
 ON RENOVATING OLD WORK, RE-POLISHING, RE-VARNISHING AND WOOD 
 FINISHING GENERALLY. THERE IS A SHORT TREATISE ON DYEING WOODS 
 IN VARIOUS COLORS FOR INLAYING AND MARQUETRY WORK, WITH RULES 
 FOR MAKING STAINING, DYES, FILLERS, AND POLISHES OF VARIOUS KINDS, 
 FRENCH POLISHING, HARD-OIL FINISH, RUBBED AND FLAT FINISH, TREAT¬ 
 MENT OF HARDWOOD FLOORS, WAXING, POLISHING, SHELLACKING AND 
 GENERAL FINISHING OF HARDWOOD IN ALL CONDITIONS. 
 
 By FRED T. HODGSON, Architect 
 
 Member of Ontario Association of Architects , Editor of “National 
 Builder ,” and author of the “Modern Estimator and Contractors' 
 Guide'' “Modern Carpentry“Architectural Drawing 
 
 Self Taughtetc. 
 
 IT 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 
 
 
Copyright, 1904 
 BY 
 
 j. Drake & Co. 
 
 Frederick 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Some twelve or fourteen years ago, I prepared a 
 little manual on “Hardwood Finishing,” which became 
 quite popular, and to some extent remains so up to 
 the present writing. The little work, however, was 
 far from complete, and I have been asked by a large 
 number of woodworkers to extend the limits of the 
 work, or to reorganize and add more to the subject of 
 wood preparation. 
 
 After considering the matter, I was impressed by 
 the latter suggestion, as the title “Hardwood Finisher” 
 seemed to be somewhat misleading, as the intention 
 of the book was to give general instructions in 
 finishing woods of all kinds—hard and soft—and not 
 only making them ready for the varnisher and 
 polisher, but also to instruct the workman in the 
 latter process as well as the former. I have therefore 
 embodied in this new work a number of directions 
 for making and finishing the raw wood, making it 
 ready for the finisher or varnisher and polisher; and 
 have also given directions and formulae for mixing the 
 materials and applying them to the prepared wood. 
 
 It goes without saying, that to make a work of this 
 kind useful, it must contain much that has been 
 published before, and much that is taken from the 
 workshop and from the experience of workmen, 
 many of whom have given me their own methods of 
 working. I am also indebted to a number of current 
 journals, such as “Carpentry and Building,” “The 
 National Builder,” “Scientific American,” “The 
 
 5 
 
6 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Carpenter,” ‘‘The Woodworker,” ‘‘The English 
 Mechanic,” ‘‘The Painter’s Gazette,” and several 
 others, to whom I offer thanks for such matter as I 
 have made use of. 
 
 While the present work may not be as complete as 
 it might be, I have some reason to think it very much 
 superior to any work of the kind now in the market, 
 as it covers more ground, and deals with the subject 
 of wood-finishing in a more extended and complete 
 manner than any other work devoted to the subject 
 that I know of. However, be this as it may, every 
 effort has been made to obtain the best and latest 
 information on the subject and to put it in such a 
 form that the regular every-day workman may under¬ 
 stand what is intended to be conveyed. If I have 
 failed to make everything clear to the reader it is 
 because of the lack of ability on my part, not because 
 of desire to do so. 
 
 Fred T. Hodgson. 
 
The Up-to-Date Hardwood Finisher 
 
 PART ONE 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Wood is, and always has been, one of the most 
 important and useful materials that Dame Nature has 
 vouchsafed to bless humanity with, and the latter’s 
 necessities and ingenuity have made the best of the 
 circumstances. 
 
 It need hardly be said that Nature seemed to have 
 well understood the wants of her children and pro¬ 
 vided for them in a most liberal manner, for it is said 
 that nearly one-third of the earth’s surface is covered 
 by trees; all of which are, in some form or another, 
 contributory to the wants and pleasures of man. 
 
 The introduction of machinery for the rapid working 
 of nearly all kinds of intricate mouldings and shapes 
 of woodwork has, in a great measure, had a tendency 
 to elevate the taste of the whole community, though 
 I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order, 
 in the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among 
 our younger workmen, machinery having almost done 
 away with the necessity for the fine kinds of hand 
 and brain work. Fashion, which rules despotically 
 in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or lesser 
 degree, the style and finish of woodwork and, to a 
 certain extent, the kind of wood that must be used for 
 certain purposes. Thirty or forty years ago no other 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 wood than clean white pine would be permitted to do 
 service in a building. All woodwork had to be pine; 
 floors, doors, windows, even to the bath fittings. 
 Then Dame Fashion sent forth her decree and a 
 mixture of white and Southern pine was used, 
 followed shortly afterward by the abominable 
 mixture of ash, walnut and chestnut. Some architect, 
 who deserves well of his country, introduced all 
 walnut and all mahogany fitments; and at once people 
 of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its 
 superiority over the medley; and the fashion then of 
 finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. Wal¬ 
 nut was found too dark for general purposes and was 
 soon abandoned for the lighter woods; chestnut, 
 sycamore, ash, cherry, birch and oak were then tried, 
 but I believe I voice the opinion of a majority of 
 architects when I say that, with the exception of oak, 
 the light-colored woods were not successful, from an 
 aesthetic point of view, and it is on record that many 
 buildings finished in these woods have since had their 
 woodwork cleaned and stained to imitate darker 
 woods or have been painted. One of the valuable 
 qualities of white oak is, that it grows richer in color 
 as it gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so 
 long as the grain is visible, it mellows and improves 
 with age. This is a quality that no other of our 
 American woods possesses in the same degree. All 
 the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the 
 white oak (Quercus alba) possesses it more than any 
 other. Mahogany, too, has this quality largely, if 
 true Spanish mahogany is used, but little of this is in 
 the market; though there are many woods that have the 
 appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany, 
 such as cherry and black birch, and both buyer and 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 9 
 
 user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for what they do 
 not get. 
 
 Americans have often been reproached with will¬ 
 fully or ignorantly ignoring or destroying their own 
 handsome woods, while importing from abroad at 
 excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties, 
 foreign woods which are much inferior to many of 
 native growth. This folly prevailed at a time when 
 it was fashionable and even popular to believe there 
 was no merit in domestic productions of any sort. 
 This state of things, however, is now at an end, and 
 in the neighborhood of all large towns, and in country 
 places as well, a finish in hardwood is the rule, and a 
 finish in pine the exception, if the building to be fin¬ 
 ished makes any pretension of being “up to the times.’’ 
 
 With regard to the difference in cost between a 
 finish in the best clear pine, and the best selected 
 hardwood, there -is really but little, if any, if we take 
 into consideration durability and good taste. As 
 between pine wood and good, well finished hardwood, 
 the disparity in value and merit is so very little as to 
 completely silence any comparison. Between poor 
 pine and poor hardwood the preference should be by 
 all means given to the former; because poor pine as 
 it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a 
 manner to disguise them; whereas the defects of poor 
 hardwood are almost incurable. The rationale of the 
 subject seems to resolve itself into the following 
 statement: 
 
 Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the 
 free use of hardwoods. It is immaterial which are 
 used, but highly essential that the best seasoned woods 
 should be selected; and, further, that they should be 
 skillfully treated and finished, 
 
10 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 The principal recommendation of hardwood is that 
 it admits of a treatment which renders it impervious 
 to the effects of atmospheric changes and, therefore, 
 can be made more durable and ultimately less expen¬ 
 sive than pine wood. A hardwood that is well 
 seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers 
 to close up its pores, and then finished with successive 
 coats of suitable varnish, well rubbed in with pumice- 
 stone, being finally brought to a higher flat finish, 
 presents the most attractive, serviceable and reliable 
 style of woodwork than can be introduced into a house. 
 Well finished hardwood obviates the expense and 
 annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls 
 for in patching, puttying and painting. The most 
 brilliant gloss of finished hardwood can be restored by 
 a skilled person without disturbing the furniture or 
 carpets of a house. 
 
 Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably 
 adapted for cheap work. A good article of common 
 pine, suitable for ordinary work, can be procured and 
 worked at considerably less expense than would be 
 involved in using good hardwood. The use of poor 
 hardwood in any work should not be tolerated or 
 thought of under any circumstances, for the simple 
 reason that it is certain to create annoyance and 
 expense, which no house-owner, especially of moderate 
 priced property, should be subjected to. 
 
 Pine, however, is not the only soft wood that may 
 be used in house finishing, but it is the most popular, 
 because the most plentiful and doubtless the most 
 satisfactory to deal with. Basswood, poplar, elm, 
 whitewood, spruce and hemlock all make fairly good 
 finishing woods when properly selected and properly 
 treated; but, with the exception of elm, perhaps, all 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 ii 
 
 of them require to be either painted or stained before 
 a good finish can be obtained. Elm, black ash and 
 chestnut have all coarse grain, and are unsuited for 
 tasteful work, though all right for ordinary fitments; 
 and indeed may be used for kitchen or bathroom finish 
 in fairly good houses. Later on I will deal with each 
 one of them, and some other of our native woods at 
 length. 
 
 The present methods of hardwood finishing are 
 comparatively new, so far as the manner of operation 
 and materials are concerned; as I can find nothing 
 dating farther back than 1850 in the vast amount of 
 literature at my command that treats in any way 
 intelligently on the subject; true, there are methods 
 of varnishing, lacquering and French polishing given; 
 also treatment on finishing in wax, notably a small 
 pamphlet containing a treatise on “The Shining Up of 
 Woodwork,” dating as far back as 1809, and published 
 in London. This little treatise is the first to make 
 mention of a wood-filler being employed. The author 
 says that “the pores of the wood ought to be sealed up 
 with a mixture made of ground chalk or rotten stone 
 coloured like the wood, and mixed with glue water. 
 Cover the work to be shined up with the mixture, then 
 wipe off and when hard and dry, smooth off finely 
 with shark-skin and hair-clothe.” He then goes on 
 to show how to finish in wax or with shellac, as the 
 case may be. He says nothing of French polishing, 
 but gives directions for varnishing and rubbing down 
 with rotten stone. 
 
 To-day there are quite a number of works published 
 on wood-finishing, which shows how much interest is 
 taken in the subject. 
 
 The introduction of the modern methods of polishing 
 
12 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 finished woodwork has so reduced the cost of fine 
 furniture and elaborately finished woodwork, that now 
 the poor man may have in his house one or more 
 pieces of finely wrought work, as well as the man of 
 wealth. French polishing was a costly operation, 
 and made more costly because of the secrecy sur¬ 
 rounding the process. Experts were bound not to 
 teach others the process unless they were well paid 
 for it, and the pupil was compelled to take a solemn 
 oath that he would not divulge the secret or convey to 
 others the method, unless he was paid a large sum, 
 often as high as $100. French polish when well done 
 is certainly a fine finish, and while still costly, is often 
 employed in finishing high-class furniture and wood¬ 
 work in costly buildings, but its general use is rapidly 
 falling off; yet no wood-finisher is completely rounded 
 off unless he has thorough knowledge of the best 
 French polishing, and in the present work I purpose 
 giving a thorough description of this method, with 
 illustrations of the appliances made use of in the 
 process. 
 
 While it is not my intention to write a treatise on 
 the useful woods of America, I do not think it will be 
 out of place to describe a few of them, showing their 
 manner of growth, their peculiarities, durability, and 
 the uses they can be put to, with directions for working 
 and finishing them. 
 
 In every description of wood the elementary com¬ 
 position of the organic tissue is the same, but the 
 latter is found associated with very variable organic 
 elements, according to the species of the tree. 
 
 Pine trees, for example, contain turpentine, and oak 
 trees tannin. The combustible part of wood is this 
 same organic tissue. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 *3 
 
 The exterior characteristics of woods are very 
 different from one another. Thus certain wood is 
 soft and tender and of a loose tissue, whilst another 
 is hard and of a compact grain. Thence there is quite 
 .a natural division into two classes. The first includes 
 all the soft and tender woods, amongst which may be 
 mentioned the pines, white wood or plane tree, bass¬ 
 wood, poplar, etc. The second includes all the heavy 
 and hard wood, such as the oaks, maples, beech, birch, 
 cherry, walnut, etc. 
 
 When wood is first cut down as timber, it contains 
 from 40 to 45 per cent of water, but this quantity 
 gradually lessens until it is said to be thoroughly 
 seasoned, when it only contains from 5 to 7 per cent. 
 Moisture, however, is always present in wood, and as 
 it gets older, if exposed to the air, will take in from 10 
 to 15 per cent. It then becomes very hydrometrical, 
 and loses or absorbs water according to the state of 
 dryness or humidity of the surrounding air. 
 
 The density of wood, like that of all porous bodies, 
 can be considered in two different ways, and can be 
 looked for under its apparent volume. The only 
 method which can then be employed consists in form¬ 
 ing a block of the wood, the volume of which can be 
 easily measured, and then taking the weight of it. 
 The ratio of this weight to that of the same bulk of water 
 would be the density sought for. This density for the 
 same wood varies according to the degree of seasoning 
 it has had, and to the form and position of the fibers 
 in the sample. A block six inches square cut from 
 a knot, or burl, or a cross-grained part of a tree, would 
 be considerably more dense, and weigh more, than 
 would a block of a similar size cut from the same tree, 
 if it was straight-grained and uniform. 
 
14 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 It is the density of the harder woods that makes 
 them popular with wood-finishers. A hard, close- 
 grained wood requires little or no filler, and offers 
 better opportunities to the polisher than do the woods 
 of lesser density. 
 
 The use of nearly all kinds of hardwood in the 
 general finish of good houses, has completely taken the 
 place of using pine or other soft woods in wainscoting, 
 floors, doors and general fitments. The variety of 
 the woods employed in these finishings has greatly 
 increased within the last few years. How so many of 
 these beautiful and suitable woods could have fallen 
 into disuse within the present century is one of the 
 decorative mysteries of this period. Walnut, which 
 was the pioneer of the new departure, still remains in 
 use, where cost is no object, although its dull color 
 and unpolished surface are dingy and somber. It has 
 had its use, however, in directing attention to the 
 employment of solid woods, though it is now on the 
 retired list. Mahogany is at present in high favor, the 
 variety known as San Domingo mahogany being 
 especially rare and desirable. When new it has a 
 reddish yellow tone, which grows dark and rich with 
 age. The old wood is much in demand for use in 
 interior finishings and for furniture, and the genuine 
 old pieces are highly prized by their possessors. 
 Cherry is popular for common use, though at first 
 falsified by the red stain, which destroyed its natural 
 beauty and gave it no artificial excellence. Unstained 
 cherry has a yellowish brown color, polishes well, and 
 is excellent for interior woodwork, its moderate cost 
 making it available for general use, though now getting 
 very scarce. If any stain is required, it should be in 
 the dark tones resembling mahogany color. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 15 
 
 Black birch is one of the most beautiful native 
 woods, having a grain resembling that of mahogany, 
 and taking a fine satin-like polish. Unstained, it has 
 a warm, rich yellow tone, and its darkened finish can 
 hardly be distinguished from the more costly tropical 
 wood. Yellow birch, though less beautiful and costly, 
 is excellent in grain and color and is often used for 
 fine floorings. The different varieties of oak are well 
 adapted to interior uses, the wood being solid and 
 durable, while each year of wear adds a depth and 
 richess of color and a smoothess and polish to its dark 
 surface. It has a beautiful grain, and is a popular 
 wood for interior finishings and the floors of modern 
 houses. After centuries of wear this useful wood is 
 found in the houses of both humble and royal history 
 as black and smooth as ebony. Butternut resembles 
 oak in color, though not in grain, polishes finely and 
 takes a carved decoration well, and ash and elm are 
 often found as deceptive substitutes for oak, especially 
 in its darker or so-called antique stains. Rosewood is 
 one of the most beautiful woods in use, rich and deep 
 in tone and capable of a mirror-like finish. It is costly 
 enough to keep the merit of rarity. 
 
 Apple wood carves finely and polishes well, making 
 excellent panels; so also does the wood of the pear 
 tree. Maple is in high favor, bird’s-eye maple being 
 one of the choicest of the light-colored woods, and 
 especially suited to dainty and sumptuous uses. 
 Chestnut and ash are serviceable and inexpensive 
 light woods. 
 
 As these woods come into more general use, their 
 genuineness and elegance giving to the houses in which 
 they are placed one of the strongest assurances of that 
 permanency which is the best element of the new 
 
i6 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Renaissance, they will be more and more enriched with 
 ornament. And here it will be difficult to avoid the 
 besetting sin of abundant means and inartistic taste, 
 which unfortunately are so often found in company. 
 The honesty of material and the uses which it serves 
 should never be concealed under complex decoration. 
 Most hardwoods are beautiful enough in grain and 
 color to give lasting satisfaction, and for every-day 
 use no decoration beyond a touch of good carving 
 should be applied. Where something more sumptuous 
 is sought, carving and inlaying will make them elegant 
 enough to satisfy the most exacting taste, and when 
 properly varnished or polished no other method of 
 decoration can excel it in beauty or refinement. 
 
 I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary, 
 as it will enable the workman to have some idea of the 
 development of the art of joinery, and the transition 
 from the use of pine and the softer wood to that of 
 the hard wood. 
 
 In the following, it is my intention to take each of 
 the woods most in use; describe them, say what I 
 think they are best adapted for, and the best way to 
 finish them, as far as my knowledge extends. By this 
 means the reader will have, under one head, all the 
 book contains concerning the particular wood he is 
 about to finish. 
 
 THE BETTER WOODS TO MAKE USE OF 
 
 The wood most made use of at the present writing 
 for interior finish, is oak. It is made into doors, 
 sashes, stairs, base, cabinet cases, and wainscot. 
 
 The working of oak, particularly in the framing up 
 of panel-work, differs somewhat from ordinary pine or 
 other soft wood panel-work, inasmuch as the latter is 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 17 
 
 generally painted and picked out in two or more colors; 
 thus rendering it imperative to use sound stuff, and to 
 have the work above suspicion. The material is 
 generally so thin that the paneling should be stiffened 
 with stout canvas glued to the back, which is often 
 primed with red-lead paint to afford protection from 
 
 
 
 
 FiG. t 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 damp when the work is to be placed in a new building. 
 It is usual to frame up the work with stuff varying in 
 thickness from seven-eighths of an inch to one and a 
 quarter inches, finished sizes. In some workshops it is 
 not considered necessary to clean up the back of the 
 work, though I think it always best to dress down the 
 
i8 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 joints on the back, and true it up with plane and 
 straight-edge. All joints should be close and perfect, 
 and tenons and mortises should be in the center of the 
 stuff, and all should be well glued 
 together and left to dry before 
 fixing. 
 
 The panel-work shown in Fig. 
 i is framed with in. stuff, got 
 to thickness and widths as shown 
 in Fig. 2. The center framing is 
 mitered together at the corners, 
 which are further strengthened by 
 the insertion of a cross-tongue 
 joint, while the side rails and top 
 and bottom muntins are tenoned 
 and pinned like all the other ten¬ 
 ons in the framing. The moulding 
 stuck on the edges (or in the solid) 
 is not mitered in the same way as 
 for ordinary work (see Figs. 3 and 
 4); but the mitered corners are 
 worked as shown in Figs. 5 
 and 6, thus forming butt joints 
 with mason-mitered corners to all 
 moulded edges. These corners are 
 worked on the bench after the 
 paneling is glued up and cleaned 
 off. 
 
 The bottom rail is tongued into the skirting as shown 
 in Fig. 8, and the top rail meets the festooned frieze 
 board under the small necking mould as shown, the 
 frieze board being tongued to the dentiled cornice 
 also. This cornice is- double-dentiled, one row of 
 dentils being cut farther back than the other, as shown 
 
 Fig. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 19 
 
 in Figs. 7 and 8. As usual with built-up cornices, this 
 section can be worked on the four-cutter moulder or 
 on a spindle machine; the dentiling, however, being 
 
 best cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back of 
 the cornice, which is back rebated to receive the front 
 edge of the cover-board. The three flutes over the 
 top muntins have rounded-out top ends, and finish at 
 
20 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 the bottom on a splay; whilst the festoons are pref¬ 
 erably cut out of the solid, but are generally planted 
 on unless otherwise specified. 
 
 In fixing this class of work, which is, as a rule, 
 screwed up, all fixing screws should be hidden, or the 
 holes should be bored to take “corks” a little larger 
 than the screw head, and the “corks” should be cut 
 from wood closely matching that in which the hole is 
 bored. The framing must be fixed as true and upright 
 as possible (especially at external corners where 
 mitered vertical joints occur), and be well scraped and 
 cleaned down after the fixing is done. 
 
 The illustrations are reproduced to the following 
 scales: Figs. I and 2 are three-eighths of an inch to 
 the foot; Figs. 3 to 6, half full size; Figs. 7 and 8, one 
 and a half inches to the foot. 
 
 While it is not the intention to enter into the sub¬ 
 ject of joinery in this work, it will not be out of, place 
 to make a few remarks on the manner of doing some 
 odd jobs of work that are not generally discussed in 
 books of this kind, or if discussed, are not done so 
 with a view of showing how the wood should be pre¬ 
 pared for the polisher. The examples given in the 
 foregoing are only offered as an illustration of how 
 similar work should be prepared when made from 
 solid wood. Where the work is composed of material 
 “built up” or veneered, the manner of preparing it for 
 the finisher may be very different, but this I will dis¬ 
 cuss later on. 
 
 Suppose a column, or a pillar or spindle is required 
 having a spiral form 1 unless the workman is well 
 acquainted with tW method of laying out spirals, he 
 will be up against a proposition which he will find 
 difficult to oolve. To meet a condition of this kind, J 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 21 
 
 show the following method of setting out such work. 
 This example is intended to be prepared for the lathe, 
 but, of course, it may be executed without the aid of 
 a lathe, but in such case much patience and skill will 
 be required. 
 
 The sketch Fig. 9 shows the method of 
 setting out the twist or spiral. First turn 
 the wood round; then divide the circum¬ 
 ference into four with lines, as shown, 
 marked all the way down. Then, having 
 decided on the size of your twist—and the 
 same details apply to any size and depth 
 —mark the cross-lines, and then the diag¬ 
 onals, which you can easily do with a 
 twist of the leg in the lathe, and both sides 
 as shown by dotted lines. The gouge, 
 held in this direction, will follow the re¬ 
 quired twist. It is supposed the operator 
 is acquainted with lathe work to some 
 extent, and is aware of the methods and 
 appliances made use of in turning spirals, 
 and the sketch is only intended to instruct 
 him in the manner of laying out the spiral. 
 
 This will be found useful even in work 
 where the column, etc., is not turned in a 
 lathe, but is wrought by hand. 
 
 Handwork of almost every kind in 
 woodwork is rapidly going out of fashion jr l0> ^ 
 
 —more the pity—but now and again, men 
 are found who ihsist on having their work done by 
 hand, and it is well that every joiner should know how 
 to go about the work with intelligence when such 
 work is required. With this idea in view* I give here¬ 
 with a few instructions and illustrations to help the 
 
22 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 workman when he is confronted with problems such as 
 I have indicated. 
 
 Often dovetailing—an almost lost art—has to be 
 done by hand on some particular job or piece of work, 
 and, in order to prepare the workman for this pur¬ 
 pose, I offer the following instructions, and give the 
 accompanying illustration, which I think will materially 
 aid him in his efforts. 
 
 Dovetailing to a great many young workmen proves 
 a pitfall, yet, when the method of laying out the work 
 is once understood, it all seems easy enough. A 
 dovetail joint, if made properly, requires no screws or 
 nails, to hold it together or to bring the parts 
 down to a proper joint; but in order to attain per¬ 
 fection there are one or two points which must 
 be attended to when making this kind of joint. 
 First, the stuff must be faced up properly, using 
 the trying plane, on the flat surface. In passing, 
 I will just mention that in dovetailing, whether 
 boxes, drawers, or whatever is being made, the face 
 side is always the inside , and the face edge is the bot¬ 
 tom edge. 
 
 Another point which is often neglected is to put in 
 plenty of “pins” or dovetails. A very good rule for 
 ordinary work in soft wood is to space them not less 
 than ij^in., or more than 2^in., from center to center; 
 for hard wood, or for small work in thin wood, they 
 should be spaced closer still. 
 
 In setting out the pins, or rather the mortises in 
 which the pins have to fit, a half dovetail should be 
 placed at both top and bottom, as shown in Fig. io, 
 and the intermediate “tails” should be brought to an 
 extreme point as shown at B in the drawings—that is, 
 if neatness is an object; but if this has to give way to 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 23 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
 strength, then "tails” of the shape shown in Fig. II, 
 should be used. 
 
 The bevels of the "tails” should be as shown in the 
 drawings, and in no case should they be shaped as at 
 M, Fig. 14. If 
 made like that, 
 there would be 
 great danger of 
 the sides split¬ 
 ting off at E, 
 and although 
 this shape at 
 first sight would 
 appear to be 
 stronger than 
 the other, it is 
 really not so in 
 practice. Also if one, two or three, or even more 
 articles of the same size are being made, the dove¬ 
 tails need not be set out on one piece only. The 
 whole could be placed together-in pairs as shown in 
 
 Fig. 12, and the marks 
 squared over as shown, then 
 screwed in the vise together, 
 and all cut at once with a 
 fine tenon or back-saw, first 
 of all sawing all the pieces 
 off to exactly the same 
 length. 
 
 To mark the pins, screw one of the ends upright in 
 the bench vise, with the top end about half an inch 
 above the bench top, as at F, Fig. 13, taking care to 
 keep the face side toward the bench. Then lay one of 
 the sides on it, as at G, so that the squared-over marks 
 
24 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 on the edges of G coincide with the inside of F, as at 
 H. With the front end of the same saw as was used to 
 
 cut the “tails," 
 used as shown at 
 I, mark the po¬ 
 sition of each 
 one on the end 
 grain, and, be¬ 
 fore removing 
 the side board, 
 number each 
 piece as shown 
 in the figure so 
 that it is known 
 which pieces go 
 together. 
 
 All four corners of each job in hand must be done in 
 the same way, unless perhaps the work is for drawers or 
 where the front 
 only is required 
 to be dove¬ 
 tailed, although 
 particular no¬ 
 tice must be 
 taken that the 
 face side of the 
 vertical piece 
 must be towards 
 the bench, and 
 the horizontal 
 piece under¬ 
 neath; and in 
 
 addition remember that the face edges of both pieces 
 must always come together. These are the edges which 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 14 
 
 must be kept level while marking. Neglect of these 
 points is the reason of failure to produce good work 
 when making dovetailed joints. 
 
 In cutting the “pins” some regard must be paid to 
 the kind of wood being used; soft pine requires more 
 wood left outside the marks than oak or other hard¬ 
 woods, but tak¬ 
 ing ordinary 
 work in any of 
 the softer 
 woods, about a 
 sixty-fourth of 
 an inch clear on 
 each side of the 
 
 mark will be ample, leaving rather less at the two half 
 dovetails at the edges. 
 
 I should have stated before that in cutting off the 
 stuff for the ends of the box (or whatever is in hand) 
 about half an inch extra length should be allowed, and 
 in squaring across, this extra length should be given 
 to the pin at each end, to be cut when the job is put 
 together. 
 
 Before the pins are sawed down, the marks on the 
 
 outside (that is, 
 0 B f wherethey 
 
 come to a point) 
 must be squared 
 down as a guide 
 
 for sawing parallel with the edges of the boards. This 
 is a somewhat important part, and in Fig. 14 I have 
 endeavored to show how they should and should not be 
 cut. The “pin” K is parallel from point to heel, and 
 this is correct, but not easy to manage. The “pin” at 
 L is cut wedge-shaped, larger at the heel than at the 
 
 D 
 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
26 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 point, which is bad, being liable to split the boards, 
 and also to show a badly fitting joint outside. M is 
 cut slightly smaller at the heel than at the point, which 
 is a good fault—there is no fear of splitting, and, unless 
 overdone, a good fitting joint will result. N is cut out 
 of parallel, which is the worst of all, and must on no 
 account be done. 
 
 All the pins being cut, the spare wood must be cut 
 out, using very thin, sharp chisels. Some workers use 
 a bow saw to remove the spare wood between the 
 pins, but I do not consider it any advantage—the 
 chisel has to be used after, and it is quicker to remove 
 all the wood with the chisel at one time. 
 
 I must not forget to emphasize the fact 
 that it is necessary, in setting out, to use 
 knife or chisel for all cross lines, both on 
 the sides and ends. Pencil will not do 
 at all, if good work is expected. 
 
 Before putting together, each “pin” 
 must be slightly pointed on all three sides, 
 as shown in Fig. 15, so that they will enter freely, 
 without bruising the wood. 
 
 When putting together, the “pins” should be well 
 glued and the sides driven on at once, using a block 
 which is large enough to-reach quite across the whole 
 work. If this is omitted, splitting is apt to result. 
 
 I have not touched upon putting the work together, 
 as I do not think it necessary, because when the 
 dovetails and “pins” are properly cut, they will be 
 found to go together without any paring or cutting. 
 Indeed, dovetails of any kind requiring fitting before 
 going together may be put down as a botch job and 
 unfit to be further finished. 
 
 In this, I have dealt only with simple work, but 
 
 U3 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 27 
 
 there are other kinds of dovetailing, and I present 
 several of them below. 
 
 In the figure shown at 17, the end view of a “lap 
 dovetail” is represented, a style which is well known 
 to every joiner who is familiar with drawer making. 
 The method is the same 
 as described as regards 
 the sides, but the ends 
 of the front are gauged 
 on a certain distance, 
 which should, if possi¬ 
 ble, be the same as the 
 thickness of the sides, 
 and the dovetails are 
 stopped at the gauge mark. The method of marking 
 is the same as before, and the only difference is 
 in cutting the “pin,” which has to be done largely 
 with the chisel, as the saw can only be used to start 
 
 them with. 
 
 The appearance of the 
 
 “pins” when cut is shown in 
 Fig. 18, and those who can 
 do the ordinary dovetailing 
 will have no difficulty in mak¬ 
 ing the “lap” dovetail. 
 
 In Fig. 19 is shown what 
 is sometimes called “secret,” 
 but it is really double lap 
 dovetailing. One part is 
 
 done as shown in the figure, making the mortise's 
 the same size as the pins, and cutting them as shown. 
 The corresponding member is worked as in Fig. 
 
 17, the necessary marking being done as in Fig. 13, 
 
 and marking round point, then cutting them out with 
 
28 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 saw and chisel. The appearance of this when done is 
 shown in Fig. 20, which is the one marked A, at the 
 side, and Fig. 21, on the top edges; and as will be 
 readily understood, very careful work is necessary in 
 
 Fig. 19 Fig. 20 
 
 order to make a good job, and, presuming this, the 
 joint is as strong as the ordinary dovetail. 
 
 By mitering the top edges, as in Fig. 22, the 
 appearance of this part is as Fig. 23, and if done 
 properly is an improvement. It does not add much 
 to the difficulty of making the joint. 
 
 Secret dovetailing proper is a difficult job for any 
 but an experienced man to undertake, but I will deal 
 
 Fig. 21 Fig. 22 
 
 with it later on if space permits. It makes a good 
 strong joint if done well, and the appearance is the 
 same as a mitered joint. 
 
 Sometimes the end of the drawers, as shown in Fig. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 29 
 
 Fig. 23 
 
 23, is rounded off as shown in Fig. 22, and when such 
 is the case, the drawer projects from the face of the 
 framework as shown by the dotted lines. 
 
 In order to enable the workman to better under¬ 
 stand the whole theory of dovetailing, I present here¬ 
 with a couple of sketches 
 which show how secret lap 
 dovetailing maybe executed 
 in several ways. Figs. 19 
 and 24 show how the pins 
 and mortises are laid out 
 
 when the pins are simply no more than a square tenon. 
 
 Secret lap dovetailing is used for a great variety of 
 objects, such as sewing machine covers, instrument 
 cases, etc. Where the dovetails require to be hidden 
 it is not so important that the joint should be at an 
 angle, as the corners can be rounded up to the joint. 
 The difference between secret and plain lap dovetailing 
 is that in the secret method the pins are shortened 
 
 and the dovetails not 
 cut through, as shown 
 in Figs. 17 and 18, and 
 when put together, in 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Miter dovetailing, 
 Figs. 25 and 26, is a 
 much more intricate 
 operation, and calls 
 for greater care on the part of the workman. After 
 carefully planing up the wood to a thickness, first 
 gauge on the Inside only the thickness of the lap on 
 the end, remembering that the gauge for the lap will 
 also be the gauge by which the ends of the pins and 
 dovetails will be shortened, as shown in Fig. 27, where 
 
 Fig. 24 
 
30 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 the dotted lines show the manner in which each piece 
 must be rebated. After rebating, cut the pins, then 
 mark the dovetails and chop them out, after which 
 proceed to miter the laps on both pieces and cut the 
 
 flitre Dovetailing 
 
 miter across the edge, and, if neatly done, the joint 
 will go together at the first trial. 
 
 Bevel or splay dovetailing is much more difficult 
 than any of the preceding, and is not so generally 
 known. The required bevel being given, proceed as 
 follows: First joint the ends to the required bevel, 
 
 then, without changing the angle, joint the 
 bottom edge to the same bevel as the ends, 
 working from the inside. Now comes the 
 most important part of the operation. The 
 ends must be beveled on the thickness of 
 the wood. This is obtained by laying the 
 blade of the square on the beveled bottom 
 edge, then shooting the ends to the square, 
 Fig. 27 working still from the inside of the wood. 
 
 If this part is omitted, the result will be 
 that when the job is put together it will be not only 
 open on the inside but will not be level on the out¬ 
 side—more or less, according to the angle of the 
 sides. Gauge on the thickness of the wood as for 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 31 
 
 plain dovetailing. In cutting the pins, a center line 
 through these should be parallel with the bevel of the 
 bottom edge as shown in Fig. 28, and not cut square 
 to the inside of the job as in plain dovetailing. If 
 this be neglected, and the angle is much, the dove¬ 
 tails will be cut across the grain, and have no strength. 
 After marking the pin with a marking point, before 
 cutting the dovetails, mark them across the ends also, 
 parallel to the bevel of the bottom edge as in Fig. 29, 
 
 Bevel /dovetailing 
 
 and cut accordingly. I would strongly advise the 
 workman who has never made a bevel dovetail to try 
 it upon two pieces of wood, as more will be learned 
 from a little practice when the difficulties have to be 
 surmounted than from any amount of study. 
 
 The illustrations shown in Figs. 30 and 31 will 
 convey to the reader a better idea of lap and miter 
 dovetail than the previous ones. Fig. 30 shows the 
 finished corner, the face of the work being shown at 
 F. This may be rounded off if it is so desired. Fig. 
 31 shows a corner all ready to be driven together, 
 which will have a mitered lap. AA shows both front 
 and side; the shaded laps show the miters. 
 
 Another style of bevel dovetailing is shown in Fig. 
 32, where the pins are at right angles with the line of 
 
32 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 slope as shown at AA and BB. This style of dove¬ 
 tailing is well adapted for trays, hoppers and similai 
 work. All stuff intended to be used in bevel or 
 splayed work, that is to be dovetailed, must be pre ¬ 
 pared with butt joints before the dovetails are laid out. 
 Joints of this kind may be made common, lapped <■! 
 
 mitered. In making the latter, much skill and labor 
 will be required. 
 
 In making veneered doors there are a number of 
 different methods practiced by workmen, but it is not 
 in the province of this work to describe them all, or 
 indeed, any of them at great length, but when a 
 number of veneered doors are to be made at one time, 
 the following method, which is adopted in some large 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 33 
 
 factories, may offer some suggestions that may be 
 found useful: 
 
 The first operation is to take common coarse white 
 pine boards, with sound knots, and which have been 
 well kiln-dried, the stock used being generally 16 feet 
 long, Ixi2 inches, and surface it on both sides by a 
 Daniels planer without regard to thickness. Some 
 boards are thinner than others, while others are 
 warped in drying, and the thickness of the boards is 
 
 Fig. 32 
 
 immaterial, perfectly seamed surfaces only being 
 necessary. After the stock is planed it is.cut into 
 such lengths as the bill of doors calls for. They are 
 ready now to be glued up. The face board, of what¬ 
 ever hardwood is to be used, is planed generally to ^ 
 inch thick, and is also run through a Daniels planer. 
 The stock is now ready to go to the gluing press, and 
 as the Daniels planer makes the best gluing surface in 
 the world, no scratch planing is needed. After 
 properly heating in a box the stock is brought out and 
 carefully glued, the hardwood face parts being marked 
 for it. From three to five parts are put in the press at 
 
34 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 one time, and a pressure of 20 tons, brought down b> 
 screws, is put upon these parts. After remaining in" 
 the press the proper time they are taken out, and 
 generally remain several days before being worked up, 
 which gives the glue plenty of time to harden. When 
 ready to work again these parts are taken to a Daniels 
 planer and squared up, after which the parts are taken 
 to a very nice cutting table or bench saw, and are 
 cut up to sizes required, leaving them inch large 
 for future dressing. It is a positive necessity that the 
 saw cuts free and clear, as heating has a tendency to 
 warp the stock or spring it slightly, which would make 
 it necessary to dress the stuff again. If the saw does 
 not heat, the stiles come out perfectly straight, and 
 these stiles can be laid on a Daniels planer bed and a 
 light shaving taken off. They are now straight, and 
 if the saw table is in good condition, square; the other 
 side may be finished with pony planer or with a Daniels. 
 A Daniels is preferred, because it makes a better gluing 
 surface. The work is now ready for the veneering, 
 the thickness of which is immaterial, as it may vary 
 from the thickness of thin paper to inch. Heated 
 cauls are now used for the veneer, and the stiles, if 
 heated at all, are just warmed and the veneer glued on 
 by piling up with a hot caul between each stile. The 
 old-fashioned way of making veneered doors may do 
 very well when only two or three doors are to be made, 
 but In these days of sharp competition, manufacturers 
 are obliged to adopt the quickest methods compatible 
 with efficiency and good finish. 
 
 The doors or other work—for this method will apply 
 to wainscot or any similar work—should be placed in a 
 dry room for a day or two, when they may be finished 
 up and made ready for the polisher or varnisher. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 35 
 
 If first-class doors are required, it is always better to 
 b-uild up the stuff for the stiles and rails, and glue 
 them together before they are veneered. A white 
 pine door is about the only door that can be made 
 successfully from solid wood. In a house with, say, a 
 dozen doors, what other wood is there that will abso¬ 
 lutely hold its place during 
 a reasonable period? Cer¬ 
 tainly yellow pine will not 
 do it. A solid oak door is 
 a pest, and should not be 
 put in a house except un¬ 
 der written instructions. 
 
 Sycamore cannot be used 
 solid,and certainly neither 
 gum nor maple. Possibly 
 walnut or butternut might, 
 but who would think of 
 using them under present 
 conditions? 
 
 The door shown in Fig. 
 
 33 is an illustration of one 
 of the most serviceable 
 doors made. The section ; 
 of stile shown in Fig. 34 
 will give an idea of the 
 manner in which the stiles and rails are built up; the 
 veneer showing on the outside, also the panel. 
 
 Work of this kind may be used outside as well as 
 for inside, and no one need fear unpainted white pine 
 or oak for outside work. There is in Europe abundance 
 of woodwork, exterior and interior, that has not been 
 tickled by a brush in over five hundred years. All the 
 native Swiss cottages are unpainted on the exterior. 
 
 Fig. 33 
 
36 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 All of the half-timber houses of France, no matter 
 how richly decorated by the great artists of the chisel, 
 are unpainted, and we have known of work in white pine 
 and quartered white oak without the use of paint which 
 has been inexistence for centuries untouched by paint, 
 and time justified the experiment. Nothing is more 
 beautiful than the natural grain of the wood and its 
 natural weathering under a proper transparent finish. 
 It takes some courage to organize and push through 
 an innovation of this kind, and one is beset 
 by many warnings, but the beautiful result 
 justifies the effort. 
 
 The following method of making veneered 
 doors was described by H. T. Gates in “The 
 Woodworker” some time ago. It wilj doubt¬ 
 less be found of much benefit to workmen 
 employed in factories where veneered doors 
 are made in quantities. The hints and sug¬ 
 gestions are to the point, and the instruc¬ 
 tions are clear and may be readily under¬ 
 stood. The subject of veneered doors is 
 one that has often been discussed of late 
 and much light on it has been thrown, yet it will 
 not suffer, if the subject is again brought forward, 
 inasmuch as the various factories have particular ways 
 of their own of producing this rapidly growing popu¬ 
 larity in the door line. Instead of trying to lay down 
 any fixed rule, saying thus and so shall they be made, 
 let us consider some of the essential points which may 
 be adapted to suit each condition as the manufacturer 
 finds it. 
 
 I. Equipment.—Aside from the usual door-making 
 machinery, this consists of larger facilities for preparing 
 and applying glue, veneer press, resaw for veneers and 
 
 Fig. 34 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 37 
 
 panels (unless they are purchased from a dealer in 
 veneers), a warm room where the glue may be applied 
 and material gotten ready for the press. Unless the 
 factory is already supplied with a large kettle for 
 preparing glue, it will be found of advan¬ 
 tage to make a large copper kettle that 
 will fit the holes in the heater, but large 
 enough to hold three or four ordinary¬ 
 sized kettles of liquid glue. This can be 
 done by making it higher and wider about Fig 35 
 the flange, as shown in Fig. 35. In this 
 way sufficient glue may be made ready for a good-sized 
 batch of doors without fear of running out. 
 
 Of course, these remarks do not apply to the factory 
 having modern glue-spreaders, hand or power-feed, 
 which are very essential in strictly veneer establish¬ 
 ments. Our remarks apply only to the shop where 
 veneered doors are one of the many by-products, so 
 to speak, which accompany the usual line of mill 
 work. 
 
 For spreading the glue by hand, procure a 4-inch flat 
 wall brush and prepare it by pouring alcohol gum- 
 shellac into the roots of the bristles, and driving blind 
 staples into the butt end, as close 
 together as possible, thus preventing 
 the bristles from coming out. Have 
 a pair of “horses” about 3 feet high, 
 strongly made, and having an angular 
 piece on the top, to prevent waste of 
 the glue, and squeezing it off the work 
 at the bearing point—see Fig. 36. 
 
 Make the veneer press wide enough between the 
 uprights to permit of veneering a table top or wide 
 panel if needed, and have two rows of screws, so that 
 
33 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 two stacks of cores may be pressed at one time. A 
 strong press can be made with 6x6-inch maple 
 cross-pieces and ^6-inch round iron rods, with jambnuts 
 to hold the upper piece in place, having regular 
 
 veneer press screws at 
 least I 3 yi inches diam¬ 
 eter. The bedpiece 
 should be lagged up and 
 trued, so that it will be 
 straight and out of 
 wind. To prevent the 
 work from sticking to 
 '•the bed, it should be 
 covered on the top with 
 zinc or tin—see Fig. 37. 
 
 For resawing veneers 
 and panels, where there 
 is no band resaw, a 
 gauge (P ig. 38) and pressure roller (Fig. 39) used on 
 the band saw table, and ij^-inch saw in proper trim, 
 with right management should turn three or four 
 veneers out of inch stock, which may be applied direct 
 to the coring without dressing, as described later on. 
 
 To do a good job of gluing to advantage it is 
 necessary to have a warm 
 room, so that a large batch 
 of material may be worked 
 at one time. There are va¬ 
 rious other purposes to which Fig 38 
 
 this room may be put, but 
 
 to make a veneered door properly, without waste 
 material or lost time, a warming room is very essen¬ 
 tial. First, the parts of wood to be glued must be 
 thoroughly warm; also the temperature of the room 
 
 6x6 Map/e 
 
 tot 
 
 Bed 
 
 1 'Screws 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tin Cov, 
 
 6x6 Maple 
 
 Ten-77777-nr 
 
 £nd View 
 
 Fig. 37 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 39 
 
 where the work is to be done must be such as not to 
 chill the glue and hinder its spreading and making 
 good joints. 
 
 It is taken for 
 granted that our fac¬ 
 tory has a hand jointer, 
 pony planer, mortiser, 
 tenoner, sticker, door 
 clamp and drum Sand¬ 
 er. It is a question whether veneered doors can be 
 profitably made without the few essentials here enumer¬ 
 ated, and where they are made in quantities, special 
 machinery for spreading glue, cutting mouldings, 
 presses, clamps, panel-raisers, etc., will be needed. 
 
 II. Materials.—Dry coring is the first thing that is 
 required to make good doors. It is usual to cut up the 
 material and put it in the dry (or warm) room referred 
 to above, or in a dry-kiln, properly stacked, and leave 
 it there as long as possible to drive out every par¬ 
 ticle of dampness. All waste material of suitable 
 size and too poor to be used for any other pur¬ 
 pose may be used for coring. It is preferable to 
 have the strips wide enough so that when 
 Sotv S lued U P they may be split through the 
 Cut center to make two stiles or rails—see 
 Fig. 40—thereby saving much labor in 
 Fig 40 gluing, which item cuts quite a figure in 
 veneered door work. The stock sawyer 
 can lay aside such material from time to time and have 
 it stored as mentioned, so that there is a supply of 
 dry stuff to draw on when a batch of doors is wanted. 
 
 The glue for coring need not be of high grade, and 
 where quick preparation is desired, a ground or 
 pulverized bone glue will answer the purpose admi- 
 
40 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 rably. The men soon become accustomed to handling 
 the glue and it needs no soaking, as the flake or 
 noodle glue does. For veneering a medium grade of 
 hide-stock glue is to be preferred; one that is free from 
 acid, clear in color, and not too quick-setting. It will 
 pay to follow up the glue question more closely than 
 we usually have done to obtain good results with 
 economy. The glue for veneering does not want to 
 be too thick. Practice in the work makes the work¬ 
 man proficient in its preparation. It should flow freely 
 from the brush without being “tacky,” as the painter 
 would say. 
 
 The veneers and panels should be cut up and 
 resawed before they are kiln-dried. The ends should 
 be glue-sized, and they should be stacked straight and 
 even in the kiln. Those who have tried resawing kiln- 
 dried hardwoods, are aware of what a sorry job it 
 .makes; and how the veneers buckle, spring out of 
 shape, pinch the saw or make it run crooked. When 
 the saw has not too much set, the veneers may be 
 glued onto the cores wilhout planing, provided the 
 sawing is a good, smooth job. Care must be taken 
 in dressing veneers or panels, not to chip them out, as 
 that is ruinous in this class of work. 
 
 III. Construction.—The man who is doing this 
 work needs to be familiar with the work and its 
 methods to do it well and economically. Filling the 
 doors is the first work towards the desired end. A 
 list of the size, style, thickness of doors and kinds of 
 wood should be on each working bill, and follow the 
 material in its progress out of chaos into stiles, rails, 
 panels and finally the finished product. This bill 
 should include the edge strips, the width, length and 
 thickness of each bundle of cores, the finished size of 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 4i 
 
 the parts they are intended to make, and the number 
 and both the sawing and finished size of veneers and 
 panels. 
 
 After the sawyer has the material cut, and it is 
 thoroughly dry, the one who does the gluing assembles 
 the cores, puts them on the heating coil and prepares 
 his core glue; the pieces are spread on the horses and 
 given a coating of glue, assembled in batches, and put 
 into the press, the surplus glue being squeezed out by 
 this process, which includes putting the edge strips 
 on each stile requiring one. 
 
 After they have been allowed to set sufficiently, 
 they are taken to the jointer and the straightest side 
 trued up. If they are built-up for making two pieces, 
 they are resawed and again jointed and thickened to 
 desired size on the pony planer. 
 
 They are now ready for veneering. They are again 
 put in the warm room over the coils; when warm, 
 they are put on the horses as before, and spread with 
 glue on both sides; a bottom board is first laid and 
 then the veneers and cores stacked in regular order. 
 The veneers must previously be carefully looked over, 
 poor ones culled out, and any pin holes, porous spots 
 or checks covered by gluing a piece of paper over, to 
 prevent two stiles from being stuck together by glue 
 oozing through such spots. They are again pressed 
 out, and when dry, trued and sized to width. They 
 are now ready to be laid out, same as any blind-tenon 
 door. 
 
 The framing must be done in a first-class manner, 
 with true joints and tight tenons. In fact, all machine 
 work on veneered doors must be carefully done to 
 hav'e true work and tight joints. 
 
 Instead of putting the panels in when the doors are 
 
42 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 put in the clamps, the framework is glued together 
 with open panels, the stiles and rails being grooved, 
 and after the doors are polished and put on the 
 finishing bench, a panel strip is put in all around the 
 edge of each panel, to which the panel mould is glued 
 and nailed. The moulding is put in one side first, 
 
 panels laid in, and moulded the 
 other side, as shown in Fig. 41. 
 This arrangement prevents the 
 moulding from pulling away 
 from the stiles, should the pan- 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
 els shrink, and allows enough play for the panels to 
 keep straight with the natural working of the wood 
 in the changes of the atmosphere. There is advantage, 
 too, in gluing up the framework without the panels. 
 This cannot be done in the case of solid moulded doors. 
 
 The finish of a veneered door should be first-class; 
 the panels, moulds and framework well sandpapered, 
 and flat surfaces scraped smooth, as every defect seems 
 magnified when the filler and varnish are applied. 
 
 Special care should be taken not to scrape, scratch 
 or mar the face of the doors in shipping. Many a 
 good door has been injured by careless packing or 
 handling in shipping, after the cabinetmaker has 
 finished his job. They should be crated, if shipped 
 on a railroad or by boat, or they will not be worth 
 much on arrival at their destination. 
 
 Wedged Doors.—The day of the wedged door has 
 passed, and all modern-built houses contain what is 
 known to the trade as “blind-tenon doors.’’ The 
 “dowel" door is practically a blind-tenon door. In 
 plants where a set of dowel door machinery has not 
 been installed, the problem of making these doors 
 presents itself. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 43 
 
 The advantages of this door are the saving of lumber 
 on the rails, of time in laying out all stiles both sides 
 and mortising them from both sides, the neat appear¬ 
 ance of the stiles, especially on natural-finished work, 
 and the ease with which they may be glued together. 
 
 Several points must be kept in mind in order to 
 secure success. Let the stock sawyer cut all raih 
 
 exact, so the tenon will not touch the bottom of 
 mortise before the shoulder is tight 'at the coping. 
 The tenons should fit more snugly both sides and 
 endways than in the old way, to hold well and make 
 tight joints on the muntins. The glue should be 
 applied to the mortise in such a way that it reaches 
 the tenon, as well as the shoulders of rails and stiles, 
 to make a strong job of the gluing. 
 
 The cleaning out of chips from the mortise has been 
 a difficult problem, and it is not yet solved satis¬ 
 factorily. Chain-saw mortises obviate this, but they 
 have their faults, too. The “lip” chisels, Fig. 42, 
 clear out the loose chips, but leave the fine chips that 
 are pounded down by the action of the chisel, to be 
 removed. In order to do this, a long S-shaped chisel 
 with large wooden handle, Fig. 43, is used. The 
 blade is j^-inch wide, and tapers from o at the cutting 
 edge to Y or j^-inch at the handle. 
 
 This is a slow, laborious job. An easier method is 
 
44 
 
 THE UP TO-DATE 
 
 to use a twist drill bit in a horizontal boring machine, 
 leaving the arbor in a fixed position and moving the 
 stiles back and forth, both lengthwise and sidewise, 
 by hand. The bit should not be quite as large as the 
 mortise, so as not to enlarge it and make the tenons fit 
 
 Fig. 43 
 
 too loosely. Straight-flute bits, double-pointed bits, 
 flat pieces of steel sharpened on edges and points, and 
 various other patterns of cutters have been tried, and 
 drills give the best satisfaction; only, they are easily 
 broken. 
 
 The doors should be framed and stood in a hot room 
 for about a week, to dry out. When ready to glue 
 together, they are warm and do not chill the glue as it 
 is applied. The kind of glue has much to do with the 
 rapidity with which doors may be glued up. Expen¬ 
 sive glue is not required for this work, but a strong, 
 quick-setting glue is needed, so that the doors do not 
 have to remain too long in the clamp, thus retarding 
 the work. A light-colored glue, having had a sufficient 
 quantity of oxide of zinc mixed with it by the glue 
 manufacturer, is the kind required. Using this, the 
 man at the door clamp can take them out of the 
 clamps about as fast as he can properly apply the glue, 
 without their springing apart at the joints so as to 
 require small clamps to hold them. 
 
 Bear in mind, in making blind-tenon doors, you 
 must have good machine work, dry lumber, snug fit 
 to tenons, quick-setting glue, all applied in a good, 
 sensible manner. The kinds of wood and styles of 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 45 
 
 doors both affect the resuits obtained, and must be 
 made the subject of study in order to succeed. 
 
 A good tool for rubbing out the surplus glue after 
 the veneering has been put in place is shown in Fig. 
 44. The rubbing part may be made out of an old plane 
 iron, or from a worn-out scraper. 
 
 THE CHOICE AND USE OF GLUE 
 
 Glue is an article which plays an important part in 
 carpentry. It is therefore to the interest of all to know 
 how to choose a 
 good article, and 
 also how to use it 
 properly for vari¬ 
 ous kinds of work. 
 
 First, as to how 
 to recognize a good 
 article. It is really 
 useless to recom¬ 
 mend Russian, Scotch, French, etc., as there are good 
 and bad qualities of each, and we make as good glue 
 in this country as anywhere in the world. Neither 
 does the test of looking through the cakes at the 
 light, and choosing those of only a bright color, 
 apply in all cases, although it is .a fairly' good test 
 with thin glue, that is, glue which is sold in thin 
 cakes. The best test which the writer has found is 
 to break a cake into two or three pieces, either by 
 forcibly bending it, or by striking with the hammer. 
 If the fractures present a smooth, even surface, the glue 
 is poor in quality; but if, on the contrary, they pre¬ 
 sent a ragged appearance, leaving any amount of 
 sharp splinters, it is evidence of good quality, and may 
 
46 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 be depended upon. The latter is to be preferred, as 
 being best able to stand the damp weather without 
 going mouldy and perishing. 
 
 The best way to prepare glue for use is to break up 
 sufficient to fill the inner vessel of the glue pot into 
 small pieces, and fill the vessel with water. After 
 soaking a few hours, the outer vessel can be filled with 
 water, and allowed to boil. When this takes place, 
 give the contents of the inner vessel a good stir 
 occasionally until all is melted, when the glue should 
 run off the brush freely, and be almost as thin to all 
 appearances as good linseed oil. 
 
 In glueing up joints of any description, or in repair¬ 
 ing furniture, the great object is to get the wood into 
 as close contact as possible before the glue begins to 
 set; and the best way to manage this is to put on plenty 
 of glue, boiling hot, and by means of pressure or by 
 rubbing the parts together, to rub out as much as 
 possible. The general idea is that a certain amount of 
 glue must be left in a joint, and that it will hold best 
 if it is reasonably thick. Greater mistakes were never 
 made. The thinner the better, and the less left in the 
 stronger the joint will be; therefore it follows that 
 unless the parts to be joined fit closely together, a 
 strong joint is impossible. 
 
 The glue pot must be kept free from dust and damp, 
 as glue which goes mouldy, or gets mixed with foreign 
 matter, is useless; therefore, unless it is used fairly 
 often, only a moderate quantity should be made at 
 one time. 
 
 The outer or water vessel of the glue pot should be 
 large, so as to be capable of holding enough water to 
 keep the glue hot long enough for any reasonable job. 
 A small water vessel is a continual nuisance, owing to 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 47 
 
 its continually boiling dry when making glue, and 
 failing to hold the heat when using it. Therefore, 
 when purchasing, do not get one which holds less than 
 a quart of water at the least. The extra cost will be 
 saved in a very short time. 
 
 For large establishments where much glue is 
 required, special appliances are provided, and may be 
 obtained from most dealers in plumbers’ goods. 
 
 For glue to be properly effective it requires to 
 penetrate the pores of the wood, and the more a body 
 of glue penetrates the wood, the more substantial the 
 joint will remain. Glues that take the longest to dry 
 are to be preferred to those that dry quickly, the slow- 
 drying glues being always the strongest, other things 
 being equal. For general use no method gives such 
 good results as the following: Break the glue up 
 small, put into an iron kettle, cover the glue with 
 water and allow it to soak twelve hours; after soaking, 
 boil until done. Then pour it into -an airtight box, 
 leave the cover off till cold, then cover up tight. As 
 glue is required, cut out a portion and melt in the usual 
 way. Expose no more of the made glue to the 
 atmosphere for any length of time than is necessary, 
 as the atmosphere is very destructive to made glue. 
 Never heat made glue in a pot that is subjected to the 
 direct heat of the fire or a lamp. All such methods of 
 heating glue cannot be condemned in terms too severe. 
 Do not use thick glue for joints or veneering. In all 
 cases work it well into the wood, in a similar manner 
 to what painters do with paint. Glue both surfaces of 
 your work, excepting in case of veneering. Never 
 glue upon hot wood, as the hot wood will absorb all 
 the water in the glue too suddenly, and leave only a 
 very little residue, with no adhesive power in it. 
 
48 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 REMARKS ON VENEERING 
 
 A wood suitable for veneering requires to be 
 thoroughly well seasoned, free from knots and shakes, 
 and should not contain turps. The best of woods for 
 the purpose are mahogany and American walnut, 
 although good pine answers well for ordinary purposes. 
 The surface, if flat, is carefully planed with the 
 trying plane. It is then well toothed over with the 
 toothing plane—first the lengthways of the wood and 
 afterward the crossways—care being taken to tooth 
 the work thoroughly. If you are working pine, use a 
 coarse toothing iron; if mahogany or other hardwood, 
 a finer iron is requisite. If the wood presents a 
 hollow or rounded surface, it is shaped with suitable 
 planes, rasps and files, and finally well prepared cross- 
 ways with coarse glass paper such as strong No. 2 or 
 No. 2 x / 2 . 
 
 The next preparation is sizing. To make the size, 
 take one part of good glue and boil it well with 50 
 parts of water; then brush over the ground-work while 
 hot; allow to dry, and, if there should be any defects 
 in the ground-work, fill in with stopping. Make your 
 stopping by mixing some finely ground plaster of Paris 
 with hot glue and water, enough to form a moderately 
 stiff paste. Then lay in where necessary with a chisel, 
 taking care to allow for shrinkage; let it dry, then 
 level off with a rasp. 
 
 Having sized the ground-work over, next proceed to 
 the preparation of the veneer while it is drying. 
 Look carefully to the wood before cutting it, and see 
 that it is done in such a manner as to get the grain of 
 it to the best advantage. Cut it rather larger than the 
 surface it is intended to veneer, to allow for leveling 
 at the ends and sides. Most veneers, such as mahog- 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 49 
 
 any, oak, chestnut, maple, sycamore, birch, satinwood 
 and various other woods, are ready for cutting as 
 received from the merchant; but some, like burr 
 walnut, brown oak, Amboyna, etc., present an uneven 
 surface, called “backly.” When this is the case, 
 damp one side with clear water, lay it down with its 
 dry side upward, and put the wet side of the next 
 veneer upon it, repeating the operation till all are 
 done. Take particular care to keep each veneer, if 
 there are more than three or four, in its proper order 
 as you damp and turn over, and do not on any account 
 get them mixed. Let the wood stand about four or 
 five hours, then lay them out to allow to nearly dry 
 and they will be ready for cutting out. 
 
 The next process is flatting. Get two pieces of 
 wood (dry, straight pine will answer), rather longer 
 than the veneer, and heat them on a stove or before a 
 bright fire; then place the veneer together between the 
 hand screw, and allow it to remain for about half an 
 hour; repeat this operation until the veneer is perfectly 
 dry and thoroughly flat. 
 
 Our wood is now ready for filling in. If it is per¬ 
 fectly sound this operation is, of course, unnecessary; 
 but it frequently happens, especially with burr walnut, 
 that it contains holes that require filling. To do this, 
 take a piece of the veneer (off the edges of that 
 already cut out), and flat it precisely as the other. 
 Select the part of it which matches best with the grain 
 of the wood around the hole to be filled in. Place this 
 underneath the hole. If you have a stamp rather 
 larger than the hole, you may now cut it square or 
 circular and the piece for filling it at the same time. 
 If not, take an ordinary pocket knife having a sharp 
 point and cut your hole and veneer the required shape. 
 
50 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 When you have filled in the wood, lay it on a flat 
 board, then press the piece in with a hammer. If 
 they are rather large use one or two finely pointed 
 tacks to keep them in position. Now cover all the 
 pieces with strips of paper, selecting a strong paper 
 such as copy book or note paper for the purpose—one 
 that is not too thick-—and glue it on one side. Take 
 care to use glue just thick enough to hold the wood in 
 position. Pay particular attention to this, or it will 
 cause a good deal of trouble. You will find it best to 
 cut the paper in strips about to I y 2 inches wide. 
 Lay it on a board to glue and smooth it over your 
 veneer with a damp rag. 
 
 Jointing.—We now procee to jointing. Place the 
 veneer in the position it will appear when laid. 
 Observe that it matches. If you are to have one joint, 
 with two veneers or two joints with four veneers, see 
 that the grain of the wood forms a figure having both 
 sides alike. If the veneers have b en kept in their 
 right or following order, this will not be difficult. If 
 you are working a thick veneer (saw cut), make the 
 joints with an iron plane or ordinary trying plane on 
 the shooting board; if using thin veneer (knife cut), 
 make them with a chisel and straight-edge. Take 
 particular care to have the bevel edge of the chisel 
 against the straight-edge when cutting or it will run, 
 and you may come off with an ugly cut. Now put the 
 jointed edges together on a deal board, and tack one 
 edge down; put the tacks about ^ inch from the 
 jointed edges and about 2 y 2 inches apart. Having 
 tacked one piece down, put the other up to it and tack 
 it in the same manner. Now cover all the joints with 
 paper, glue together in the same manner as prt 
 viously mentioned in the filling in; smooth it well down, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 Si 
 
 with a damp rag and allow to dry. If the weather is 
 hot it is best to cover your joints to prevent them 
 drying too quickly. A good and simple method is to 
 lay your board with the veneer downward on the floor. 
 Let the joints dry, then take out the tacks and knock 
 the head holes in with a hammer from the underneath 
 side. Put the veneer aside until you are ready for 
 laying it. It is best to cover it up and keep the air 
 from it by placing it under a board or wrapper. 
 
 There are two ways of laying veneer—by means of a 
 caul or a veneering hammer. I shall describe both 
 methods, although the first is of greater importance, 
 and should, whenever practicable, be adopted, but in 
 certain cases which I shall mention the second is 
 extremely useful. 
 
 Veneering by Caul.—First make a caul, then take a 
 piece of well-seasoned cedar or pine, rather larger than 
 the surface intended to cover (about 1 inch to 1 % 
 inches each way), and plane it up true on both sides, 
 if the work is flat. If otherwise, make it to the 
 requisite shape to fit the work, hollow, round, or 
 whatever it may be. If it is necessary to shape the 
 caul, use thicker stuff, and it is advisable to screw on 
 two or three battens on the back. When making 
 shaped cauls it is best at the same time to get out the 
 pieces of wood necessary to form a flat surface when 
 the wood is put in the caul. Thus, suppose we wanted 
 to veneer a door having a rounded surface on one 
 side and a hollow one on the other. We have made 
 a hollow caul to correspond with the rounded surface 
 having its under side flat. Now put the rounded side 
 of the door in the caul and shape your piece of wood, 
 rounding it to fit the hollow side. They should be 2 
 inches wide—the same width or a little larger than the 
 
52 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 caul, and 5 inches or 6 inches apart. If one side only 
 of the wood is shaped these woods are unnecessary. 
 If the wood is not wide enough, make a good joint, 
 dowel it together, and take it to pieces for heating. 
 The caul, if likely to be much in use, should '.be 
 covered with zinc. Cut the metal out large enough 
 to cover the face of it, with sufficient to turn over the 
 edges and ends, and fasten it on with flat-headed zinc 
 or copper nails. 
 
 Numerous failures in unaccustomed hands may be 
 ascribed to bad glue. Nothing but the very best glue 
 should be used for veneering. Get the very best 
 glue you can, break it up and boil thoroughly. It 
 differs so much in strength that the proportion of 
 water cannot be given, but after breaking up in pieces 
 just cover with water and allow it to soak; then boil 
 off with frequent stirring. It will, if good, now 
 require about half as much water as previously added 
 to bring it to the right consistence for veneering. It 
 should be spread evenly with the brush and be free 
 from lumps. Having made the caul and prepared the 
 glue, get the hand screws and cramps to commence 
 laying. Heat the caul on a stove or before a bright 
 fire. If it is to be doweled together, and if it is more 
 convenient, take it to pieces, taking care to mark your 
 joints first. If you intend laying two similar pieces of 
 veneer on flat surfaces, heat both sides of it and do both 
 pieces together. If not, get one side of it well heated, 
 as hot as you can without letting it burn. While it is 
 heating, set the hand screws and cramps open as near 
 the distance as you will require them, and place handy 
 for the work. Now glue the ground-work well, and 
 if the veneer shows any signs of being backly glue it 
 slightly on the underneath side, as this will help to 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 53 
 
 soften it. Having finished gluing, put the veneer on 
 the work and smooth it over gently with the hand. 
 Then see that the caul is hot enough, and that its 
 surface is free from any small cinders or dirt. Now 
 rub it over with a greasy rag, and lay it gently on your 
 veneer. Draw the work and caul a little over the edge 
 of the bench, just enough to get the hand screw on; 
 put it on very gently, then tighten as much as 
 possible. You can then stand it upon the floor, and if 
 you have nobody to hold it for you rest the hand screw 
 against the bench while you put on the remainder. 
 They should be placed about 6 inches apart, and mind 
 that they bite fairly. Do not get any screws tighter 
 than the other, or you will only get the pressure at the 
 outside and inside of the cramps. If you have a piece 
 of work so wide that the screws will not reach the 
 center from either side or the ends, get two pieces of 
 wood 2 inches or 2 y 2 inches thick and about the same 
 thickness, plane them up, slightly rounding on one 
 side, put their rounding sides facing each other on the 
 work, and hand screw them at each end; they will 
 then tighten in the middle and give sufficient pressure. 
 Let the caul remain on for nearly an hour (in very hot 
 weather longer will not hurt), then undo the hand 
 screws, and if the caul sticks, insert the edge of a thin 
 metal square, the back of a hand saw, or anything of 
 a similar nature, between it and the veneer, and work 
 it carefully about until you get them apart. If the 
 glue has been used thick enough and the caul well 
 greased, there will not be very much trouble, and they 
 will often come apart themselves, or by giving the end 
 of the caul a tap with the hammer, or on the end of the 
 bench. See that the veneer is down. Feel it all over 
 with the hand. If it is up you will be able to tell bv 
 
54 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 the hollow sound on tapping it with the tip of your 
 finger, as well as by the raised appearance called blisters 
 it will present when held to the light. If you heat 
 your caul sufficiently, use the glue thick enough, and 
 put the hand screws on properly, you will not be 
 troubled with blisters. Should, however, there be 
 any, let the work stand for one or two hours, and then 
 put a smaller hot caul on when required until well 
 down all over. 
 
 To level the veneer, first lay it (veneer downward) 
 on a board and scrape off with a chisel as’much of the 
 glue that has come over the edges as you can. Now 
 put it on the bench screw, and level toward you, with 
 the paring chisel if thin veneers; if thick, use a 
 smoothing plane. Put it aside to dry. If you have 
 two pieces of the same size put them with their veneer 
 sides together; if only one, place it so that the air 
 does not get to the veneer; allow to stand for two or 
 three days, then scrape off the paper for filling in 
 pieces and jointing with a chisel, having previously 
 damped it with hot water. The work is now ready for 
 sizing. This operation may be dispensed with, but it 
 is decidedly advantageous, especially if working wood 
 which has an open grain. The size,-which should be 
 about the same strength as that used for the ground¬ 
 work, is brushed or rubbed over the veneer with the 
 hand, then wiped off as dry as possible with a cloth. 
 
 As has already been mentioned, this method is useful 
 in certain cases. We sometimes want to veneer an 
 edge, to put a narrow slip of veneer on some small 
 surface where it would be very inconvenient to caul it 
 down. If you are working a wood of a glossy or 
 greasy description, like satinwood or rosewood, its 
 nature will not admit of sufficient pressure by this 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 55 
 
 process, nor should it ever be adopted for work 
 where water will act injuriously. I believe the pre¬ 
 vailing opinion is that veneer requires a good deal of 
 water to make it lie. In the first process, you will 
 remember that it is laid quite dry. In the second 
 process water is used, and if we consider that a damp 
 surface tends to cause the wood to cast as it dries, we 
 can readily understand where it should be used. 
 
 Veneering Round and Tapering Columns.—Occasions 
 often arise where it is desirable to veneer columns of 
 varying size and shape, and just how to do the work 
 to the best advantage is a question not always readily 
 determined by the workman. 
 
 In commenting upon this 
 matter a well-known author¬ 
 ity offers the following sug¬ 
 gestions concerning tapering 
 columns: 
 
 “The success of this work 
 depends entirely on the 
 proper cauls. The spong¬ 
 ing and gluing is the same as the work previously men¬ 
 tioned. Take a circular column 3 or 4 inches in diameter, 
 the core to be made of any suitable material. Pass a 
 piece of paper around the core and make a straight 
 joint through the center and we have the exact size of 
 the veneer. A caul of tin with a cleat on each end for 
 the purchase of the hand screws is to be made as in Fig. 
 45, leaving the top open for an inch or more to give the 
 glue a chance to escape. Apply the glue to the core and 
 pass the veneer around it, not forgetting, however, to 
 sponge the veneer before doing so. After screwing 
 together, put the whole in the steam box to warm up the 
 stiffened glue. After the work has become thoroughly 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 56 
 
 warm, take it out and give the hand screws a few turns, 
 then lay it aside until the glue is set. Take off the 
 hand screws and dispense with the tin cauls. The 
 
 ends may then be 
 brought together, as 
 shown in Fig. 46, only 
 the caul on the joint is 
 to be heated. 
 
 “Fig. 47 is a tapering 
 column. The work is 
 the same as above de¬ 
 scribed, only the shape 
 of the veneer is differ- 
 Fig. 46 ent, which may begot 
 
 either by passing paper 
 around, trimming on both ends and making a straight 
 joint in center of column, or by laying out the diagram, 
 as in Fig. 48. In explanation thereof, let A, B, C, D 
 represent the column 
 in question. To find 
 the shape of a veneer 
 to pass around this 
 column extend AB 
 and CD to E. With 
 the radius EC and 
 ED, describe the arcs 
 CF and OH, which 
 will be the required 
 shape, and the dis¬ 
 tance AF and IH will 
 pass half-way around, 
 and the veneer requires to be cut as large again to 
 pass all around the column. Under no circumstances 
 make more than one joint. By following the instruc- 
 
Cr> 
 
 HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 Fig. 48 
 
53 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 tion herein given any fair mechanic will be enabled to 
 execute a creditable piece of work.” 
 
 In veneering small work, such as picture frames, 
 clock stands or similar work, cauls should be reverse 
 of the moulding or face of the work to be veneered, 
 and the top of caul, when laid on the moulding, should 
 be parallel with the under side of the work, so that 
 caul and work can be gripped firmly with hand screws, 
 when the veneer is being glued in place. 
 
 The section shown in Fig. 49 is known in the trade 
 as a plain chamfer, and Fig. 50 shows a method by 
 which such a frame maybe veneered 
 without taking it to pieces. Veneer 
 yi inch thick can only be laid with 
 cauls; and a suitable one is shown, 
 and also the method of fixing it. 
 The dotted outline of the caul is 
 shown in section in Fig. 49, with the 
 veneer between it and the base. If 
 the frames are polished, remove 
 the polish carefully with a sharp scraper; avoid work¬ 
 ing the surface into holes, but leave it rough from the 
 scraper. Cut the veneer to a width that will allow 
 sufficient margin for beveling, as shown in Fig. 49, 
 and tooth or scratch the under face with a saw. Joint 
 the inside edge to a correct bevel, cut to a miter and 
 joint the ends in a miter joint, bedding the veneer 
 either on a piece of the moulding or on a waste piece 
 chamfered to the same angle; this is to obtain a vertical 
 face to the miter. Next prepare the caul (as shown 
 in Fig. 49) out of a piece of deal. The caul should be 
 }{\nch shorter than the veneer, and mitered at each 
 end; not cut square as shown in Fig. 50; which is 
 drawn thus for clearness. Make the caul slightly 
 
 A 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 59 
 
 round in length and beveled, so that the two surfaces 
 marked AB (Fig. 49) are parallel. Well glue the 
 veneer and the frame, lay the veneer in the proper 
 position, place a strip of paper on the surface of the 
 veneer, and lay the caul (preferably hot) upon this 
 paper and fix with hand screws as shown, the more 
 screws the better. Take care that the inside edge of 
 
 the veneer is flush with the edges of the frame. Pro¬ 
 ceed to fix the opposite side in like manner; then 
 wipe off the superfluous glue with a rag dipped in hot 
 water, and wash the miters clean; then fit in the two 
 end pieces, which can be fixed in the manner described 
 for the sides. Allow twelve hours to dry, then clean 
 off the back edges and scrape up the faces. 
 
 MAKING READY FOR POLISHING 
 
 If the workman who finally finishes woodwork had 
 the selection of the materials out of which the work 
 
6o 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 is formed* and wrought the work himself, the follow¬ 
 ing suggestions would scarcely be required, for he 
 would see to it that the material was free from shakes, 
 cracks, worm holes, doze, sap and fractures; and he 
 would so choose his material that the full beauty of 
 the grain would show, when the polish coat went on. 
 He would also see that the work was clea?i; that is, 
 that no plane marks were visible, no rough spots or 
 cross-grains noticeable, and that all angles were sharp 
 and definite, all mouldings smooth and not a nail head 
 or screw top to be seen, nor any point that could 
 suggest a nail head. As a rule, however, the work¬ 
 man who puts on the last finishing touches never 
 makes the work, though he is always expected to 
 cover and hide all the faults of bad workmanship, bad 
 selection of timber, and a thousand other objection¬ 
 able things in connection with work over which he 
 has had no control. In order to aid the finisher as 
 much as possible, I give a few hints herewith, for the 
 use of the workman whose duty it may be to prepare 
 and put up the work to be finished. The suggestions 
 given are equally applicable for hard and soft woods, 
 and 1 trust they will not be out of place. 
 
 First, then, see that the material is dry, free from 
 imperfections, of the full sizes required, and of such 
 variety of grain as may be suitable for the purpose 
 intended. Next, make all joints close and as near 
 perfect as possible, as on this point rests, in a great 
 measure, the artistic appearance of the work. Make 
 all angles sharp and clean, and all mitered mouldings 
 true and with perfect intersections. Never use glass 
 paper where a scraper can be applied, and- when a 
 large quantity of mouldings of similar contour and size 
 are to be employed; it is always better to make a 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 61 
 
 scraper their reverse shape, and use it in cleaning and 
 preparing the mouldings for the varnisher, than to use 
 glass paper for the purpose. 
 
 The scraper illustrated by Fig. 51, ana sftown handled 
 by Fig. 52, is an aid in producing surfaces more flat 
 and regular than can 
 be produced with 
 the plane alone. Its 
 use does not dis¬ 
 pense with the 
 plane; on the con¬ 
 trary, any surface 
 on which the scraper 
 is to be used must previously be planed as level and 
 smooth as plane can make it. But the plane, in doing 
 i ts work—no matter how sharp it may be, or how closely 
 the back-iron is set up to the edge of the cutting iron, 
 or how straight across the edge the cutting iron is 
 sharpened—is liable to leave marks and ridges on the 
 face of the work, which, on hard woods, 
 are not effectively removed by the use 
 of sandpaper alone. The scraper is 
 used after the plane has finished its work, 
 and previous to the final operation of 
 sandpapering. In addition to the re¬ 
 moval of the ridges left by the plane, 
 the scraper is used for dressing up all 
 kinds of cross-grained surfaces that occur 
 in curly and figured solid and veneer woods; but as far 
 as possible this use of the scraper should be avoided. 
 Excessive dressing up of a cross-grained patch on a 
 panel, a stile, or a table-top will most certainly show, 
 and spoil the flatness and general appearance of the 
 article when it is polished. As a rule, such excessive 
 
 Fig. 52 
 
62 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 scraping is resorted to in consequence of the plane 
 having been sharpened and set badly, or of some other 
 technical oversight or unskillful manipulation. 
 
 The scraper is a thin and very hard steel plate, about 
 5 in. by 3 in., or 4^ in. by 2 in., and slightly less 
 than xV’ n - * n thickness. The long edges are sharpened 
 in a peculiar manner. Both of the long edges may be 
 straight, as in Fig. 51, and at AB, Fig. 53, or one 
 edge may have round corners of differing radii, as at 
 
 CD. These corners are 
 often useful in working 
 up hollows and mould¬ 
 ings generally. The 
 “straight” edge AB, it 
 will be noticed, is not 
 quite straight throughout 
 its whole length. Near 
 the ends the edge is gradually rounded off, to prevent 
 the corners catching in the surface that is being operated 
 on. In this respect, the commercial scraper (Fig. 51) is 
 incorrectly shaped. The cutting power of a scraper 
 depends upon, first, the quality and temper of the steel 
 of which it is made; and, secondly, upon the proper 
 formation of the burr or feather along its edges. Also, 
 the faces of the steel plate must be perfectly bright 
 and free from rust marks or indentations of any kind. 
 It is by no means an uncommon thing to find any rusty 
 ■ piece of sheet steel—a piece of an old hand saw or 
 try-square, for example—being used as a scraper. 
 The smallest appreciation of why the scraper cuts 
 would indicate how useless such material is for this 
 particular purpose. On the other hand, scarcely any¬ 
 thing better can be found for making a scraper than a 
 piece of broken saw blade, provided the sides of it are 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 63 
 
 still polished and bright. The fact that the saw was 
 broken may easily be taken to indicate a higher temper 
 than usual in the blade, thus fitting it exactly for the 
 purpose of a scraper. The temper of an ordinary 
 saw blade is not usually hard enough. Provided 
 that there is enough elasticity to “give” in the 
 operator’s hands as it is being pushed along, the 
 scraper should be nearly too hard for an ordinary 
 file to touch. If it can be filed easily, then its edge 
 will soon be gone. At the same time, if the steel 
 is merely hard without the required amount of elas¬ 
 ticity, the burr will strip off as it is applied to the 
 work, leaving a coarse, jagged edge which is worse 
 than useless. 
 
 The correctly sharpened scraper is a real cutting 
 tool, and not, as its name suggests—and as in practice 
 it often is—a mere abrader of the surface. When in 
 good working trim, the scraper should, if desired, take 
 off shaving after shaving perfectly uniform in thick¬ 
 ness, and nearly as wide as the cutting edge is long. 
 But such a performance is rarely required of it, and 
 never when the plane has previously done its work 
 properly. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the 
 fact that the proper duty of the scraper is not to make 
 a surface, but to correct the irregularities on it. In 
 explanation of the cutting action of the scraper, a 
 diagrammatic figure is shown in Fig. 66. The figure 
 correctly illustrates the cutting principle, though it 
 does not represent a true section of the scraper. In 
 use, the scraper is held firmly in both hands and tilted 
 forwards, away from the operator, until the cutting 
 edge grips the surface of the wood, exactly as shown 
 in Fig. 54. It is then kept steadily at this angle, and 
 made to cut a fine shaving at each stroke as it is being 
 
64 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 pushed away from the operator in the direction from 
 E to F (Fig. 54). 
 
 The proper formation of the burr edge is of the 
 greatest importance. Having procured a suitable 
 
 steel plate, a usual but not recommended method is 
 as follows: The plate is laid down on the bench as 
 shown in Fig. 55. A narrow chisel, brad-awl or gouge, 
 
 as shown in Fig. 
 56, is then laid on 
 the scraper hori¬ 
 zontally, and with 
 considerable pres- 
 s u re is stroked 
 backwards and 
 forwards from end 
 to end of the 
 plate, G to H, 
 Fig. 55. After 
 about 10 or 12 
 strokes the scraper is turned over and the other side is 
 treated in the same manner. This completes the first 
 part of the process of sharpening. Next, the gouge 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 65 
 
 is placed vertically against the edge, as shown in Fig. 
 57, and stroked to and fro with about the same 
 pressure and firmness as the sides of plate received, 
 
 Fig. 56 
 
 and about the same number of times. Or else, for 
 this second part, the scraper may be placed on its 
 corner on the bench, as shown in Fig. 58, and held 
 firmly in the left 
 hand, while the ' 
 
 right hand deftly 
 strokes the convex 
 side of the gouge 
 with a quick action 
 and considerable 
 pressure, once or 
 twice in an upward 
 direction, as from 
 I to J in Fig. 58. 
 
 The scraper is then 
 tried on the work 
 to determine its 
 sharpness. If, 
 after this process, 
 the scraper fails to 
 cut satisfactorily, 
 it is laid down on 
 
 the bench and the two processes are repeated. The 
 following is a better method of sharpening a scraper: 
 First, have the scraper ground so that its edge shall be 
 
 Fig. 57 
 
66 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 straight and square, and slope up at the ends, as shown 
 at A and B, Fig. 53. It should then be placed on its edge 
 on a fine-cutting oilstone, as shown in P'ig. 60, and 
 rubbed backwards and forwards until all traces of the 
 grinding have disappeared. Then if should be laid flat 
 on its side, still on the oilstone, as in Fig. 61, and 
 rubbed untd the sides are bright and polished all along 
 the edges. If any false burr or feather-edge has been 
 
 created in this last 
 process, the scrap¬ 
 er must be set up 
 on its edge again, 
 as in Fig. 60, and 
 rubbed a little 
 more, until two 
 perfectly square 
 and sharp corners 
 appear all along 
 the scraper. Now, 
 if due care has 
 really been taken 
 in making the 
 corners perfect 
 and square, the 
 scraper in this condition would produce shavings 
 tolerably well on any hardwood; but the shaving 
 would be the result of abrasive and not of cutting 
 action. It is purely a matter of choice if, at this 
 stage, a smooth-backed gouge is passed to and fro 
 over the side of the scraper, as in Fig. 55, with the 
 object of imparting a still higher polish to the plate of 
 st a el at the places where the burr is to be formed. 
 But the greatest care must be taken not to press too 
 heavily, and also to maintain a perfectly level position 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 67 
 
 with the gouge, while the polishing is being done. As 
 stated, this polishing of the side is not really 
 necessary, and the scraper would cut very well without 
 
 backed gouge is passed once—or at most twice—along 
 
 the edge. The scraper 
 during this operation 
 may be held either as 
 already shown in Fig. 
 57, or as is here rec¬ 
 ommended and shown 
 in Fig. 61; or it may be 
 fastened in the bench- 
 vise. The aim in this 
 particular action is the production of an exceedingly fine 
 burr, scarcely enough to be called a burr at all, but a per¬ 
 fectly regular bending over of the corner; the gouge 
 
 Fig. 60 
 
68 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 must be very lightly pressed, or it will cause the burr 
 to curl up too much, and also it must be kept nearly, 
 though not quite, horizontal. With regard to resharp¬ 
 ening the scraper, 
 when this becomes 
 necessary, the 
 scraper must be 
 placed upon the 
 oilstone and 
 rubbed up again to 
 perfectly square 
 corners as pre¬ 
 viously described 
 in connection with 
 Figs. 60 and 61. 
 
 There are other 
 methods of sharp¬ 
 ening scrapers 
 which are made 
 use of by some 
 
 workmen; indeed, nearly every workman, after expe¬ 
 rience, will adopt such method as will seem to him to 
 be the best for the purpose. There are workmen who 
 seldom or never use an oilstone, but employ 
 a fine file instead, and draw-file the edge of 
 the scraper as shown in Fig. 63. This is done 
 by placing the scraper in a vise and with a 
 smooth, flat file making the edge perfectly 
 square and as straight as possible after the man¬ 
 ner of jointing a hand saw. Next place the file 
 squarely across the edge and pass it from end to end of 
 the scraper two or three times. This operation is known 
 as draw-filing, a plan view of the position and direction 
 of the file being shown in Fig. 63. Treat all four edges 
 
 Fig. 61 
 
 Fig 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 69 
 
 the same way. The edge, as it will now appear, is 
 shown enlarged and exaggerated in Fig. 64. Remove 
 the scraper from the vise and lay it flat on the bench, 
 then taking the gouge, Fig. 56, rub out straight all the 
 wire edges, keeping the gouge on the scraper and passing 
 it quickly back and forth after the manner of stropping 
 
 a razor. The edge will then appear as in Fig. 65. 
 Now, taking the scraper in the left hand and holding 
 it firmly edgewise on the bench, place the gouge 
 across the edge, making a small bevel with the side of 
 the scraper, and draw it upward two or three times, 
 using considerable pressure. This will turn the edge 
 back as it was after filing, but it will 
 now be straight instead of grooved, and 
 smooth instead of ragged. All of the 
 eight edges must be treated in the same 
 manner, when they will appear as in 
 Fig. 66, and the scraper should now 
 Fig. 64 take off 3 shaving like a smooth-plane, 
 but much finer. 
 
 In order to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary 
 to go through the filing operation again for some time— 
 simply flatten out the edges and turn them again with 
 a little more bevel than before. This can be done 
 
 .M 
 
 Fig.65 
 
70 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 very rapidly. In order to avoid too many stops, 
 always keep three or four scrapers at hand and sharpen 
 
 them all at once. 
 The best thing 
 with which to hold 
 the scraper is a 
 piece of sandpa- 
 per, with the 
 sanded side next 
 the scraper. This 
 gives a good grip 
 and prevents the 
 tool from burning 
 the fingers. 
 
 Some people file the edge of the scraper rounding, 
 to prevent the corners from catching. This is not at 
 all necessary, as the 
 action of pushing the 
 scraper bends it slight¬ 
 ly, which raises the cor¬ 
 ners somewhat. The 
 sharpening of a scraper, 
 however, like the sharp¬ 
 ening of a hand saw, 
 takes considerable prac¬ 
 tice and no little knack; 
 so if at first one does 
 not succeed it is only 
 necessary to keep peg¬ 
 ging away at it until 
 success crowns the 
 efforts, for it is well 
 worth all the trouble. It may oe mentioned incident¬ 
 ally that a good burnisher may be bought all ready at 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 71 
 
 any good hardware store. Leather curriers use them 
 for turning the edges of their knives and they are bet¬ 
 ter than a gouge because of their being tempered harder 
 and more highly finished. 
 
 The true theory of a scraper, for some purposes, 
 may be described as follows: Where there is a lot of 
 superfluous wood to remove, as in hardwood floors or 
 other similar work, where it is not desirable to use a 
 smooth plane, it is well to file or grind the scraper to a 
 bevel, the same as a 
 plane iron, and bring it 
 to a keen edge on the 
 oilstone; then proceed 
 to burnish it. Hold the 
 burnisher slightly at an 
 angle with the bevel as 
 indicated in Fig. 67, 
 and draw it lightly 
 across the blade. Then 
 increase the angle and 
 the pressure, repeating 
 the process until the 
 burnisher is at nearly 
 right angles with the 
 blade, after which run 
 the burnisher back and 
 side and then the other, as indicated in Fig. 68, when it 
 is ready for use. When it becomes a little dull, do not 
 turn the edge back, as many do, but use the burnisher, 
 as shown in Fig. 68. A good blade will stand for two 
 or three hours without filing or grinding. 
 
 For fine work file or grind the blade perfectly square 
 on the edge and get it perfectly smooth on the oil¬ 
 stone. Then hold the burnisher as shown in Fig. 69, 
 
 forward a few times, first one 
 
72 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 the dotted lines indicating how to start and the full 
 lines how to finish. In all cases finish the operation 
 as shown in Fig. 69. If unsuccessful the first time, do 
 not give up the job, for the scraper is a tool that 
 requires a great deal of practice in order to become 
 expert in sharpening. 
 
 Defective Sharpening of Scrapers.—A frequent mis¬ 
 take is to put too great pressure on the gouge, and to 
 stroke too much. One or two strokes should be quite 
 
 sufficient to give the 
 scraper the proper 
 edge. At all events, 
 after the scraper has 
 had a couple of 
 strokes of the bur¬ 
 nisher or gouge, it 
 should be tried, and 
 if it does not grip the 
 work properly, give 
 it a few strokes more. 
 Scrapers with a high 
 temper require more 
 burnishing than if 
 soft or medium tem¬ 
 per, but if overdone, the edge will crumble and it will not 
 do clean work. Soft scrapers are easier handled than 
 hard ones, but require a great deal more sharpening, 
 and this sometimes leads to rough work, as the workman 
 will not take time to repeatedly put his scraper in order. 
 As before stated, the workman should have at least 
 three or four scrapers on hand, and they should always 
 be kept in good order. It is a good plan to have a 
 little box or case in the tool chest purposely to hold 
 scrapers, for two reasons; The workman will always 
 
 I 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 73 
 
 know where to find them when wanted and, secondly, 
 it will save the edges from being broken or damaged 
 by being jolted or 
 rubbed against other 
 tools. 
 
 Varieties of Scrap¬ 
 ers. —There is a new 
 scraper in the market 
 which is said to be 
 superior to anything 
 made in the scraper 
 line. A representa¬ 
 tion of it is shown in Fig. 70, which is taken from an 
 advertisement. I do not know of my own knowledge 
 
 how the scraper 
 works, but, judg¬ 
 ing from its shape 
 and setting, I 
 should think it 
 theoretically cor¬ 
 rect. 
 
 Other shapes of scrapers are shown in Figs. 71 and 
 72. The first of these is intended for smoothing up 
 hollows and rounds. A 
 number of these should 
 be kept on hand, with 
 curves of various radii. 
 
 Fig. 72 shows a scraper 
 made purposely for clean¬ 
 ing out hollows of various 
 curvatures, and will be 
 found very useful on work 
 where there are a number of curves or other hollow 
 mouldings. Often the workman may have to make 
 
74 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 scrapers to suit certain kinds of work, and when 
 such is the case, he should make it a fixed rule 
 never to change them, but to keep them in his tool 
 chest, and make others, when necessary, from new 
 material. An old hand saw blade 
 generally answers quite well for scrap¬ 
 ers, and one saw will make a couple 
 of dozen scrapers of different sizes and 
 shapes. 
 
 How to Use Sandpaper.—For properly 
 
 using sandpaper a rubber is needed. A piece of ma¬ 
 hogany or clean pine, 5^ in- by 3 in. by 1 in., shaped 
 as in Fig. 73, answers well if a piece of sheet cork is 
 glued on the face as shown. Fold a piece of sandpa¬ 
 per, 6 in. wide and about 10 in. long, into three, place it 
 sand side downwards, and put the face of the rubber 
 on the middle division. Grasp the rubber so that the 
 ends of the sandpaper are held firmly on its back and 
 sides (see Fig. 74), and work then can be commenced. 
 
 A solid rubber about one inch thick makes an 
 excellent block for the purpose. A piece of rubber 
 belting glued to a piece of bass¬ 
 wood also makes a good rubber 
 block. 
 
 Rasps and Files.—The wood¬ 
 worker occasionally uses rasps, 
 and these generally are half- 
 round, though sometimes flat. 
 
 The cabinet rasp shown in Fig. 
 
 75 is not a very coarse one. 
 
 Cabinet and wood rasps range from 4 in. to 14 in. 
 in length, and at 12 in. and less the price is about 
 4 cents per inch. The extra 2 in. in a 14-inch rasp 
 adds nearly 50 per cent to the price. Files also 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 75 
 
 are used, for smoothing up hardwood. When a 
 file is used, it should be pushed and drawn in the 
 direction of the grain. The file usually em¬ 
 ployed by carriage makers for 
 smoothing up spokes and other 
 work is generally a half-round 
 bastard file, and when properly 
 used makes exceedingly smooth 
 work. A finer file than the bastard 
 is shown in Fig. 76. This is some¬ 
 times used for finishing narrow 
 flat work. 
 
 SAWS FOR WORKING HARDWOOD 
 
 Saw-filing is an art unto itself, 
 and few men ever attain the art 
 to perfection. To file a saw in 
 such manner that the working of 
 it is a pleasure requires an amount 
 of skill and a high order of tech¬ 
 nical knowledge that can only be 
 acquired by thought and expe¬ 
 rience; yet a properly set and filed 
 saw is a real necessity in the mak¬ 
 ing of good joiners’ work, and, 
 while every workman cannot 
 become an expert saw-filer, he 
 ought at least to possess such 
 knowledge of the art as will ena¬ 
 ble him to set and file his own 
 saws in such a manner as will ena¬ 
 ble him to execute such work as 
 he may be called upon to make; 
 
 Fig. 75 and to this end, I propose to offer Fig. 76 
 
 •' 1 / 
 
;6 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 a few instructions and remarks that will assist him in 
 managing his own saws without the employment of 
 expert aid. It is not my intention to go into the mat¬ 
 ter of saw-filing to any great extent, as that subject will 
 probably be discussed at length in another volume, 
 but what I do offer will, I trust, be up to the mark. 
 
 All workmen in wood require two saws, namely, a 
 cross-cut saw, and a rip-saw. The shape of the teeth 
 in these saws differs, also the size, and each requires a 
 special form of tooth and a different style of filing. 
 
 Many workmen think that so long as the tooth of a- 
 saw has a sharp edge the shape of the tooth is a matter 
 
 cr: ~. .g", 
 
 Fig. 77 
 
 of small importance, and as a result of this ignorance 
 or indifference they are always in trouble with their 
 saws, and their work becomes much more laborious 
 than if proper attention had been paid to the shape of 
 the teeth. Substances of different texture cannot be 
 cut advantageously with the same tool; in fact, the 
 tool must be adapted to the work if the best all¬ 
 round results are to be produced. Fig. 77 illustrates 
 a form of tooth suitable for an ordinary hand rip-saw. 
 The tooth points number about four to the inch, and 
 the front of the tooth is upright, that is, at an angle 
 of go°. The face of the tooth should be filed to an 
 angle of 85° to 87°, or 3 0 to 5 0 from the square. Some 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 77 
 
 experts contend that the teeth of a rip-saw should be 
 filed dead square. The object in filing them a little 
 on the bevel is that the teeth may cut more freely and 
 easily when they have become a bit dull, there being 
 then what is termed a little clearance cut in the teeth. 
 In nearly all timber there is, it is well known, a certain 
 
 KIn/vN; 
 
 Fig. 78 
 
 amount of fiber to be cut either directly or obliquely 
 across, and teeth that are filed square will not, whether 
 they are sharp or dull, divide this fiber so easily as 
 teeth that have a slight bevel. 
 
 The illustration, Fig. 77, shows a saw tooth that 
 works quite well in the softer woods, but for the harder 
 
 : ■ i 
 
 _ . _ ; 
 
 Fig. 79 
 
 woods a little more plane or angle on the cutting edge 
 would cause the saw to cut with less labor; and if there 
 were about five teeth to the inch, it would cut with ease 
 any kind of hardwood. 
 
 The teeth shown in Fig. 78 are well suited to a hand 
 saw used for cross-cutting soft wood. The tooth 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 7'8 
 
 points in this saw may number five or six to the inch. 
 The front of the tooth slopes at an angle of about 105°. 
 The face of the tooth in sharpening should be filed to 
 an angle of from 55 0 to 6o°. The softer the timber 
 that is to be cross-cut, the more acute should be the 
 angle of the teeth, as the keener edge separates the 
 fibers more easily. Fig. 79 shows a form of hand saw 
 
 / 
 
 tooth suitable for cross-cutting hardwood. The number 
 of tooth points may be from six to eight to the inch, 
 and the front of the tooth should slope at an angle of 
 iio° to 115 0 , according to the hardness of the timber 
 to be sawed. The face of this tooth should be filed to 
 an angle of 70° to 75 0 , because the cutting edge must 
 
 be less acute owing to hard¬ 
 wood fibers being more com¬ 
 pact than those of soft wood. 
 
 The whole number of saws 
 made use of by the wood¬ 
 worker amounts to some six or eight, comprising the 
 rip, cross-cut, hand, panel, tenon, dovetail, bow or 
 turning, and keyhole. The hand saw type includes 
 the hand saw proper, the ripping, half-ripping, and 
 panel saws, all of similar outline, but differing in 
 dimensions, and in form and size of teeth. There is 
 no sharp distinction between these tools, as they merge 
 
 Fig. 81 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 79 
 
 one into the other; yet at the extremes it would be 
 impossible to substitute the ripping and panel saws 
 one for the other. The hand 
 saw, however, which is a kind 
 of compromise between ex¬ 
 tremes, is used indiscriminately 
 for all purposes. 
 
 A tenon, or back-saw, is , 
 shown in Fig. 80. It is made 
 in different lengths, and the 
 blades are not all made the 
 same width. The dovetail saw 
 is a back-saw with a very thin 
 blade; it is not much used in 
 this country, only by Euro¬ 
 peans. It is intended especially for very fine work. 
 The other saws named are for special purposes, and 
 
 need not be described here. 
 The methods of filing, how¬ 
 ever, are about the same as 
 described for the saws first 
 named, with the exception 
 of the bow or scroll saw. 
 This saw, which is intended 
 to cut with and across the 
 grain, or obliquely to it, 
 should have its teeth filed 
 with a sharper plane than a 
 rip-saw, but not quite so 
 sharp as a cross-cut saw; in 
 other words, it wants a 
 hybrid tooth, “between and 
 betwixt” a cross-cut and a rip-saw tooth. (See Fig. 81.) 
 
 The set of a saw is important, and this is shown in 
 
8o 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Figs. 77, 78, 82 and 83. The teeth at both point and 
 butt of a hand saw should be very slightly smaller than 
 those in the middle, as it is at the last-named point 
 where the greatest force is exerted in every down 
 stroke. But it is absolutely necessary that the set is 
 the same from point to butt of every saw, whether rip 
 or cross-cut. The middle of the cutting edge of a 
 cross-cut saw should be slightly rounded, being 
 highest at about the middle. The saw being still in 
 
 the saw vise, insert the file in a handle, and grasp it 
 with the right hand, taking the point of file in the left, 
 as shown in Fig. 84. Place the file against the face of 
 that tooth nearest the handle that inclines away from 
 the worker, holding the file at an angle with the blade 
 or saw as shown in Fig. 84. Then lower the right 
 hand to about the angle shown in Fig. 85 (which shows 
 the left hand removed). The file should be held 
 obliquely across the saw blade, as in Figs. 83 and 84, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 81 
 
 the point end of the file being inclined towards the 
 saw handle as illustrated by Fig. 84. Gently push the 
 file forwards, lifting it at the end of stroke, returning 
 it, and again pushing it, until the point of the tooth 
 has a keen edge. Repeat this upon each alternate 
 tooth until all upon one side are sharpened. Serve the 
 other side in the same manner. Be careful not to press 
 the file against the back of the tooth, as unevenness 
 will surely result. 
 
 Keep all saws slightly rounding on the edge. The 
 rip-saw and the hand saw may have a full quarter of 
 an inch rounding with advantage. All saws, except 
 circulars, have 
 a constant ten¬ 
 dency to get 
 hollow, and this 
 must be pre¬ 
 vented; and the 
 only way to pre¬ 
 vent it is to file 
 the teeth down by passing a partly-worn file along 
 the edges till it touches every tooth. Then, in 
 filing the teeth, take care only just to take out this 
 bright mark—not one touch more or that tooth will 
 be shorter than its neighbors. A saw properly sharp¬ 
 ened, and in good order, has each tooth do its proper 
 share of cutting and no more. 
 
 Sharpening Tenon Saws. —Sharpening tenon saws is 
 practically the same as sharpening hand saws. It may 
 happen, however, that some of the teeth will be much 
 larger than others, this being due to the file not 
 having been held at the same angle in sharpening 
 each tooth. Fig. 81 shows the saw teeth improperly 
 sharpened, the front of the large teeth inclining much 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 more than the front of the small teeth. If the teeth 
 in one range are found to be filed smaller than those 
 in the other, file the back of the smaller teeth to a 
 more acute angle, keeping the file at the same time 
 well against the front of the other tooth at the bot¬ 
 tom, and see before the filing is finished, that the front 
 of the next tooth has been filed up to its point, as it 
 is the front, not the back, of the tooth that does the 
 cutting. To regulate the teeth of the saw, file every 
 tooth in succession, shooting the file straight across 
 the teeth. After filing all the teeth from one side, 
 turn the saw, and file as before from the other side. 
 When the teeth are fairly regular, the flat file may be 
 run over them lightly. This will bring the teeth 
 uniform in length. Now file every alternate tooth, 
 first on one side and then on the other side of the saw, 
 as shown in Fig. 84. Hold the file as nearly as 
 possible to the same angle in each case, as it is on 
 this filing that the regularity of the teeth depends. 
 When all the flat places caused by the file when 
 topping the teeth disappear, cease filing, as any further 
 filing may cause low teeth, which tend to make the 
 saw cut irregularly. When the saw is so filed that all 
 the teeth get their equal share of cutting, the saw may 
 be said to be well filed. When the teeth are filed as 
 shown in Fig. 83, there is a larger and better cutting 
 edge than with the one more obtuse. If the points 
 only of the teeth are allowed to do the work, the action 
 is a scratching and not a cutting one. 
 
 One of the great difficulties in hand sharpening is to 
 get the bevels of the teeth exactly alike. A number 
 of mechanical arrangements to guide the saw and 
 effect this object have been tried with more or less 
 success. In one of the best of these devices a circular 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 83 
 
 casting is divided and indexed from its center each 
 way, giving bevels for each side of the saw, or square 
 across. The file is fitted into a guide, and is held by 
 a set-screw. The index shows the pitch at which the 
 file is set, and a rod passes through holes in a graduat¬ 
 ing ring and guides the file. The frame upon which 
 the ring is held slides in grooves cut on each side of 
 the vise in which the saw is fixed; a table connected 
 with the guide is arranged and indexed so as to give 
 the required bevel and pitch for the kind of saw to 
 be filed, and it is only necessary to set the ring for 
 the bevel, and the indicator for 
 the pitch, and the apparatus is 
 ready for use. As the filing is 
 proceeded with from tooth to 
 tooth, the frame follows, giving 
 to each tooth on one side of the 
 saw the same bevel, pitch, and 
 size as on the other, thus leaving 
 the saw, when filing is finished, 
 with the teeth all uniform in size, 
 pitch, and bevel, so that each tooth 
 will doits share of cutting equally 
 
 with the others, thus turning out more and better qual¬ 
 ity of work with less expenditure of energy. An old- 
 fashioned way of getting the right angle of a tooth of a 
 hand saw in filing is shown by Fig. 86. A hand saw blade 
 is narrowest in width at the point, and broadest at the 
 butt; and the slope of the back, compared with the 
 line of teeth, is almost always uniform for all saws; 
 and if a' square be placed against this back, a tooth 
 may be filed whose cutting edge is perfectly in line 
 with the edge of the square. All the teeth being thus 
 filed and afterwards set, a saw which will answer 
 
 Fig. 86 
 
§4 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 general purposes is produced, and one which will suit 
 the worker who has but one hand saw. It will cross¬ 
 cut soft woods and rip hard woods, thus being a kind 
 of half-rip. Moreover, this square may be used as a 
 gauge, the teeth not necessarily being filed as shown; 
 and if the rake or lead be very much, an adjustable 
 bevel may be used. 
 
 PLANES GENERALLY 
 
 In workshop practice, planes are the tools chiefly 
 used for smoothing the surface of wood after it has 
 been sawed to approximate size. In its simplest form, 
 
 a plane is a chisel firmly fixed 
 into a block of wood by which 
 it is guided in its cut, and the 
 amount of wood taken off in 
 the form of a shaving is reg¬ 
 ulated to a nicety. In fact, 
 such a simple tool actually is 
 used sometimes, when a proper 
 plane of the requisite shape 
 and of a suitable size cannot be procured. To make 
 the construction of an ordinary plane quite clear, a 
 section of one is illustrated by Fig. 87, in which A 
 shows the section of stock; B, the wedge; C, cutting 
 iron; D, back iron; E, the screw for fastening irons 
 together; and F is the mouth through which the 
 shavings pass upwards. A plane is simply a copying 
 tool, and a notch in the plane-iron at once proves that 
 the pattern produced corresponds with the edge of 
 the plane-iron, and all the imperfections of this edge 
 will be copied on to the stuff. In all planing oper¬ 
 ations the edge of the tool is the pattern, which is 
 copied in reverse on the wood. If a hollow is required 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 85 
 
 to be produced on the wood, a tool is used with a 
 round edge of exactly similar form to the hollow we 
 wish produced. In machine planing the pattern is the 
 edge of the tool, which produces a similar surface 
 upon the wood. 
 
 Direction of Grain in Planes. —For flat planes such as 
 jack, try, and smoothing planes, the grain must be 
 straight and, of course, run lengthways of the tool. 
 The wood is selected from a center plank of beech as 
 near to the bark as possible; in all planes, the wood 
 nearest the bark, that being the hardest part of the 
 wood, becomes the sole or working surface. The wood 
 is seasoned thoroughly, and never is used until at 
 least three years after cutting. Moulding planes 
 mostly work on the spring, and need not have the 
 grain so straight as flat planes. Hollows, rounds, and 
 rebate planes are exceptional, however, and should 
 have the grain as straight as possible, because the 
 rebate plane is cut right through, and is liable to cast 
 or warp if not quite straight-grained; and most of the 
 hollows and rounds, being thin, are liable to cast also 
 if not of straight, mild, and well-seasoned wood. 
 Wood for plane making should be as free from knots 
 as possible. 
 
 Jack and Trying Planes. 7-The jack plane, Fig. 88, is 
 the first applied to the wood after it has been sawed. 
 This plane is always employed to remove the rough¬ 
 ness of the work before finishing up with trying and 
 smoothing planes. It is made up of five parts— 
 namely, the stock (which should be 17 in. in length), 
 the toat or handle, the wedge, the cutting iron or 
 cutter (2 }i in. broad), and back iron. Immediately 
 behind the iron is a handle, which, in use, is grasped 
 only by the right hand in planing fir; but in heavy 
 
86 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 planing, and especially in hardwood, it is necessary to 
 place the left hand across the front of the plane to 
 press it down, to cause the iron to take hold of the 
 wood. When using both hands to the plane, the left 
 is placed with the four fingers lying across the top 
 near the fore end, the thumb passing down the near 
 side. Well-seasoned beech is a suitable wood for the 
 stock. The construction of the trying or truing 
 plane is almost exactly the same as that of the jack 
 
 plane, but it is much longer, so as to produce truer 
 surfaces. 
 
 Using the Plane.—When using the plane, always keep 
 the plane well oiled in front of the iron; be sure and 
 work with the grain as shown in Fig. 89, whenever 
 possible. A far thicker shaving can be taken off 
 smoothly in this way than if worked as shown in Fig. 
 90, which is working against the grain and requires 
 more careful work with a more finely set plane. Do 
 not use the plane at an uncomfortable height. When 
 the board to be planed is in position, and the worker 
 takes hold of the plane ready to begin work, a line 
 drawn through his elbow and wrist should be rather 
 lower than higher at the wrist, though if the forearm is 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 8 7 
 
 level it will do fairly well. Do not attempt to take off 
 thick shavings at the outset, and do not be dis¬ 
 appointed if a shaving is not taken off from end to 
 end at the first trial. If the wood has any hollow in 
 it, it will be impossible to do this, and even if it is 
 perfectly straight it is sometimes difficult to do it. 
 
 There is always a tendency to plane off too much near 
 the bench stop, as the arm is apt to be raised at this 
 point. Errors of this kind can be avoided by careful 
 practice and attention. It is a good idea to try to 
 plane the center of the material rather than the margin, 
 for if a good plane is in proper order it is impossible 
 to make the work too hollow or concave; whereas, 
 
 however good the plane, careless use of it can and will 
 make the work convex in every direction. 
 
 In making use of the smoothing plane for finishing 
 up stuff, it should be held as shown in Fig. 91, the 
 right hand grasping it firmly at the back, whilst the 
 left hand steadies it in front. In starting, the tool is 
 
88 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 applied to the fore-end of the board, and gradually 
 worked backwards, thus taking out any marks pre¬ 
 viously used tools may have made. It should be held 
 firmly, and lifted sharply at the end of stroke, or a 
 mark will be left where the plane 
 finished. The work is continued 
 until the board presents a per¬ 
 fectly smooth surface, without 
 marks of any kind. The left hand 
 should frequently be passed across 
 the face of the board, as any 
 marks made by the plane can be 
 readily detected in this manner. It may also with 
 advantage be held so that the light passes across its 
 surface from the side, thus showing up imperfect 
 planing. Should there be too much iron out, a few 
 blows with the hammer at the back of the plane will 
 draw it back. Take care to tighten up the wedge 
 again. A few drops of linseed oil applied to the face 
 of the plane will facilitate the planing. 
 
 The proper method of setting an iron in a plane so 
 that it will not show lines or marks on the work, is 
 sometimes quite a difficult operation, as the iron is 
 
 Fig. 91 
 
 Fig. 92 
 
 expected to be perfectly square and straight on the 
 face. It is always well to either round off the corners 
 of the iron slightly, or grind them with a slight bevel, 
 which will keep the corners from “digging in,” 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 89 
 
 The smaller, or break-iron, whose office is to bend 
 up the shaving somewhat sharply so as to ensure the 
 cutting of the other iron, and to prevent its splitting 
 off the surface of the work, should be placed so as to 
 come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme 
 'edge of the cutter for rough work, and within one- 
 twentieth for finer or finishing work. The two should 
 then be placed in position so that the edge projects the 
 smallest possible degree below the sole. The position 
 can only be determined by looking carefully along the 
 
 Fig. 93 
 
 bottom of the plane, with the front of the same next 
 to the eye, as in Fig. 92. The edge will, if correctly 
 formed and placed, appear quite parallel with the sole. 
 It is then ready for use. The same rule applies to the 
 small as to the large planes, except that in the jack- 
 plane the iron projects rather more, as it is used for 
 roughing down a surface. The trying-plane, which is 
 longer, as before stated, and intended for edging 
 boards which are to be joined lengthwise, is always 
 very finely set, and the mouth is narrow. The break* 
 
90 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 iron is also set very close down to the cutting edge. 
 The longer the plane the more accurately level and 
 true will be the work done by it. 
 
 New planes are often a source of trouble owing to 
 the shavings getting fast in the mouth, the plane 
 refusing to take any more until the wedge and iron 
 have been removed, and all cleaned out. The cause 
 of this difficulty is that the mouth of the plane is too 
 narrow, as shown in Fig. 93. Sometimes workmen cut 
 
 Fig. 94 
 
 a little out with a chisel, but in many instances this 
 results in spoiling the tool, because in a short time 
 the bottom of the plane wears away, and the mouth 
 gets larger, subsequently getting so large as to require 
 a piece to be set in to lessen the opening. The mouth 
 of the plane can be kept open as long as needed by 
 gluing a strip of soft leather, about three-fourths of 
 an inch wide, in the mouth of the plane under the top 
 end of the iron as shown in Fig. 94. When the plane 
 bottom is sufficiently worn the leather can be removed 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 9i 
 
 and the iron put back into its original position. The 
 leather causes the iron to be more upright, and con¬ 
 sequently there is a larger opening in the mouth (two 
 thicknesses can be put under if necessary). 
 
 Pitch of Plane Cutting Iron. —To assist the reader to 
 understand correctly the principles of plane-iron 
 sharpening, the following information is given. The 
 seat of the plane-iron is made at different angles, to 
 give the pitch to suit different kinds of work. The 
 four angles most in use are as follows: Common 
 pitch, in which the seat for the back of the iron is at 
 an angle of 45 0 from the sole (this inclination is 
 usually employed for all 
 planes for soft wood); New 
 York pitch, which has an 
 angle of 50°, and is adapted 
 for use with mahogany and 
 other hard, stringy woods; 
 middle pitch or 5 5 0 , and 
 half pitch or 6o°, which are 
 employed with moulding 
 planes, the former being for 
 soft wood and the latter for the harder kinds. Fig. 95 
 affords an idea of three angles, A giving the set of a 
 half-pitched plane, B that of an ordinary plane, while 
 C shows the inclination of an extra-pitched plane. 
 The pitch or angle at which the cutter is set is of 
 importance. There are three angles involved in this 
 case: (1) The angle between the cutter and the 
 
 surface of the work; this should be as small an angle 
 as possible. It is obvious that if the surfaces of the 
 cutter and the work were perfectly parallel, the cutter 
 would glide over the surface without cutting, except 
 under great pressure. By making the cutter edge 
 
92 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 rather than its whole surface touch the work, the 
 tendency to cut and to continue the contact is secured. 
 The angle, which may be called the clearance angle, 
 or the back angle, should only be enough to secure this 
 condition of contact. (2) The angle of the cutter 
 itself. The more acute this angle the better, if only 
 
 the material will stand the 
 strain and face the work with¬ 
 out losing its edge. (3) The 
 front or remaining angle 
 may be found by subtracting 
 both (1) and (2) from 180 0 , 
 if dealing with plane sur¬ 
 faces, and is available for 
 the passing away of the waste 
 material; in the case of the plane, however, this is lim¬ 
 ited, in order to provide means to prevent the shaving 
 being torn up in advance of the cutting action. This 
 provision is made by the front portion of the plane, 
 and to be efficacious must be in contact with the work 
 and as near the edge of the cutter as possible to allow 
 waste to escape. A few 
 experiments with a knife 
 will show that for soft ma¬ 
 terials a slight angle is 
 best. This involves a thin 
 knife, and its side almost 
 in contact with the mate¬ 
 rial f o be cut; but as harder 
 things are tried the stiff¬ 
 ness of the cutter, and the consequent angle, must 
 be increased, not because it is merely desirable, but 
 because it is absolutely necessary to have a stronger 
 cutter. The more upright an iron is set, the less 
 
 Fig. 97 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 93 
 
 liable is it to tear up the wood in planing; but in 
 the same degree the iron loses its edge more quickly, 
 is more likely to jump and chatter, and is more 
 laborious to work. In toothing planes the irons are 
 set upright, and in “old woman’s tooth,” planes or 
 routers nearly upright. In working with an upright 
 iron, the action of the tool is a scraping one, while 
 the more the iron is inclined the nearer it ap¬ 
 proaches the action of splitting the wood. For this 
 reason an ordinary or extra-pitched plane is more 
 liable to splinter up the surface of a piece of work; 
 but this accident may be in great measure prevented 
 by using a properly adjusted back iron. Moulding 
 
 planes, rounds and hollows, bead __ 
 
 planes, and others that work without ^— 
 
 a back iron, are usually preferred Fig. 98 
 
 set to the half-pitch angle; while for 
 working on end-grained stuff, extra-pitched tools, such 
 as shoulder and bull-nosed planes, give the best results. 
 In examining the side of a plane-iron, it is found to be 
 made up of an iron back faced with steel. The steel, 
 welded on to the iron and distinguished by its 
 brighter color and finer grain, acts as a cutting edge, 
 the iron being required to give sufficient stiffness to 
 prevent chattering. When newly ground and 
 sharpened, a plane-iron has three angles, one due to 
 the pitch, A, Fig. 97, one made by the grindstone, B, 
 and one made by the oilstone, C. The angles A and B 
 do not alter, but C gradually becomes more acute with 
 sharpening on the oilstone, until it lines with the face 
 of the plane, as in Fig. 98, when the iron refuses to 
 cut properly, and requires grinding. The pitch angle 
 A (Fig. 96) varies in planes by different makers, as 
 described above. 
 
94 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Oilstones for Sharpening Plane Irons. —A good oilstone, 
 capable of putting a keen edge on the plane irons, is 
 a necessity to all woodworkers, but more particularly 
 to the hardwood finisher. The Washita stone, manu¬ 
 factured by the Pike Mfg. Co., or other fast cutting 
 stones are useful for removing the waste or superfluous 
 metal from the iron when it is too thick; but it is 
 seldom that one of these stones can be trusted to leave 
 a keen edge on the tool. Turkey and Washita stones 
 are the only ones that have the two good qualities 
 combined of cutting quickly and leaving a good edge. 
 
 Most other oilstones are 
 slow cutters, but they are 
 to be relied on for leaving 
 a good, keen edge. It is 
 necessary that the oilstone 
 should be kept perfectly 
 level, or it will not be pos¬ 
 sible to get a true edge. 
 The stone should also be 
 free from grit, or the iron 
 will be gapped in sharpen¬ 
 ing, and will leave ridges 
 on the planed work. In 
 sharpening the iron after it 
 
 Fig. 99 
 
 has been newly ground, the hands should be kept low to 
 make the bevel correspond nearly with that made by 
 the grindstone. As time goes on, when the iron is 
 resharpened the hands are kept a little higher upon 
 each occasion (see Fig. 97), until it becomes thick, as 
 in Fig. 98; then it must be again put upon the grind¬ 
 stone. Some workers find it convenient to use two 
 oilstones—one as a quick cutter, to some extent super¬ 
 seding the grindstorie, the other for finishing the edge. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 9 $ 
 
 In using the oilstone, first put a few drops of good oil 
 upon the stone, and grasp the iron as in Fig. 99; the 
 right hand is at the top, and the thumb and fourth 
 finger pass under. Place 
 the whole of the fingers 
 of the left hand upon 
 the iron, with the thumb 
 at the back, as seen. 
 
 Now put the cutting 
 edge (previously ground 
 to a bevel) upon the 
 stone in an oblique di¬ 
 rection, as shown in 
 Fig. 99, bearing in mind the previous remarks on the 
 necessary inclination. The iron should now be rubbed 
 up and down the stone, pressing it down with both hands. 
 If the edge had been examined before placing it upon 
 the stone, it would have been found to show a fine white 
 line. The object of sharp¬ 
 ening is to remove this, 
 which must be done by 
 rubbing on an oilstone. 
 
 Having accomplished this, 
 turn the iron face down 
 upon the stone, and rub it 
 lightly a few times (see 
 Fig. 100). The iron should 
 now have the appearances 
 
 Fig. 101 Fig. 102 
 
 indicated by Fig. 101. If the face of the iron has not 
 been kept perfectly flat, it would appear as Fig. 98, 
 
96 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 and would be of no use as a cutting iron. If the iron 
 has been rubbed too long, a wire edge will appear and 
 utterly spoil the cutting properties of the iron unless 
 removed. This may readily be done by rubbing the 
 iron alternately upon each side until the wire edge 
 falls off. 
 
 When the iron is judged to be sufficiently sharp, it 
 should be cleaned, whetted on the left hand, and its 
 edge tried for keenness. Some try the edge by passing 
 the thumb gently across it, but its sharpness may be 
 judged by looking directly at it. In a sharp tool the 
 edge is not visible to the naked eye, while if the iron 
 should be blunt, the edge will be seen as a bright line. 
 
 SECRET OR BLIND NAILING 
 
 Secret nailing is sometimes called “blind nailing,” 
 also “chip nailing” and “sliver nailing,” and is the 
 art of finishing work in a manner which leaves no 
 mark of nail holes or screw heads exposed to view, 
 which, under the ordinary method of doing work, 
 would require puttying before the painter could apply 
 the finish. 
 
 The process of secret nailing is only used on 
 occasional jobs of hardwood finish where an extra fine 
 job is required. The process is very simple and can 
 be followed by any mechanic of ordinary skill and 
 ability. Take a very thin and sharp paring chisel, ^4 
 to y 2 inch wide, to raise the “chip.” A sharp knife 
 should be used to make two cuts with the grain of the 
 wood, the width of the chisel apart, to keep the sides 
 of the chip from splitting. The chisel should be set at 
 a steep angle at first, till the proper depth is reached, 
 and then made to turn out a piece of wood of even 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 97 
 
 thickness, about a sixteenth of an inch or near it, and 
 of sufficient length to admit of driving the nail or 
 screw. Care should be taken in raising the “chip” 
 not to give it too sharp a curve or too great a thick¬ 
 ness, as it is liable to break off while being straightened 
 out again. 
 
 Some mechanics prefer a gouge for raising the 
 “chip”; the gouge should be to ^ of an inch wide 
 and of a quick curve. In this case no knife is needed, 
 as the corners of the 
 gouge will cut the wood 
 as it advances. The 
 cut being made and the 
 “chip” properly raised, 
 a nail or screw may be 
 driven in. 
 
 See that the nail or 
 screw head is sunk be¬ 
 low the surface of the 
 recess, so that the 
 “chip” will fit back in 
 again without any ob¬ 
 struction. Now take „ 
 
 . , . Fig. 103 
 
 properly prepared glue 
 
 and apply to the “chip” and recess, and press the 
 “chip” firmly in place, rubbing the face with a smooth 
 block till the glue holds, and finish by using a little 
 sandpaper. 
 
 If theie is any difficulty about the “chip” breaking 
 off, moisten the wood with a little water applied with 
 a sponge to the part where the “chip” is to be raised. 
 This will be found to be a great advantage if working 
 on brittle wood. 
 
 As stated previously, when putting up hardwood 
 
98 HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 finish, where it is desired that no nail or screw heads 
 should be in sight, it is always better to make use of 
 glue whenever possible; this will be found to be much 
 more satisfactory than blind nailing. 
 
 The methods of secret nailing, as described in the 
 
 foregoing, are 
 shown in the dia¬ 
 grams, Figs. 103 
 and 104. The first 
 shows how a square 
 chip is raised so 
 that a screw or nail 
 can be put in place, 
 after which the 
 raised chip a can 
 be glued down in 
 place, covering the 
 head of nail or 
 screw. 
 
 Fig. 104 shows how the work is done by using a 
 gouge instead of a chisel. 
 
 Sometimes blind nailing is done by driving headless 
 nails in the edge of the work, “toe-nailing” them in 
 the work just as matched flooring is laid. This is not 
 a satisfactory way to do work and is not recommended, 
 though there are cases where it will answer quite well. 
 
PART TWO 
 
PART TWO 
 
 WOOD FILLERS AND HOW TO APPLY THEM 
 
 There is no part of the art of wood-finishing that is 
 more important than that of the filling, and the 
 greatest of care should be exercised both in the choice 
 of filler and the manner in which it is applied. The 
 stain given to it must also be considered, in order that 
 the color and texture of the wood being finished may 
 not be disfigured or spoiled. 
 
 Fillers are used by all expert polishers for much the 
 same reason that size is used before varnishing—viz., 
 to prevent immoderate absorption of the polish by 
 the wood. Polish, or even thick varnish, when applied 
 to wood, sinks in or is absorbed in places, instead of 
 remaining on the surface in a uniform coat. Here 
 and there it will be observed that the polish or varnish 
 has given more gloss than elsewhere. Where the 
 gloss is brightest the varnish has sunk least. 
 
 The grain may be filled up by going over the wood 
 with polish till the pores are closed,' and some 
 beginners may want to know why anything else in the 
 nature of a filler should be used. The reason is that 
 comparatively valuable French polish need not be 
 used when a cheaper material serves the purpose, the 
 use of which also saves time. Woods that are open 
 in the grain and porous specially need a filler, while 
 fine, close-grained woods do not, and may be polished 
 without. Still, a suitable filler can do no harm to any 
 kind of wood, however fine the grain may be, so there 
 can be no disadvantage in going over it with one 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 preparatory to polishing. Though it may be a slight 
 waste of time, a preliminary rub over with polish 
 suffices when working on a fine wood, such as olive 
 or rosewood, which are both close and hard. To 
 attain the desired thin, glossy film of shellac, which 
 shall not be liable to grow dull unreasonably soon, the 
 woods ordinarily used in furniture—ash, oak, mahog¬ 
 any, walnut, cherry, etc.—should have the grain filled, 
 for they are all of comparatively open grain; ash and 
 oak, being especially coarse, are called by polishers 
 “hungry woods.” Polishers usually give such woods 
 one or more coats of spirit varnish as an aid to filling 
 up the grain. 
 
 Before commencing the process of filling-in, 
 thoroughly brush all dust out of the grain of the wood, 
 for this is wood-dust, sand from the sandpaper, and 
 dirt—all inimical to grain luster if mixed up with the 
 grain stopper. 
 
 Amongst the best “fillers” is a preparation manu¬ 
 factured in Bridgeport, Conn., and known as “Wheeler’s 
 Wood-filler,” and though it may cost a little more 
 than home-made or other fillers, it is certain to give 
 satisfaction. This filler has for its base a form of 
 mineral silica in an atomic shape, which permits it to 
 be ground or pulverized into a very fine, dust-like con¬ 
 dition, in which each particle assumes a needle-pointed 
 form, which enables them to enter into the pores of the 
 wood and give to the work a gloss-like surface. 
 
 For filling a cheap class of work, many polishers 
 content themselves with giving the work one or two 
 coats of glue or patent size, heavily stained by the 
 addition of some dry pigment. For mahogany finish 
 add Venetian red till it gives quite a red tinge; for 
 walnut add brown umber; for pine, add yellow ocher. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 9 
 
 Apply the size hot with a brush, and rub it in lightly 
 with a piece of rag, finishing the way of the grain, and 
 taking care .in the case of turned or moulded work to 
 get the filler well in the recessed parts. Of course, 
 work that has been sized will not need filling-in. 
 
 As many different kinds of fillers are used, and each 
 has its advocates, it will be advisable to name the 
 principal fillers used in the trade, and to make a few 
 remarks about each, so that learners can experiment 
 with them, and perhaps finally fix on that which may 
 seem to suit best. All will be found reliable, for 
 good work is turned out by polishers with any of 
 them, and even an extremely prejudiced individual 
 would hesitate to say that any one is really bad, 
 though he uses only that which suits him best. Some¬ 
 times, owing to the price, he uses the easiest and 
 quickest, irrespective of its quality. 
 
 Wood-fillers ready for use are made for most kinds 
 of wood, and, as a rule, they require only thinning 
 with a little turpentine. When it is desired to make 
 a filler instead of purchasing one ready made, proceed 
 as follows: Take a portion of either china clay or 
 corn-flour; add boiling linseed oil, and stir until the 
 mixture is of the consistency of putty. Then add 
 patent dryers and thin with turpentine. If the wood 
 on which the filler is to be used is to be kept light in 
 color, use raw oil and the lightest variety of dryer. 
 Further remarks on home-made fillers will be found 
 later on. 
 
 In woods employed for house and cabinet work there 
 are two distinct natures; therefore different treatment 
 is required in finishing. First, there is the coarse or 
 open-grained wood, having its surface perforated with 
 innumerable pores or cells. In order to obtain a 
 
10 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 smooth and even finish, these pores should be filled 
 up to a level with the hard grain, or, as the grainer 
 would term them, the “lights” of the wood. Next 
 we have the fine or close-grained wood, which, like 
 the preceding, also contains these pores, but they are 
 of a very fine character, and simply sealing them up 
 with a liquid filler will enable one to produce a fine, 
 smooth finish, which we shall consider farther on. 
 
 I will now return to the open or wide-grained wood, 
 which requires more attention and care than the 
 closer-grained wood, if the same results are expected. 
 There are many things that will serve the purpose of 
 fillers and make pretty fair work; among these may 
 be mentioned china clay, silver white and corn-starch; 
 the best of which is probably the last named. This is 
 well adapted to the work, being equally useful with 
 light, or when colored with dark wood; one fault with 
 it is that it never hardens. China clay—the English 
 is the best—makes an exceedingly good filler; it is 
 light in color, very fine and dries as hard as cement. 
 
 There are a hundred ways of preparing fillers for 
 use, and nearly as many different materials for making 
 them; we would recommend, however, that wherever 
 it is possible, Wheeler’s patent wood filler be used; 
 though we are aware that in many cases it may not 
 be advisable to use it, and to meet these rare conditions 
 the following mixtures may be substituted. 
 
 A filler should be so mixed that the greater portion 
 of the vehicle will penetrate into the wood, leaving 
 the pigment on the surface to be rubbed into the 
 pores, and still retain enough combining property to 
 form a hard and impenetrable surface. This depends 
 entirely upon the proportions of the vehicles employed, 
 gnd different pigments require different quantities 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 ii 
 
 of vehicle. Proceed with the mixing by filling the 
 pot two-thirds full of the dry pigment, then add 
 boiled linseed oil, producing the consistency of putty, 
 then dilute with about one part japan and two parts 
 turpentine. Should it be required to keep the wood 
 as light as possible, replace the boiled oil with raw, 
 using a smaller quantity, but a little more japan. For 
 all light wood the light japan should be preferred, 
 although there are many who never use anything but 
 the common brown. Naphtha can also be employed in 
 place of the turpentine, somewhat reducing the 
 expense; but, as naphtha evaporates much faster, it 
 prevents the operator from covering an extended 
 surface without running the risk of having it dry 
 hard. This causes difficulty at “rubbing it in’’ and 
 wiping off the surplus, although “wiping off” should 
 not proceed until the filler has flatted—or, at least, 
 “set.” This to a certain extent the operator can 
 accelerate or retard by omitting or adding a small 
 quantity of oil, keeping in view the fact that the 
 smaller the quantity of oil used, the lighter colored, 
 but the less durable, will be the finish. 
 
 Oil is sometimes used as a filler, but its use is not 
 recommended; applied directly to the wood, its effect 
 is to swell the fibers, or “raise the grain,” which 
 remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely 
 dry or disappears. During this time the fibers are 
 gradually shrinking, and consequently moving or 
 checking the varnish. The qualities essential to a 
 good filler are that it shall readily enter the porous 
 portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and 
 render the wood impervious to the varnish, which 
 should lie smoothly upon the surface, giving brilliancy 
 and effect to the natural beauty of the wood; and that 
 
12 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 it shall not raise the grain of the wood; and that it 
 shall not change the color of the wood. These con¬ 
 ditions are satisfactorily fulfilled by few of the home¬ 
 made fillers ordinarily used in shops, and while I give 
 a number of recipes, my readers are advised that they 
 will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost, by purchas¬ 
 ing some of the patent fillers now coming into general 
 use. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large 
 amount of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly 
 dry and hard in a few hours, preventing any swelling 
 or shrinking of the fibers of the wood after the varnish 
 is applied. The following fillers should be allowed to 
 dry until quite hard. A period of about eight hours is 
 usually sufficient, but it is better to let the work stand 
 for twenty-four hours before touching it with sand¬ 
 paper. In applying a filler it should always be borne 
 in mind that the substance of wood consists of a 
 multitude of small tubes lying side by side. These 
 tubes or cells are not continuous from top to bottom 
 of the tree, but are comparatively short and taper out 
 to points so that they are thickest in the middle. Most 
 of the common woods have the walls of these tubes so 
 thin that liquid is readily absorbed by them and carried 
 into the substance for some distance. Different kinds 
 of wood differ much in the shape and arrangement of 
 these cells. In filling the pores the first step is taken 
 in providing an absolutely smooth surface. We trust 
 mainly to mechanical force in rubbing in, aided by the 
 absorptive powers of the wood. Formerly successive 
 varnishings and rubbings and scrapings took much 
 time, and when they were done, the final finish had 
 still to be applied, but the whole process has now been 
 simplified, by using fillers. 
 
 The careful workman will not leave “great daubs’’ 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 13 
 
 of superfluous filler here and there on the work, but 
 will see that all corners and heads and quirks of 
 mouldings are well cleaned off before it gets too hard 
 to remove easily, and should there be any nail holes—- 
 which there ought not to be—he will have them filled 
 with properly colored putty or cement and nicely 
 smoothed down before he makes any attempt to put 
 on his finishing coats. 
 
 Among the many home-made fillers I have 
 endeavored to select the best. 
 
 Walnut Filler. —For Medium and Cheap Work. Ten 
 lb. bolted English whiting, 3 lb. dry burnt umber, 4 
 lb. Vandyke brown, 3 lb. calcined plaster, y 2 lb. 
 Venetian red, I gal. boiled linseed oil, y 2 gal. spirits 
 turpentine, I quart black japan. Mix well and apply 
 with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean off 
 with rags. 
 
 Walnut Filler. —For Imitation Wax-Finish. Five lb. 
 bolted whiting, 1 lb. calcined plaster, 6 oz. calcined 
 magnesia, I oz. dry burnt umber, 1 oz. French yellow, 
 I quart raw linseed oil, I quart benzine spirits, y 2 pint 
 very thin white shellac. Mix well and apply with a 
 brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. Before 
 using the above filling, give the work one coat of white 
 shellac. When dry, sandpaper down and apply the 
 filler. 
 
 Walnut Filler. —For First-Class Work. Three lb. 
 burnt umber ground in oil, I lb. burnt sienna ground 
 in oil, 1 quart spirits of turpentine, 1 pint brown japan. 
 Mix well and apply with a brush; sandpaper well; 
 clean off with tow and rags. This gives a beautiful 
 chocolate color to the wood. 
 
 Filler for Light Woods. —Five lb. bolted English" 
 whiting, 3 lb. calcined plaster, 1 lb. corn-starch, 3 oz. 
 
14 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 calcined magnesia, y 2 gallon raw linseed oil, I quart 
 spirits of turpentine, I quart brown japan, and 
 sufficient French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well 
 and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, 
 and clean off with rags. 
 
 Filler for Cherry. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2 
 lb. calcined plaster, I y 2 oz. dry burnt sienna, I oz. 
 Venetian red, I quart boiled linseed oil, 1 pint spirits 
 of turpentine, 1 pint brown japan. Mix well, rub in 
 with excelsior or tow and clean off with rags. 
 
 Filler for Oak. —Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2 
 lb. calcined plaster, 1 oz. dry burnt sienna, y 2 oz. dry 
 French yellow, I quart raw linseed oil, 1 pint benzine 
 spirits, y 2 pint white shellac. Mix well, apply with 
 brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with 
 rag. 
 
 Filler for Rosewood. —Six lb. bolted English whiting, 
 2 lb. calcined plaster, 1 lb. rose pink, 2 oz. Venetian 
 red, y 2 lb. Vandyke brown, y 2 lb. brandon red, 1 gallon 
 boiled linseed oil, y 2 gallon spirits of turpentine, I 
 quart black japan. Mix well, apply with brush, rub 
 in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. 
 
 Another.—Stir boiled oil and corn-starch into a very 
 thick paste; add a little japan, and reduce with turpen¬ 
 tine, but add no color for light ash. For dark ash and 
 chestnut use a little raw sienna; for walnut, burnt 
 umber, add a small quantity of Venetian red; for bay 
 wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more color than is 
 required to overcome the white appearance of the 
 starch, unless it is wished to stain the wood. The 
 filler is worked with brush and rags in the usual 
 manner. Let it dry forty-eight hours, or until it is in 
 condition to rub down with No. O sandpaper without 
 much gumming up, and if an extra fine finish is desired, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 15 
 
 fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but 
 more of japan and turpentine. 
 
 Another.—Take three papers corn-starch, one quart 
 boiled linseed oil, two quarts turpentine, one-quarter 
 pint japan; cut in half the turpentine before mixing; 
 it will not cut perfectly otherwise. For dark woods 
 add burnt umbef to color. When nearly dry, rub off 
 with cloths. The above mixture must be used fresh, 
 as it is of no value after it is four or five days old. 
 The cloths used in rubbing as above mentioned should 
 be destroyed immediately after use, as spontaneous 
 combustion is likely to ensue from the ingredients 
 employed. As a filler of wood to be stained, apply 
 French plaster of Paris, mixed as a creamy paste with 
 water, and after rubbing in, clean any surplus off; or- 
 use whiting finely powdered, or white lead slacked 
 with painters’ drying oil, and used as a filler. Another 
 process is that of oiling, then rubbing crosswise to the 
 grain with a sponge dipped in thin polish composed 
 of melted beeswax, resin, and shellac, and smoothing 
 the surface, when dry, with pumice-stone, or fine glass 
 paper. Embody the work a second time with thicker 
 polish, or a mixture of polish and varnish. The 
 rubbers will work easily with half the quantity of oil 
 which is ordinarily used. This second body should be 
 rubbed very smooth with moist putty. 
 
 In the use of any filler, care must be taken in the 
 selection of color, for the employment of a light 
 colored filler on dark wood or vice versa would result 
 in gross defacement, as the lighter color would show 
 at the pores of the wood in the one case, and the 
 darker in the other. Therefore, to avoid this, the filler 
 should be as near as possible the color of the wood to 
 be filled. 
 
i6 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 As a general thing, paint manufacturers who do not 
 make fillers a specialty use opaque colors to stain their 
 filler, as it requires a less quantity. This will do 
 sometimes, but not always. But those which give to 
 the wood a clear and bright appearance, and there¬ 
 fore produce the best results, are stained with trans¬ 
 parent colors; those chiefly employed are burnt 
 umber and sienna, Venetian red, Vandyke brown and 
 charcoal black, the charcoal being ground fine in oil, 
 while the others can be used dry and according to the 
 following recipes with good results: 
 
 In mixing any or all dark fillers the same pigments 
 used for the light (previously described) should be 
 kept for a basis, with sufficient coloring to stain it to 
 the desired depth of shade. 
 
 Filler for walnut is very often stained with burnt 
 umber; this is reddish in hue and gives to the wood a 
 pleasing effect. Others use Venetian red, darkened 
 somewhat with lampblack; this is rather opaque, and 
 tends to deaden the color of the wood. There is 
 another article — namely, Vandyke brown—which gives 
 fair results. In order to obtain a rich effect, the filler 
 should be made considerably darker than the wood 
 when new. 
 
 Fillers for mahogany, cherry, California redwood, 
 and other woods of similar shade, should be stained 
 with bunrt sienna, as they should be finished very clear. 
 It is well to know that charcoal black and Venetian red 
 will give the desired shade for any dark-colored wood 
 in common use or for all colors in antique, but it does 
 not show up quite as clear as some other combinations. 
 
 For rosewood, charcoal as a stain will suffice, and 
 for vanilla or Brazil-wood the use of rose-pink will give 
 good results. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 *7 
 
 The methods of mixing these fillers are quite 
 numerous. It is impossible to give the proportions 
 definitely, owing to the strength of the colors or the 
 transparency of the chief ingredient, but one cannot 
 go astray by following the preceding rules. 
 
 Mix the light pigment to a paste with boiled oil, 
 which must be well stirred up. Then in another pot 
 mix a quantity of the colored pigment with turpentine 
 or naphtha; and when thoroughly “cut,” or dissolved, 
 add sufficient of it to the light to give the shade 
 required. After this is obtained, dilute with turpentine 
 or naphtha and japan, as directed in mixing light 
 filler. This applies to all colors except black, which 
 is seldom obtained finely ground unless in oil, and 
 properly thinned down. 
 
 There are many finishers and firms who exclusively 
 use manufactured fillers, and in consequence meet with 
 many difficulties as to the shade they require, as 
 different manufacturers use different colors to stain 
 their filler. But this difficulty can be overcome by a 
 few experiments with the above-named stains. 
 
 As the foregoing gives pretty nearly all the fillers in 
 general use, with the exception of some of the manu¬ 
 factured mineral preparations of which I will have 
 more to say further on, I will now proceed to describe 
 the method of application. The secret of this is to 
 do the work well, quickly and economically. These 
 points are dealt with in the following: 
 
 Have your filler mixed to the consistency of 
 ordinary lead paint; then apply to the prepared 
 surface of the wood with a pound brush, or, what is 
 still better, a 3-0 or 4-0 oval chisel varnish brush. In 
 applying the filler it is not necessary to cover all the 
 small beads and carvings; and if the filler be light, 
 
*8 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 better avoid coating them at all; and if dark or 
 antique, stain them with a little of the filler, 
 much reduced with spirits of turpentine. For 
 this purpose have at hand a small pot with a 
 small fitch or sash tool. 
 
 By not filling the beads and carvings, the 
 varnish is not so liable to run down in them, 
 although sufficient remains to produce a finish 
 equal to the balance of the surface. 
 
 After enough surface has been covered with 
 the filler, so that what has been first applied 
 begins to flatten, the process of wiping should 
 immediately begin, using for that purpose 
 either a rag or a handful of waste or excelsior. 
 If the wood is very open grained, waste is 
 preferable. With a piece of this that has 
 previously been used and is pretty well sup¬ 
 plied with filler, rub crosswise of the grain, 
 rather rubbing it into the grain than wiping it 
 off. After the whole surface has been gone 
 over in this way, take a clean piece of waste 
 or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) 
 and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free 
 from filler, using a wooden pick (Fig. 105), the 
 point of which has been covered with a rag or 
 waste, to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It 
 is well to give these picks some attention, as 
 a person once accustomed to certain tools can 
 accomplish more and better work than with 
 tools that feel strange in his hands; therefore, 
 Fig 105 ea °h finisher should furnish his own pick. As 
 to their construction, these are best made 
 from second-growth hickory, which can be procured at 
 any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken 
 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 19 
 
 felloes, etc. They are made eight incnes in length, 
 half inch oval at one end and tapering down to the 
 point at the other. Sharpen the oval end like a cold 
 chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which should also 
 be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes 
 worn dull. 
 
 This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can 
 be accelerated by the use of picking brushes, several 
 of which I show in Fig. 106, and which are manm 
 factured especially for that purpose, but it is not 
 
 Fig. 106 
 
 advisable to use them on very coarsely grained wood, 
 as they scrub the filler out of the pores. 
 
 There are several fillers used which do not require 
 this picking and scrubbing. One is a liquid filler used 
 chiefly for carriage finishing; but it can be used suc¬ 
 cessfully on butternut, bird’s-eye maple, curly maple, 
 satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from gum and 
 oil. Another is a filler made from finely ground 
 pumice-stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied 
 with a brush, and must be left to dry at least twenty- 
 four hours; it is then sandpapered smooth, when an oil 
 
20 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 varnish is applied, rendering it completely transparent. 
 This last can be used only upon light wood. 
 
 The workman, as a matter of course, will under¬ 
 stand that different woods require slightly different 
 treatment, and the finer-grained woods, among which 
 are the pines, maples, cedars and poplars, of different 
 varieties, and birch, cherry, beech, sycamore, white 
 box, satinwood, etc., require no filling, not that a 
 filling would prove detrimental to the finish—except 
 upon stained work or white holly, which in order to 
 maintain a clear color should never be filled—but, from 
 the condition of all fine wood, it is superfluous, and 
 only causes unnecessary labor and expense. At this 
 point it will be convenient to pause to consider the 
 subject of mineral or prepared wood-fillers. 
 
 A great deal of time and money have been wasted 
 in attempting to make good fillers, to no purpose, and 
 a great variety—as I have shown—of substances, as 
 chalk, plaster of Paris, corn-starch, etc., etc., have 
 been mixed with various vehicles and rubbed into the 
 wood with but indifferent success. Most of these 
 compounds labor under the disadvantages of forming 
 chemical compounds with the oil and consequently 
 they shrink very much on drying, so that though the 
 surface may appear smooth when they are first put on, 
 waves and hollows make their appearance as they dry. 
 These waves, having round edges, are difficult to fill, 
 the second coat building up as much or more upon the 
 level spaces as in the hollows. It sometimes seems 
 almost impossible with these fillers in the latter coats 
 to make the hollows hold any substance, the filler 
 clinging chiefly to the surfaces. 
 
 I have thought it necessary to show how the ordinary 
 or home-made fillers act, and fail, in order to show by 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 21 
 
 contrast how much easier it is to work efficiently with 
 the mineral fillers. The mineral quartz, when mixed 
 with oil, probably shrinks less in drying than any other 
 similar known mixture. If a surface of wood be 
 covered with this and then rubbed, the sharp and 
 angular particles of the silica imbed themselves in the 
 pores of the wood, closing them up, while the oil 
 cements them fast. This is the foundation of 
 Wheeler’s wood filler, which we recommend for use 
 by all wood finishers. When the pores have been 
 filled with silica, and are cemented fast by the proper 
 mixture of gums and oils, the difficult part of the work 
 is done. 
 
 After a good surface has been made upon the article 
 it is ready for the filler, which is to be selected 
 according to the color desired. In putting the filler 
 on, it is thinned with turpentine until about like flowing 
 varnish, and is applied with a brush. Only so much of 
 the surface is covered as can be cleaned off before it 
 hardens. When it has set so that the gloss has left the 
 surface, it is at once rubbed off with excelsior or 
 shavings, going across the grain with the strokes. If 
 the filler dries too fast or too light, a little raw linseed 
 oil may be used in it. 
 
 Perhaps a better material for rubbing off than 
 excelsior is hemp, or “flax tow.” At any rate, the 
 work should be finished with some finer material than 
 excelsior. 
 
 For a nicer job the filler is rubbed in with a rubber, 
 made by gluing a piece of sole or belt leather on the 
 face of a block of wood and trimming the edges flush 
 with the block. The rubbing is done after the filler 
 has set and before it is cleaned off. If it dries off too 
 light, a little white japan may be added on nice work. 
 
22 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 The light-colored filler should be used on all work 
 where light and dark woods are used together. The 
 filling, it must be understood, is done by the silica, 
 which will often be found in the shape of a sediment 
 in the bottom of the mixture. Eight hours is generally 
 considered a sufficient time for the filler to dry. 
 
 When the work with the filler is done, the surface of 
 the wood ought to be like so much ground glass. Such 
 portions of the wood as show a solid grain need very 
 little filler. On Georgia pine, after the filler is dry, a 
 little rubbing in the direction of the grain with very 
 fine sandpaper is an advantage. If the filler has been 
 properly used the desired results will be obtained with 
 little labor. 
 
 The wood is now in a condition to'receive the final 
 coatings. Whether the work is to be polished or 
 “dead finished,” do not employ shellac or “French 
 polish.” If a “dead” surface is wanted, wax finish is 
 easily put on, and as easily rubbed to a good surface. 
 Several manufacturers in this country prepare a wax 
 finish, which is a convenient preparation of wax and 
 gums, and can be applied with a brush and then rubbed 
 down with a woolen cloth, tied up to make a hard 
 rubber, until a fine, lusterless surface is obtained. 
 With mahogany and similar woods this greatly 
 improves the color of the wood. When this has dried, 
 which will be in the course of a few hours, the work is 
 r eady for use. The wax finish, like many of the 
 furniture creams, has the advantage that it can be put 
 on in a few minutes at any time to brighten up work 
 when it has become dull. A piece of work prepared in 
 this way, after four operations, will present as fine an 
 appearance as the best cabinet work found in the 
 furniture stores. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 23 
 
 The materials which have been described, it will be 
 noticed, are both manufactured articles. The prepared 
 filler is indispensable; the wax finish can be made by- 
 mixing together, by the aid of heat, white wax and 
 spirits of turpentine until they are of the consistency 
 of thick paste. Another wax finish is made of bees¬ 
 wax, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil in equal parts. 
 The addition of two drams of alkanet root to every 
 twenty ounces of turpentine darkens and enriches the 
 color. The root is to be put into a little bag and 
 allowed to stand in the turpentine until it is sufficiently 
 colored. 
 
 An altogether more durable surface can be made by 
 a little change in the treatment. When the wood is 
 filled, instead of applying the wax, take some hard 
 oil finish, “Luxeberry,” a preparation manufactured 
 in Detroit, Mich., and put it on with a brush precisely 
 like varnish. The coat should not be too heavy, 
 especially on vertical surfaces, and the brush used 
 ought to be a good one. This material gives a most 
 brilliant polish. By rubbing it down with a woolen 
 cloth and pumice-stone powder it can also be made 
 dull. Hard-oil finish does not spot with hot or cold 
 water, is slightly elastic and is not injured by pretty 
 severe soaking in water. It gets hard in twelve hours 
 or less in warm weather, and overnight in winter time. 
 It is one of the best surfaces which can be used, and 
 has the advantage of working very well in the hands 
 of one who is not an expert in the art of finishing wood 
 or handling varnish. It will make a very fair surface 
 applied direct to the unfilled wood, in which case it is 
 a good substitute for shellac. 
 
 Wax finish has the advantage that scratches can be 
 easily repaired without sending to the cabinetmaker 
 
24 
 
 The- jp- to -date 
 
 or the painter. Here a word of advice to the 
 carpenter who di^es any work of this character may 
 save him some trouble and make way for the further 
 use of the same kind of finish. When the woodwork 
 of a house is treated in this way, be sure to leave a 
 little bottle of the wax polish with the housekeeper, 
 with directions as to the method of using it. In send¬ 
 ing out a “what-not,” bookcase, or any other article 
 of similar kind, put up a little bottle of the polish and 
 show the owner, or, preferably the lady of the house, 
 how to repair any little scratch and make the work 
 look “as good as new.” The fresh appearance of the 
 work will be a good advertisement, while it will pre¬ 
 vent complaints and dissatisfaction that often follow 
 the use of work which, when injured, cannot be 
 restored. 
 
 It may be said that either of the methods of finishing 
 involves a great deal of labor. This is true; but the 
 amount is not much greater than is needed for three 
 coats of paint, and the cost of the paint would probably 
 be more than the cost of the finish. The labor in one 
 case can be of a cheap character, and in the other an 
 experienced painter must be employed. The profit 
 upon the “dead finish” can go into the pocket of the 
 carpenter, while that of the painting must in any event 
 be divided between the carpenter and painter, or 
 belong to the latter altogether, who is, after all, the 
 proper person to do the w r ork. 
 
 I have now said about all that is necessary in the 
 matter of “fillers” and “filling,” but, as it sometimes 
 happens that the old system of “sizing” has to be 
 resorted to for certain kinds of work, I give herewith 
 a formula for its construction and use: 
 
 Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to the 
 
H/na.wOOD FINISHER 
 
 2t 
 
 surface of wool -o f event absorption of the varnish. 
 The kind of material used for the size is not important, 
 the object being only to prevent absorption by a very 
 thin coat of some substance not soluble in the varnish. 
 For dark-colored wood, thin size, made by reducing 
 ordinary glue with water, is generally used; but for 
 lighter-colored surfaces a white size is used, which is 
 prepared by boiling white kid or other leather or 
 parchment-cuttings in water for a few hours, or until 
 it forms a thin, jelly-like substance, which is reduced 
 with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid 
 state. Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth 
 are employed in like manner. Unlike the.best fillers, 
 sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, and are 
 sometimes a positive detriment to it. They are used 
 solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of the 
 varnish needed; - J ‘heir use is not recommended for 
 the best work. 
 
 WOOD-STAINING GENERALLY 
 
 There are many cases where an article constructed 
 of wood may be more conveniently and suitably 
 finished by staining and polishing than by painting. 
 The practice of staining woods is much less common 
 in America and England than on the Continent, where 
 workmen, familiar with the different washes, produce 
 the most delicate tones of color and shade. Wood is 
 often stained to imitate darker and dearer varieties, 
 but more legitimately to improve the natural 
 appearance by heightening and bringing out the 
 original markings, or by giving a definite color with¬ 
 out covering the surface and hiding the nature of the 
 material by coats of paint. The best woods for stain¬ 
 ing are those of close, even texture, as pear and cherry, 
 
26 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 birch, beech, and maple, though softer and coarser 
 kinds may be treated with good effect. The wood 
 should be dried, and if an even tint is desired, its 
 surface planed and sandpapered. All the stains 
 should, if possible, be applied hot, as they thus pene¬ 
 trate more deeply into the pores. If the wood is to be 
 varnished, and not subjected to much handling, almost 
 any of the brilliant mordants used in wool and cotton 
 dyeing may be employed in an alcoholic solution; 
 but when thus colored it has an unnatural appearance, 
 and is best used on small surfaces only, for inlaying, 
 etc. The ebonized wood, of late years so much in 
 vogue, is in many respects the most unsatisfactory of 
 the stains, as the natural character and markings are 
 completely blotted out, and it shows the least scratch 
 or rubbing. Sometimes, in consequence of the quality 
 of the wood under treatment, it must be freed from its 
 natural colors by a preliminary bleaching process. To 
 this end it is saturated as completely as possible with 
 a clear solution of 17% oz. chloride of lime and 2 oz. 
 soda crystals, in 10}4 pints water. In this liquid the 
 wood is steeped for hour, if it does not appear to 
 injure its texture. After this bleaching, it is immersed 
 in a solution of sulphurous acid to remove all traces 
 of chlorine, and then washed in pure water. The 
 sulphurous acid, which may cling to the wood in spite 
 of washing, does not appear to injure it, nor alter the 
 colors which are applied. 
 
 Black.—(1) Obtained by boiling together blue 
 Brazil-wood, powdered gall-apples, and alum, in rain 
 or river water, until it becomes black. This liquid is 
 then filtered through a fine organdie, and the objects 
 painted with a new brush before the decoction has 
 cooled, and this repeated until the wood appears of 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 2 ; 
 
 a fine black color. It Is then coated with the follow¬ 
 ing liquid: A mixture of iron filings, vitriol, and 
 vinegar is heated (without boiling), and left a few 
 days to settle. Even if the wood is black enough, yet, 
 for the sake of durability,- it must be coated with a 
 solution of alum and nitric acid, mixed with a little 
 verdigris; then a decoction of gall-apples and logwood 
 dyes is used to give it a deep black. A decoction may 
 be made of brown Brazil-wood with alum in rain¬ 
 water, without gall-apples; the wood is left standing 
 in it for some days in a moderately warm place, and 
 to it merely iron filings in strong vinegar are added, 
 ,and both are boiled with the wood over a gentle fire. 
 For this purpose soft pear-wood is chosen, which is 
 preferable to all others for black staining. 
 
 (2) 1 oz. nut-gall broken into small pieces, put into 
 barely y 2 pint vinegar, which must be contained in an 
 open vessel; let stand for about y 2 hour; add 1 oz. 
 steel filings; the vinegar will then commence effer¬ 
 vescing; cover up, but not sufficient to exclude all air. 
 The solution must then stand for about 2^/2 hours, when 
 it will be ready for use. Apply the solution with a 
 brush or piece of rag to the article, then let it remain 
 until dry; if not black enough, coat it until it is—each 
 time, of course, letting it remain sufficiently 15 ng to 
 dry thoroughly. After the solution is made, keep it 
 in a closely corked bottle. 
 
 (3) One gal. water, I lb. logwood chips, y 2 lb. black 
 copperas, y 2 lb. extract of logwood, y 2 lb. indigo blue, 
 2 oz. lampblack. Put these into an iron pot and boil 
 them over a slow fire. When the mixture is cool, 
 strain it through a cloth, add y oz. nut-gall. It is 
 then ready for use. This is a good black for all kinds 
 of cheap work. 
 
28 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 (4) Two hundred fifty parts of Campeachy wood, 
 2000 water, and 30 copper sulphate; the wood is 
 allowed to stand 24 hours in (his liquor, dried in the 
 air, and finally immersed in iron nitrate liquor at 4 0 B. 
 
 (5) Boil 8 Y\ oz. logwood in 70 oz. water and I oz. 
 blue stone, and steep the wood for 24 hours. Take 
 out, expose to the air for a long time, and then steep 
 for 12 hours in a solution of iron nitrate at 4 0 B. If 
 the black is not fine, steep again in the logwood liquor. 
 
 (6) It is customary to employ the clear liquid 
 obtained by treating 2 parts powdered galls with 15 
 parts wine, and mixing the filtered liquid with a 
 solution of iron protosulphate. Reimann recommends 
 the use of water in the place of wine. 
 
 (7) Almost any wood can be dyed black by the 
 following means: Take logwood extract such as is 
 found in commerce, powder 1 oz., and boil it in 3^ 
 pints of water; when the extract is dissolved, add 1 dr. 
 potash yellow chromate (not the bichromate), and 
 agitate the whole. The operation is now finished, and 
 the liquid will serve equally well to write with or to 
 stain wood. Its color is a very fine dark purple, which 
 becomes a pure black when applied to the wood. 
 
 (8) For black and gold furniture, procure I lb. log¬ 
 wood chips, add 2 qt. water, boil 1 hour, brush the 
 liquor in hot, when dry give another coat. Now 
 procure 1 oz. green copperas, dissolve it in warm 
 water, well mix, and brush the solution over the wood; 
 it will bring out a fine black; but the wood should be 
 dried outdoors, as the black sets better. A common 
 stove brush is best. If polish cannot be used, proceed 
 as follows: Fill up the grain with black glue—i.e., 
 thin glue and lampblack—brushed over the parls 
 accessible (not in the carvings); when dry, paper down 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 29 
 
 with fine paper. Now procure, say, a gill of French 
 polish, in which mix 1 oz. best ivory black, or gas- 
 black is best, well shake it until quite a thick pasty 
 mass, procure y 2 pint brown hard varnish, pour a 
 portion into a cup, add enough black polish to make it 
 quite dark, then varnish the work; two thin coats are 
 better than one thick coat. The first coat may be 
 sandpapered down where accessible, as it will look 
 better. A coat of glaze over the whole gives a piano 
 finish. N.B.—Enough varnish should be mixed at 
 once for the job to make it all one color—i.e., good 
 black. 
 
 (9) For table. Wash the surface of table with 
 liquid ammonia, applied with a piece of rag; the 
 varnish will then peel off like a skin; afterwards 
 smooth down with fine sandpaper. Mix y lb. 
 lampblack with 1 qt. hot water, adding a little glue 
 size; rub this stain well in; let it dry before sand¬ 
 papering it; smooth again. Mind you do not work 
 through the stain. Afterwards apply the following 
 black varnish with a broad, fine camel-hair brush: Mix 
 a small quantity of gas-black with the varnish. If 
 one coat of varnish is not sufficient, apply a second 
 one after the first is dry. Gas-black can be obtained 
 by boiling a pot over the gas, letting the pot nearly 
 touch the burner, when a fine jet black will form 00 
 the bottom, which remove, and mix with the varnish. 
 Copper vessels give the best black; it may be collected 
 from barbers’ warming pots. 
 
 (10) Black-board wash, or “liquid slating.”— {a) 
 Four pints 95 per cent alcohol, 8 oz. shellac, 12 dr. 
 lampblack, 20 dr. ultramarine blue, 4 oz. powdered 
 rotten stone, 6 oz. powdered pumice. ( b ) 1 gal. 95 pel 
 cent alcohol, I lb. shellac, 8 oz. best ivory black, 5 oz. 
 
30 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 finest flour emery, 4 oz. ultramarine blue. Make a 
 perfect solution of the shellac in the alcohol before 
 adding the other articles. To apply the slating, have 
 the surface smooth and perfectly free from grease; 
 well shake the bottle containing the preparation, and 
 pour out a small quantity only into a dish, and apply 
 it with a new flat varnish brush as rapidly as possible. 
 Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up each 
 time before pouring out the liquid, (c) Lampblack 
 and flour of emery mixed with spirit varnish. No 
 more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than 
 are sufficient to give the required black abrading sur¬ 
 face. The thinner the mixture the better. Lamp¬ 
 black should first be ground with a small quantity of 
 spirit varnish or alcohol to free it from lumps. The 
 composition should be applied to the smoothly planed 
 surface of a board with a common paint brush. Let it 
 become thoroughly dry and hard before it is used. 
 Rub it down with pumice if too rough, (d) ^ gal. 
 shellac varnish, 5 oz. lampblack, 3 oz. powdered iron 
 ore or emery; if too thick, thin with alcohol. Give 
 3 coals of the composition, allowing each to dry before 
 putting on the next; the first may be of shellac and 
 lampblack alone. ( e ) To make 1 gal. of the paint for 
 a blackboard, take 10 oz. pulverized and sifted pumice, 
 6 oz. powdered rotten stone (infusorial silica), ^ lb. 
 good lampblack, and alcohol enough to form with 
 these a thick paste, which must be well rubbed and 
 ground together. Then dissolve 14 oz. shellac in the 
 remainder of the gallon of alcohol by digestion and 
 agitation, and finally mix this varnish and the paste 
 together. It is applied to the board with a brush, care 
 being taken to keep the paint well stirred, so that the 
 pumice will not settle. Two coats are usually necessary. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER H 
 
 The first should be allowed to dry thoroughly before 
 the second is put on, the latter being applied so as not 
 to disturb or rub off any portion of the first. One 
 gallon of this paint will ordinarily furnish 2 coats for 60 
 sq. yd. of blackboard. When the paint is to be put 
 on plastered walls, the wall should be previously 
 coated with glue size—I lb. glue, I gal. water, enough 
 lampblack to color; put on hot. (/) Instead of the 
 alcohol mentioned in b , take a solution of borax in 
 water; dissolve the shellac in this and color with 
 lampblack. {£) Dilute soda silicate (water-glass) with 
 an equal bulk of water, and add sufficient lampblack 
 to color it. The lampblack should be ground with 
 water and a little of the silicate before being added to 
 the rest of the liquid 
 
 (n) 17.5 oz. Brazil-wood and 0.525 oz. alum are 
 boiled for 1 hour in 2.75 lb. water. The colored 
 liquor is then filtered from the boiled Brazil-wood, 
 and applied several times boiling hot to the wood to 
 be stained. This will assume a violet color. This 
 violet color can be easily changed into black by 
 preparing a solution of 2.1 oz. iron filings, and 1.05 
 oz. common salt in 17.5 oz. vinegar. The solution is 
 filtered, and applied to the wood, which will then 
 acquire a beautiful black color. 
 
 (12) 8.75 oz. gall-nuts and 2.2 lb. logwood are 
 boiled in 2.2 lb. rain-water for 1 hour in a copper 
 boiler. The decoction is then filtered through a cloth, 
 and applied several times while it is still warm to the 
 article of wood to be stained. In this manner a beauti¬ 
 ful black will be obtained. 
 
 (13) This is prepared by dissolving 0.525 oz. log¬ 
 wood extract in 2.2 lb. hot rain-water, and by adding 
 to the logwood solution 0.035 oz. potash chromate. 
 
32 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 When this is applied several times to the article to be 
 stained, a dark brown color will first be obtained. To 
 change this into a deep chrome-black, the solution of 
 iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, given under 
 (il) is applied to the wood, and the desired color will 
 be produced. 
 
 (14) Several coats of alizarine ink are applied to 
 the wood, but every coat must be thoroughly dry 
 before the other is put on. When the articles are dry, 
 the solution of iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, 
 as given in (11), is applied to the wood, and a very 
 durable black will be obtained. 
 
 (15) According to Herzog, a black stain for wood, 
 giving to it a color resembling ebony, is obtained by 
 treating the wood with two fluids, one after the other. 
 The first fluid to be used consists of a very concentrated 
 solution of logwood, and to O.35 oz. of this fluid are 
 added 0.017 oz. alum. The other fluid is obtained by 
 digesting iron filings in vinegar. After the wood has 
 been dipped in the first hot fluid, it is allowed to dry, 
 and is then treated with the second fluid, several times 
 if necessary. 
 
 (16) Sponge the wood with a solution of aniline 
 chlorhydrate in water, to which a small quantity of 
 copper chloride is added. Allow it to dry, and go 
 over it with a solution of potassium bichromate. 
 Repeat the process two or three times, and the wood 
 will take a fine black color. 
 
 Blue.—(1) Powder a little Prussian blue, and mix to 
 the consistency of paint with beer; brush it on the 
 wood, and when dry size it with glue dissolved in 
 boiling water; apply lukewarm, and let this dry also; 
 then varnish or French polish. 
 
 (2) Indigo solution, or a concentrated hot solution 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 33 
 
 of blue vitriol, followed by a dip in a solution ol 
 washing soda. 
 
 (3) Prepare as for violet, and dye with aniline blue. 
 
 (4) A beautiful blue stain is obtained by gradually 
 stirring 0.52 oz. finely powdered indigo into 4.2 oz. 
 sulphuric acid of 60 per cent, and by exposing this 
 mixture for 12 hours to a temperature of 77 0 F. (25 0 
 C.). The mass is then poured into 11-13.2 lb. rain- 
 water, and filtered through felt. This filtered water 
 is applied several times to the wood, until the desired 
 color has been obtained. The more the solution is 
 diluted with water, the lighter will be the color. 
 
 (5) 1.05 oz. finest indigo carmine, dissolved in 8.75 
 oz. water, applied several times to the articles to be 
 stained. A very fine blue is in this manner obtained. 
 
 (6) 3.5 oz. French verdigris are dissolved in 3.5 oz. 
 urine and 8.75 oz. wine vinegar. The solution is 
 filtered and applied to the article to be stained. Then 
 a solution of 2.1 oz. potash carbonate in 8.75 oz. rain¬ 
 water is prepared, and the article colored with the 
 verdigris is brushed over with this solution until the 
 desired blue color makes its appearance. 
 
 (7) The newest processes of staining wood blue are 
 those with aniline colors. The following colors may 
 be chosen for the staining liquor: Bleu de Lyon 
 (reddish blue), bleu de lumiere (pure blue), light blue 
 (greenish blue). These colors are dissolved in the 
 proportion of I part coloring substance to 30 of spirit 
 of wine, and the wood is treated with the solution. 
 
 Brown.—(1) Various tones may be produced by 
 mordanting with potash chromate, and applying a 
 decoction of fustic, of logwood, or of peachwood. 
 
 (2) Sulphuric acid, more or less diluted according to 
 the intensity of the color to be produced, is applied 
 
34 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 with a brush to the wood, previously cleaned and 
 dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained, 
 according to the strength of the acid. When the acid 
 has acted sufficiently, its further action is arrested by 
 the application of ammonia. 
 
 (3) Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown color¬ 
 ation, which, however, is not permanent unless the air 
 is excluded by a thick coating of polish. 
 
 (4) A simple brown wash is y 2 oz. alkanet root, 1 
 oz. aloes, 1 oz. dragons’ blood, digested in 1 lb. alcohol. 
 This is applied after the wood has been washed with 
 aqua regia, but is, like all the alcoholic washes, not 
 very durable. 
 
 Ebonizing.—(1) Boil 1 lb. logwood chips 1 hour in 2 
 qt. water; brush the hot liquor over the work to be 
 stained, lay aside to dry; when dry give another coat, 
 still using it hot. When the second coat is dry, brush 
 the following liquor over the work: 1 oz. green 
 copperas to 1 qt. hot water, to be used when the 
 copperas is all dissolved. It will bring out an intense 
 black when dry. For staining, the work must not be 
 dried by fire, but in the sunshine, if possible; if not, 
 in a warm room, away from the fire. To polish this 
 work, first give a coating of very thin glue size, and 
 when quite dry paper off very lightly with No. o paper, 
 only just enough to render smooth, but not to remove 
 the black stain. Then make a rubber of wadding 
 about the size of a walnut, moisten the rubber with 
 French polish, cover the whole tightly with a double 
 linen rag, put one drop of oil on the surface, and rub 
 the work with a circular motion. Should the rubber 
 stick it requires more polish. Previous to putting the 
 French polish on the wadding pledget, it ought to be 
 mixed with the best drop black, in the proportion of 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 35 
 
 y[ oz. drop black to a gill of French polish. When the 
 work has received one coat, set it aside to dry for 
 about an hour. After the first coat is laid on and 
 thoroughly dry, it should be partly papered off with 
 No. o paper. This brings the surface even, and at the 
 same time fills up the grain. Now give a second coat 
 as before. Allow 24 hours to elapse, again paper off, 
 and give a final coat as before. Now comes “spiriting 
 off.” Great care must be used here, or the work will 
 be dull instead of bright. A clean rubber must be 
 made, as previously described, but instead of being 
 moistened with polish it must be wetted with spirits 
 of wine placed in a linen rag screwed into a tight, 
 even-surfaced ball, just touched on the face with a 
 drop of oil, and then rubbed lightly and quickly in 
 circular sweeps all over the work from top to bottom. 
 One application of spirits is usually enough if sufficient 
 has been placed on the rubber at the outset, but it is 
 better to use rather too little than too much at a 
 time, as an excess will entirely remove the polish, 
 when the work will have to be polished again. Should 
 this be the case, paper off at once, and commence as 
 at first. It is the best way in the end. ( Smither .) 
 
 (2) Lauber dissolves extract of logwood in boiling 
 water until the solution indicates o° Beaume. Five pints 
 of the solution is then mixed with 2^ pints pyrolig¬ 
 neous iron mordant of io°, and y^ pint acetic acid of 
 2°. The mixture is heated for % hour, and is then 
 ready for use. 
 
 (3) To imitate black ebony, first wet the wood with 
 a solution of logwood and copperas, boiled together 
 and laid on hot. For this purpose, 2 oz. logwood 
 chips with 1 y 2 oz. copperas, to 1 qt. water, will be 
 required. When the work has become dry, wet the 
 
36 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 surface again with a mixture of vinegar and steel 
 filings. This mixture may be made by dissolving 2 oz. 
 steel filings in ^ pint vinegar. When the work has 
 become dry again, sandpaper down until quite smooth. 
 Then oil and fill in with powdered drop black mixed in . 
 the filler. Work to be ebonized should be smooth and 
 free from holes, etc. The work may receive a light 
 coat of quick-drying varnish, and then be rubbed with 
 finely pulverized pumice and linseed oil until very 
 smooth. 
 
 (4) One gal. strong vinegar, 2 lb. extract of logwood, 
 % lb. green copperas, lb. China blue, and 2 oz. 
 nut-gall. Put these in an iron pot, and boil them over 
 a slow fire till they are well dissolved. When cool, 
 the mixture is ready for use. Add to the above *4 pint 
 iron rust, which may be obtained by scraping rusty 
 hoops, or preferably by steeping iron filings in a 
 solution of acetic acid or strong vinegar. 
 
 (5) Common ebony stain is obtained by preparing 
 two baths; the first, applied warm, consists of a log¬ 
 wood decoction, to every quart of which 1 dr. alum is 
 added; the second is a solution of iron filings in 
 vinegar. After the wood has dried from the first, the 
 second is applied as often as is required. For the 
 first-named bath, some substitute 16 oz. gall-nut, 4 
 oz. logwood dust, and 2 oz. verdigris, boiled in a 
 sufficient quantity of water. A peculiar method of 
 blackening walnut is in use in Nurnberg. On one of 
 the Pegnitz Islands there is a large grinding-mill, turned 
 by the stream, where iron tools are sharpened and 
 polished. The wood is buried for a week or more in 
 the slime formed by the wheels; when dug out ;t 
 jet black, and so permeated by silica as to be in effect 
 petrified. Another way to ebonize flat surfaces of soft 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 37 
 
 wor,k is to rub very fine charcoal dust into the pores 
 with oil. This works beautifully with basswood and 
 American whitewood. A brown mahogany-like stain 
 is best used on elm and walnut. Take a pint decoction 
 of 2 oz. logwood in which y 2 oz. barium chloride has 
 been dissolved. This gives also, when diluted with 
 soft water, a’good oak stain to ash and chestnut. Bjt 
 the most beautiful and lasting of the browns is a con¬ 
 centrated solution of potash permanganate (mineral 
 chameleon). This is decomposed by the woody fiber, 
 and forms hydrated manganese oxide, which is 
 permanently fixed by the alkali. 
 
 (6) For the fine black ebony stain, apple, pear, and 
 hazel wood are the best woods to use; when stained 
 black, they are most complete imitations of the 
 natural ebony. For the stain take: gall-apple, 14 oz.; 
 rasped logwood, 3^ oz ; vitriol, iy oz.; verdigris, 
 1 y oz. For the second coating a mixture of iron 
 filings (pure), 3^ oz., dissolved in strong wine vinegar; 
 1 y 2 pint is warmed, and when cool the wood already 
 blackened is coated 2 or 3 times with it, allowing it 
 to dry after each coat. For articles which are to 
 be thoroughly saturated, a mixture of iy oz. sal- 
 ammoniac, with a sufficient quantity of steel filings, is 
 to be placed in a suitable vessel, strong vinegar poured 
 upon it, and left for 14 days in a gently heated oven. 
 A strong lye is now put into a suitable pot, to which 
 is added coarsely bruised gall-apples and blue Brazil 
 shavings, and exposed for the same time as the former 
 to the gentle heat of an oven, which will then yield a 
 good liquid. The woods are now laid in the first- 
 named stain, boiled for a few hours, and left in it for 3 
 days longer; they are then placed in the second stain 
 and treated as in the first. If the articles are not then 
 
38 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 thoroughly saturated, they may be once more placed 
 in the first bath, and then in the second. The polish 
 used for wood that is stained black should be “white” 
 (colorless) polish, to which a very little finely ground 
 Prussian blue should be added. 
 
 (7) Wash with a concentrated aqueous solution of 
 logwood extract several times; then with a solution 
 of iron acetate of 14 0 B., which is repeated until a deep 
 black is produced. 
 
 (8) Beech, pear-tree, or nolly steeped in a strong 
 liquor of logwood or galls. Let the wood dry, and 
 wash over with solution of iron sulphate. Wash with 
 clean water, and repeat if color is not dark enough. 
 Polish either with black or common French polish. 
 
 (9) Oak is immersed for 48 hours in a hot saturated 
 solution of alum, and then brushed over several times 
 with a logwood decoction prepared as follows: Boil 1 
 part best logwood with 10 of water, filter through linen, 
 and evaporate at a gentle heat until the volume is 
 reduced one-half. To every quart of this add 10 to 15 
 drops of a saturated solution of indigo, completely 
 neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub 
 the latter with a saturated and filtered solution of 
 verdigris in hot concentrated acetic acid, and repeat 
 the operation until a black of the desired intensity is 
 obtained. Oak thus stained is said to be a close as 
 well as handsome imitation of ebony. 
 
 (10) One lb. logwood chips, 3 pints water; boil to 1 
 pint; apply hot to wood; let dry; then give another 
 coat; let dry slowly; sandpaper smooth; mix 1 gill 
 vinegar with 3 tablespoonfuls iron or steel filings; let 
 stand 5 hours, then brush on wood; let dry; then give 
 another coat of the first. This sends the vinegar 
 deeper into the wood and makes a denser black; after 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 39 
 
 which paper smooth. Then polish with white French 
 polish, as the white brings out the black purer than 
 common French polish. The woods observed to take 
 on the stain best are pear-tree, plane-tree, and straight- 
 reeded birch; mahogany does not stain nearly so well 
 as the former .woods. 
 
 (n) Get i lb. logwood chips and boil them down in 
 enough water to make a good dark color; give the 
 furniture 3 or 4 coats with a sponge; then put some 
 rusty nails or old iron into a bottle with some vinegar, 
 and when it begins to work give the furniture a coat 
 of the vinegar. This, if you have well darkened it 
 with the first, will give you a good black. Oil and 
 polish in the usual way, rubbing down first with fine 
 paper if required. A quicker way is to give the wood 
 a coat of size and lampblack, and then use gas-black 
 in your polish rubber 
 
 (12) Make a strong decoction of logwood by boiling 
 1 lb. in 1 qt. water for about 1 hour; add thereto a 
 piece of washing soda as large as a hazel-nut. Apply 
 hot to the wood with a soft brush. Allow to dry, then 
 paint over the wood with a solution of iron sulphate (1 
 oz. to the pint of water). Allow this to dry, and 
 repeat the logwood and iron sulphate for at least 3 
 times, finishing off with logwood. Once more allow 
 to dry thoroughly, then sandpaper off very lightly (so 
 as not to remove the dye) with No. o paper. Now 
 make a very thin glue size, boil in it a few chips of 
 logwood and a crystal or two of iron sulphate, just 
 sufficient to make it inky black. Paint this lightly 
 over the work, allow to dry once more, again sand¬ 
 paper lightly, and finally either varnish with good 
 hard white varnish, or polish with French polish and 
 drop black. 
 
40 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Floors. — (i) Get the wood clean, have some Vandyke 
 brown and burnt sienna ground in water, mix it in 
 strong size, put on with a whitewash or new paint 
 brush as evenly as you can. When dry, give 2 coats 
 of copal or oak varnish. 
 
 (2) If the floor is a new one, have the border well 
 washed. Polish with sandpaper, rubbing always with 
 the grain of the wood. Varnish with good oak varnish, 
 put coloring matter into the varnish to suit your taste, 
 but umber is best; if the floor is old and blackened, 
 paint it. 
 
 (3) If old floors, you will not make much of staining 
 anything but black. The floor is to be well washed 
 (lime and soda is best—no soap), the dye painted on, 
 and, when dry, sized over and varnished with elastic 
 oak varnish. 
 
 (4) Take Y* lb. logwood chips, boil them briskly for 
 Yz hour in about 5 qt. rain-water, and strain through 
 muslin. To this liquor add 6 oz. annatto (in the form 
 of cake—not the roll); add also 1 lb. of yellow wax 
 cut up in very small pieces. Place these over the 
 fire, and let the wax melt, gently stirring it all the 
 while. When melted, take the mixture off the fire; 
 do not let it boil. Then with a paint brush lay it on 
 the floor as hot as possible, brushing it always the way 
 of the grain. Next day polish with a hard, flat brush 
 made of hair, which may have a strap nailed to the 
 back of it in which to insert the foot. The floor is 
 afterwards kept bright with beeswax alone, a little of 
 which is melted and put on the brush. Take care 
 that the floor is thoroughly dry before commencing 
 operations. 
 
 (5) Melt some glue size in a bottle; next get a pieCv. 
 of rag, roll it into a ball so that it will fit the hand 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 4i 
 
 nicely, cover this with a bit of old calico to make a 
 smooth face; dip this into the size, and rub in a bit of 
 brown umber; then go ahead with your floors, working 
 the stuff light or dark as required. Keep the motion 
 with the grain of wood; when dry, stiffen with 
 polishers’ glaze. 
 
 (6) Take Judson’s dyes of the color required, mix 
 according to the instructions given with each bottle, 
 and apply with a piece of rag, previously trying it on 
 a piece of wood to see if color would suit; rub with 
 sandpaper to get off any roughness that may be raised 
 with the damp, and varnish with fine, pale hard 
 varnish, then slightly sandpaper and varnish again. 
 Another method is to boil 1 lb. logwood in an old 
 boiler, then apply with a piece of rag where the stain 
 is required; when thoroughly dry, sandpaper as before, 
 and well rub with beeswax to polish. This last proc¬ 
 ess looks best when finished, but it requires a lot of 
 elbow grease for a few months, and is extremely 
 durable. To prevent the stain running where you do 
 not want it, paste some stout paper. 
 
 (7) As a general rule, I qt. of the staining liquid 
 will be found-sufficient to cover about 16 sq. yd. of 
 flooring; but different kinds of woods absorb in 
 different proportions, soft woods requiring more for 
 the same space than hard woods. The colors of the 
 stains are various, so that one may either choose 
 ebony, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, oak, 
 medium oak, or maple, according to the paleness or 
 depth of color desired. Besides this, 4 lb. of size and 
 2^ pints of the best varnish are required to finish the 
 16 yd. above mentioned. The necessary purchases 
 are completed by a good-sized painters’ brush and a 
 smaller one. The work can then be commenced. If 
 
42 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 the wood is uneven, it must be planed, and rubbed 
 down to a smooth surface; whilst the cracks and spaces 
 between the boards, if very wide, may be disposed of 
 by a process called “slipping,” by which pieces of 
 wood are fitted in. The floor must next be carefully 
 washed, and allowed to dry thoroughly. The actual 
 staining may now be proceeded with. The liquid is 
 poured out into a basin, and spread all over the floor 
 with the aid of the large brush, the small one being 
 used to do the corners and along the wainscoting, so 
 that it may not be smeared. It is always best to begin 
 staining at the farthest corner from the doorway, and 
 work round so that one’s exit may not be impeded. 
 It is also a good plan to work with the window open, 
 if there is no danger of much dust flying in, as the 
 staining dries so much quicker. After the floor is quite 
 covered, the stainer may rest for about an hour whilst 
 the drying is going on, during which there is only one 
 thing relative to the work in hand which need be 
 attended to. This is the size, which should be put in 
 a large basin with ^ pint of cold water to each pound, 
 and then stood in a warm place to dissolve. Before 
 recommencing work, also, the brushes must be washed, 
 and this is no great trouble, as a little lukewarm water 
 will take out all trace of the stain and clean them 
 quite sufficiently. The sizing is then laid on in 
 exactly the same manner as the staining, always being 
 careful to pass the brush lengthwise down the boards. 
 If the size froths or sticks unpleasantly, it must be a 
 little more diluted with warm water, and sometimes, if 
 the sediment from it is very thick, it is all the better 
 for being strained through a coarse muslin. The 
 sizing takes rather longer than the varnish to dry, 2 or 
 more hours being necessary, even on a warm, dry day. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 43 
 
 Not until it is quite dry, however, can the last finish 
 be put to the work with the varnish. For this it is 
 always safest to get the very best, and to lay it on 
 rather literally, though very evenly, and over every 
 single inch, as the staining will soon rub off when not 
 protected by it. The best way to ascertain whether 
 it is varnished all over is to kneel down and look at 
 the floor sideways, with one’s eyes almost on a level 
 with it. 
 
 Green.—(i) Mordant the wood with red liquor at i° 
 B. This is prepared by dissolving separately in water 
 I part sugar of lead and 4 of alum free from iron; mix 
 the solutions, and then add fa part of soda crystals, 
 and let settle overnight. The clear liquor is decanted 
 off from the sediment of lead sulphate, and is then 
 diluted with water till it marks l° B. The wood when 
 mordanted is dyed green with berry liquor and indigo 
 extract, the relative proportions of which determine 
 the tone of the green. 
 
 (2) Verdigris dissolved in 4 parts water. 
 
 (3) 4.2 oz. copper, cut up finely, are gradually 
 dissolved in 13 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis), and the 
 articles to be stained are boiled in this solution until 
 they have assumed a fine green color. 
 
 Gray.—(1) Grays may be produced by boiling 17 oz. 
 orchil paste for hour in 7 pints water. The wood 
 is first treated with this solution, and then, before it 
 is dry, steeped in a beck of iron nitrate at i° B. An 
 excess of iron gives a yellowish tone; otherwise a blue 
 gray is produced, which may be completely converted 
 into blue by means of a little potash. 
 
 (2) One part silver nitrate dissolved in 50 of 
 distilled water; wash over twice; then with hydro¬ 
 chloric acid, and afterwards with water of ammonia. 
 
44 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 The wood is allowed to dry in the dark, and then 
 finished in oil and polished. 
 
 Mahogany. — (i) Boil y 2 lb. madder and 2 oz. log¬ 
 wood chips in i gal. water, and brush well over while 
 hot. When dry, go over with pearlash solution, 2 dr. 
 to the quart. By using it strong or weak, the color 
 can be varied at pleasure. 
 
 (2) Soak I lb. stick varnish in 2 qt. water until all 
 the color is dissolved out; strain off the water, and 
 add to the residue 25 dr. powdered madder. Set the 
 mixture over the fire until it is reduced to ^ of its 
 original volume. Then mix together 25 dr. cochineal, 
 25 dr. kermes berries, I pint spirits of wine, and y 2 oz. 
 pearlash, out of which the color has been washed by 
 soaking in a gill of soft water. Add this mixture to 
 the decoction of madder and varnish, stirring well 
 together, and adding so much aqua fortis as will bring 
 the red to the desired shade. 
 
 (3) Dark Mahogany. —Introduce into a bottle 15 gr. 
 alkanet root, 30 gr. aloes, 30 gr. powdered dragons’ 
 blood, and 500 gr. 95 per cent alcohol, closing the 
 mouth of the bottle with a piece of bladder, keeping 
 it in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, with occasional 
 shaking, then filtering the liquid. The wood is first 
 mordanted with nitric acid, and when dry washed with 
 the stain once or oftener, according to the desired 
 shade; then, the wood being dried, it is oiled and 
 polished. 
 
 (4) Light Mahogany. —Same as dark mahogany, but 
 the stain being only applied once. The veins of true 
 mahogany may be imitated by the use of iron acefate 
 skillfully applied. 
 
 (5) The following process is recommended in 
 “Wiederhold’s Trade Circular:”—The coarse wood is 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 45 
 
 first coated with a colored size, which is prepared by 
 thoroughly mixing up, in a warm solution, I part 
 commercial glue in 6 of-water, a sufficient quantity of 
 the commercial mahogany brown, which is in reality 
 an iron oxide/and in color stands between so-called 
 Indian red and iron oxide. This is best effected by 
 adding in excess a sufficient quantity of the dry color 
 with the warm solution of glue, and thoroughly 
 mixing the mass by means of a brush until a uniform 
 paste is obtained, in which no more dry red particles 
 are seen. A trial coat is then laid upon a piece of 
 wood. If it is desired to give a light mahogany color 
 to the object, it is only necessary to add less, and, for a 
 darker color, more, of the brown body-color. When 
 the coat is dry, it may be tested, by rubbing with the 
 fingers, whether the color easily separates or not. In 
 the former case, more glue must be added until the dry 
 trial coat no longer perceptibly rubs off with the 
 hands. Having ascertained in this way the right 
 condition of the size color with respect to tint and 
 strength, it is then warmed slightly, and worked 
 through a hair sieve by means of a brush. After this, 
 it is rubbed upon the wood surface with the brush, 
 which has been carefully washed. It is not necessary 
 to keep the color warm during the painting. Should 
 it become thick by gelatinizing, it may be laid on the 
 wood with the brush, and dries more rapidly than 
 when the color is too thin. If the wood is porous and 
 absorbs much color, a second coat may be laid on the 
 first when dry, which will be sufficient in all cases. 
 On drying, the size color appears dull and unsightly, 
 but the following coat changes immediately the 
 appearance of the surface. This coat is spirit varnish. 
 For its production 3 parts spirits of wine of 90° are 
 
46 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 added in excess to I part of red acaroid resin in one 
 vessel, and in another io parts shellac with 40 of 
 spirits of wine of 80%. By repeated agitation for 3 or 
 4 days, the spirit dissolves the resin completely. The 
 shellac solution is then poured carefully from the 
 sediment, or, better still, filtered through a fine cloth, 
 when it may be observed that a slight milky turbidity 
 is no detriment ro its use. The resin solution is best 
 filtered into the shellac solution by pouring through a 
 funnel loosely packed with wadding. When filtered, 
 the solutions of both resins are mixed by agitating the 
 vessel and letting the varnish stand a few days. The 
 acaroid resin colors the shellac, and imparts to it at 
 the same time the degree of suppleness usually 
 obtained by the addition of Venetian turpentine or 
 linseed oil. If the varnish is to be employed as a coat, 
 the upper layers are poured off at once from the 
 vessel. One or two coats suffice, as a rule, to give the 
 object an exceedingly pleasing effect. The coats dry 
 very quickly, and care must be taken not to apply the 
 second coat until the first is completely dry. 
 
 (6) 7.5 oz. madder, 8.75 oz. rasped yellow wood, are 
 boiled for 1 hour in 5.5 lb. water, and the boiling 
 liquor is applied to the articles until the desired color 
 has been produced. 
 
 (7) 1.05 oz. powdered turmeric, 1.05 oz. powdered 
 dragons’ blood, are digested in 8.75 oz. of 80 per cent 
 strong alcohol, and when the latter seems to be thor¬ 
 oughly colored it is filtered through a cloth. The fil¬ 
 trate is heated and applied warm to the article. 
 
 (8) 17.5 oz. madder, 8.75 oz. ground logwood, are 
 boiled for 1 hour in 5.5 lb. water. This is filtered 
 while still warm, and the warm liquor is applied to 
 the wood. When this has become dry, and it is 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 47 
 
 desired to produce a darker mahogany color, a solu¬ 
 tion of 0.525 oz. potash carbonate in 4.4 lb. water is 
 applied to the wood. This solution is prepared cold, 
 and filtered thrpugh blotting-paper. 
 
 (9) 0.35 oz. aniline is dissolved in 8.75 oz. spirits 
 of wine 90 per cent strong. Then another solution of 
 0.35 oz. aniline yellow in 17.5 oz. spirits of wine 90 
 per cent strong is made, and this is added to the aniline 
 solution until the required reddish-yellow color is 
 obtained. By adding a little of a solution of aniline 
 brown (0.35 oz. aniline brown in 10.5 oz. spirits of wine 
 90 per cent strong), the color is still more completely 
 harmonized, and a tint very closely resembling 
 mahogany can be given to elm and cherry wood with 
 this mixture. 
 
 (10) 0.7 oz. logwood is boiled in 3.5 oz. water down 
 
 to about Yi. This is then filtered, and 0.12 oz. baryta 
 chloride is dissolved in it. , 
 
 Oak.— (1) Mix powdered ocher, Venetian red, and 
 umber, in size, in proportions to suit; or a richer stain 
 may be made with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and 
 Vandyke. A light yellow stain of raw sienna alone 
 is very effective. 
 
 (2) Darkening Oak.—Lay on liquid ammonia with a 
 rag or brush. The color deepens immediately, and 
 does not fade; this being an artificial production of 
 the process which is induced naturally by age. Potash 
 bichromate, dissolved in cold water and applied in a 
 like manner, will produce a very similar result. 
 
 (3) In Germany, the cabinetmakers use very strong 
 coffee for darkening oak. To make it very dark: 
 iron filings with a little sulphuric acid and water, put 
 on with a sponge, and allowed to dry between each 
 application until the right hue is reached. 
 
48 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 (4) Whitewash with fresh lime, and when dry brush 
 off the lime with a hard brush, and dress well with 
 linseed oil. It should be done after the wood has 
 been worked, and it will make not only the wood, but 
 the carving or moulding, look old also. 
 
 (5) Use a strong solution of common washing-soda, 
 say one or two coats, until the proper color is obtained. 
 Or you may try potash carbonate. Paper and finish 
 off with linseed oil. 
 
 (6) A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring 
 new oak to any shade, or nearly black*. 
 
 (7) A good method of producing the peculiar olive 
 brown of old oak is by fumigation with liquid 
 ammonia; the method has many advantages beyond 
 the expense of making a case or room airtight and 
 the price of the ammonia. It does not raise the grain, 
 the work keeping as smooth as at first. Any tint, or 
 rather, depth of the color can be given with certainty; 
 and the darker shade of color will be found to have 
 penetrated to the depth of a veneer, and much farther 
 where the end grain is exposed, thus doing away with 
 the chance of an accidental knock showing the white 
 wood. The coloring is very even and pure, not 
 destroying the transparency of the wood. It is 
 advisable to make the furniture from one kind of stuff, 
 not to mix white oak with red, and so on. They both 
 take the color well, but there is a kind of American 
 live oak that does not answer well. In all cases care 
 must be taken to have no glue or grease on the work, 
 which would cause white spots to be left. The deal 
 portions of the work are not affected in the least, 
 neither does it affect the sap of oak. The best kind 
 of polish, for furniture treated in this manner is wax 
 polish, or the kind known as egg-shell polish. The 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 49 
 
 process of fumigation is very simple. Get a large 
 packing case, or better still, make a room in a corner 
 of the polishing shop about g ft. long, 6 ft. high, and 
 3 ft. 6 in. wide;* pass paper over the joints; let the 
 door close on to a strip of india-rubber tubing; put a 
 pane of glass in the side of box or house to enable you 
 to examine the progress of coloring. In putting in 
 your work see that it does not touch anything to 
 hinder the free course of the fumes. Put 2 or 3 
 dishes on the floor to hold the ammonia; about y pint 
 is sufficient for a case this size. The ammonia differs 
 in purity, some leaving more residue than others. 
 Small articles can be done by simply covering them 
 with a cloth, having a little spirits in a pot underneath. 
 A good useful color can be given by leaving the 
 things exposed to the fumes overnight. The color 
 lightens on being polished, owing to the transparency 
 thus given to the wood. 
 
 Purple.—(1) Take 1 lb. logwood chips, y gal. 
 water, 4 oz. pearlash, 2 oz. powdered indigo. Boil 
 the logwood in the water till the full strength is 
 obtained, then add the pearlash and indigo, and when 
 the ingredients are dissolved the mixture is ready for 
 use, either warm or cold. This gives a beautiful 
 purple. 
 
 (2) To stain wood a rich purple or chocolate color, 
 boil y 2 lb. madder and y lb. fustic in 1 gal. water, and 
 when boiling brush over the work until stained. If 
 the surface of the work should be perfectly smooth, 
 brush over the work with a weak solution of nitric acid; 
 then finish with the following: put 4 y 2 oz. dragons' 
 blood and 1 oz. soda, both well bruised, into 3 pints 
 spirits of wine. Let it stand in a warm place, shake 
 frequently, strain and lay on with a soft brush. 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 So 
 
 repeating until a proper color is gained. Polish with 
 linseed oil or varnish. 
 
 (3) 2.2 lb. rasped logwood, 5.5 lb. rasped Lima red 
 dyewood are boiled for 1 hour in 5.5 lb. water. It is 
 then filtered through a cloth and applied to the article 
 to be stained until the desired color has been obtained. 
 In the meanwhile a solution of 0.175 oz. potash 
 carbonate in 17.5 oz. water has been prepared, and a 
 thin coat of this is applied to the article stained red. 
 But strict attention must be paid not to apply too thick 
 a coat of this solution, or else a dark blue color would 
 be the result. 
 
 Red. —(1) The wood is plunged first in a solution of 
 I oz. of curd soap in 35 fl. oz. water, or else is rubbed 
 with the solution; then magenta is applied in a state 
 of sufficient dilution to bring out the tone required. 
 All the aniline colors behave very well on wood. 
 
 (2) For a red stain, a decoction of y lb. logwood 
 and y 2 oz. potash in 1 lb. water is used as the bath, 
 being fixed by a wash of alum water. For scarlet, use 
 I oz. cochineal, 6 oz. powdered argol, 4 oz. cream tar¬ 
 tar, in 12 oz. tin chloride (scarlet spirits). 
 
 (3) Take 1 qt. alcohol, 3 oz. Brazil-wood, y 2 oz. 
 dragons’ blood, y 2 oz. cochineal, I oz. saffron. Steep 
 to full strength and strain. It is a beautiful crimson 
 stain for violins, work-boxes, and fancy articles. 
 
 (4) Beside the aniline colors, which are, however, 
 much affected by sunlight, cochineal gives a very 
 good scarlet red upon wood. Boil 2 oz. cochineal, 
 previously reduced to a fine powder, in 35 oz. of water 
 for 3 hours, and apply it to the wood. When dry, give 
 it a coating of dilute tin chloride to which is added a 
 little tartaric acid—I oz. tin chloride and y 2 oz. 
 tartaric acid in 35 fl. oz. water. If, instead of water, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 51 
 
 the cochineal is boiled in a decoction of bark (2 oz. 
 bark to 35 oz. water), and the tin chloride is used as 
 above, an intense scarlet and all shades of orange may 
 be produced according to the proportions. 
 
 (5) Take 1 gal. alcohol, i}i lb. camwood, y 2 lb. red 
 sanders, 1 lb. logwood extract, 2 oz. aqua fortis. 
 When dissolved, it is ready for use. It should be 
 applied in 3 coats over the whole surface. When dry, 
 rub down to a smooth surface, using for the purpose 
 a very fine paper. The graining is done with iron 
 rust, and the shading with asphaltum thinned with 
 spirits of turpentine. When the shading is dry, apply 
 a thin coat of shellac; and when that is dry, rub down 
 with fine paper. The work is then ready for varnish¬ 
 ing—a fine rose tint. 
 
 (6) Monnier recommends steeping the wood for 
 several hours in a bath of 1200 gr. potassium iodide to 
 the quart of water, and then immersing it in a bath of 
 375 g r - corrosive sublimate, when it will assume a 
 beautiful rose-red color by chemical precipitation. It 
 should subsequently be covered with a glossy varnish. 
 The baths will not need renewal for a long time. 
 
 (7) 2.2 lb. finely powdered Lima red dyewood and 
 
 2.1 oz. potash carbonate are put in a glass bottle and 
 digested in 5.5 lb. water for 8 days in a warm place; 
 the bottle should be frequently shaken. It is then 
 filtered through a cloth; the fluid is heated, and 
 applied to the article to be stained until the latter 
 acquires a beautiful color. If it is desired to brighten 
 the color, a solution of 2.1 oz. alum, free from iron, in 
 
 2.2 lb. water is applied to the article while it is still 
 wet. The last solution can be prepared by heat; when 
 it has been accomplished, it is filtered. As soon as 
 the stains have become dry, they should be rubbed 
 
52 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 with a rag moistened with linseed oil, after which the 
 varnish may be applied. 
 
 Satinwood.—Take I qt. alcohol, 3 oz. ground 
 turmeric, 1 y 2 oz. powdered gamboge. When steeped 
 to its full strength, strain through fine muslin. It is 
 then ready for use. Apply with a piece of fine sponge, 
 giving the work 2 coats. When dry, sandpaper down 
 very fine. It is then ready for polish or varnish, and 
 is a good imitation of satinwood. 
 
 Violet.—The wood is treated in a bath made up with 
 oz. olive oil, the same weight of soda-ash, and 
 2^4 pints boiling water, and it is then dyed with 
 magenta to which a corresponding quantity of tin 
 crystals has been added. 
 
 Walnut.—Deal and other common woods are stained 
 to imitate polished walnut in various ways. (1) One 
 method is, aftercareful rubbing with glass-paper, to go 
 over the surface with a preparation of Cassel brown 
 boiled in a lye of soft-soap and soda. After drying, 
 the surface is rubbed over with pumice and oil, and 
 polished with shellac. The Cassel brown will not take 
 equally well on all kinds of wood, so that if not laid 
 on thick it sometimes comes off under the subsequent 
 pumicing; whilst on the other hand this same thickness 
 conceals, more or less, the grain on the wood beneath, 
 giving it the appearance of having been painted. 
 
 (2) Others use instead a decoction of green walnut- 
 shells, dried and boiled in the same lye, or in soft 
 water to which soda has been added. The decoction 
 of walnut-shells is apt to come off on the clothes as a 
 yellowish, adhesive substance. 
 
 (3) Others, again, employ catechu and potash 
 chromate in equal parts, boiled separately and after¬ 
 wards mixed. The mixture of catechu and potash 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 53 
 
 chromate leaves a reddish-brown deposit on the surface 
 of the wood, very unlike real walnut. 
 
 (4) The following is said to be a very superior 
 method for staining any kind of wood in imitation of 
 walnut, while it is also cheap and simple in its manip¬ 
 ulation. The wood, previously thoroughly dried 
 and warmed, is coated once or twice with a stain com¬ 
 posed of 1 oz. extract of walnut peel dissolved in 6 oz. 
 soft water by heating it to boiling, and stirring. The 
 wood thus treated, when half dry, is brushed with a 
 solution of 1 oz. potash bichromate in 5 oz. boiling 
 water, and is then allowed to dry thoroughly, and is 
 to be rubbed and polished as usual. Red beech and 
 alder, under this treatment, assume a most deceptive 
 resemblance to American walnut. The color is fixed 
 in the wood to a depth of one or two lines. 
 
 (5) Mix dragons’ blood and lampblack in methylated 
 spirits till you get the color required, and rub it well 
 into the grain of the wood. 
 
 (6) Light Walnut. —Dissolve 1 part potassium 
 permanganate in 30 of pure water, and apply twice in 
 succession; after an interval of 5 minutes, wash with 
 clean water, and when dry, oil and polish. 
 
 (7) Dark Walnut. —Same as for light walnut, but 
 after the washing with water the dark veins are made 
 more prominent with a solution of iron acetate. 
 
 (8) In the winter season get some privet berries 
 (black), which grow in most gardens, and put 2 oz. in 
 Yz pint solution of liquid ammonia. This, applied to 
 pine, varnished or polished, cannot be detected from 
 real walnut itself. 
 
 (9) Take 1 gal. very thin sized shellac; add 1 lb. dry 
 burnt umber, I lb. dry burnt sienna, and Y lb. 
 lampblack. Put these articles into a jug and shake 
 
54 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 frequently until they are mixed. Apply one coat with 
 a brush. When the work is dry, rub down with fine 
 paper, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap varnish. 
 It will then be a good imitation of solid walnut, and 
 will be adapted for the back boards of mirror-frames, 
 for the back and inside of casework, and for similar 
 work. 
 
 (io) Take I gal. strong vinegar, I lb. dry burnt 
 umber, y 2 lb. fine rose pink, y 2 lb. dry burnt Vandyke 
 brown. Put into a jug and mix well; let the mixture 
 stand one day, and it will then be ready for use. 
 Apply this stain to the sap with a piece of fine sponge; 
 it will dry in y 2 hour. The whole piece is then ready 
 for the filling process. W'hen the work is completed, 
 the stained part cannot be detected even by those who 
 have performed the job. By means of this recipe, 
 wood of poor quality and mostly of sap can be used 
 with good effect. 
 
 (u) Darkening Walnut. —Slaked lime, i to 4 of 
 water, will do for some kinds of walnut; a weak solution 
 of iron sulphate for others; and yet again for other kinds 
 a weak solution of pearlash. Try each on the wood, 
 and choose the one you like best. 
 
 (12) To give to walnut a dark color resembling 
 rosewood, Hirschberg uses a solution of 0.17 oz. potash 
 bichromate in 1.05 oz. water. This solution is applied 
 to the walnut with a sponge, and the wood is then 
 pumiced and polished. 
 
 (13) By a simple staining, furniture of pine or birch 
 wood can be easily made to appear as if it had been 
 veneered with walnut veneer. For this a solution of 
 3.15 oz. potash manganate, and 3.15 oz. manganese 
 sulphate in 5.25 qt. hot water, is made. This solution 
 is applied to the wood with a brush, and must be 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 55 
 
 repeated several times. The potash manganate is 
 decomposed when it comes in contact with the woody 
 fiber, and thus a beautiful and very durable walnut 
 color is obtained. If small wooden articles are to be 
 stained in this manner, a very diluted bath is prepared; 
 the articles are dipped into it, and kept there I to g 
 minutes, according as the color is desired lighter or 
 darker. 
 
 Yellow. — (i) Mordant with red liquor, and dye with 
 bark liquor and turmeric. 
 
 (2) Turmeric dissolved in wood naphtha. 
 
 (3) Aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid), diluted in 3 
 parts water, is a much-used though rather destructive 
 yellow stain. 
 
 (4) N : tric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which 
 is converted into dark brown by subsequent application 
 of tincture of iodine. 
 
 (5) Wash over with a hot concentrated solution of 
 picric acid, and when dry, polish the wood. 
 
 (6) Orange-Yellow Tone to Oak Wood. —Accord¬ 
 ing to Niedling, a beautiful orange-yellow tone, much 
 admired in a chest at the Vienna Exhibition, may be 
 imparted to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm room 
 with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull polish, 
 and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and 
 repeating the coating of polish to improve the depth 
 and brilliancy of the tone. The ingredient^ for the 
 rubbing mixture are about 3 oz. tallow, ^ oz - wax, and 
 1 pint oil of turpentine, mixed by heating together and 
 stirring. 
 
 (7) 0.5 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis) is compounded 
 with 1.57 oz. rain-water, and the article to be stained is 
 brushed over with this. Undiluted nitric acid gives a 
 brownish-yellow color, 
 
$6 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 (8) 2.1 oz. finely powdered turmeric are digested for 
 several days in 17.5 oz. alcohol 80 per cent strong, and 
 then strained through a cloth. This solution is applied 
 to the articles to be stained. When they have become 
 entirely dry, they are burnished and varnished. 
 
 (9) 1.57 oz. potash carbonate are dissolved in 4.2 oz. 
 rain-water. This solution is poured over 0.52 oz. 
 annotto, and this mixture is allowed to stand for 3 days 
 in a warm place, being frequently shaken in the 
 meanwhile. It is then filtered, and 0.175 oz. spirit of 
 sal-ammoniac is added to it. The stain is now ready, 
 and the articles to be stained will acquire a very 
 beautiful bright yellow color by placing them in it. 
 
 (10) Bright Golden Yellow. — o. 52 oz. finely 
 powdered madder is digested for 12 hours with 2.1 oz. 
 diluted sulphuric acid, and then filtered through a 
 cloth. The articles to be stained are allowed to 
 remain in this fluid 3 to 4 days, when they will be 
 stained through. 
 
 Most of the foregoing is taken from English, French, 
 and German sources, but the following are methods 
 usually adopted in American practice; but it is just as 
 well that the finisher should be conversant, to some 
 extent, with the practice of other nationalities as well 
 as that, of his own. 
 
 Stains may be classified as follows: Those made with 
 oil and color, those made with spirits and color, those 
 made with water and coloring matter other than 
 anilines, and those made with water and anilines. 
 Generally, spirit stains are made with anilines. 
 
 Water stains are those in which the coloring matter 
 is mixed with water. A good mahogany water stain 
 is made as follows: Fustic chips, 4 oz.; madder root, 
 y 2 lb.; water about 4 qt. This should boil for several 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 57 
 
 hours and should be applied boiling hot, after being 
 well strained. 
 
 For walnut: Vandyke brown, i lb.; strong lye, y 2 
 pt.; water, 3 qt. This should boil down to about three 
 pints, and should be applied to the wood when cold 
 with a sponge or pad. 
 
 A good cherry stain can be made by mixing a pound 
 of Spanish annotto, an ounce of strong lye, and water. 
 Boil forty minutes. If not deep enough in color, boil 
 more, and add a little gamboge to darken it. 
 
 There is very little difference between cherry and 
 mahogany stains; the latter are somewhat darker, but 
 may be reduced to answer. 
 
 Aniline stains are easily made, and are usually very 
 even and free from cloudy spots when properly laid 
 on. All or any of anilines will dissolve in water, oil, 
 or alcohol, but will dissolve much quicker in warm 
 liquid than in cold. Time will therefore be saved by 
 having the medium hot. 
 
 One example of making a water stain from anilines 
 will answer for the whole group. If for mahogany, 
 use Bismarck brown, 1 oz.; add 3 qt. water boiling hot; 
 stir until the br-own is all dissolved. When cool it is 
 ready to apply. 
 
 Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by 
 using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown, 
 raw and burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied 
 with a brush, without previous preparation, and then 
 wiped off with a cloth—a method that brings out 
 clearly the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch 
 pine, now being extensively used for fittings, are often 
 extremely beautiful. A better method for general 
 work, F'rench polish being ordinarily too expensive, 
 is, where dark oak or mahogany stains are not wanted, 
 
58 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 light varnishes, of which two coats are to be applied. 
 The glue size with which the work is first coated, in 
 order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not be 
 too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack. 
 
 Logwood, lime, brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate 
 of iron, nitrate of silver exposed to the sun’s rays, 
 carbonate of soda, bichromate and permanganate of 
 potash, and other alkaline preparations, are used for 
 darkening the wood; the last three are specially 
 recommended. The solution is applied by dissolving 
 one ounce of the alkali in two gills of boiling water, 
 diluted to the required tone. The surface is saturated 
 with a sponge or flannel, and immediately dried with 
 soft rags. The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil 
 tinged with rose madder may be applied to hardwoods 
 like birch, and a red oil is prepared from soaked 
 alkanet root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine 
 can be brought out by two or three coats of japan, 
 much diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled 
 and rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of 
 age, lime water used before oiling is a good plan. 
 In staining wood, the best and most transparent effect 
 is obtained by repeated light coats of the same. For 
 oak stain a strong solution of oxaiic acid is employed; 
 for mahogany, dilute nitric acid. A primary coat or a 
 coat of wood fillers is advantageous. For mahogany 
 stains, the following are given: two ounces of dragons’ 
 blood dissolved in one quart of rectified spirits of 
 wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt 
 sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains boil 
 half-pound of madder and two ounces of logwood 
 chips in one gallon of water, and brush the decoction 
 while hot over the wood; when dry, paint with a 
 Solution of two ounces of potash in one c^uart of water. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 59 
 
 A solution of permanganate of potash forms a rapid 
 and excellent brown stain. 
 
 Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed 
 oil and benzine half and half, and burnt umber or 
 Vaindyke brown incorporated with this. Maple can be 
 stained green-gray by using copperas in water; oak 
 will also be changed to a dark green blue through the 
 same agency, the effect on ash being various shades of 
 olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the 
 bronze olive tint now used so much by architects. 
 
 Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of 
 logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
 each application. Then wash it with a solution of 
 acetate of iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings 
 in vinegar. This stain is very black, and penetrates to 
 a considerable depth into the wood, so that ordinary 
 scratching or chipping does not show the original color. 
 
 A wash of one part of nitric acid in ten parts of water 
 will, if well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany 
 to pine wood which does not contain much resin. When 
 the wood is thoroughly dry, shellac varnish will impart 
 a fine finish to the surface. A glaze of carmine or lake 
 will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine extract of 
 alkanet root produces a beautiful stam which admits of 
 French polishing. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, 
 makes an excellent mahogany color on new wood. 
 
 When describing the treatment of different kinds of 
 wood, which will follow, I will have more to say 
 regarding the method of staining. 
 
 VARNISHING AND POLISHING 
 
 French polishing was at one time the omy method 
 of polishing permitted to be employed on work of the 
 first class, because of its permanency and uniform 
 
6o 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 appearance, and the man who understood the process, 
 and could mix the materials used, could always demand 
 good pay and steady employment. Now, however, 
 there are a number of methods and varnishes that are 
 almost as good as the method and materials used in 
 French polishing, and which can be applied at one- 
 eighth the cost, and which when done look just about as 
 well, though perhaps they will not be permanent. So, 
 while French polishing still survives to some extent, 
 and is likely to be practiced for many years to come, a 
 description of the method and materials is quite 
 necessary in a book of this kind; therefore no excuse 
 is necessary to account for its appearance in these 
 pages. 
 
 Varnishing, on which depends to a certain extent the 
 beauty of the work, to be of a durable character should 
 be done in a temperature of 65° F. or more, from the 
 beginning of the work to the finishing of the same, day 
 and night included. A higher temperature, if not over 
 125 0 F., will not harm fine varnishes; in fact, will turn 
 out nicer work than in a lower temperature, and will 
 enable a manufacturer to turn out work in amuch shorter 
 time. In a temperature of but 65° to 75 0 F. from four 
 to six days between coatings is advisable, as this will 
 give good and unfailing results. In 125 0 F. the same 
 good results can be obtained in one-half the time. Var¬ 
 nishing departments, outside the filling and rubbing 
 rooms, should be kept absolutely clean. The filling 
 and rubbing rooms should be kept as clean as pos¬ 
 sible. 
 
 After cabinet-work has received one-half the varnish 
 coatings and the varnish is perfectly dry, rub the surface 
 with pumice-stone and water—use a piece of felt—to 
 a smooth, even surface. Allow the work to stand 24 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 61 
 
 hours, and then begin the application of the last halt 
 of varnish coatings, giving the same time between 
 coatings. After all the coatings are perfectly dry, go 
 through the same rubbing process. A perfect, smooth 
 surface for polishing will be the result. Let the work 
 stand for 24 hours after this rubbing, then start polish¬ 
 ing by moistening a fine piece of cloth with water, 
 dipped in powdered rotten stone, thus moistening the 
 same also, and begin to rub the surface of the work 
 with a steady hand and evenly, in order to remove 
 with this fine rotten .stone the fine scratches, if any, 
 which are generally caused by the rubbing of the 
 pumice-stone. This accomplished, continue the rub¬ 
 bing with the palm of the hand instead of the cloth, 
 using moist rotten stone, and rub the work until the 
 fine polish required is obtained. The rotten stone then 
 generally falls off the hand and you work in a dry dust. 
 Wash the surface clean with water, using a fine sponge 
 and chamois. Allow the polished work to stand 24 
 hours, then oil the same off with a light oil and a very 
 soft rag or cotton bat. Take another fine rag or cotton 
 bat and remove all the oil by rubbing or wiping the 
 same gently, but absolutely clean, off the polished 
 surface. To be sure this is accomplished, moisten the 
 cloth or cotton bat with alcohol. The polish, if every¬ 
 thing is done correctly, will then be finished. 
 
 Care should be taken that too much varnish is not 
 put on the work. For good finishing only a minimum 
 of material should be used if the grain of the wood is 
 wished to be seen, for the less varnish used, providing 
 a good polish is obtained, will bring out the details of 
 the wood better than a dozen coats would. If one coat 
 of varnish is not enough, two will be, and it is not good 
 practice to employ more, nor is it good workmanship. 
 
62 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 A room that is dark or damp will spoil the varnish, 
 and a room that is excessively warm will keep the 
 varnish soft. Barrels of varnish should not be stored 
 in a very warm room, as the heat will open the joints 
 in the barrels, and the varnish, which will be quite thin 
 owing to the heat, will leak out. In summer, varnish 
 should be stored in a basement where it is cool. 
 
 Turning white is caused by the action of water or 
 dampness. The better the grade of varnish and the 
 more elastic it is, the less liable it is to be affected by 
 moisture. In applying two coats of varnish, neither 
 should be heavy, more especially the first coat. If it 
 is, it will not generally get thoroughly dry at the 
 bottom before the second one is applied, and the result 
 will be disastrous, as it will cause the last coat to 
 crack, wrinkle, or sag, as it is called. Another bad 
 result of not giving varnish time to dry will be noticed 
 by the last coat deadening or sinking away. This is 
 caused by the undercoat not having been allowed 
 sufficient time to dry, resulting in the finishing coat 
 becoming absorbed while in the course of hardening. 
 
 The varnisher must be careful that there is no oil on 
 the surface to be varnished, as it will cause pitting, or 
 little hollows in the varnish. When varnish is so thick 
 it does not spread well, it may be thinned by adding a 
 little turpentine, but care must be taken that it is 
 thoroughly incorporated in the varnish, as, if it is not, 
 this will also cause pitting. A long-haired, pliant 
 brush is best with which to apply varnish. It should 
 be spread with long, steady strokes, drawn in a per¬ 
 fectly straight line lengthwise the grain of the wood. 
 Oil japan or liquid dryer should never be added to 
 good varnish. Each coat of varnish should be given 
 three or four days to harden before another coat is 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 63 
 
 fc 1 
 
 added or before the last coat is rubbed, if a rubbed 
 surface is required. 
 
 One thing should always be considered before 
 varnishing begins, and that is, that a good coat of 
 colorless shellac should be laid on the 
 work just as soon as the filler is dry 
 and properly rubbed down. This will 
 hermetically seal up all the pores and 
 prevent the varnish from sinking or 
 showing hollow spots on the work. 
 
 I show the style of brush which is 
 generally used for applying shellac, in 
 Fig. 107; it is taken from a dealer’s 
 catalogue, and is oval in section and 
 metal-bound. 
 
 An excellent shellac varnish is made 
 by dissolving 3 y 2 lb. of orange shellac 
 in 1 gal. of grain or wood alcohol. Let 
 stand in a warm place until the shellac 
 is thoroughly dissolved. If shaken 
 once in a while, the shellac will dis¬ 
 solve quicker. 
 
 For making white shellac varnish, 
 take 3^ lb. of white shellac and mix 
 with alcohol, grain or wood, the same 
 as before. These proportions are offered 
 only as a sort of guide, but they may 
 be varied a little as experience will 
 show. 
 
 All varnish should be laid on with 
 the grain if possible, or there will likely be sagging 
 along the brush marks. 
 
 Where varnish is flowed the operator should not be 
 “stingy” with his material or his work will not be 
 
 Fig. 107 
 
04 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 good. There is a tendency always with the beginnei 
 to “lay off” his varnish too thin, or to “skin” it. as'it 
 is termed. It is always better to err on the side of 
 using too much, than too little varnish, if good work is 
 desired. Too much varnish, however, should be 
 avoided, as the work will be apt to crack and become 
 disfigured in time. The brushes shown 
 in Figs. 108 and 109 are among the best 
 for flowing purposes. 
 
 Generally, unless on the very hard¬ 
 est of woods, two coats of varnish are 
 necessary before the process of rubbing 
 can be commenced, as a good surface 
 cannot be obtained unless there is a 
 good ground to work on. 
 
 A few hints as to “rubbing” may not 
 be out of place. First, see that the 
 varnish is dry and hard. If an impres¬ 
 sion can be made on it with a finger 
 nail, it is too soft to rub; let it stand 
 awhile. 
 
 Never rub across the grain if it can 
 be avoided. 
 
 Always rub with the grain, lightening 
 the stroke at the ends. 
 
 Rub lightly at first and avoid making 
 bare spots. 
 
 Use fine pumice-stone at first, and 
 all the time, until you get accustomed to the work. 
 
 Use a pad of felt about 3^x4^ inches for a rubber. 
 
 Rub with either water or with rubbing oil—the latter 
 preferred—or use linseed oil. 
 
 Sprinkle the pumice-stone powder on the work, 
 dip the rubber in the oil, then rub lightly. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 65 
 
 Clean off the work with damp, clean sawdust and a 
 brush, or with soft cotton wadding. 
 
 For. mouldings, make reverse 
 shapes, cover with felt, and pro¬ 
 ceed as with the flat surfaces. 
 
 After rubbing, the work is ready 
 for polishing. This is done by 
 making a mixture of half sweet 
 oil and half alcohol. Then make 
 a large wad of nice clean cotton 
 and rub the work with a circular 
 motion until the proper polish is 
 attained. This requires some 
 practice, but is easily acquired. 
 
 Another and a better method 
 is to put on an extra coat of flow¬ 
 ing varnish, then rub down with 
 fine pumice-stone and clean care¬ 
 fully. After this, rub down with a 
 lump of faced-up pumice, or with 
 chamois leather and powdered rot¬ 
 ten stone. Let the rotten stone 
 become dry on the surface, then 
 wipe off with the palm of the 
 hand, which rubs up the work, 
 with a rotary motion. A piece of 
 fine linen or silk should be handy, 
 on which the hand should be 
 cleaned from time to time. 
 
 If a dead finish is required, do 
 not polish after rubbing over with powdered pumice- 
 stone and oil. 
 
 Of course, the operator must always bear in mind, 
 during the several operations, that care and cleanliness 
 
 Fig. 109 
 
66 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 are two necessary factors, and without them, there 
 can be no such thing as satisfactory results. A 
 slovenly workman should never attempt to polish, for 
 no good can come from it. In all my experience, 
 which covers many years, I have never known of a 
 careless or slovenly man making good work in this 
 particular department. 
 
 French Polishing.—Much has been said and written 
 on this subject, and many comparisons have been made 
 between this and other methods of polishing, but the 
 writer, from his architectural experience and general 
 observation, does not hesitate for a moment in saying 
 that “French polished” work is much superior to any 
 or all other polished work, so far as durability and 
 effect is concerned. True, other methods are—many 
 of them—much more economical and easier acquired, 
 but they do not have the staying powers that the good 
 old-fashioned French polishing has. 
 
 Although, as before stated, much has been written 
 on the subject, there is a certain sameness in the 
 descriptions, and I confess I do not see how it could 
 be otherwise, as the subject is one that can have onlv 
 one side to it; hence the sameness of description. 
 
 I will not attempt to write a description, as it would 
 be no improvement on former ones; so I offer the 
 following, which is taken from an English source, 
 that has been Americanized to some extent. 
 
 In French polishing, the wood has to be prepared 
 and various minor details attended to before this can 
 be done. For example, the pores of open-grained 
 wood must be stopped or, as the process is generally 
 called, filled, to get a smooth surface and to prevent 
 excessive absorption of the liquid polish. Then the 
 appearance of some woods is improved and enriched 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 67 
 
 by oiling them before applying the polish. This 
 oiling, to a certain extent, darkens and mellows them, 
 and brings up the figure. 
 
 The temperature and atmosphere of the place in 
 which French polishing is done are of considerable 
 importance. Work cannot be done properly in a cold 
 or damp room, as then the polish will get chilled, and, 
 as it sets on the wood, becomes opaque and cloudy. 
 To avoid this the polisher should work in a warm 
 room. The temperature for a living room, about 70°, 
 is about that suited for polishing. In warm summer 
 weather a fire is not necessary, but in winter it is. If 
 the polisher notices that his polish chills, he must 
 increase the heat of his room. If a moderate amount 
 of warmth be brought near the surface as soon as any 
 chill is observed, it will probably disappear. A small 
 article may be taken to the fire, but with large work 
 this course would hardly be convenient. In such 
 cases a good plan is to hold something warm a short 
 distance from the chilled surface, but on no account 
 must it touch, nor must the heat be great enough to 
 scorch the polish. A common plan, but not altogether 
 a good one, is to hold a piece of burning paper near 
 the chill. An ordinary flatiron is very useful for 
 small chilled patches. When the article is cold or 
 damp, chill is more likely to occur. It is, there¬ 
 fore, always necessary to make sure after a stain 
 has been used that the wood has become thoroughly 
 dry. 
 
 Not less important is the employment of suitable 
 materials, both in the polish and in the tools of the 
 polisher’s art. These latter consist almost entirely of 
 wadding or cotton wool and soft linen or cotton rags, 
 from which the rubbers to apply the polish are made; 
 
68 
 
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 and a few bottles are wanted to hold the various 
 polishes, stains, and their components. 
 
 The pad with which French polish is applied is 
 called the rubber. Without it the French polisher 
 can do little in actual polishing, although he may not 
 require it in the preliminary operations of oiling and 
 staining. However simple in itself the rubber may 
 be, it should be properly and carefully made of suitable 
 materials; otherwise good work cannot be done with 
 it. Those who have seen polishers at work may be 
 inclined to infer that no great care is necessary, for a 
 dirty rag covering an equally uninviting lump of 
 
 wadding is usually 
 seen. Examination 
 will show the rubber 
 to be more carefully 
 made than might 
 have been expected, 
 and the expert pol¬ 
 isher would probably 
 prefer it to a nice 
 Fig. 110 clean-looking rubber 
 
 such as a novice 
 would choose. Nevertheless, a dirty rubber is not 
 wanted, for dirt is fatal to first-class work; hence 
 the polisher should keep his rubbers scrupulously 
 clean. They will naturally get stained and discolored 
 with the polish, but that is a very different matter 
 from being dirty. Old rubbers are preferable to new 
 ones, provided they have been properly taken care of 
 and not allowed to get hard. 
 
 For flat surfaces or fretwork a wad may be prepared 
 by using a strip of torn woolen cloth from I in. to 2 
 in. wide. Cloth with a cut edge is not recommended 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 69 
 
 for this purpose, as it is too harsh. Roll the strip 
 very tightly into a wad about I in., 2 in., or 3 in. 
 diameter, according to the size of the work, and tie 
 tightly round with fine twine (Fig. no). This will 
 give as nearly as possible a rubber resembling Fig. hi. 
 This wad is put into a double thickness 
 of linen cloth, and the ends axe gath¬ 
 ered up like the ends of a pudding- 
 cloth; they are not tied, but are grasped 
 as a hand-piece while being used. This 
 form of rubber would, however, be use¬ 
 less for bodying up mouldings, beads, quirks, moulded 
 handrails, newel posts, etc., and when polishing large 
 mahogany doors or other framed furniture it would be 
 impossible to get well into the corners of sunk panels, 
 as in Fig. 112. 
 
 A well-shaped, soft, pliable rubber, with its rag 
 
 covering free from 
 creases, is to a practical 
 French polisher equiva¬ 
 lent to a sharp, finely 
 set smoothing plane in 
 the hands of a cabinet¬ 
 maker. With such a 
 rubber, made of wad¬ 
 ding, one is enabled to 
 get into corners, round 
 turned work, and up to 
 the edges of mouldings in a manner impossible with a 
 hard, round rubber. To make it, take a sheet of wad¬ 
 ding—this is 9 in. wide—and tear off a piece 6 in. long; 
 this will form a conveniently-sized rubber, suitable for 
 most work; but for small work use one of smaller size. 
 Double the wadding, making it 6 in. by 4% in. 
 
;o 
 
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 Squeeze this in the hand, keeping the skin unbroken, 
 till in shape it nearly resembles half a bear. The 
 rubber should then be charged with polish, and 
 covered with a piece of soft, clean rag. In folding 
 the rag, twist it on the upper side of the rubber. 
 Each additional twist will bring it to a sharper point 
 and cause the polish to ooze through its surface. It is 
 not necessary to put a rag covering on the rubbers first 
 used. The rubber must be kept free from creases, 
 otherwise it will cause the surface to which it is applied 
 to be stringy or full of ridges. 
 
 Though rags have been mentioned as suitable for 
 the outer covering or casing of the pad, some care in 
 their selection is necessary. A piece with a seam 
 across it would never do for a rubber, and anything 
 which would tend to scratch the film of polish as it is 
 being laid or worked on in the final operation of 
 spiriting off must be carefully avoided. They must be 
 either cotton or linen, and ought to be perfectly soft 
 and fine or, at any rate, free from knots or lumps. 
 Some polishers advise the exclusive use of linen, but 
 this is a needless restriction. It may be mentioned 
 that new material may be used as well as rags. To 
 render this suitable, all traces of the sizing and 
 stiffening with which it may have been finished must 
 be removed by a thorough washing. 
 
 Any material to be used for a polishing rubber must 
 be thoroughly well dried. Indeed, the necessity of 
 avoiding damp cannot be too much insisted on. With 
 regard to the substance of the rubber, white wadding 
 is the best to use, and this is readily obtainable from 
 any upholsterer or chemist. It may be purer if got 
 from the latter, but it is certainly much dearer than 
 anv reasonable upholsterer would charge for something 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 71 
 
 equally suitable. Wadding bought from an upholsterer 
 has a thin skin on one or both sides, according to 
 whether it has been split or not. This skin must be 
 removed, leaving nothing but the soft cotton. For a 
 few cents enough ought to be obtainable to last a con¬ 
 siderable time. It may be useful to know that, if it is 
 clean, the raw material used in cotton manufacturing 
 districts will do as well as the finest wadding. 
 Cotton flock, used by upholsterers as a stuffing for 
 mattresses, chairs, etc., is not suitable for polishing, 
 except perhaps for the coarsest work. Even for this 
 it should not be used if anything better is available. 
 Rubbers composed entirely of flannel are occasionally 
 recommended for special kinds of work. It is doubt¬ 
 ful if there is any advantage in using flannel, except 
 for large, flat surfaces, which can be got over more 
 quickly with a large rubber than with a small one. 
 The novice is advised to use the wadding rubber, and 
 to become an expert polisher with it before experi¬ 
 menting with anything else. 
 
 The size of the rubber will, to some extent, depend 
 on the nature of the work, but that above given may 
 be regarded as generally suitable. A very large rubber 
 is not advisable at first, and the polisher, as he gains 
 experience, must be guided by circumstances. In 
 handling it, moreover, the polisher will be equally 
 guided; a rubber of moderate dimensions is usually 
 held by the tips of the thumb and fingers, but the 
 polisher will probably find a large rubber can be more 
 conveniently used by holding it in the palm of the 
 hand. 
 
 The rubber must be charged with polish for use, and 
 some care will have to be exercised in doing this. 
 The covering of the rubber is opened so that a little 
 
7 2 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 polish can be dropped on the wadding. A convenient 
 way of doing this is to have the polish in a bottle, the 
 cork of which has a channel or notch cut in it to allow 
 only a few drops to escape at a time. Some polishers 
 dip a portion of the rubber into the polish, but the 
 other method is more generally adopted. It must not 
 be saturated; only enough polish to moisten the 
 wadding must be used, or what will appear through the 
 rag covering when pressed. The rubber having been 
 thus charged, gather up the edges of rag as before 
 directed. Then, to distribute the polish equally, 
 press the rubber moderately firmly into the palm of 
 the other hand. The rubber ought now to be ready for 
 application to the wood, which may be assumed to 
 
 have been properly 
 prepared to receive 
 its first coating of 
 polish. 
 
 At this stage the 
 principal thing is to 
 get a good body of 
 
 Fig. 113 
 
 polish evenly spread on the wood. How this may 
 best be done depends on circumstances; but if the 
 desired result is obtained, the precise method is of 
 secondary consequence. Let it be assumed that the 
 work to be done is a small, flat surface. With moder¬ 
 ate pressure on the rubber, quickly wipe over the entire 
 surface, first with the grain of the wood, then across it. 
 Then, without delay, go over it more minutely, the 
 motion generally adopted for the rubber being shown 
 in the illustrations (Figs. 113 and 114). At first the pres¬ 
 sure should be gentle, but it should be increased as the 
 polish gets worked in and the rubber drier, though at 
 no time must the rubbing decline to scrubbing. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 73 
 
 While the rubber is in contact with the wood it must 
 be kept constantly in motion. An important point is 
 not to allow the rubber to remain stationary on the 
 woodwork during temporary absence or at the end of 
 the day’s work. As the rubber gets dry it must be 
 recharged with polish, but let the novice beware of 
 using this in excess. 
 
 Old rubbers are better than new, so when done with 
 they should be kept in an airtight receptacle, such as 
 a tin canister or a biscuit box. When any job is 
 finished, do not throw the rubber away under the 
 impression that a 
 rubber once laid aside 
 becomes useless. 
 
 This occurs only 
 when it is left ex¬ 
 posed to the air, be¬ 
 cause then it hardens 
 throughout. I f , a s 
 stated, the rubbers 
 are kept from the air, 
 only the outside cov- Fig. 114 
 
 ering will get dry and 
 
 hard, and this can be readily softened by rubbing it in 
 raw alcohol. 
 
 Every time the rubber is wetted with polish it 
 should be pressed in the palm of the left hand, which 
 will equalize the polish. After the cover is put over, 
 which should be some clean old cotton or print rags, 
 the tip of the finger should be dipped in linseed oil 
 and applied to rubber cover—just enough to keep it 
 from sticking. As soon as the cover has a shiny 
 appe'arance, it should be removed to a fresh place. 
 As soon as the work has got a good body of polish on, 
 
74 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 it should be set away for at least ten hours, to allow for 
 the polish to sink, which always takes place. 
 
 Before commencing to polish again, the work should 
 be very carefully rubbed over with the finest glass- 
 paper obtainable, taking care not to cut through the 
 skin; then proceed as before. Be sure never to let the 
 rubber stop in one place for an instant, as it will surely 
 take off the polish to the bare wood and spoil the job. 
 After the work has sufficient polish on, it should be 
 allowed to stand three or four hours before spiriting 
 off. 
 
 The same rubber will do; only use spirits. Just 
 damp the rubber, and cover three or four times double 
 with cover, and rub very lightly over the work; but 
 care must be taken not to make the rubber too wet, 
 or the work will be spoiled. The same process will 
 answer for pine or deal, only no filling is required, but 
 a coat of clean patent size, before applying the polish. 
 
 The ingredients for the above kind of work are quite 
 numerous, but shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the basis 
 of all French polishes, and some finishers use thin 
 shellac varnish without other admixture, slightly 
 moistening the. rubber with linseed oil to prevent 
 stickiness and make it work smoothly. There is a 
 great variety of admixtures and diversity in the 
 proportion of ingredients, but the differences are not 
 material. I subjoin a number of recipes. 
 
 First and Best.—To one pint of spirits of wine add a 
 quarter of an ounce of gum-copal, a quarter of an 
 ounce of gum arabic, and one ounce of shellac. 
 
 Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a 
 piece of muslin. PutTthe spirits and the gums together 
 in a vessel that can be closely corked; place them 
 near a warm stove, and frequently shake them. In 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 75 
 
 two or three days they will be dissolved. Strain the 
 mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight 
 corked for use. 
 
 Next. —Take one ounce each of mastic, sandarac, 
 seed lac, shellac, gum lac, and gum arabic; reduce 
 them to powder; and add a quarter of an ounce of 
 virgin wax; put the whole into a bottle, with one 
 quart of rectified spirits of wine; let it stand twelve 
 hours, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 Another. —Put into a glass bottle one ounce of 
 gum lac, two drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms 
 of sandarac, three ounces of shellac, and half an 
 ounce of gum dragon; reduce the whole to powder; 
 add to it a piece of camphor the size of a nut, and 
 pour on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine. 
 Stop the bottle close, but take care, when the gums 
 are dissolving, that it is not more than half full. 
 Place near a warm stove until dissolved. 
 
 Other French Polish Recipes. —One pint naphtha, 3^2 
 oz. orange shellac, oz. elima. Darken with red 
 sanders wood. 
 
 To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of 
 gum shellac, half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter 
 of an ounce of gum sandarac; submit the whole to a 
 gentle heat, frequently shaking it, till the various 
 gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. 
 
 Shellac, 6 oz.; naphtha, 1 qt.; sandarac, 1 oz.; 
 benzoin, ^ oz. 
 
 Three oz. shellac, E* oz - gum mastic pulverized, and 
 1 pt. methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand 
 till dissolved. 
 
 Twelve oz. shellac, 2 oz. gum elima, 3 oz. gum copal, 
 I gal. spirits of wine; dissolve. 
 
 The following must be well mixed and dissolved; 
 
76 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 pale shellac, 2y lb.; 3 oz. mastic, 3 oz. sandarac, 1 
 gal. spirits of wine. After the above is dissolved, add 
 
 1 pt. copal varnish, oz. shellac, y 2 oz. gum juniper, 
 y 2 oz. benzoin, y 2 pt. methylated alcohol. 
 
 A Good Polish.—To I pt. spirits of wine add, in fine 
 powder, 1 oz. seed lac, 2 dr. gum guaiacum, 2 dr. 
 dragons’ blood, and 2 dr. gum mastic; expose them, 
 in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for three 
 hours, until you find the gum dissolved; strain the 
 whole into a bottle for use, with a quarter of a gill of 
 the best linseed oil, to be shaken up well with it. 
 
 This polish is more particularly intended for dark 
 colored woods—for it is apt to give a tinge to light 
 ones, as satinwood or airwood, etc.—owing to the 
 admixture of the dragons’ blood, which gives it a red 
 appearance. 
 
 A Polish That Will Stand Water.—Take 1 pt. spirits of 
 wine, 2 oz. gum benzoin, y oz. gum sandarac, and y 
 oz. gum anime; these must be put into a stopped 
 bottle, and placed either in a sand-bath or in hot water 
 till dissolved; then strain the mixture, and, after 
 adding about a quarter of a gill of the best clear 
 poppy oil, shake it well up, and put it by for use. 
 
 Prepared Spirits.—This preparation is useful for 
 finishing after any of the foregoing recipes, as it adds 
 to the luster and durability, as well as removes every 
 defect, of the other polishes and it gives the surface a 
 most brilliant appearance. 
 
 Half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, 
 
 2 dr. shellac, and 2 dr. gum benzoin. Put these 
 ingredients into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place 
 till the gum is all dissolved, shaking it frequently; 
 when cold, add two teaspoonfuls of the best clear white 
 poppy oil; shake them well together, and it is fit for use. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 77 
 
 This preparation is used in the same manner as the 
 foregoing polishes; but, in order to remove all dull, 
 places, you may increase the pressure in rubbing. 
 
 Polish for Turner’s Work. —Dissolve I oz. sandarac in 
 Yz pt. spirits of wine; shave i oz. beeswax, and dissolve 
 it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to 
 make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by 
 degrees; then, with a woolen cloth, apply it to the 
 work while it is in motion in the lathe, and polish it 
 with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if highly 
 varnished. 
 
 A French Polish Reviver. —Beat gum acacia and white 
 of two eggs in a mortar until they amalgamate; then 
 add y 2 pt. raw linseed oil and best vinegar, 8 oz. 
 methylated spirits of wine, i oz. hydrochloric acid and 
 2 oz. muriate of antimony. They are to be rubbed on 
 the surface of the furniture until dry, and will give a 
 brilliant and lasting polish. 
 
 It now remains to explain the several varieties of 
 finishing in use; these are largely derived from the 
 peculiar qualities of the different varnishes used. 
 Polishing varnishes, which are very hard and durable, 
 are so called because their surface can be brought to a 
 high luster by rubbing with the proper materials. 
 Flowing or finishing varnishes contain more oil than 
 polishing varnishes, dry more slowly, and are softer, 
 but their peculiar qualities are brilliancy and dura¬ 
 bility, fitting them for work requiring a brilliant gloss, 
 such as veneered panels. Rubbing varnishes are those 
 that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being rubbed to 
 a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the 
 cheapest variety, are employed for cheap work, such 
 as common chairs, bedsteads, etc. 
 
 Dead Finish is a term applied to the finish pro- 
 
78 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 duced by the reduction of any of the rubbing varnishes 
 with powdered pumice-stone and raw linseed oil, the 
 surface thus produced being left in the semi-lustrous 
 state by omitting the polishing process. It is now 
 more used than any other for body work, shellac 
 varnish being generally employed because of its 
 adaptation to the requirements of fine cabinet-work, 
 and its properties of quick and hard drying. Copal, 
 anime, and amber varnishes are also used, but are 
 slower drying. The number of coats required depends 
 somewhat upon the quality of the filler, but usually 
 three coats, and sometimes less, are amply suffi¬ 
 cient. 
 
 Bodying In and Spiriting Off. —The term bodying, 
 applied to the polisher’s art, means coating the wood 
 with a thin, evenly distributed layer of the polish. 
 The way in which this is done greatly affects the 
 appearance and the durability of the gloss. When the 
 body is too thin, the gloss subsequently given to it 
 may at first be beautiful, but as the polish sinks or 
 perishes the gloss fades. When the body is too thick 
 the gloss may appear all right, but the work is apt to 
 look treacly, as though varnish had been used; besides, 
 a thick body impairs the pure tone of some woods. 
 The high degree of excellence to which polishing is 
 capable of being brought is seen only on the best 
 cabinet-work. Polish on second-rate furniture or 
 finish is generally in keeping with the inferior quality 
 of the woodwork. The cheap, gaudy furniture which is 
 often seen in shops must not be taken as models of 
 polishing. The price paid for polishing is reduced, 
 with the result that inferior polish is used and less time 
 is spent on the work. Although the best materials and 
 the expenditure of time and labor will not insure good 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 79 
 
 work by unpracticed hands, they are important factors, 
 and it will be wise to use materials of good quality. 
 
 To make a good average polish, neither too thick 
 nor too thin, about six ounces of shellac to each pint 
 of methylated or alcohol spirit will be required, but 
 great exactitude in the proportions is not necessary. 
 The proportions may vary according to the fancy of 
 the polisher, and, to some extent, according to the 
 nature of the work he is engaged on. If the polish 
 turns out too thick, it can be thinned by adding more 
 spirit; if too thin, the deficiency can be made up by 
 adding more shellac. A rough-and-ready way of 
 measuring the proportions is to half fill a bottle with 
 the roughly broken shellac, and then fill up with 
 ordinary methylated spirit. 
 
 The shellac dissolves gradually, and the process is 
 hastened by an occasional shaking or stirring with a 
 stick. Heat is not necessary; indeed, the preparation 
 of polish by heat is dangerous. 
 
 Two kinds of polish are used. One, known as 
 “white polish,” is nearly colorless; the other is known 
 as “brown polish,” or simply “polish.” The latter is 
 always understood if unqualified by the word “white.” 
 White polish is made with white or bleached shellac; 
 the other with ordinary orange or reddish-brown 
 shellac. 
 
 Either polish may be used on any kind of wood, 
 except where great purity of tint is required. The 
 white is to be preferred for all light woods, such as 
 light oak, ash, sycamore, satin, etc., while the brown 
 may be used on darker; but even on these, white 
 polish is good, with the exception of mahogany, the 
 only ordinary fine wood for which a decided preference 
 might be given to brown polish. Under ordinary 
 
8o 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 circumstances, however, either polish may be used 
 indiscriminately. The point as to brown or white 
 polish for dark wood belongs to the higher branches 
 of the polisher’s art. 
 
 It will be seen that white polish is the more generally 
 useful of the two, so those who do not care to keep 
 both kinds may confine themselves to it. Through 
 the slightly higher price of the bleached shellac, it 
 costs a little more, but the extra cost is so small that it 
 is hardly worth considering by those who use small 
 quantities. Those who use polish in large quantities 
 can have both kinds. 
 
 Polish bought ready-made may be equal to that 
 made at home from the recipe given, for there is 
 nothing to prevent manufacturers using the same 
 ingredients, and many of them do. Still, from the 
 impossibility of knowing the ingredients in ready¬ 
 made polish, there is some risk attending its use. 
 From the price at which some polish is sold, it is fair 
 to suppose that something cheaper than spirit or 
 shellac has been used; and though good polish may be 
 bought, it is better for the user to prepare his own, 
 which can be depended on. Bought polish may be 
 thoroughly good in every way—brilliant, clear, and 
 durable—but those who are best able to judge generally 
 prefer to make their own polish to do the best class 
 of work. Prejudice majf account for this preference. 
 
 Manufacturers of polish assert that, in addition to 
 shellac, certain gums or resins improve the quality of 
 the polish, when used with knowledge and discretion. 
 For instance, one gum may give increased elasticity, 
 while another may harden the film; but for a good all¬ 
 round polish, which can be relied on, many polishers 
 assert that there is nothing to surpass a simple solution 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 81 
 
 of shellac and alcohol. A few approved formulre for 
 polishes have been given, so that those who feel 
 inclined to do so may experiment for themselves. 
 Shellac is the principal ingredient in nearly all. Those 
 persons who cannot polish with shellac and spirit 
 alone will not be able to do any better with the more 
 complicated mixtures; therefore, no one should remain 
 under the impression that he will do better if he 
 works with another kind of polish. 
 
 Enough having now been said about the material, 
 we may proceed to the using of it for bodying. In 
 the first place, the wood must be prepared by filling of 
 one kind or another, and rubbed down smoothly with 
 fine or worn glass-paper, in order to make it fit to 
 receive the polish, for a high degree of finish cannot 
 be got on a rough surface. The rubber, which consists 
 of cotton wadding with a soft rag cover, with which 
 the polish is applied, has been sufficiently treated on, 
 so that nothing more need be said about it. Work, 
 rubber, polish, and a little raw linseed oil being ready, 
 bodying in may be proceeded with in the following 
 way: 
 
 Moisten the wadding with polish; put the rag cover 
 on carefully, so that it is without folds or wrinkles. 
 Dab the rubber into the palm of the left hand to dis¬ 
 tribute the polish evenly, and cause it to moisten the 
 rag at the bottom properly. Supposing the work is a 
 panel or flat surface, the following will be found a 
 good method of treating it, and it is one that is 
 followed more or less closely by experienced 
 polishers. 
 
 Rub briskly across the grain to get the surface 
 covered with polish; then by a series of circular 
 movements, as shown by the lines in Figs. 113 and 
 
82 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 114, go over the whole of the work. A moderate 
 pressure should be applied, which should be increased 
 gradually as the rubber dries, but the movement 
 should at no time degenerate into mere scrubbing. 
 In order that the rubber may work smoothly without 
 sticking, a little raw linseed oil should be applied on 
 the face of the rubber. The less of this used the 
 better, and if it can be dispensed with altogether no 
 harm will be done. To make the rubber work smoothly 
 a very little will suffice; the tip of a finger, moistened 
 with oil, and touched on the face of the rubber, is all 
 that is required. The rubber must not be dipped in 
 the oil, nor must the oil be dropped on it from a 
 bottle, for by these means more oil would be applied 
 than is necessary, and this would be fatal to good 
 work. 
 
 The only recognized oil used in French polishing is 
 raw linseed. This may be worked over the natural 
 woods in the first place, to give them that peculiar 
 tone that cannot be gained by other means; otherwise 
 the less oil used the better for the durability of the 
 work. Bear in mind that it forms no part of polish in 
 itself, being used only to enable us to work the gums 
 easily; thus, without its aid the polish rubber would be 
 apt to stick or drag, thus breaking up the surface 
 instead of leveling it. On any surface in which spirit 
 varnish forms a part this will be particularly notice¬ 
 able; and in any case, it is next to impossible to get 
 that beautiful level surface gained by spiriting out 
 unless a little oil is used. 
 
 As the rubber dries, more polish must be applied to 
 it, as was done in the first instance, with more oil as 
 required. A small quantity of polish goes a long way, 
 and the novice must carefully avoid making the 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 83 
 
 rubber wet. It should be no more than fairly 
 moist. 
 
 Many a beginner, noticing how tedious the work is 
 with a dry rubber, may think that if he used more 
 polish the desired result would be more quickly 
 attained. If the object were merely to get the wood 
 coated, this might be the case; but the result of using 
 too much polish would be that the shellac left by the 
 quick evaporation of the spirit would be ridgy and 
 irregular, instead of in a fine, even coating or body. 
 Anything approaching a flow of polish from the 
 rubber must be avoided. When the rubber is not 
 sufficiently charged with polish, the labor of bodying 
 up will be unduly protracted, or may be rendered 
 impossible if no polish can be rubbed onto the wood. 
 
 The first bodying-in process should be continued 
 till it seems that the wood absorbs no more of the 
 polish. There will be a perceptible gloss on its sur¬ 
 face, but it will be streaky, and the rubber-marks will 
 show very distinctly. All these marks will be removed 
 later on. It may be thought that, if the polish is too 
 thick or too thin, the result will be very much the 
 same as if the rubber were too wet or too dry. The. 
 principal objection to having the polish too thin is 
 that it will take more time in working a good body on 
 the wood. It will, however, be better to risk this 
 rather than to have the polish too thick. An 
 experienced polisher would soon detect fault in either 
 direction by the way in which the polish works, but the 
 novice must be on the look-out for irregularities in the 
 shape of lumps or ridges, and, with a little attention, 
 he will have no difficulty in avoiding serious mishaps. 
 
 Let the work stand for at least a day, carefully 
 covered up from dust; on examining it the body will 
 
84 
 
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 be found to have altered in appearance to an extent 
 which will depend upon how much the polish has 
 sunk into the wood. The work must be again bodied 
 up as before, always remembering to use as little oil 
 as possible. Then it will be again laid aside, and the 
 bodying process repeated till the polish no longer 
 seems to sink in, even after the work has lain aside for 
 a few days. When this stage is reached, the bodying 
 may be considered complete, and the work ready for 
 the first polishing operations. Before proceeding to 
 consider these, however, the novice will do well to 
 note the following hints: 
 
 The number of times the work will require to be 
 bodied depends on circumstances. Fine, close-grained 
 woods will not require so many as the more open 
 kinds, such as oak, ash, mahogany, etc.; but for the 
 best work, which is intended to be as durable as can 
 be, it need rarely exceed four. An interval of one or 
 more days may elapse between the successive bodies, 
 the chief object of waiting being to let them sink as 
 much as they will. If, after the work has been laid 
 aside for a few days, the polish has not sunk at all, no 
 advantage would be gained by giving it another body 
 It is very seldom that the first body is enough, but 
 often only one body is applied, where either low price 
 or limited time will not allow of more; so those who 
 wish to do polishing need not think the process can¬ 
 not be hurried. 
 
 Still, imperfect bodying is not advisable, as such 
 work will soon want touching up. When work is 
 made merely to sell, one body, and that of the 
 (slightest, is sufficient—from the seller’s point of view, 
 if not from the buyer’s. Between the bodyings, 
 especially after the first and second, the surface of the 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 85 
 
 work should be rubbed down with fine glass-paper— 
 not to rub the body off, but just enough to smooth the 
 surface. It may here be remarked that pumice 
 powder, used in moderation, is useful for working 
 down inequalities of surface. Sandpapering has been 
 recommended as necessary after the first and second 
 bodies, but the process may be done after any others, 
 though it should not be required if the work has been 
 skillfully done. In fact, the final bodying up may be 
 regarded almost as the beginning of the spiriting off. 
 
 Before beginning to work a fresh body on a previous 
 one, it is as well to wash the surface gently with 
 lukewarm water, not using too much of it, in order to 
 remove the grease and allow the rubber to work freely. 
 The water must be thoroughly dried up before apply¬ 
 ing the rubber. In moderation the washing can never 
 do harm, and is, generally, an advantage, though not 
 absolutely necessary. When a long interval has 
 elapsed, the washing should never be omitted, as dust 
 will settle on the work; and it need scarcely be said 
 that dust should not be rubbed into the polish. 
 
 When bodying up, polishers should see that their 
 hands are clean and free from old polish, which is so 
 often seen on them. If they are soiled with old polish 
 or shellac, bits are apt to flake off and destroy the 
 surface of new work. This may be an appropriate 
 place to say that any polish which sticks to the hands 
 may be washed away with hot water and soda, or with 
 alcohol. 
 
 The body should be thin, as it is not so much the 
 quantity of body on the wood as its quality that is 
 important; it is also essential that it should be applied 
 with sufficient intervals between the successive bodies 
 to allow of sinkage. 
 
86 
 
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 Another important matter is to dry the rubbers well 
 by working them on each body till dry, and not to 
 moisten them frequently. By this means the film of 
 shellac is kept thin. Neither a wet nor a dry rubber 
 should on any account be allowed to stand on a surface 
 being polished. The rubber must be kept moving, 
 and should glide gradually on to the work, not be 
 dabbed down on it. In the initial stages of bodying 
 care in this respect is not so important as later on, 
 when it is absolutely necessary. The same precaution 
 should be used when lifting the rubber from the work. 
 
 For the guidance of beginners, it may be stated that 
 if they take care of the edges of the work the rest of 
 the surface will look after itself. The reason is that 
 the edges are apt to be somewhat neglected, and the 
 polish to be less there than elsewhere. The secret of 
 a good, durable polish depends primarily on a good 
 body, and this, in its turn, on sufficient time having 
 been allowed for sinkage. 
 
 The final operation in French polishing, by which 
 the gloss is put on the body previously applied, is 
 known as spiriting off. In this operation rubber marks 
 and smears of all kinds are removed, and the beautiful 
 surface, known as French polish, is the result. Body¬ 
 ing is important so far as durability is concerned, but 
 spiriting is more so with regard to finish. If the 
 worker fails in spiriting, his previous efforts will, to a 
 great extent, have been in vain. Disregarding staining, 
 darkening, and other processes, with which a good 
 polisher should be acquainted, the spiriting is perhaps 
 the most severe test of skill in the whole process of 
 polishing; and a man who can manage this part of the 
 work really well may be considered a competent 
 polisher. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 87 
 
 The first operation to be described in the process of 
 spiriting off partakes very much of the nature of body 
 ing in. At the beginning it is bodying, and at the end 
 spiriting. The two processes merge one into the other. 
 There is no abrupt break, as between filling and bodying, 
 except for the intermediate stage, although the processes 
 are well defined, both in character and purpose. This 
 intermediate stage is not always practiced, but it is rec¬ 
 ommended when good work is wanted. Briefly, spiriting 
 off consists in washing the bodied surface with methyl¬ 
 ated spirit. This being understood, the final bodying up, 
 or first spiriting off, whichever this process may be 
 called, consists in gradually reducing the quantity of 
 polish in the rubber, and supplying its place with spirit. 
 The polish is gradually reduced by the addition of spirit 
 till all the polish has been worked out of the rubber. 
 The rubber may be charged, first with three parts 
 polish and one part spirit; next time equal quantities; 
 the third time three parts spirit and one part polish; 
 and the fourth charging will be with spirit only. It 
 does not follow that these proportions need be strictly 
 observed, nor are they so in practice, but this example 
 illustrates the process. The last rubber will be almost 
 free from polish, and it should be worked till it is dry, 
 or nearly so. 
 
 At this stage spiriting proper may begin, and a fresh 
 rubber should be used. It need not be a new one, but 
 it should be one which has been used only for spiriting, 
 and which has no polish on it. It will be better if it 
 has three or four coverings of rag on its face, which 
 can be removed as they dry. If only one cover is used 
 the spirit is apt to evaporate too quickly. The spirit 
 in the rubber has a tendency to partially dissolve the 
 shellac or body on the wood. This it does to a very 
 
88 
 
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 limited extent, unless the rubber is made too wet, when 
 there is danger of not only spiriting and smoothing the 
 surface, but of actually washing away the body. This 
 mishap must be carefully guarded against. There 
 should be enough spirit to allow the surface of the 
 body to be softened and smoothed, but no more, and 
 the rubbing should be uniform, and not more in one 
 place than in another. There is hardly any likeli¬ 
 hood of the novice erring by using too little spirit, so 
 he may be reminded that the less of it there is in the 
 rubber at a time the better. The rubbing should be 
 gentle at first, becoming harder as the spirit dries off, 
 and oil must not be used on the rubber face, for when 
 there is oil either on the rubber or on the work, the 
 polish cannot be brought up. 
 
 The chief cause of failure lies in getting the spirit 
 rubber too wet, and so softening and tearing up the 
 gums. Many meet with success by dispensing with it, 
 using instead a swab of clean, soft rag, fairly damp 
 (not wet) with alcohol. 
 
 If the spiriting-off process is being done correctly 
 the gloss will soon begin to appear, and when it 
 seems approaching a finished condition, the rubber 
 ought to be moved only in the direction of the grain, 
 and not across it nor with circular motion. The final 
 touches should be given with the soft rubber rag alone, 
 care being taken not to scratch the surface, which is 
 now softened by the action of the spirit. The surface 
 will gradually harden, but for a time it should be 
 handled with care, and nothing be allowed to comt ir. 
 contact with it, or it is very likely to be marked. It 
 should also be protected from dust, for any settling on 
 it may be retained by the polish, the luster of which 
 would certainly suffer. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 8 c 
 
 Hardwood finishers, and perhaps dealers in furniture 
 who do not keep an experienced polisher, or who may 
 not be able to get their work done out, may b 
 reminded that, circumstances permitting, polished 
 work should be wiped over with a spirit-rubber an hour 
 or two before it is finished, to freshen it up. If the 
 surface is at all soft, neither packing mats, nor any¬ 
 thing else likely to injure it, should be allowed to come 
 in contact with it. The polishing on many things sent 
 long journeys is often greatly disfigured from mat and 
 other markings, but they are easily touched up on 
 arrival at their destination. 
 
 Some polishers make use of a glaze in order to kill 
 he oil, just before spiriting off, which is made as 
 follows: 
 
 Gum-benzoin, 6 oz., dissolved in alcohol spirit I pt. 
 Gums other than that mentioned may be substituted in 
 order to cheapen the glaze for commercial purposes, 
 or to suit the fancy of polishers who make up their own 
 solutions. The glaze is used chiefly when leveling' 
 down spirit varnish, and for the purpose of imparting 
 a bright finish to mouldings. As practical workers have 
 always at hand rubbers that are specially charged with 
 white polish, brown or red polish, and another rubber 
 for glaze, a clear, bright finish on some kinds of work 
 may be easily gained by passing the glaze rubber along 
 the edges, sunk portions, or even over the whole of a 
 flat surface just before clearing out with the spirit pad. 
 The workman must not, however, suppose that such 
 treatment will entirely kill the oil, if an excessive 
 quantity of oil has been used. Any excess of oh 
 should be cleared off beforehand; or, better still, 
 entirely avoided, if a good, lasting quality of work is 
 desired. 
 
90 
 
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 Glazing, though an imitation, has a recognized 
 acceptance among polishers. It is remarkably con¬ 
 venient occasionally, and in some cases possesses an 
 advantage over spiriting, so that it may fairly be 
 classed among the ordinary processes of polishing. 
 When done in moderation, glazing is as useful on 
 furniture carving as the application of spirit varnish. 
 Such work is commonly said, and justly, to be French 
 polished. The real objection to glaze finish is that, 
 though at first the appearance is equal, it is not so 
 durable as the other. Glaze may be said to be even 
 superior to badly spirited finish, and here is the chief 
 claim it has for notice. It is seldom that a casual 
 polisher can manage to do spiriting thoroughly, for the 
 reason that he has not sufficient opportunity of acquir¬ 
 ing practice. 
 
 Nevertheless, finishing by means of glaze is not so 
 good as the method by spiriting, when the latter is 
 well done, and should be considered as a means of 
 getting the same effect easily and quickly—an 
 imitation, in fact, of the real thing; the difference 
 between the spirit and glaze finishes is that in the one 
 case the effect is produced by friction, in the other by 
 the addition of a thin, fine varnish to the surface of 
 the body of polish. In the former case the polish 
 itself is polished; in the latter it is varnished with a 
 mixture known commonly as glaze, but to which other 
 names are sometimes given. 
 
 Among polishers who command a fair price for 
 their work, glaze is of comparatively limited applica¬ 
 tion, and is confined to those parts where the spirit' 
 rubber cannot be conveniently used, or where its use 
 is not necessary. Instances of such may be found in 
 chair-rails and various parts of the frame. These are 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 9i 
 
 usually polished, more or less, before the chair is 
 upholstered, or, at any rate, before the outer covering 
 is put on, the finishing being almost necessarily done 
 last of all. The less the chair is handled by the 
 polisher the better, especially if the covering is a 
 delicate one, for there is less risk of injury with one 
 or two wipes over with the glaze rubber than with the 
 more prolonged spiriting. 
 
 ^.Glaze may be used with advantage in inlaid work, 
 where the inlay is slightly, though perhaps not 
 intentionally, higher than the surrounding wood. In 
 such a case it is better to resort to glaze than to finish 
 with the spirit rubber. On fretwork, also, glaze may 
 often be used with advantage, and, generally, it is 
 unobjectionable on parts which are not subject to wear 
 and tear. It will stand a moderate amount of handling, 
 but not so much as good, hard spirited-off polish, and 
 the luster is not so durable. 
 
 Glaze, under one or other of its different names, 
 may be bought ready-made, but, for reasons similar to 
 those given in connection with French polish, the 
 home-made article is to be recommended. The prep¬ 
 aration of glaze is simple, the ingredients being gum- 
 benzoin and methylated spirit. After the benzoin is 
 dissolved, the solution should be strained through 
 muslin to free it from foreign matter. The proportions 
 may vary, but those given for polish do very well, and 
 with the substitution of crushed benzoin for shellac the 
 process of making is exactly the same. 
 
 Gum-benzoin differs greatly in quality, but the best 
 should be used by the polisher. Compared with lac it 
 is expensive, so that the saving which is attributed to 
 its use is mainly in time, which is money, at least from 
 a trade point of view. Cheap benzoin is not to be 
 
92 
 
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 relied on, and in a strange place an experienced 
 polisher would look with suspicion on any offered at a 
 very low price, however satisfactory its appearance. 
 Where material is liable to adulteration, the best way 
 to avoid imposition is to go to a reliable dealer and to 
 pay a fair price. 
 
 Glaze, as used by French polishers, can be bought 
 ready-made at most color stores, as patent glaze; it 
 improves with age. To make the genuine article, 
 dissolve 6 or 8 ounces of best gum-benzoin in i pint of 
 alcohol spirit. Keep it in a closely stoppered bottle, 
 otherwise the spirit will evaporate quickly. 
 
 Glaze may be applied with either rubber, sponge, or 
 brush; in most cases the rubber is most suitable and is 
 most commonly used. It is made in the ordinary way 
 as used for polish, but it must not be applied with 
 pressure. The glaze is painted on rather than rubbed 
 into the work, which must have been previously bodied 
 in. There seems to be an idea that glaze or something 
 put on bare wood will cause a gloss right off; but 
 nothing will do this. A polish can only be got on 
 wood by varnish, or by bodying-in and polish. 
 
 When using glaze, the rubber should be made wetter 
 than for polish or spirit; but still there should not be 
 sufficient to drip from it. It should glaze or wet the 
 wood when the rubber is very lightly pressed on it. 
 One or two wipes in the direction of the grain of the 
 wood, with a somewhat quick motion, will put the 
 glaze on. Always let the glaze dry before applying 
 the rubber again to the same place. The coats may 
 be repeated till the gloss is satisfactory, but the film 
 of glaze should never be made a thick one. 
 
 If preferred, a sponge may be used exactly as a 
 rubber would be, but it is questionable if there is any 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 93 
 
 advantage gained; it is rather a matter of fancy. 
 When a brush is used, the glaze may be applied as a 
 varnish pure and simple. With a brush a mixture of 
 glaze and French polish, either white or brown, 
 according to the work, in equal quantities, may be used 
 with advantage. 
 
 Glaze that is not so satisfactory in appearance as it 
 should be, may sometimes be improved by passing a 
 spirit-rubber lightly over it, though this should be done 
 with great caution, to avoid washing it off. When 
 carefully and skillfully done, there can be little doubt 
 that a glazed surface may be often, if not always, 
 improved by slightly spiriting it. 
 
 To glaze a wide surface, see that it is free from dull 
 streaks and ridges and oil, and the rubber soft and free 
 from fluff. Apply the glaze as evenly as possible, 
 going over the surface several times, until the rubber 
 is nearly dry; then, with the smallest quantity of oil 
 and a little spirits, go over the glaze, very lightly at 
 first, varying the direction of the rubber to avoid ridges. 
 A dull , even surface may be obtained by adding one- 
 third to one-half of sandarac to the solution of 
 benzoin, and using the rubber only damp—not 
 saturated. 
 
 Old French polished work may often be revived by 
 being lightly gone over with glaze after the surface has 
 been washed and cleaned with warm water. This 
 treatment is often considerably better than that 
 commonly adopted with furniture pastes, polishes, 
 creams, and revivers of various kinds. 
 
 Wax Polishing.—Although the beauty of most 
 furniture woods is enhanced to the highest degree by 
 French polishing when well done, there are other 
 processes which, though not capable of being hrought 
 
94 
 
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 to such perfection, are much simpler. Among these 
 is wax polishing. This mode of finishing is remark¬ 
 ably easy, both as regards materials and manipulation, 
 and the unskilled novice can manage to wax-polish 
 almost as well as an expert. It is, therefore, a suitable 
 process for the beginner. 
 
 Though any wood may be treated by waxing, it is 
 generally confined to oak, especially after this has been 
 darkened by fumigation with ammonia. The appear¬ 
 ance of oak so finished is comparatively dull, but it has 
 an attractiveness which French polish does not possess 
 for all eyes. 
 
 For antique oak furniture—whether genuine or 
 imitation—wax is the best finish, though varnish is 
 often used. Wax polish, though it may not give the 
 same amount of gloss, is clearer and finer. Varnish 
 clogs the wood, and is apt to give a treacly look to any 
 piece of furniture finished with it. 
 
 Mahogany may very appropriately be finished by 
 wax polish, and for many purposes it may be superior 
 to the dulled French polish so often seen. The top of 
 a dining-table is apt to be rendered unsightly from 
 hot plates or dishes injuring the polished surfaces. 
 The heat burns or blisters the hardened shellac of the 
 French polish, and a finish which is not so liable to 
 disfigurement is preferable; this is found in wax polish. 
 Usually, dining-table tops (unless French polished) are 
 simply oil polished. Waxing is, however, less tedious, 
 and at least as suitable for the purpose, and the readi¬ 
 ness with which an accidental marking can be obliter¬ 
 ated renders it particularly useful. 
 
 Wood stained black, to produce so-called ebony, 
 may be wax polished. The result is certainly a closer 
 approximation to the appearance of real ebony than 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 9$ 
 
 when the work is French polished in the usual way. 
 By polishing fretwork articles with wax they may 
 easily be made to look better than many of them do 
 whenmnskiilfully French polished. 
 
 Though it has been said that any wood may be wax 
 polished, there can be no question that this process 
 answers best on the more coarsely-grained woods, 
 such as oak and ash; for pine and other light woods of 
 close texture it is not so well suited, unless they have 
 been previously stained. 
 
 The ingredients for wax polish are, in the simplest 
 mixture, beeswax and turpentine. Resin and Venice 
 turpentine are occasionally added. Resin is added 
 with the intention of hardening the surface; but pro¬ 
 vided the wax be of good quality, these additions are 
 quite unnecessary, if not injurious, and a good result 
 should be got from wax and turps. 
 
 Wax and turpentine alone are all the materials 
 necessary to make a good wax polish, and when any¬ 
 thing else enters into the composition the mixture is 
 one of a fancy character. It is not proposed to discuss 
 the qualities of beeswax offered for sale, and the 
 polisher must decide what kind he gets. Some advo¬ 
 cate the use of fine white wax, and possibly a better 
 finish may sometimes be got with it than with the ordi¬ 
 nary yellow wax, which, however, is the kind generally 
 used; the only occasions when it might not be so good 
 as the white are when extreme purity of tone is 
 required for a light wood. Wood perfectly white is, 
 however, seldom wax polished. 
 
 The way in which wax polish is prepared depends a 
 good deal on the proportions of the materials. For a 
 liquid polish, shred the wax finely, and pour the tur¬ 
 pentine over it, leaving the two till they are incor- 
 
g6 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 porated. Cold turpentine will dissolve wax slowly, 
 but a more expeditious method is to melt the wax by 
 heat, and before it has time to solidify pour the tur¬ 
 pentine into it. Caution is necessary when melting 
 wax, and on no account should the turpentine be 
 poured into the wax while it is still on the fire. With 
 ordinary care there is no danger, and the possibility of 
 a mishap is suggested merely for the benefit of those 
 who might otherwise overlook the inflammable charac¬ 
 ter of turpentine vapor. Should the mixture be either 
 too thick or too thin, there will be no trouble in alters 
 ing its consistency afterwards. 
 
 To thin a mass which is too stiff, a very moderate 
 warming, by placing the bottle in hot water, will reduce 
 it to a more liquid form, as the turpentine already in 
 it facilitates the change, and more turpentine is added. 
 To stiffen the mixture, wax should be melted separately, 
 and the original mixture added to it. The heat of the 
 freshly melted wax will probably be sufficient to cause 
 all the materials to.mix. In any case, the wax should 
 be thoroughly melted before the turpentine is added, 
 as a lumpy mixture is neither pleasant to work with 
 nor conducive to good finish. The natural tendency 
 of a wax polishing mixture, exposed to the air, is to 
 stiffen, on account of the evaporation of the turpen¬ 
 tine. A considerable time must elapse before there is 
 an appreciable alteration, and the fact that a change 
 does go on, slowly, is mentioned to remind polishers 
 that if they have a considerable quantity of the mix¬ 
 ture standing over, they must not expect it to retain its 
 original consistency unless kept in a closed vessel, 
 such as a tightly-corked bottle. 
 
 A hint for those who think that the more ingredients 
 a mixture contains the better it must be, and who are 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 97 
 
 not satisfied unless there is a certain amount of resin 
 in their wax polishing paste: • Always melt the resin 
 first, and add the wax gradually, and constantly stir. 
 Whether resin be used or not, the mixture should be 
 allowed to get quite cold before it is applied to the 
 work. 
 
 Although the consistency of wax polish varies con¬ 
 siderably, the comparative merits of different degrees 
 of stiffness or fluidity must be considered, so that an 
 intelligent conception of the polisher’s aim may be 
 arrived at. Suppose a piece of beeswax, without any 
 admixture of turpentine, is, rubbed on a piece of 
 smooth, flat wood. Some of the wax adheres to the 
 surface, which, when friction is applied, becomes 
 glossy or polished. The labor, however, is consider¬ 
 able, and though dry wax may do on a flat surface, 
 when mouldings or carvings are to be treated, the diffi¬ 
 culties in the way of satisfactory application are con¬ 
 siderable. The remedy is to soften the wax so that it 
 may be got into all parts of the work. Melted wax 
 might do, but in putting it on to the wood it becomes 
 cold, and consequently reverts to its original stiffness. 
 We have then to get the wax to a fair working consist¬ 
 ency by means of some suitable solvent, which turpen¬ 
 tine has proved to be. It is cleanly, inexpensive, and 
 evaporates sufficiently quickly, besides mixing well 
 with the wax. Some polishers prefer what others 
 might think an excess of turpentine. When a stiff 
 paste is used, the wax is apt to be deposited in excess¬ 
 ive quantity, necessitating a considerable amount of 
 rubbing, in places, to remove it. A fluid polish spreads 
 the wax much more evenly, but no gloss can be 
 obtained till the turpentine has disappeared, either 
 evaporated or been absorbed by the wood. When the 
 
98 
 
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 polish has been laid evenly over the work, this does 
 not take long; so a thin mixture may be considered 
 preferable to a very stiff one. A paste of about the 
 consistency of butter in hot weather, might be regarded 
 as a medium. Those who use a wax polish which 
 could be poured would consider this stiff, while others 
 who add very little turpentine, or who believe in resin, 
 would consider it thin. A thick mixture or a thin one 
 may be used, the result depending more on the manip¬ 
 ulation of the material than on the material itself; and 
 this manipulation may next be considered. 
 
 In the application of wax polish there is almost as 
 great a variety in practice as in proportion of ingredi¬ 
 ents. The great thing is to have the wax—the turpen¬ 
 tine is merely the vehicle for conveying this—evenly 
 and thinly distributed, and so long as this is done it is 
 of small consequence how it is managed. To spread 
 the wax with, some use a piece of rag, while others 
 prefer a stiff brush specially made for the purpose, and 
 both get equally good results. After the wax has been 
 spread the polish is obtained by friction, and the more 
 you rub the brighter the polish will be. The brush or 
 cloth used to rub the wax into the wood should not be 
 employed to give the finishing touches. In this final 
 friction it is essential that the cloth or brush used be 
 perfectly dry, as if it is at all damp no polished surface 
 can be produced. The final polish is best done with a 
 perfectly clean rubber, and three sets of cloths or rub¬ 
 bers may be used. With the first the mixture is to be 
 rubbed on the wood, with the second it is to be rubbed 
 off till a fair amount of polish is got, while with the 
 third the rubbing should be continued till the surface 
 is as bright as it can be got. 
 
 The directions which have been given should enable 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 99 
 
 any one to wax-polish wood successfully. Hard dry 
 rubbing, with energetic application, is at least as impor¬ 
 tant as the wax and turpentine; for, though more sim¬ 
 ple than the French polishing process, it is more 
 laborious. 
 
 Oil Finishing and Dry Shining.—The following descrip¬ 
 tion of the methods of oil polishing and dry shining 
 is taken largely from an English work on the subject, 
 and may be depended upon as being fairly correct and 
 up to date: 
 
 The simple process of oil polishing must now receive 
 attention; and there is still something to admire in a 
 comparatively dull oiled surface. The process simply 
 consists of rubbing in linseed oil and polishing with a 
 soft rag. The oiling and polishing must be continued 
 at intervals till the requisite shine is obtained. To get 
 the best results takes time and friction. Oil polishing 
 is not difficult, but it is decidedly fatiguing and 
 tedious. The more the surface is rubbed the better, 
 and the process may be extended over some weeks. 
 Patience and energetic application are still more essen¬ 
 tial than with wax polishing, for to get even the sem¬ 
 blance of a polish or gloss within a week or two with 
 the aid of oil must not be expected. How long does it 
 take to finish a thing properly with oil? It may be 
 said the work is never finished. An oiled surface will 
 always bear more rubbing than it has had, and will not 
 be deteriorated by friction; still from one to two 
 months should suffice to get a good polish, which will 
 be durable according to the amount of labor bestowed 
 upon it during that time. This is more time than can 
 be devoted to the finishing touches of a piece of furni¬ 
 ture generally nowadays, so it may almost be consid¬ 
 ered that oil polishing is an obsolete process. 
 
100 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Still, it does not follow that because the process is 
 too long to be remunerative in ordinary work it should 
 not be worthy of attention, especially as it has merits 
 which recommend it where speed is not a primary con¬ 
 sideration. One great advantage of it is that it is 
 much more durable than either French or wax polish; 
 it does not blister by heat like the former, nor spoil 
 with water to such an extent as the latter, with which 
 in general appearance it may be compared. It is 
 because it does not blister by heat that it is especially 
 useful. An ordinary French polished dining-table top 
 shows the damage caused by hot dishes laid on it, 
 unless great care has been taken. On an oil polished 
 dining-table top the same hot dishes might be placed 
 almost with impunity; and it is chiefly dining-table 
 tops that have prevented oil polishing becoming quite 
 extinct. Though the whole of a table, or anything 
 else, may be polished with oil, it is usual, even when 
 the top is oiled, to polish the legs and frame otherwise. 
 
 Linseed oil is the only material used in pure oil fin¬ 
 ish, but other ingredients have been used, till it is 
 difficult to recognize the distinction between oil polish¬ 
 ing and French polishing. The two processes may 
 overlap to an almost indefinite extent, but with these 
 we have, at present at any rate, nothing to do, and to 
 discuss them might only tend to confuse the novice. 
 Authorities differ on the state in which the linseed oil 
 should be used, some recommending boiled, others 
 raw, and others various proportions of the two. For 
 ordinary work boiled linseed oil is perhaps the better, 
 but this is not intended to imply that those who prefer 
 raw oil are wrong; therefore any oil polisher who has 
 an inclination for some fancy mixture of boiled and 
 raw oils can use it. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 IOI 
 
 The treatment is very much the same as in wax pol¬ 
 ishing. It consists in rubbing the oil well into the 
 wood, not saturating or flooding, but scrubbing it, and 
 then rubbing long and hard. The process may be 
 repeated almost indefinitely, daily or at longer inter¬ 
 vals, till a polish which is deemed sufficient appears. 
 For example, take a table top, rub some oil well into 
 it, and then polish with a rubber formed by wrapping 
 some baize, felt, or similar material round a brick or 
 other suitable block, the purpose of which is, by its 
 weight, to some extent to relieve the polisher from 
 using his muscles in applying pressure. The rubbing 
 should be continued till the surface of the wood is dry. 
 The only perceptible difference in the top will be the 
 darkened appearance caused by the oil, as little or no 
 gloss will appear at first. By repeating the operation, 
 however, a polish will come up gradually, and a sur¬ 
 face which in the opinion of many is superior to that 
 of French polish will be the ultimate result. Should 
 the polish sweat, some methylated spirit may be 
 rubbed in. This will dry the surface without spoiling 
 the polish. 
 
 Oil polishing is hardly suitable for anything but 
 plain work, on account of the labor required; but any 
 piece of work can be so polished if the necessary time 
 and labor be given to it. Even when it is not 
 deemed practicable to bring up a polish with oil, a 
 very pleasing finish may be given to a piece of work by 
 merely rubbing it with oil. The color is enriched to 
 an extent which perhaps would hardly be credited by 
 those who have not had frequent opportunities of see¬ 
 ing wood in the white and again after being oiled. In 
 choice mahogany especially the improvement is very 
 marked. Light oak is also greatly improved in tone. 
 
102 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Fretworkers who are not proficient in French polish¬ 
 ing would be more satisfied with the appearance of 
 anything they make if they simply oiled it instead of 
 coating it with shellac, which has to serve for French 
 polish. 
 
 Dry shining will be found a simple process after the 
 ordinary methods of French polishing have been mas¬ 
 tered. Finishing work by dry shining is the crudest 
 and simplest way in which a gloss can be got on the 
 surface of wood by means of a thin varnish of shellac 
 and methylated spirit. It must not be mistaken for 
 varnishing, as this process is ordinarily understood, for 
 it is distinctly a process of French polishing. Even 
 those who have managed to do bodying-up and spirit- 
 ing-off, or even glazing, will find the operation of dry 
 shining simple in comparison. It is the nearest 
 approach to varnishing by means of a rubber, instead 
 of a brush, that polishers practice. The wood is var¬ 
 nished with ordinary French polish, applied by means 
 of the polisher’s special appliance—the rubber. 
 
 Dry shining, unlike glazing, is not in any degree a 
 substitute for the difficult process of spiriting-off, and 
 those who think to get a high degree of finish on their 
 work by means of dry shining may give up the illu¬ 
 sion. When a really good finish is wanted, French 
 polishing, as it is ordinarily understood, should be 
 chosen, for there is no efficient substitute by which a 
 like result can be got. 
 
 Dry shining can be used in any position where a high 
 degree of finish is not necessary or customary. It is 
 useful for finishing inside work—such as the insides of 
 boxes, drawers, cabinets, and interior parts generally— 
 and is often seen on the fronts of drawers and trays 
 enclosed in a wardrobe. The chief advantages in con- 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 103 
 
 nection with it are that it can be done expeditiously, 
 and therefore cheaply; that it sufficiently closes the 
 grain of the wood to prevent dust getting in and clog¬ 
 ging it; and that it gives a certain degree of finish 
 which wood, left in the white or altogether unpolished 
 does not possess. 
 
 The wood is bodied-in without any preparatory fill¬ 
 ing, but otherwise precisely in the manner as already 
 directed. It is not customary to take such precau¬ 
 tions to get up a good body as there recommended. 
 A better description of the process is to say that the 
 wood is wiped over with the polish rubber; not much 
 trouble is usually taken to do more than get the pre¬ 
 liminary body worked on. There is no reason why the 
 first body should not be allowed to sink, and the article 
 then be rebodied if necessary. Much bodying-in would 
 make the work almost as hard as that involved in ordi¬ 
 nary French polishing, so that ordinarily the bodying- 
 in dry shining is done more quickly. 
 
 When the bodying-in has been done to the satisfac¬ 
 tion of the polisher, the rubber is charged with French 
 polish, rather more fully than was recommended for 
 bodying. Instead of being rubbed all over the wood 
 in any direction, it is wiped over in the direction of 
 the grain from end to end of the piece, very much in 
 the manner mentioned in connection with glazing. 
 The rubber may be moved backwards and forwards till 
 dry, but a better way under ordinary circumstances is 
 to let the polish deposited by each rub dry before going 
 over the same place again. When using the rubber in 
 finishing, it should have no oil; and if the former of 
 these two methods is adopted it will be difficult to 
 prevent the polish dragging, so the easier course 
 should be adopted. 
 
104 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Repolishing and Reviving.—Having once mastered 
 the fundamental principle of polishing, it is a com¬ 
 paratively easy task to give to a plain piece of wood a 
 level and lustrous surface; and, by the use of stains 
 that can be bought ready prepared, a fair imitation of 
 any given wood can be obtained with but little labor. 
 But the polisher who wishes to hold his own against 
 all comers, must be able to do more than merely to 
 stain and polish a plain piece of new wood. 
 
 When dealing with old work that requires repolish¬ 
 ing, all dirt, grease, and furniture paste must be 
 removed by careful washing with soda and warm 
 water and powdered pumice-stone or bath-brick. It 
 can then be French polished, or a fresher and more 
 satisfactory appearance may be given by applying 
 one or two coats of brown hard spirit varnish—such 
 as can be bought at an oil and color merchant’s—care¬ 
 fully with a camel-hair brush. 
 
 When varnished work has to be dealt with, first clean 
 off all the varnish and then repolish in the way 
 described in previous chapters, except that filling will 
 probably be dispensed with. The varnish can 
 generally be more easily removed by scraping than by 
 papering. With care the varnish can be washed off 
 with soda or potash and water, but on account of the 
 liability to injure the wood it is scarcely advisable to 
 adopt this method. 
 
 For removing polish from flat surfaces, the steel 
 scrapers as used by cabinetmakers are the best tools 
 to use. In turned and other work which has an uneven 
 surface the old coating can nearly all be got off by 
 application of strong hot soda water, to which may be 
 added some oxalic acid in difficult cases. When a 
 large quantity of work has to be treated, use the follow- 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 105 
 
 ing mixture: x / 2 lb. potash, y 2 lb. soft soap, y 2 lb. rock 
 ammonia, I lb. washing soda, 3 ounces of nitric acid, I 
 gallon of water. Apply with a fiber or scrubbing 
 brush, taking care of the hands. Swill off with plenty 
 of clean water. When the work is dry, oil and fill in; 
 then repolish. 
 
 Spirit varnish can be removed by washing with 
 methylated spirit, which redissolves the lac. This is 
 both a tedious and somewhat expensive method, which 
 need be resorted to only for delicate mouldings and 
 other work which cannot well be cleaned by scraping 
 or by scouring with some liquid which, though it would 
 remove the varnish, might stain and so spoil the wood. 
 Alcohol, being neutral, may be used on any wood, as it 
 will not affect the color. 
 
 When dealing with cabinets or other built-up work, 
 the process of repolishing will be simplified somewhat 
 by taking apart as much as convenient. It is a good 
 plan to unhinge all doors, to remove all carvings that 
 may be screwed on from the back, and to remove all 
 knobs, brass fittings, etc.—not forgetting to put some 
 tallying mark on each piece which might be liable to 
 misplacement. Thus the doors can be better handled 
 on the bench, the corners of panels can be worked up 
 better, and the carvings can be varnished better. 
 When the carvings are planted on, as is often done, a 
 much cleaner job is made if these are first removed; 
 for it is a difficult task to polish the open carvings 
 equal to the flat surface. 
 
 Sometimes polished work is disfigured by fine little 
 lines which are caused by cracks, resulting from sweat¬ 
 ing. These lines become visible through the dust 
 settling on the exuding oil. This disfigurement can be 
 averted almost entirely by occasionally carefully wiping 
 
io6 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 with a soft, damp cloth. Sweating is not entirely pre¬ 
 ventive, but when the oil has ceased to exude, which 
 may not be for some months, the work may be 
 repolished with advantage. 
 
 The perfectly level, brilliant polish found on new 
 German pianos fills many an American French-polisher 
 with envy. Unfortunately, this brilliant polish does 
 not last long, and the majority of the pianos soon have 
 a greasy, cracked appearance. Indeed, there are but 
 few of these pianos with a polish gained by the legiti¬ 
 mate process of French polishing. This brilliant, 
 level polish is gained by a very liberal use of gum 
 sandarac, and when the polishing is completed the 
 pianos are set aside in a clean, hot room, which has 
 the effect of causing the polish or gums to flow to one 
 dead level. Some makers use varnish verv freely, 
 and, before passing to the hot room, level this by 
 means of pumice powder, tripoli, putty powder, and 
 sometimes flour. 
 
 When the requisite number of coats of varnish have 
 been laid, the surface is leveled with fine glass-paper 
 and linseed oil, or by the slower process of felt rubber 
 and pumice powder. After being wiped perfectly 
 clean, a rubber made of soft flannel, or, better still, of 
 old silk, is used to rub carefully and lightly in a 
 circular direction with tripoli powder and oil, till the 
 surface is perfectly level and inclined to be bright; it 
 is then rubbed with dry putty powder and silk, and 
 finally brightened with flour. 
 
 The surface should be left perfectly free from any 
 trace of the polishing powders; neglect of this 
 accounts for the white patches sometimes seen on the 
 German pianos. These patches are not so deep as 
 they appear at first sight, and may often be removed 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 107 
 
 with flour emery and linseed oil or turps without 
 disturbing the polish. 
 
 To renovate the polish on these pianos is difficult, 
 but when it is not very bad, a reviver made of equal 
 parts of linseed oil, lime water, and turps is generally 
 effective. The lime water and oil are first thoroughly 
 mixed; then the turps is added, and the mixture is 
 applied by means of wadding. The surface is wiped 
 off with a rag, and finished with a clean, soft rag swab, 
 made fairly moist with methylated spirit. Should any 
 trace of grease still remain, change to a clean place of 
 the already moist rag, and sprinkle a few spots of 
 glaze on its face, or, better still, wipe the face of the 
 glaze rubber over the face of the clean swab. 
 
 Should this method prove ineffective it will be 
 necessary to repolish, first removing the sweat or 
 roughness by fine sandpaper and oil, or by washing 
 with weak soda water and pumice powder. The polish 
 used should be made with spirit instead of naphtha, 
 and, to ensure its lasting qualities, it should be bodied 
 up one day and finished the next. 
 
 To darken the birch frame of a chair, wipe it over 
 with asphaltum dissolved in turpentine (one cent’s 
 worth in half a pint of turps). This stains without 
 giving a painted appearance; should there be any 
 difficulty in obtaining asphaltum, Vandyke brown may 
 be used, mixed to a thin paste with liquid ammonia — 
 or with a strong solution of common washing soda. 
 This is thinned with water, till of the required tone, 
 which will readily be found by trying its effect on any 
 odd piece of wood. If French polish cannot be applied, 
 the most suitable thing to use is brown hard spirit 
 varnish. 
 
 For restoring polish that has faded from damp or 
 
io8 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 exposure to the sun, those stains which are used to 
 stain the common woods will not be suitable. It may¬ 
 be convenient to remove only the upper surface of the 
 polish, to color the faded portion so as to match its 
 surroundings, and to repolish the whole. When the 
 polish is not very bad, it is generally sufficient to 
 smooth it well with a piece of worn glass-paper. 
 When it is much scratched or faded, methylated spirit 
 should be sprinkled upon it, and the surface well 
 rubbed with No. I sandpaper, applied with a circular 
 motion; it will then be found that only the upper 
 surface of the polish will be removed. Before 
 repolishing, it is advisable first to wash the article with 
 water to which a little common washing soda has been 
 added. This will remove any dirt, furniture paste, etc.; 
 a little pumice powder or powdered bath-brick may 
 be used to assist. 
 
 After the necessary cleaning off of dirt, etc., has 
 been accomplished, any bruises must be removed, 
 either by scraping out or by bringing up level, by 
 means of a hot iron and moisture, or by filling up with 
 hard stopping, or by the still better method previously 
 given. When this has been done, and all defective 
 parts made good, the surface must be wiped over with 
 an oily rag; it assists the new polish to take kindly to 
 the old. In scraping out the bruises, in cleaning off 
 level any new piece, and in cleaning off the polish, it 
 is probable that light patches may be made. More 
 especially will these be made apparent if the damaged 
 portion has been previously colored up by stains, dry 
 colors, or dyed polish. 
 
 For coloring up or matching, it is generally suffi¬ 
 cient, if the wood in hand is mahogany, to wipe over 
 the damaged portion with red oil, which consists of 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 109 
 
 lb. of alkanet root steeped in 1 pint of linseed oil, 
 working up with red polish. Should the wood be 
 walnut, many a little blemish and scratch in soft 
 resinous varnish may be matched by wiping over with 
 a solution of one cent’s worth of asphaltum dissolved 
 in Yi pint turps. Should the defect be a piece of sap 
 or other light portion, go over the light portion several 
 times with the polish rubber to prevent the grain from 
 rising, and then saturate a small tuft of wadding with 3 
 parts of methylated spirits to 1 part of polish; on this 
 wadding place a small quantity of Vandyke brown or 
 brown umber, mix well, and carefully wipe over the 
 light portions, thinning out with spirits if too dark, 
 picking up a little more color if not dark enough, 
 adding a little black if required. 
 
 Matching stains are used in French polishing because 
 light and dark places often occur in the best selected 
 woods, and in stained work, owing to the difference 
 in the direction of the grain. To tone or harmonize 
 the entire surface to one uniform shade, is technically 
 called matching or coloring up, and requires a little 
 tact and a good eye for color. On large flat surfaces 
 colored polish may be used with advantage, but for 
 small work it would be better to take a small tuft of 
 wadding and wet it with I part polish to 3 parts spirits. 
 With this take up a little yellow ocher and just a trace 
 of umber or Vandyke brown. Press the wadding well 
 on the back of a piece of worn-out glass-paper to 
 equalize, and mix well. Try the effect on an odd 
 corner of the work; if too dark, thin out with spirits; 
 if not dark enough, pick up more color, or wipe over 
 twice. Having gained the right shade, apply lightly 
 with a straight or wavy motion as required. This 
 would enable one to match the oak, but any wood can 
 
no 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 be matched by using suitable pigments, a red tinge 
 being usually given by the addition of a few drops of 
 Bismarck brown stain. Though it is possible to pro¬ 
 ceed to polish direct, yet it would be safer to set the 
 stain by giving a coat of thin spirit varnish, and allow 
 this to get quite dry before polishing. In matching 
 up satin walnut, the polisher must use judgment, for 
 the work can hardly be regarded as mechanical. The 
 stain must depend on the color or tint of the lighter 
 parts, and of the darker parts to which they are to be 
 matched. Generally a little weak brown stain will do 
 what is required. When necessary, it can be altered 
 slightly in color by the addition of other pigments, 
 according to the tints desired. 
 
 In matching, the wavy appearance of some woods 
 may be given by a tremulous movement of the hand, 
 and the mottled appearance of others by dabbing with 
 a badger softener or clean, soft dusting brush while 
 the color is still wet. Veins either black or red may 
 be given by picking up a little dry black or red stain 
 on the corner of the tuft of wadding and applying it 
 carefully, taking some adjacent portion as a guide for 
 pattern. For rosewood, red stain and dry black may 
 be used in combination; for birch or oak, use yellow 
 ocher. When the work in hand is large, and requires 
 staining all over, and it is not possible to gain the 
 desired result by means of dyed polish applied with 
 the rubber, the colors should be mixed in a pot with 
 3 parts of spirit to I of polish, and applied with a 
 camel-hair brush. The work is not so liable to get 
 patchy with two or more coats of weak stain as with 
 one strong one. 
 
 After laying on the stain, allow a few minutes to 
 elajpse for it to set, then smooth down with a piece of 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER III 
 
 worn, fine glass-paper, and give a coat of thin brush 
 polish or spirit varnish. This will set the colors pre¬ 
 vious to polishing, which can be proceeded with in 
 about ten minutes. Mahogany, rosewood, and walnut, 
 if not inlaid, are generally improved by the use of a 
 polish tinged by the addition of a little red stain. 
 Other colors may also be mixed with polish to be 
 applied with the rubber. When using these dyed 
 polishes, cease when just the right tinge is attained; 
 another rubber may be used to finish off with clear 
 polish. 
 
 In 'repolishing work, the foundation having been 
 already laid, the polish is not required quite so thick 
 as in polishing the. bare wood. In the final stage, 
 when finishing off, any trace of greasiness may be 
 effectually removed by well rubbing with a swab of 
 the clean, soft rag, fairly damp (not wet) with spirits, on 
 face of which has been sprinkled a few drops of glaze. 
 
 Colors in a dry state known as pigments, such as 
 Venetian red, yellow ocher, vegetable black or lamp¬ 
 black, umbers, Vandyke brown, chromes, orange and 
 lemon, greens, blues, flake white, etc., are useful. By 
 the aid of these, the polisher is enabled to match 
 woods and restore faded polish, far more expeditiously 
 than can be done by staining or using dyed polish or 
 varnish. Work that might puzzle the inexperienced 
 for hours can be done in a few minutes by a knowledge 
 of the use of dry colors. They are used in some stains 
 by mixing with ammonia, glue size, pearlash, soda, 
 and they are used to color the “filling-in” of whiting 
 and turps to make it match the various woods. 
 Venetian red is used for mahogany, umber for walnut, 
 black for ebony, and sometimes to give an appearance 
 of age to oak by making the grain appear dirty. 
 
I 12 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Sometimes the polisher has a job passed to him that, 
 
 properly speaking, ought to be done by the painter. 
 
 The quick-drying nature of the solutions of shellac, 
 
 with which the polisher is the better acquainted, obtains 
 
 for him the preference. For example, shields, etc., 
 
 for the decorative purposes that may require five 
 
 different colors and a coat of varnish, can be colored 
 
 ready for fixing within twenty-four hours. To do this, 
 
 lime blue, chrome yellow, vegetable black, flake white, 
 
 and vermilionette or any other colors should be mixed 
 
 with ordinary French polish to the consistency of 
 
 thin paint, thinning out when necessary with alcohol 
 
 spirits. Three coats of color can be laid on, stencil 
 
 patterns cut and painted, borders and edges lined, and 
 
 the whole finished with a coat of white hard varnish 
 
 within twelve hours. To prevent the white getting a 
 
 yellowish tinge, it is well to mix it with transparent 
 
 polish made from white shellac. 
 
 * ... . * 
 
 To make imitation marble which wears well, give 
 
 several coats of flake white mixed in polish; then put 
 in the veins of blue or black with feathers, afterwards 
 giving a coat of white thinned out with spirits. This 
 has the effect of making the veining appear beneath 
 the surface. When dry it is finished by giving a coat 
 of good quality copal varnish. 
 
 THE FINISHING OF VARIOUS WOODS 
 
 It will be in order now to describe how to finish 
 some of the more popular woods, in detail, though 
 enough has been said in a general way to enable any 
 workman to finish work in any wood made use of for 
 building or decorative purposes, but a few lines 
 devoted to some of our special woods may perhaps be 
 of timely service to some owner of this volume. Oak, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 1 13 
 
 being the most popular and at the same time the most 
 durable and the most used of our woods, is deserving 
 of the first place. 
 
 Finishing Oak 
 
 We have in this country over forty kinds of oak 
 nearly every one of which may be used for some 
 special purpose; those most used for building finish 
 and for furniture, however, are only few, among which 
 are the white oak (Quercus rulia), rock oak (Quercus 
 primas murticola ) and black oak (Quercus tindoris). All 
 of the above-named oaks are capable of being hand¬ 
 somely finished, the white and black oaks being the 
 best and the red being next. 
 
 What is known as quarter oak is made by first saw¬ 
 ing the log from end to end through the middle. 
 Then each half is sawed from end to end through the 
 middle, thus leaving four quarters. Each quarter has 
 only three sides, one side the bulge part of the log, 
 and the other two sides flat and coming to an edge. 
 The boards are sawed off the sharp edge, and each 
 sawing, therefore, throws off a board wider than the 
 one before it. Sawing the quarters of the log in this 
 manner, lumber possesses that beautiful cross-grained 
 figure so much in fashion now that it has become 
 somewhat of a craze. This cross-grained material finds 
 favor in the finest furniture and interior work. The 
 wood is susceptible of the very finest polish, and the 
 cross-grain produces an effect made by both nature 
 and the saw, that is quite superior to the art of the 
 most skillful grainer. To effect a good imitation of 
 antique oak, lampblack or Vandyke brown in oil is 
 applied to the surface of the wood, darkening its 
 natural hue; but this is not by any means best or the 
 
H4 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 only way, but answers very well where other processes 
 or methods are not available. With regard to giving 
 oak an antique appearance, many opinions exist. 
 Formerly—and probably the first—imitations of antique 
 oak were produced by exposing the bare dressed surface 
 to the steam of boiling ammonia. This process, how¬ 
 ever, it was impossible to apply to casings of house 
 interiors, thus leading to the application of the aqua 
 ammonia with a brush, but it is by repeated application 
 that the desired results are produced. It stains the 
 wood gray. There are finishers who claim this to be 
 the only process by which to imitate Nature, but 
 another, much faster and one which gives the same 
 results, is to use strong vinegar with iron filings or 
 shavings added; by a little experimenting this can be 
 made to suffice with one coat, depending upon the 
 amount of iron added. 
 
 A very clever imitation of the general antique can 
 be obtained by staining the filler with Vandyke brown 
 and charcoal, equal parts, using about I part of the 
 colored to 4 parts of the light. Then there is another 
 antique which imitates certain oak from the sixteenth 
 century; the peculiarity of it consists in dark cloud 
 streaks permeating the wood in every direction, some 
 of them crossing the panels in a V-shape, others 
 straight near top and bottom. To give them an odd 
 appearance, a pair of panels can be clouded by 
 streaking one three or four times and the other once or 
 twice. These stripes vary in width from three to five 
 inches. The wider streaks look well across the top of 
 a table three or four times, or even partly across, while 
 the narrow ones would do well around the legs and 
 across the styles and rails of paneled work. In 
 putting these on, they should be dark in the center and 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 ns 
 
 blend out at the edges. This is done with an automatic 
 paint burner, allowing the flames to scorch the wood 
 nearly black; but care must be taken not to char it. 
 After the work is all streaked, the wood is filled with 
 filler stained with burnt umber mixed as for black 
 walnut. 
 
 Care must be taken to have the filler stained to the 
 proper tint, and in applying correctly. By following 
 the rules given under the head “Filling” the operator 
 should have no trouble in making good work, and we 
 here repeat the instruction. 
 
 After enough surface has been covered with the 
 filler, so that what has been first applied begins to 
 flatten, the process of wiping should immediately 
 begin, using for that purpose either a rag or a handful 
 of waste or excelsior. If the oak is very open-grained, 
 waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has 
 previously been used and is pretty well supplied with 
 filler, rub crosswise of the grain, rather rubbing it into 
 the grain than wiping it off. After the whole surface 
 has been gone over in this way, take a clean piece of 
 waste or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) and 
 wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from filler, 
 using a wooden pick, the point of which has been 
 covered with a rag or waste, to clean out the corners, 
 beads, etc. It is well to give these picks some atten¬ 
 tion, as a person once accustomed to certain tools can 
 accomplish more and better work than with tools that 
 feel strange in his hands; therefore, each finisher 
 should furnish his own pick. As to their construction, 
 those are best made from second-growth hickory, 
 which can be procured from any carriage repair shop, 
 such as old spokes, broken felloes, etc. They are 
 made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one end 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 116 
 
 and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen 
 the oval end like a coal chisel, then smooth with 
 sandpaper, which should also be used to sharpen the 
 tool when the same becomes worn dull. 
 
 This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can 
 be accelerated by the use of a picking brush manu¬ 
 factured especially for that purpose, but it is not 
 advisable to use this on very coarse-grained oak, as it 
 scrubs the filler out of the pores. 
 
 Oak may be fumigated by liquid ammonia, strength 
 88o°, which may be bought at any wholesale chemist’s 
 at $1.50 a gallon. The wood should be placed in a dark 
 and airtight room (in a big packing case, if you like!), 
 and half a pint or so of ammonia poured into a soup 
 plate, and placed upon the ground in the center of the 
 compartment. This done, shut the entrance, and 
 secure any cracks, if any, by pasted slips of paper. 
 Remember that the ammonia does not touch the oak, 
 but the gas that comes from it acts in a wondrous 
 manner upon the tannic acid in that wood, and browns 
 it so deeply that a shaving or two may actually be 
 taken off without removing the color. The depth of 
 shade will entirely depend upon the quantity of 
 ammonia used and the time the wood is exposed. Try 
 an odd bit first experimentally, and then use your own 
 judgment. 
 
 Short pieces of stuff may be so treated by using an 
 airtight box. The box ready, a flat dish or plate of 
 strong ammonia should be placed in the bottom, so 
 that the fumes will rise and surround the object. All 
 that is now necessary is to place the article in the 
 box, nailing up as close as possible, and await results 
 Ten hours’exposure, using strong ammonia, should give 
 a good color; if not dark enough let it remain longer, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 ii/ 
 
 bearing in mind, however, that the wood will present 
 no noticeable change until oiled or brought in contact 
 with a wet substance such as shellac. It is well, there¬ 
 fore, to note the progress by touching the wood with 
 the wet finger, when it will show at once the stage it 
 has reached. 
 
 There could be no better method devised to stain 
 oak than this, when practicable, and in adopting it we 
 simply anticipate nature, which, in time, through the 
 action of the ammonia of the atmosphere, would 
 present the same result. Mahogany may also be 
 treated similarly with success. 
 
 Here is another method of making antique oak, and 
 it might be added that white, and black ash, and 
 chestnut, similarly treated, will give a fair imitation of 
 antique oak. The job should be made of hardwood, 
 with as full an open grain as possible to secure a fine 
 effect. Sandpaper this and clean off. Then prepare a 
 priming made of I part japan, i part raw linseed oil 
 and i part rubbing varnish. Drop into gal. of the 
 liquid i lb. of commercial corn starch, such as is used 
 for culinary purposes. Next take some good, dry, 
 burnt Turkish umber, and add about y lb. of this to 
 the starch. Apply to the job a good flowing coat of 
 this priming. Let stand until it is set and has soaked 
 well into the grain, and then take a broad putty knife 
 and stick it into the grain, working the knife cross¬ 
 wise of the grain. Again let stand a little while, and 
 then wipe with rags; especially clean out all the 
 corners, and get the job into as good condition as 
 possible as regards having the grain well filled. 
 
 Upon the completion of the operation above 
 described it will be found that the open grain has 
 absorbed the starch and umber, and that these 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 118 
 
 portions now show the dark shade suggestive of age, 
 while all the rest of the surface is also slightly 
 darkened. 
 
 When again perfectly dry, give one coat of rubbing 
 varnish, prepared by adding to it x / 2 lb. of starch to 
 each gallon of varnish. This coat should be flowed on 
 freely as a medium coat of rubbing varnish, but be 
 careful not to have runs of sags. This ought to com¬ 
 pletely fill the wood, after which proceed to varnish, 
 rub and finish the job in the usual manner. To pro¬ 
 duce a natural oak finish, follow precisely the same 
 course as above described, with the single exception 
 of omitting the umber. This will leave the wood in its 
 natural color. 
 
 Some of the most attractive work in this line, how¬ 
 ever, is effected by simply spreading on the surface of 
 the material a concentrated solution of permanganate 
 of potash, this being allowed to act until the desired 
 shade is obtained. Five minutes suffice ordinarily to 
 give a good color, a few trials indicating the proper 
 proportions. The substance named is decomposed by 
 the vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown 
 peroxide of manganese, which the influence of the 
 potash, at the same time set free, fixes in a durable 
 manner on the fibers. When the action is terminated, 
 the wood is carefully washed with water, dried, then 
 oiled and polished in the usual manner. The effect 
 produced by this process in several woods is really 
 remarkable. On the cherry especially it develops a 
 beautiful red color which well resists the action of air 
 and light, and on the other woods it has a very pleasing 
 and natural effect. 
 
 Along with the foregoing may be added the follow¬ 
 ing stains for oak: add to a quart of water 2 ounces 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 ng 
 
 each of potash and pearlash. This is a very good 
 stain, but it should be used carefully, as it blisters the 
 hands and softens brushes. The stain may be made 
 lighter by adding more water. 
 
 To Darken Oak.— To darken the color of oak, any of 
 the following may be used: 
 
 Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush 
 will deepen the color immediately, and it will not fade, 
 this being an artificial production of result produced 
 naturally by age. 
 
 Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and 
 applied with a brush, will produce a similar result. 
 
 A decoction of green walnut-shell will bring new oak 
 to any shade or nearly black. 
 
 Another.-— Two quarts of boiled oil; lb. of ground 
 umber, mixed in oil by colorman; I pint of liquid 
 driers, stirred in; I pint of turpentine; mix. After 
 cleaning and planing your boards, lay this on with the 
 grain of the wood. If required lighter, add naphtha 
 till the required shade is attained; it darkens with age. 
 Give it twelve hours to dry; then varnish with wood 
 varnish, or use only beeswax and turpentine. The 
 result is good in time, but slower than varnish. 
 
 Oak can be fumigated, by making a tent of some 
 cheap oil cloth, which may be rigged up over a rough 
 wooden frame. Of course, the tent must be made 
 pretty tight. Don’t let the frame touch the work, and 
 when complete, cut a small piece that you can lift up 
 and use as a peep hole. Then get a saucer full of 
 liquid ammonia and place inside the tent—anywhere 
 on the floor will do. Close the tent and await results. 
 The more ammonia used the darker it gets, so you 
 must use your peep hole and suit yourself. If you 
 wish to polish it, give it a coat of beeswax and turpen- 
 
120 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 tine, let dry, and then brush or rub it well. For a dull 
 polish, give it a coat of raw linseed oil, dry well, ana 
 then brush up. By “fumigation” you always get a 
 good even tone; but, failing this, you can stain the 
 work, and by simple means. Buy a little per¬ 
 manganate of potash at the chemist’s, dissolve in 
 water, and put on with a brush; when dry, give another 
 coat if not dark enough. Another method is to get y 2 
 lb. of black japan and dissolve in y 2 pint of turpen¬ 
 tine, and apply as before, or you can buy the stain 
 ready-made; and the walnut water stain—not varnish 
 stain—is a good one to make a dark brown oak color. 
 If you find the stain brings up the grain—i.e., makes 
 the wood rough—rub it down with fine sandpaper and 
 stain again, but rub off fairly dry. All these are 
 simple methods, which you could easily acquire. 
 
 Styles of Oak Finish. —As oak in its many and varied 
 finishes is so very fashionable just now, an explanation 
 of the effects of the several stains may be of interest, 
 as so many of them are so closely allied as to confuse 
 the uninitiated. Bog oak is a thin stain of medium 
 color, giving quarter-sawed oak a slight tinge of green. 
 It is about the same density as weathered oak, but of 
 a green tone instead of brown, like weathered oak. 
 Weathered oak is of a brown tone in close imitation of 
 the rich old hue taken on by oak through time or from 
 exposure to the weather. Antwerp oak is also brown, 
 but of a deeper shade, producing an attractive antique 
 effect. Black Flemish is a much-admired finish, 
 especially when it is desired to produce an effect of 
 great weight. It gives a piece of furniture a sub¬ 
 stantial appearance. Its black tone combines 
 admirably with red wall covering and hangings. 
 Brown Flemish is not unlike Antwerp, but of a muck 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 121 
 
 stronger brown tone. This is one of the most popu.ar 
 stains of the hour. It is quite permanent and produces 
 a very artistic effect. The so-called gun-metal finish 
 for oak is not unlike black Flemish, but gives a tinge 
 of blue instead of deep black. Malachite, although 
 light green, is not too intrusive. This is affected by 
 many people of good taste and is quite popular, 
 especially for staining ash. Tyrolean oak is as dark as 
 black Flemish or bog oak, and is of a green tinge, 
 instead of the blue of the gun-metal finish. 
 
 Golden Oak is very fashionable, being a brownish 
 color with a sort of golden glow tint; it may be 
 obtained as follows: Golden oak finish is not produced 
 by the filler alone; in fact, the filler has very little to 
 do with the result. The wood must be stained before 
 it is filled, and, of course, the filler must be so colored 
 or stained as not to mar or dull the effect. A mixture 
 of gold size japan and genuine asphaltum varnish in 
 about equal parts, thinned with turpentine, makes a 
 good stain that will not raise the grain of the wood, 
 dries quickly and hard, and, if wiped out properly, 
 gives under varnish a rich effect, termed “golden,” for 
 want of another appropriate name. 
 
 To make a filler, mix one-third each of raw linseed 
 oil, japan gold size and turpentine, and put into this 
 mixture enough finely powdered silica or silex to make 
 a stiff paste, and color this with burnt umber in oil, 
 Vandyke brown in oil and a trifle of drop black to suit, 
 being mindful that in golden oak only the high lights 
 are yellowish brown, while the filled grain is decidedly 
 dark. The mixture should be run through a handmill. 
 The best plan for you is to buy your golden oak paste 
 filler, or at least buy the light paste filler and color it 
 to suit your taste; for you cannot buy the raw material 
 
122 
 
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 as cheap as the manufacturer, and making it in a small 
 way will cost you more in the long run. 
 
 Another method, if the work is new, is as follows: 
 Fuming is only possible when the articles are new and 
 free from varnish, polish, glue, or marks of handling. 
 The process consists of enclosing the articles—from 
 which the glass and all brass fittings are removed—in 
 an airtight room or box, on the floor or bottom of 
 which are placed a number of shallow dishes contain¬ 
 ing strong liquid ammonia. The depth of color 
 depends on the length of exposure, which may vary 
 from twelve to thirty-six hours. Where this process 
 is not practicable, the next best method is staining. 
 The stain must be weak, the exact color required being 
 afterwards obtained by the use of a polish made from 
 orange shellac and a trace of color in the varnish. A 
 suitable stain may be made by dissolving ]/ 2 oz. of 
 bichromate of potash in I y 2 pt. of water. To prevent 
 the work coming up rough on the application of the 
 water stain, the work should be first wiped over with 
 raw linseed oil. The stain must be liberally applied, 
 and rubbed well in with a rag, finishing off always in the 
 direction of the grain. Before starting on the work, 
 experiment on odd pieces of similar wood. 
 
 Flemish Oak. —To make a stain for Flemish oak, 
 y 2 lb. of bichromate of potash, dissolved in I gal. of 
 water. Coat woodwork. When dry, sandpaper down 
 smooth; then coat with best drop black, ground in 
 japan, thinned with turpentine. Let stand five minutes 
 and wipe off clean, then coat with pure grain shellac 
 and sandpaper with No. o sandpaper; then coat with 
 beeswax, i lb. to a gallon of turpentine, y lb. of drop 
 black mixed in the wax, then wipe off clean with 
 -cheese cloth, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 123 
 
 Weathered Oak. —Give woodwork one coat of strong 
 ammonia. When dry, sandpaper down smooth and 
 stain it from the following colors: lampblack, ochei 
 and 2 lbs. of silica to a gallon of stain. Wipe off 
 with cheese cloth, then give one coat of pure grain 
 shellac, then sandpaper and give one coat of wax and 
 wipe off clean. If you should desire a brownish shade, 
 put I oz. of bichromate of potash and ammonia, or if a 
 greenish shade, put some green and stain. 
 
 Verde, or Green Finish. —One ounce of nigrocene 
 dissolved in y 2 gal. of water. Give woodwork one 
 coat; when dry, sandpaper, care to be taken not to rub 
 off edges; then fill with a bright green filler, with some 
 white lead in the filler. When thoroughly dry, give 
 one coat of pure grain shellac and then wax, or it could 
 be finished with three coats of varnish and rubbed. 
 This finish leaves the pores of bright green color, 
 while the rest of the wood is almost black. 
 
 Black Oak. —One ounce of nigrocene to y 2 gal. of 
 water. Give woodwork one coat, then fill with a black 
 filler, then one coat of shellac and three coats of 
 varnish rubbed with pumice-stone and water, then oil 
 and wipe off clean. 
 
 Austrian Oak.— Fill with a light antique filler, 
 colored with raw umber. Give two very thin coats of 
 shellac, colored with nigrocene and yellow to the 
 desired shade, then sandpaper down and wax and wipe 
 off clean. 
 
 Red Oak is a difficult wood to stain or fumigate, but 
 it may be done as follows: Make a stain by mixing 
 ground dry Dutch pink (this color is yellow) and a 
 little dry drop black, with beer, and apply with a hog’s 
 hair brush. Try the stain on a piece of red oak, and 
 get the exact shade if possible, taking care that you 
 
124 
 
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 do not stain quite as dark as the fumigated parts. 
 When dry, oil with linseed oil, and make a weak 
 stain, using the same colors, mixed with alcohol, with 
 enough button polish to bind the color. Lay on 
 carefully with a camel-hair brush. It is better to give 
 two coats of weak stain, as the result will be a more 
 even color. When dry, wax polished this will make a 
 good job. 
 
 Oak Staining Generally.—There is no wood which 
 may be treated in so many different ways as oak. It 
 may be left in its natural state, or it may be oiled, or 
 wax polished, or French polished in its natural color. 
 It can be stained and waxed, stained and French 
 polished in a variety of colors or tints, with the grain 
 opened or filled, and it can also be fumigated. For bed¬ 
 room furniture, if the wood is carefully selected, a 
 very pleasing effect is obtained by waxing or French 
 polishing it in its natural color, or slightly stained and 
 polished with the grain open or filled, according to 
 taste. Dining-room or library finish is generally 
 stained a medium color or fumigated. All furniture 
 is frequently stained very dark, and polished with the 
 grain open. 
 
 If it is desired that the work should be finished in its 
 natural color, fill in with Russian tallow and plaster of 
 Paris, and polish with white polish. If it is required 
 to be slightly tinted, stain the filler with yellow ocher 
 and polish with button polish. For staining, the best 
 stains to use are the powdered water stains, and some 
 very effective tints may be obtained by carefully 
 mixing green and brown stains together; apply the 
 stain with a hog’s hair brush, and if the grain should 
 rise quickly, rub down with l l / 2 glass-paper before 
 laying off the stain. When the stain is dry, oil with 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 125 
 
 linseed oil, then give a coat of polish to fix the stain. 
 It may then be polished with the grain open, and 
 finished with a wet rubber, using no spirits. If a level 
 surface is required, it must be carefully filled in, and 
 not unduly hurried in the polishing. The latter 
 applies to oak generally, as the wood is coarse, and 
 consequently sinks a great deal. 
 
 A good dark oak stain may be made as follows: 
 Dissolve 1 oz. of bichromate of potash in pint of 
 water, and 1 oz. of potash in pint of water. When 
 each are separately dissolved, mix together, and add 
 dry powdered Vandyke brown. If a very dark color is 
 required, add also a little powdered drop black; apply 
 with a hog’s hair brush, and polish as before stated. 
 As sometimes the American potash varies in strength, 
 the hair of the brush will curl up if it is too strong. If 
 this occurs, add a little more water. • Oak carvings 
 give a much nicer appearance always if the grain is 
 left open, even when the other parts are filled up. If 
 they are stained, oil and afterwards give a coat of 
 polish to fix the stain. When this is dry, brush well 
 with a stiff-haired brush and rub with a dry cloth. It 
 is sometimes advisable to oil oak before it is stained, 
 as it often prevents the grain rising. The only dis¬ 
 advantage is that a little extra labor is required to 
 make the stain bite. 
 
 Fumigated Oak.—The best kinds of oak for fumigating 
 are the English wainscot, or Baltic. The red Ameri¬ 
 can oak does not fumigate well. The advantages of 
 fumigating are that a more natural color is obtained 
 than by staining. The wood is not made rough by 
 the operation, and there is also a great saving in 
 labor. The best method of fumigating is to construct 
 an airtight chamber, lined with wood, and the joints 
 
126 
 
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 of the wood made airtight by pasting paper over them. 
 If the chamber is of the following dimensions it will 
 be found large enough for most purposes: length, 9 ft.; 
 width, 4 ft.; height, 6 ft. Portable inner frames may 
 be made with shutters, so that the size of the chamber 
 may be made smaller if necessary. The door should 
 have glass panels; this will permit of the work being 
 watched, and when the wood has become dark enough, 
 the door should be opened. Articles to be fumigated 
 should have all brass work removed; then place in the 
 chamber in such a position as to allow a free passage 
 for the fumes to get at all parts of the wood. Then 
 place half a dozen saucers (flower-pot saucers will 
 answer for this purpose) on the floor at equal distances, 
 and pour into each saucer ^ lb. of spirits of ammonia, 
 strength of the ammonia to be 88o°, then paper over 
 the joints round the door. The wood will darken 
 much quicker in hot weather. If a very dark color is 
 required, it may be necessary to recharge the chamber 
 after twenty-four hours, but a good color is generally 
 obtained in about five hours. It should be noted that 
 the work always becomes lighter after it is taken out 
 of the fumigating chamber. Consequently, the work 
 must be proceeded with directly it is taken out. If 
 any parts are too dark, do not oil them; all other 
 parts should be at once oiled, and given a coat of 
 polish. When dry, paper well with No. 1 glass-paper, 
 and wax polish or French polish with the grain open, 
 as in the case of stained dark oak. Small articles 
 may be fumigated by making a box airtight, and 
 placing a piece of felt upon a level floor; stand the 
 articles to be fumigated on the felt, and fill one 
 saucer with lb. spirits of ammonia. Then cover 
 the whole with the box, and place a weight on the top 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 127 
 
 of the box; this will prevent the fumes from escaping. 
 It may be raised occasionally to see how the work is 
 proceeding. This plan will answer better than if there 
 is a lid to the box, as the fumes will not escape so 
 much in this way. 
 
 Great care must be taken when using the ammonia, 
 and the operator must particularly avoid inhaling the 
 fumes. A good rule when charging a large chamber 
 for fumigating is to have some one at hand in case of 
 any accident, such as the breakage of the vessel con¬ 
 taining the ammonia. Before the work is taken out of 
 the chamber the fumes must be allowed to pass off by 
 opening the door for a few minutes before entering. 
 If this rule is carried out, no possible harm can 
 happen. 
 
 Pollard oak is best treated by first oiling it, and then 
 applying a coat of button polish. When the polish is 
 dry, it must be rubbed down with No. 1 glass-paper 
 and waxed or French polished. As sometimes pollard 
 oak has very large cracks on the surface, these must 
 be well stopped with wax stopping, which must be 
 stained to match the wood. Before proceeding to wax 
 or French polish, if the joints do not match in color, a 
 little polish stain may be applied with a camel-hair 
 pencil before it is polished. 
 
 For Removing Polish and Restaining Oak.—Saturate 
 table with alcohol, keep it wet with it, and whilst wet 
 scrape off polish which will have become softened. If 
 legs are turned, or on shaped edges, etc., where 
 scraper cannot be used, coarse sandpaper (Middle 2) 
 will remove polish. Use .plenty of spirit and sand¬ 
 paper all over, and take care all polish is removed. It 
 can be done in same way with potash—a slower proc¬ 
 ess, and the potash will also burn anything it touches, 
 
128 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 but will stain the wood at the same time. When al! 
 polish is removed, the table can be stained dark with 
 walnut water stain. When wood is well stained in 
 pores, wipe off with cloth and let dry; if not dark 
 enough, give another coat. Another stain is made 
 with turps and black japan, well mixed. A little 
 Prussian blue powder will make either stain a greeny 
 brown. For polishing, rub in raw linseed oil; let dry, 
 and rub again; or for wax polish, melt beeswax on slow 
 heat in a galley pot; add turpentine, about a third 
 part; let cool. Wax should be soft as paste; if sticky, 
 add turps; rub well into wood. Let dry and rub again 
 for polish. Stain must be quite dry before oil or wax 
 is put on. 
 
 To Finish Cherry 
 
 Cherry (Primus cerasus ).—This is a fine-grained 
 wood, tough and light; is capable of taking the very 
 finest finish. Is harder than baywood, and is a nearer 
 approach in color, grain and texture, to mahogany 
 than any other native wood. 
 
 One of the best methods for making cherry look like 
 mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with diluted 
 nitric acid, which prepares it for the materials sub¬ 
 sequently applied. Afterwards to a filtered mixture 
 of oz. of dragons’ blood dissolved in a pint of 
 spirits of wine is aded one-third that quantity of 
 carbonate of soda. The whole, constituting a very thin 
 liquid, is brushed with a soft brush over the wood. 
 This process is repeated with very little alteration, 
 and in a short interval of time the wood assumes the 
 external appearance of mahogany. If the composition 
 has been properly made the surface will resemble an 
 artificial mirror, and should this brilliancy ever decline 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 12Q 
 
 it may be restored by rubbing the surface with a little 
 cold drawn linseed oil. 
 
 When cherry is nicely filled and rubbed well down 
 and not varnished, it has a soft glow not possessed by 
 any other, and has none of those distortions of grain 
 that are so unpleasant in mahogany. The timber is" 
 chosen from the wild cherry, which in New England 
 and the North generally does not usually grow to a 
 girth of more than 20 inches, but in some of the 
 Western States and in the South frequently attains a 
 diameter of 24 inches. The domestic fruit cherry 
 gives some good specimens of small timber, but as the 
 tree is rarely sacrificed until it is past bearing and is 
 decayed, this source of supply is precarious. The 
 facility with which cherry can be worked makes it a 
 favorite with the cabinetmaker and the house-joiner; 
 and it also possesses the quality of “staying where it 
 is put,” and that is more than can be said of many of 
 the hardwoods. 
 
 I give below several stains for making pine and 
 other suitable woods to have an appearance of 
 cherry. 
 
 1. To prepare this color in water stain, boil in a 
 gallon of water 1 lb. of Spanish annotto and 1 oz. of 
 concentrated lye (potash). Should this not be deep 
 enough, allow the water to evaporate by a gentle heat. 
 The stain can also be darkened by adding gamboge 
 previously dissolved in a weak potash solution. 
 
 2. Gamboge in oil, diluted with turpentine, and a 
 little japan added as a siccative. This produces the 
 same color in oil as the former in water stain, and can 
 be deepened with dragons’ blood in oil or finely 
 ground burnt sienna in oil. 
 
 3. Mix together, by stirring, I qt. of spirits of 
 
130 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 turpentine, I pt. of varnish, and I lb. of dry burnt 
 sienna; apply with a brush and after it has been on 
 about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain 
 takes about twelve hours to dry. 
 
 4. Take 1 qt. alcohol, 2 oz. of dragons’ blood; 
 pulverize the latter along with kt oz - of alkanet root; 
 mix and let stand in a warm place a couple of days. 
 Shake frequently in the meantime. Apply with a 
 sponge or brush. Two or three coats may be required. 
 This makes a fine stain. 
 
 To finish cherry, the first and a very important 
 thing to do is to give the wood a thorough sandpaper¬ 
 ing, to remove finger and other marks, and make a 
 perfect surface to receive the stain. Next comes the 
 dusting off of the work, which also should be carefully 
 done, as specks of dust or dirt will cause bad work. 
 Stain should be put on with a four-inch oval brush, one 
 set with cement. Apply the stain freely, but do not 
 work it too much, as this would cause it to froth, 
 forming specks. Have the stain in a wooden, earthen 
 or enameled vessel, as metal will often alter the color 
 of the stain. Avoid laps when staining; do a section 
 at a time. But should a lap be unavoidable, then take 
 a sponge, wet with clear water, and wet that part of 
 the work already done and adjoining that which is to 
 be done, and then at once apply the stain. Have a 
 bucket of water and a sponge ready at hand. Any 
 part of the work taking too dark may be toned down 
 by means of the wet or damp sponge, causing it to 
 match the other and lighter work. Allow the stain to 
 dry thoroughly, after which it is ready for sandpaper¬ 
 ing with 000 paper. Next give a coat of shellac. 
 Finish with two coats of varnish, or with three coats 
 for extra fine finish. Rub with pumice-stone and 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 131 
 
 water, polish with rotten stone and water, and clean 
 up with furniture polish. 
 
 Oil stains were formerly used, but aniline stains give 
 much better color effects. Aniline stains may be 
 bought ready prepared. 
 
 When sandpapering cherry be sure that you do not 
 cut through, as it would show up white. Cutting 
 through is liable to occur about mouldings, edges, etc. 
 Use old, worn sandpaper there; for the more sunken - 
 parts redampen and rub the layers of paper from the 
 back of old sandpaper, which will make it very pliable 
 and soft. 
 
 Finishing Black Birch 
 
 Birch. —Betula Nigra or Canadian birch is superior to 
 all other birches for constructive purposes, and when 
 properly finished has a fine, quiet, refined look that 
 commends itself to all lovers of domestic woods. 
 
 Black birch is a close-grained, handsome wood, and 
 can be easily stained to resemble walnut exactly. It 
 is just as easy to work, and is suitable for nearly, if not 
 all, the purposes to which walnut is applied. Birch is 
 much the same color as cherry, but the latter wood is 
 now scarce, and consequently dear. When properly 
 stained jt is almost impossible to distinguish the 
 difference between it and walnut, or cherry, as it is 
 susceptible of a beautiful polish, equal to any wood 
 now used in the manufacture of furniture and inside 
 finishings. 
 
 To finish to represent mahogany, coat with a weak 
 solution of bichromate of potash, then stain with rose 
 pink, Vandyke brown and burnt sienna; then shellac, 
 with a little Bismarck brown dissolved in the shellac. 
 This makes a better stain and more lasting than a 
 water stain. 
 
132 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 There is a species of bird’s-eye birch, but it is very 
 scarce. An evidence of the weight and solidity of the 
 wood is the fact that it will sink after being a few 
 days on the water. It also possesses the quality of 
 durability in a preeminent degree. 
 
 Birch is generally finished the same as cherry, and 
 directions given under that head will apply here also. 
 
 Finishing Mahogany 
 
 Mahogany, cherry and black birch require about the 
 same treatment, though there are some features in 
 mahogany that differ a trifle from the other two woods.' 
 There is little or no grain markings in cherry or birch, 
 while Spanish mahogany may be marked and penciled 
 over its whole face; and the texture of the woods is very 
 different to the touch. 
 
 Mahogany ( Svietened ).—The tree has a darkish-brown 
 bark and a reddish-brown, coarsely fibered, streaky, 
 hard wood. The tree grows to the height of 35 meters, 
 and is pretty strong. Among the chief varieties is the 
 common mahogany, with a very hard, very durable 
 wood, which is never attacked by worms, and is 
 excellent for ship-building; but its capability for 
 taking a fine polish is its chief recommendation. 
 Mahagoni Haiti , Mahagoni Jamaika, Mahagoni Havanna 
 are the other chief kinds. 
 
 With perhaps the exception of our oaks, no wood 
 possesses like advantages of combined soundness, 
 large size, durability, beauty of color and richness of 
 figure. So, when compared with other woods, 
 mahogany costs no more to work and stands better 
 than any other—the only point to weigh against this 
 last great feature is the slight difference in the first 
 cost of the wood in the rough; but if rr"hogany stands 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 133 
 
 better and longer, and needs no attention afterwards, 
 surely the sole advantage of less cost at first which any 
 other wood may possess is overcome. 
 
 But another merit, equal to any thus far mentioned, 
 is the warmth in its color and the glory in the figure of 
 this beautiful wood. The air of elegance, artistic 
 effect and gentle breeding it imparts to all its sur¬ 
 roundings, its joy and life—all these cannot be 
 measured by a few cents a square foot. Its growing 
 splendor with age that gives increasing satisfaction 
 may safely be contrasted with the tameness of other 
 woods, which, though pleasing at first, deteriorate 
 rather than improve. 
 
 When the real wood is used, but little more is 
 necessary than to fill and varnish or polish, as it can¬ 
 not be much improved upon. Sometimes, however, it 
 may be deemed proper to darken it somewhat to take 
 away the reddish hue that newly wrought mahogany 
 presents, and this can best be done by darkening the 
 filler, to suit the taste, trying the mixture first on a 
 piece of the dressed stuff, until the desired shade is 
 obtained. Staining the varnish or polish with dragons’ 
 blood or other suitable dyes, will also accomplish the 
 desired end. 
 
 Staining by the fumes of ammonia will probably 
 give the best results, as almost any tinge can be given 
 the work, from the newness of youth to the mellow¬ 
 ness of extreme age. This method is considered the 
 best for imparting to mahogany the appearance of age, 
 and for those wishing to avail themselves of an easy, 
 clean and certain means of gaining the result, fumi¬ 
 gating offers no serious obstacle to its accomplishment, 
 the articles necessary being easy of acquirement, and 
 at small expense. 
 
134 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 To darken mahogany, wash it with very weak lime 
 water, which allow to dry thoroughly. This gives a 
 rich red color, more closely matching old mahogany 
 than any other stain that can be used. 
 
 Antique mahogany may be obtained as follows: 
 Take one-third linseed oil, two-thirds turpentine; coat 
 woodwork and wipe off clean. When thoroughly 
 dry, coat with bichromate of potash; then fill with a 
 dark, rich filler; then shellac and give three coats of 
 varnish and rub with pumice-stone and water, then oil 
 and wipe off clean. If an extra good job is required, 
 give woodwork one heavy coat of polishing varnish 
 after being rubbed in water; then rub again in water 
 and polish. In finishing mahogany, some put on the 
 bichromate of potash without oiling, but they do not 
 get as good a color. All mahogany should be oiled 
 first, unless you want a very light color; then it should 
 have a thin coat of shellac first. 
 
 In repolishing and reviving old work, first clean off 
 all dust from the corners and rebates, then wipe all 
 the polished portions with warm water and soda, and 
 allow them to dry. Mahogany treated with spirit 
 varnish is seldom satisfactory, but it is one of the 
 best woods known for showing the fine effects of 
 French polishing. Couch legs and chair turnings are 
 generally bodied up with the brush, and finished with 
 the rubber. If the surface is in fair condition after 
 washing, no filling will be required; a rubber of good 
 French polish worked out dry with spirit, and after¬ 
 wards spirited out, or glazed, will give the desired 
 result, if properly done. The polish will require 
 staining with a little Bismarck brown or brown 
 aniline dye, to brighten up the color. It would be a 
 great advantage, and well worih the outlay, to put 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 135 
 
 fresh gimp or leather banding round the borders; but 
 this should not be done until the show-wood portions 
 are repolished. 
 
 Walnut Finishing 
 
 Walnut (Juglans Nigra \—As this wood is seldom or 
 never stained, it is unnecessary to say more about it 
 other than it may be treated like oak, cherry or birch. 
 It looks well filled and finished in shellac. Birch 
 stained and properly finished looks very much like 
 walnut, and with a little care in getting a proper tint in 
 the stain, can scarcely be known from the real thing. 
 “Filling,” in walnut finishing, is one of the most 
 important processes; if the richness of the wood is 
 desired to be shown, as much depends on the “tint” as 
 on the filling material. 
 
 Ordinary whitewood can be given the appearance of 
 black walnut by first thoroughly drying the wood and 
 then washing two or three times with a strong aqueous 
 solution of extract of walnut peel. When nearly dry, 
 the wood thus treated is washed over with a solution 
 made of one part (by weight) of bichromate of potash 
 in five parts of boiling water. After drying thoroughly, 
 rub and polish. 
 
 A number of recipes for making and applying stains 
 to imitate walnut are given elsewhere in this volume, 
 which see. 
 
 Regarding Cypress 
 
 Cypress (Cupressus sempervierens ).—The light, the 
 dark and the bald are good woods and are coming 
 more and more into favor every day. 
 
 This wood contains a very small amount of resin, 
 and a very high polish can be given it; in fact, because 
 of its not being affected by moisture, it is being used 
 
136 
 
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 for cisterns, hogsheads, and sugar, molasses and honey 
 barrels. The red cypress is the favorite, and some of 
 it is so heavy that it will sink upon being placed in 
 water. The white variety is much lighter, and will 
 float after being deadened a short while before being 
 cut, but it has not the firm grain of the red. The red 
 cypress has a straight trunk with a small top, and the 
 bark when cut has a reddish tint. These woods may 
 be treated like cherry or birch with good results. 
 They look well - when left their natural color and 
 finished “dead finish.’’ 
 
 Concerning the use of cypress for inside finish, it is 
 all right if properly dried, prepared and put in place, 
 but dry it must be, and there will be no trouble with 
 its staying in place or shrinking any more than any 
 other kind of wood. It may be remarked, however, 
 that cypress is an exceedingly hard wood to thoroughly 
 dry, but for a low-cost material there is nothing to 
 equal it in appearance. Get good, even-colored 
 cypress, finish it well and some people could not tell it 
 from red birch. If one cares to have it stained, it takes 
 first rate. In finishing up cypress, the painters’ work 
 is the most difficult, for if the proper materials are not 
 put on the grain is very liable to rise, which will 
 spoil the good effect and will show even after being 
 rubbed down. It is susceptible of a very high polish, 
 and when finished in the natural color of the wood is 
 very handsome. It is used by architects as a basis for 
 the ivory white finish many people fancy, but in any 
 event the wood when used for interiors possesses too 
 much natural beauty to cover it with paint. 
 
 As cypress costs less than any other suitable wood 
 for exterior work, it is not only more durable, but it 
 will take paint better than other woods, and the paint 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 137 
 
 will not peel off. We have seen buildings shingled 
 with cypress upon both roof and walls upon which no 
 stain or paint had been used. In time such buildings 
 take on the beautiful gray color which is so greatly 
 admired by many people, especially for a country or 
 suburban residence. The natural qualities of the wood 
 make it possible to use either shingles or clapboards in 
 this way without paint, and there is probably no other 
 wood upon which vines can be grown with so much 
 safety from injurious effects. 
 
 Cypress, viewed from the standpoint of the finisher, 
 is no less remarkable than when viewed from almost 
 every standpoint. There is no wood which can be 
 finished more economically, or which is more sus¬ 
 ceptible to the finer handiwork of the finisher and 
 polisher. If the work is properly done, the result will 
 be satisfactory in either case. It is true, notwithstand¬ 
 ing, that the fine natural appearance of cypress is often 
 greatly marred or even ruined by faulty methods of 
 treatment, and for that reason care should be exercised 
 in finishing it. The best results are obtained through 
 the use of pure grain alcohol white shellac, which 
 should be purchased of a thoroughly responsible 
 dealer. Better results can be obtained from this quality 
 of shellac than from the more expensive “refined 
 shellac,” so called. 
 
 Cypress requires no filling or sealing, and, if it is 
 desired to permanently-preserve the natural color of 
 the wood, no oil or oily substance should be applied 
 until the final rubbing down after the wood is well 
 protected with shellac. We recommend three ar more 
 coats of shellac, as may be desired, each coat to be 
 smoothed down with fine sandpaper, while the final 
 coat may be rubbed down with pumice-stone and oil 
 
133 
 
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 to produce a dead finish, or what is sometimes termed 
 “egg shell’’ finish. The final coat may be left bright, 
 if preferred, or after rubbing down to a dead finish it 
 may be given a French polish, according to the usual 
 methods. 
 
 Cypress will take stains well, but we have never 
 favored the staining of the wood or the use of any 
 color whatever in the finish of it, for it is far too hand¬ 
 some to disguise in any way. 
 
 Rosewood 
 
 Rosewood (Dalbergia Nigra).- — It seldom falls to the 
 lot of the ordinary finisher to have to “try his hand’’ 
 on the genuine wood, but sometimes it does happen and 
 it is just as well that he should be armed with the means 
 to wrestle with the work if such is ever thrown in his 
 way. To finish rosewood requires about the same 
 treatment as mahogany, though, as a matter of fact, 
 many pieces of rosewood will be found to have a coarser 
 grain than mahogany, and will require much care in 
 filling. The main thing to be observed is to see that 
 the filling is a shade or two darker than the wood to be 
 filled, before any varnish is laid on. For imitation of 
 rosewood I give below a few recipes: 
 
 Take lb. of logwood, boil it with 3 pints of water 
 till it is of a very dark red, to which add about half 
 an ounce of salt of tartar. When boiling hot, stain 
 your wood with two or three coats, taking care that 
 it is nearly dry between each; then, with a stiff, flat 
 brush, such as is used for graining, make streaks with 
 a very deep black stain, which if carefully executed 
 will be very near the appearance of dark rosewood. 
 The following is another method: Stain your wood 
 all over with a black stain, and when dry, with a brush 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 139 
 
 as above dipped in the bright liquid, form real veins in 
 imitation of the grain of rosewood, which will produce, 
 when well managed, a beautiful effect. A handy brush 
 for the purpose of graining may be made by taking a 
 flat brush, such as used for varnishing, and cutting the 
 sharp points of the hairs and making the edge irregular; 
 by cutting out a few hairs here and there the grain may 
 be imitated with great accuracy. 
 
 This is suitable to pine, cedar, cypress, whitewood, 
 basswood, while the following should only be used in 
 mahogany, cherry, or birch: Spread on the surface of 
 the material a concentrated solution of hypermanganate 
 of potassa, to act until the desired shade is obtained. 
 Five minutes suffice, ordinarily, to give a deep color, 
 a few trials indicating the proper proportions. The 
 hypermanganate of potassa is decomposed by the 
 vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown per¬ 
 oxide of manganese, while the influence of the potassa, 
 at the same time set free, fixes in a durable manner 
 the fibers. When the action is terminated the wood is 
 carefully washed with water, dried, and then oiled and 
 polished in the usual manner. The effect produced 
 by this process in several woods is really remarkable. 
 
 It has been a mystery to many people why the dark 
 wood so highly prized for .furniture is called “rose¬ 
 wood.” Its color certainly does not look much like a 
 rose, so we must look for some other reason. It is 
 claimed by some that when the tree is first cut the 
 wood possesses a very strong rose-like fragrance, hence 
 the name. This is the most probable reason for its 
 name. There are about a half dozen kinds of rose¬ 
 wood trees. The varieties are found in South America, 
 and in the East Indies and neighboring islands. 
 Sometimes the trees grow so large that boards or 
 
140 
 
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 planks four feet broad and ten feet in length can be 
 cut from them. The broad boards are used for the 
 tops of pianofortes. When growing in the forests 
 the t-ee is remarkable for its beauty, but such is its 
 value in manufacturing as an ornarqental wood, that 
 some of the forests where it once grew abundantly 
 now have scarcely a single specimen left. 
 
 To repolish old work, such as a rosewood piano or 
 similar articles, the following method maybe adopted: 
 
 As a rule, polished rosewood pianos are not easily 
 kept in good condition; constant cleaning and an 
 occasional polishing are required, especially in the 
 case of pianos that are faced with genuine rosewood 
 veneer, which has a coarse, open grain, and is of a 
 somewhat oily nature. Sometimes the grain-filler 
 that is used by the polishers will ooze out and cause 
 an uneven surface. Plaster of Paris sometimes forms 
 the basis of a filling, and this is apt to work out white, 
 and becomes more apparent as the dye that has been 
 used to enrich the color of the polish fades away 
 through exposure to strong sunlight. It must not be 
 forgotten that many so-called rosewood pianos are not 
 faced with genuine rosewood veneer; the more correct 
 term to apply to such pianos is “rosewood finish.” 
 The method by which this finish is obtained depends 
 largely on the value of the instrument. In most cases 
 the object of the maker is to impart a uniform color 
 (frequently called chippendale) to the wood, and in 
 order to obtain this end much coloring matter is 
 used; such an excessive use of color has a tendency 
 to destroy or imperil the nature of the polish, and 
 accounts for much of the dullness, uneven surface, or 
 variations of color that are more noticeable on some 
 parts of the instrument than on other parts. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 141 
 
 Finishing Redwood 
 
 Redwood, as a wood to hold its place after worked, 
 has no equal. The shrinkage between green and 
 bone-dry is very little, and after it has been ordinarily 
 seasoned the shrinkage is very little. It does not keep 
 growing a little narrower every year, as a white pine 
 board sometimes does; consequently all tendency to 
 warping and twisting is done away with. 
 
 As a finishing wood for interior house finish in the 
 natural color it has no superior among the long list of 
 American woods. It is, however, quite necessary that 
 the work be properly done; the main point to be 
 observed in finishing in natural color is to avoid the 
 use of linseed oil, as it stains the wood a dingy color. 
 The best finishers on this coast invariably use shellac 
 for filler, applied rather thin, so that the wood will 
 absorb it and thereby make a hard surface, which 
 protects the wood from bruising, and for last coat use 
 the best grade of shellac or hard oil. 
 
 For an Egg-Shell Gloss. —One coat of orange shellac, 
 sandpapered to a smooth surface, followed by two or 
 three coats of Berry Brothers’ (white or light) hard oil 
 finish; rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled hair, 
 and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone and 
 raw linseed oil. 
 
 For a Dull Finish.— Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, in¬ 
 stead of oil. 
 
 For a Polished Finish. —Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
 and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
 for a piano finish specify a further rubbing with Berry 
 Brothers’ furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
 rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 
 
142 
 
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 If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifica¬ 
 tions for rubbing the last coat. 
 
 White Pine Finishing 
 
 Pine {Finns Strobns ).—If oak is the king of woods, 
 pine is most assuredly “president,” for it is at once 
 the most useful and the most democratic of woods. It 
 is found in the halls of the great and powerful, and in 
 the cottage of the most humble among us. It is 
 strong and vigorous, plain or ornamental, and is not 
 out of place either in the backwoodsman’s cabin or in 
 the stately cathedral, and like a true man of the world, 
 it adapts itself to every condition that circumstances 
 may place it in. 
 
 Pine can be made to look like any known wood, but 
 is at its best when left natural and finished in clear 
 shellac. There is no wood grows, that will convey so 
 cheerful a feeling to the beholder as yellow or white 
 pine finished in a natural state. Next to being finished 
 in a natural state, is to imitate mahogany or light 
 cherry, which coloring it takes readily. 
 
 Where the pine—of any kind—is to be either stained 
 or left natural, it should be “quarter sawed,” as it will 
 show a finer grain, shrink less, and last longer. The 
 softness of its texture and its susceptibility to injury 
 may have had some influence in preventing its general 
 use for ornamental purposes, but the wood can be 
 “filled,” so that much of this objection is removed. 
 
 Most of the stains given under previous heads are 
 applicable to pine. I add, however, a few more, so 
 that the workmen may have a number of recipes to 
 draw from. 
 
 For Walnut. — I. Dissolve by boiling I part each of 
 Epsom salt and permanganate of potash in ab<~>iA 2" 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 M3 
 
 parts of water. This stain maybe improved by adding 
 a little eosine, and it works best when applied hot. 
 
 2. Catechu broken into crumbs and boiled in about 
 twice its bulk of water until dissolved. To darken to 
 the required depth, add bichromate of potash pre¬ 
 viously dissolved in about eight times its equivalent 
 of water. If the deep yellow shade peculiar to the 
 Southern walnut be required, add yellow chromate of 
 potash. For the reddish shade of the Northern wood, 
 add more eosine. 
 
 3. For oil stain, use Vandyke brown toned up with 
 the siennas, the colors being strictly pure and finely 
 ground in oil, and diluted with turpentine and a small 
 amount of japan. 
 
 4. Burnt Turkey umber mixed in the same way as 
 the former. 
 
 5. Mix together, by stirring, 1 quart spirits of 
 turpentine, 1 pint asphaltum varnish, 1 pint of japan, 
 1 lb. dry burnt umber, 1 lb. dry Venetian red; apply 
 with a brush. This stain is transparent, and allows the 
 grain of the wood to show through. 
 
 6. Boil i 1 /^ ounces washing soda and ounce 
 bichromate of potash, in 1 quart of water; add 2 y 2 . 
 ounces Vandyke brown. This stain may be used 
 either hot or cold. 
 
 7. With a brush apply a thin solution of perman¬ 
 ganate of potassa in water, until the desired color is 
 produced, allowing each coat to dry before another is 
 applied. 
 
 For Mahogany or Cherry. —1. For mahogany, use a 
 pint of turpentine and an ounce of color known as 
 dragons’ blood. Dissolve and shake well before 
 applying. For ebony, use hot liquor from logwood 
 chips, and after dry apply a coat of tincture of steel. 
 
144 
 
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 For walnut, use 2 ounces of washing soda, darkened 
 with Vandyke brown in water. Add 2 ounces of 
 bichromate of potash in 1 y 2 pints of water. 
 
 2. Mix together, by stirring, 1 quart of spirits of 
 turpentine, I pint of varnish, and 1 lb. of dry burnt 
 sienna; apply with a brush, and after it has been on 
 about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain 
 takes about 12 hours to dry. 
 
 3. Take 1 quart alcohol, 2 ounces of dragons’ 
 blood; pulverize the latter along with % ounce of 
 alkanet root; mix, and let stand in a warm place a 
 couple of days. Shake frequently in the meantime. 
 Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three coats 
 may be required. This makes a fine stain. 
 
 For Rosewood. — 1. Mix in a bottle % lb. of extract 
 of logwood, 1 ounce salts of tartar, and 1 pint of water; 
 in another bottle, put 1 lb. of old iron in small pieces, 
 and 1 pint of vinegar, which, after standing 24 hours, 
 will be ready for use; make a hard, stiff brush with a 
 piece of rattan sharpened at one end in a wedge shape, 
 pounding it so as to separate the fiber. Mix in 1 pint 
 of varnish % lb. of finely-powdered rose-pink. The 
 materials are now ready, and the first thing in the 
 process is to stain the wood with the logwood stain; 
 give two coats of this, allowing the first to become 
 nearly dry before applying the second; then dip the 
 rattan brush in the vinegar, and with it form the grain, 
 after which give the work a coat of the varnish and 
 rose-pink. There can be no definite directions given 
 for graining, except to study the natural wood and 
 imitate it as nearly as possible. With the above 
 materials skillfully applied, any common wood can be 
 made to resemble rosewood so nearly that it will take 
 a good judge to distinguish the difference. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 145 
 
 2. Boil 1 lb. of logwood in 1 gallon of water, add a 
 double handful of walnut shell, boil the whole again, 
 strain the liquor and add to it I pint of the best 
 vinegar. It is then ready for use. Apply it boiling 
 hot, and when the wood is dry, form red veins in 
 imitation of the grain of rosewood with a brush dipped 
 in the following solution: Nitric acid, I pint; metallic 
 tin, 1 ounce; sal ammoniac, 1 ounce. Mix and set 
 aside to dissolve, occasionally shaking. If carefully 
 executed it will give the appearance of dark rosewood. 
 
 For surface stains the following are sometimes used. 
 The colors are all to be mixed with very thin glue 
 size, laid on warm with a soft woolen material, and 
 the wood wiped dry after application. All the colors 
 used in staining should be well pulverized, and before 
 use the liquid should be strained. 
 
 Imitation Oak Stain. —Equal parts burnt umber and 
 brown ocher. 
 
 Imitation Mahogany Stain. —One part Venetian red, 
 and two parts yellow lead. 
 
 Imitation Rosewood Stain. —Venetian red, darkened 
 with lampblack to required shade. 
 
 Imitation Walnut Stain. —Burnt umber and yellow 
 ocher, mixed in proportions to give desired shade. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of pine, it may be as well 
 to say a few words regarding the long-leaved, or Georgia 
 pine (Pinns Pulustris ), as a great deal of it is used now 
 in and about the city of New York, Chicago, and other 
 large centers. This wood is very fine, strong and 
 lasting. Some of it is insusceptible of fine finish, but 
 the best success with it is when treated with shellac 
 finish. In all other respects, when used as a finishing- 
 material, it may be treated the same as ordinary 
 pine. 
 
146 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 The softness of white pine and its susceptibility to 
 injury may have had some influence in preventing its 
 general use for ornamental purposes, but the wood 
 can be “filled,” so that much of this objection is re¬ 
 moved. Its pure white color—white as compared 
 with other woods—recommends it for purposes for 
 which holly has been heretofore used; and the size of 
 the timber from which clear lumber may be cut is 
 greatly in its favor, boards of a width of sixteen and 
 even twenty inches being not uncommon, with no 
 shade of distinction between sap-wood and heart, and 
 only the faintest perceptible grain. 
 
 Some specimens lately examined show a greatly 
 enhanced beauty by very simple treatment—the filling 
 with warm shellac varnish, bleached shellac in alcohol, 
 applied with a brush while warm. Several coats are 
 given, the last coat being rubbed with pumice and 
 rotten stone moistened with water, not oil. A finish 
 of a flowing coat of copal varnish completes the 
 preparation. Thus treated, the wood is of a faint 
 creamy tint, with an appearance of semi-transparency. 
 Beautiful gradations of tone were obtained by panels 
 of this prepared pine, mouldings of holly, and stiles 
 of curly or bird’s-eye maple, and fine contrasts were 
 made with the pine and oiled black walnut. 
 
 For an Egg-Shell Gloss. —One coat of shellac (white 
 shellac if the natural color of the wood is to be 
 preserved, or orange shellac if the wood is to be 
 stained, or is desired to be darker in tone than the 
 natural color), sandpaper to a smooth surface, and 
 follow with two or three coats of Berry Brothers’ 
 (white or light) hard oil finish (specify white hard oil 
 finish if it is desired to retain the natural color of 
 white pine); rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 147 
 
 hair, and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone 
 and raw linseed oil. 
 
 For a Dull Finish. —Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
 instead of oil. 
 
 For a Polished Finish.-— Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
 and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
 for a piano finish specify a further rubbing with Berry 
 Brothers’ furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
 rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 
 
 If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifi¬ 
 cations for rubbing the last coat. 
 
 One of the best ways, though perhaps not the cheapest 
 way, to finish white pine is to see that the work is well 
 sandpapered with the grain, then thoroughly dusted. 
 Give it at least one coat of white shellac varnish and 
 one coat of inside varnish. Should this prove to be 
 too expensive, substitute liquid filler for the shellac. 
 For hard or yellow pine finish apply one coat of orange 
 shellac varnish and orre or two coats light hard oil 
 finish, or omit the shellac and apply hard finish 
 instead. A filler is not required for this wood. In 
 every instance, however, whether shellac varnish, 
 liquid filler or hard oil finish is used, care must be 
 taken that the first coat is thoroughly dry and hard 
 before applying the succeeding coat, or the latter is 
 liable to sink in, causing lack of luster. 
 
 Maple 
 
 Maple {Acerpseudoplatanus ).—This is a close-grained 
 wood and needs no filling; it should always be 
 finished in its own color, and that not darkened but 
 kept as light as possible by the use of white shellac 
 
148 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 for filling and the whitest ivory varnish to be found. 
 Most manufacturers of varnish make an article from 
 carefully selected gums that is intended for such 
 a use. It goes without the saying and as a matter of 
 course that hard maple takes on the finest polish of 
 any kind of the woods. 
 
 For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of white shellac 
 sandpapered to a smooth surface, followed by two or 
 three coats of Berry Brothers’ or other reliable white 
 hard oil finish; rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled 
 hair, and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone 
 and raw linseed oil. 
 
 For a Dull Finish. —Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
 instead of oil. 
 
 For a Polished Finish. —Specify that the last coat De 
 rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and v/ater, 
 and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
 for a piano finish specify a further rubbing with 
 furniture polish, used with a little pulverized rotten 
 stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 
 
 If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the spec¬ 
 ifications for rubbing the last coat. 
 
 White and Black Ash 
 
 Ash (Fraxinns excelsior ).—This wood is now used 
 very much by cabinetmakers and house-joiners in 
 place of oak, and I have often seen furniture palmed 
 off to unsuspecting customers as antique oak, and in 
 one instance I knew of an architect who specified oak, 
 and who “passed” a mixture of white and black ash 
 as oak, either knowingly or otherwise. I am not 
 sure that the owners in either case lost anything, for 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 149 
 
 good sound Canadian ash is decidedly better than 
 dosey red oak. 
 
 In finishing ash, either black or white, the same 
 methods are adopted as for finishing oak, and similar 
 processes will give similar results. Ingenious stainers 
 and finishers can make ash resemble oak wainscot, in 
 vein and color, so correctly that it is almost impossible 
 for the most experienced connoisseur to distinguish 
 the genuine from the spurious. In order to do this 
 some finishers make a commencement by sketching 
 out, upon certain parts of the ash exterior, the 
 requisite white veins, by means of a camel-hair pencil, 
 with white stain; that done, they coat the veins with 
 thin varnish, and then darken the general ground, 
 dealing carefully throughout the entire process with 
 the veined portions. Others stain and embody, i.e., 
 French polish, the ash with the ordinary preparation, 
 after which they pursue an operative course termed 
 “hamping”; that is, scratching fancifully, so as to 
 form the veins, upon different parts of the coated 
 surface, before it gets time to harden, with a saturated 
 rag. The former process is, however, the more suit¬ 
 able of the two. 
 
 For an Egg-Shell Gloss. —One coat of filler to match 
 the color of the wood, followed by one coat of white 
 shellac sandpapered to a smooth surface, and two or 
 three coats of white or light hard oil finish; rub first 
 coats with hair-cloth or curled hair, and the last coat 
 with pulverized pumice-stone and raw linseed oil. 
 
 For a Dull Finish. —Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
 instead of oil. 
 
 For a Polished Finish. —Specify that the last coat be 
 rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
 
150 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
 for a piano fi?iish specify a further rubbing with Berry 
 Brothers’ furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
 rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or 
 flannel. 
 
 If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifica¬ 
 tions for rubbing the last coat. 
 
 Other Woods 
 
 Cedar, White ( Cupressus tliuyoides ), which is really a 
 spruce, and all similar woods, should never be finished 
 in a natural state. Deep stains or surface stains should 
 always be employed on these woods if they are not to 
 be painted. 
 
 Beech ( Fagus ferrugmea). —This is one of the 
 unnoticed woods of former years, but is now gradually 
 gaining in favor as a decorative wood. It is cheap and 
 also quite abundant, while the more popular hardwoods 
 are beginning to grow scarcer and higher in price. 
 Beechwood has a fine grain, is quite durable, and can 
 be used in the manufacture of furniture and for 
 decorative purposes generally. The red variety has a 
 handsome appearance and is especially suitable for 
 use where a good imitation of cherry is desired. 
 
 If “quarter sawed” it shows a fine grain and has a 
 character distinctly its own which I think has never 
 been properly appreciated. When quartered, prop¬ 
 erly finished, filled and polished, it looks some¬ 
 thing like dark leopard wood. It will assume a dark 
 mahogany color if prepared like cherry or birch, or it 
 may be made to appear like walnut if treated with 
 walnut stains and finish. 
 
 Elm (Ulmus Americana :), Chestnut (Castanea vesca ), 
 Butternut ( Juglans cinerea) . —These three woods are 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 I5i 
 
 often used in inferior work, and are very soft and easily 
 dented. The best is perhaps the elm, which does 
 very well for bath-room finish, panels for ash doors 
 and similar work. All require a great deal of “filling,” 
 /and this should be well rubbed in if a good job is 
 'required. All of these woods have a very coarse 
 grain, but if care is taken in selecting the material, 
 very odd and sometimes pleasing effects may be 
 obtained. Any of the stains used on pine will 
 answer for these woods, dependent, of course, on the 
 tints desired. The best result with these woods is 
 derived by giving the work one coat of shellac after 
 filling and staining; then sandpaper well and apply 
 your varnish or oil finish or whatever you purpose 
 finishing in. 
 
 Sycamore, or Buttonwood, as it is sometimes called 
 (acer pseudo plata?uis), when quarter sawed and properly 
 finished makes a good appearance, and in many cases 
 is superseding cherry owing to its beauty and 
 cheapness. Heretofore its natural beauty has been 
 destroyed in many cases by staining the wood, and 
 thus preventing the development of many chemical 
 changes which take place and are thrown to the surface 
 when properly treated. When quarter sawed, a light¬ 
 bodied and light-colored shellac should be used; when 
 by a natural chemical process a beautiful silver leaf is 
 developed and the surface assumes a charming pink 
 hue. 
 
 Hemlock (Abies Canadensis ).—This is rarely used for 
 finishing, owing to its brittleness and splintery nature. 
 Clean boards, however, made into panels or other 
 similar work and then finished in natural color, 
 assume a very handsome appearance. It has a pink 
 tint of the most delicate kind, which improves and 
 
152 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 mellows with age. It should be finished in the same 
 manner as pine. 
 
 I have purposely left unmentioned a number of our 
 finest woods, concerning which I should have more to 
 say, would it not increase the size of this volume be¬ 
 yond reasonable dimensions. The workmen will 
 know, from what has already been said, how these 
 light woods may be treated, and I may add that the 
 various maples, though rather light in color for general 
 purposes, make the most delicate of finish. Gum- 
 wood of late has been used to spme extent and is not 
 hard to deal with when to be finished. It should be 
 treated about as cherry and birch, and finished in a 
 similar way, and when done nicely the work looks 
 quite well; 
 
 Redwood is getting to be a favorite wood with some 
 builders, owing no doubt to its cheapness, and its 
 easiness to work. It may be classed among the soft 
 woods and requires treating about the same as chest¬ 
 nut, butternut and the cedars. The following formula 
 and directions have been highly recommended as a 
 finish, but for my own part I prefer using Wheeler’s 
 filler, as I think better results are obtained. Here is 
 the formula: 
 
 Take i quart spirits turpentine. 
 
 Add I pound corn-starch. 
 
 Add y pound burnt sienna. 
 
 Add i tablespoonful raw linseed oil. 
 
 Add I tablespoonful brown japan. 
 
 Mix thoroughly, apply with a brush, let it stand, say 
 fifteen minutes; rub off all you can with fine shavings 
 or a soft rag, then let it stand at least tiveiity-fonr hours, 
 that it may sink into and harden the fibers of the wood, 
 afterward apply two coats of white shellac; rub down 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 153 
 
 well with fine flint paper, then put on from two to five 
 coats best polishing varnish; after it is well dried, rub 
 with water and pumice-stone ground very fine, stand 
 a day to dry; after being washed, clean with chamois, 
 rub with water and rotten stone; dry, wash clean, as 
 before, and rub with, olive oil until dry. 
 
 Some use cork for sandpapering and polishing, but 
 a smooth block of hardwood like maple is better. 
 When treated in this way redwood will be found the 
 peer of any wood for real beauty and life as a house 
 trim or finish. By proper attention, redwood may be 
 made to appear like mahogany or cherry, but its 
 softness is very much against it. 
 
 SOME GENERAL RECIPES 
 
 Ebonizing. —Prepare some shellac varnish by dissolv¬ 
 ing half a pound of gum shellac in a quart of alcohol; 
 put in a tightly corked bottle, set in a warm place, and 
 shake frequently. When completely dissolved, add 
 sufficient dry lamp or bene black. It will require 
 only about a heaping tablespoonful to half a pint of 
 varnish. Should it be too thick to flow easily from 
 the brush and spread evenly, add alcohol. Give the 
 wood two or three coats of this, which can be done 
 within two days. For fine woik give three coats of 
 the black varnish and allow it to dry thoroughly; then 
 take some 00 or 000 sandpaper and rub the work down 
 lightly until the surface is smooth and even, being 
 careful not to rub through to the wood. Then apply 
 two or three coats more, and rub down again with the 
 sandpaper; give two coats more and allow it to dry 
 perfectly hard. Make some rubbers of felt—an old 
 felt hat is good—by tacking the felt on blocks of soft 
 wood of proper shape, which should be flat, concave 
 
154 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 or convex to fit the work. Apply a few drops of 
 sewing machine oil to the felt and sprinkle on a pinch 
 of pulverized pumice-stone. Rub the work with this, 
 keeping the rubber moist with oil and supplied with 
 the pumice, until the wood shows a perfectly smooth 
 surface, without any gloss. When it has all been 
 gone over, wipe off the surface and rub clean with dry 
 flannel cloths. The result is a fine imitation of ebony. 
 If the shellac varnish is colored with aniline instead 
 of lampblack, the finished surface is smoother and finer. 
 
 Others. — I. Infuse gall-nut in vinegar, in which 
 rusty nails have been soaked; paint the wood with this, 
 polish and burnish when dry. 2. Wash the wood 
 repeatedly with a solution of sulphate of iron, made by 
 dissolving 2 ounces of sulphate in a pint of hot water. 
 When dry, apply a hot decoction of logwood and nut- 
 galls two or three times. When dry, clean with a wet 
 sponge and then polish. 3. Brush the wood with a 
 strong decoction of logwood chips several times. 
 When dry, give it a coat of vinegar in which rusty 
 iron has been placed. Dissolve beeswax in turpentine 
 by setting in a warm place; apply warm with a brush, 
 and rub it till it shines. 4. Wash with a concentrated 
 aqueous solution of logwood several times, and then 
 with a solution of acetate of iron 40° Baume. Repeat 
 till a deep black is produced. 5. Put 2 ounces of log¬ 
 wood chips with 1 ounces of copperas in a quart of 
 water, boil, and lay on hot. When dry, wet the sur¬ 
 face again with 2 ounces of steel filings dissolved in 
 half a pint of vinegar. When dry again, sandpaper 
 smooth, then oil, then fill it with powdered drop black 
 mixed in the filler. Work to be ebonized should be 
 smooth and free from holes. Give it a light coat of 
 quick-drying varnish, then rub with finely pulverized 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 155 
 
 pumice-stone and linseed oil until very smooth. 6. 
 Boil y 2 pound of chip logwood in 2 quarts of water, 
 and add y 2 ounce of verdigris and y 2 ounce of cop¬ 
 peras, strain, and put in y 2 pound of rusty steel filings. 
 With this go over the work a second time. 7. A 
 pound of logwood boiled in 4 quarts of water, add 2 
 handfuls of walnut shells or peel, boil up again, take 
 out the chips, add a pint of vinegar, and apply boiling. 
 Afterwards dissolve 1 ounce of green copperas in a 
 quart of boiling water and apply hot. 8. First sponge 
 the wood with a solution of chlorhydrate of aniline in 
 water, to which a small quantity of copper chloride is 
 added. When dry, go over again with a solution of 
 potassium bichromate. Repeat this twice or thrice. 
 9. One gallon of vinegar, y 2 pound of green copperas, 
 y pound of China blue, 2 ounces nut-gall, 2 pounds 
 extract of logwood. Boil all these over a slow fire, 
 and add half a pint of iron-rust. Apply as usual. A 
 good varnish for ebonized work is made by dissolving 
 in alcohol some black wax. 
 
 STAINS 
 
 Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by 
 using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown, 
 raw and burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied 
 with a brush, without previous preparation, and then 
 wiped off with a cloth—a method that brings out 
 clearly the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch 
 pine, now being extensively used for fittings, are often 
 extremely beautiful. A better method for general 
 work—French polish being ordinarily too expensive— 
 is, where dark oak or mahogany stains are not wanted, 
 light varnishes, of which two coats are to be applied. 
 The glue size with which the work is first coated, in 
 
156 
 
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 order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not be 
 too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack. 
 
 Logwood, lime, brown soft-soap, dyed oil, sulphate 
 of iron, nitrate of silver exposed to the sun’s rays, 
 carbonate of soda, bichromate and permanganate of 
 potash, and other alkaline preparations, are used for 
 darkening the wood; the last three are specially 
 recommended. The solution is applied by dissolving 
 I ounce of the alkali in 2 gills of boiling water, diluted 
 to the required tone. The surface is saturated with a 
 sponge or flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. 
 The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil tinged, 
 with rose madder may be applied to hardwoods like 
 birch, and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet 
 root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can be 
 brought out by two or three coats of japan, much 
 diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled and 
 rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of age, 
 lime water used before oiling is a good plan. In 
 staining wood, the best and most transparent effect is 
 obtained by repeated light coats of the same. For 
 oak stain a strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; 
 for mahogany, dilute nitric acid. A primary coat or a 
 coat of wood fillers is advantageous. For mahogany 
 stains, the following are given: 2 ounces of dragons’ 
 blood dissolved in I quart of rectified spirits of wine, 
 well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna 
 to give the required tone; for darker stains boil 
 pound of madder and 2 ounces of logwood chips in I 
 gallon of water, and brush the decoction while hot 
 over the wood; when dry, paint with a solution of 2 
 ounces of potash in I quart of water. A solution of 
 permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent 
 brown stain. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 I 57 
 
 Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed 
 oil and benzine half and half, and burnt umber or 
 Vandyke brown incorporated with this. Maple can 
 be stained green-gray by using copperas in water; oak 
 will also be changed to a dark green-blue through the 
 same agency, the effect on ash being various shades of 
 olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the 
 bronze olive tint now used so much by architects. 
 
 Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of 
 logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
 each application. Then wash it with a solution of 
 acetate of iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings 
 in vinegar. This stain is very black, and penetrates 
 to a considerable depth into the wood, so that ordinary 
 scratching or chipping does not show the original 
 color. 
 
 A wash of i part of nitric acid in io parts of water 
 will, if well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany 
 to pine wood which does not contain much resin. 
 When the wood is thoroughly dry, shellac varnish will 
 impart a fine finish to the surface. A glaze of carmine 
 or lake will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine 
 extract of alkanet root produces a beautiful stain which 
 admits of French polishing. Asphaltum, thinned with 
 turpentine, makes an excellent mahogany color on 
 new wood. 
 
 A Method of imparting to any plain white wood 
 the appearance of cedar wood is as follows: Mix 2 
 parts of catechu, and 1 part of caustic soda, in 100 
 parts of water (all by weight). The article to be 
 stained should be boiled in this solution for some 
 hours, and is then rinsed in clear water and dried. If 
 the desired depth of tone has not been obtained, a 
 second boiling must be resorted to. This stain is said 
 
1 5 8 
 
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 to sink so deep into the wood that even thick sheets of 
 veneer thus treated will be colored right through; 
 while other wood articles thus stained may be safely 
 manipulated without any fear of the original color of 
 the wood showing through. 
 
 For a Brown Stain.—Boil i pound of the brown 
 pigment called Terre de Cassel with 4 quarts of water, 
 until it is reduced one-third. Mix 2 ounces (Troy) of 
 white potash with sufficient water to dissolve it, and 
 mix with the Terre de Cassel. This stain must be 
 applied with a brush, two or even three times, accord¬ 
 ing to the depth of the shade required. 
 
 Another.—Paint the wood with a solution made by 
 boiling one pot of catechu with 30 parts of water and 
 a little soda; when dry, paint over with another 
 solution made of I part bichromate of potash and 30 
 parts water. By a little difference in the mode of 
 treatment, and by varying the strength of the 
 solutions, several shades of color may be given. 
 
 Staining Carved Panels.—First, oil the panels with 
 linseed oil, then mix a little powdered water stain (this 
 is best mixed with rain water), and brush over the 
 stain with a hog’s hair brush, using as little stain as 
 possible. When dry, give a coat of button polish, 
 which must be laid on with a camel-hair brush. Care 
 must be taken not to form puddles in the carvings, 
 either with the stain or polish. When the polish is 
 quite dry, the panels will be improved by rubbing with 
 a piece of clean linen rag. By following the foregoing, 
 a good effect is obtained, and, by oiling before staining, 
 the fibers of the wood will not rise. 
 
 Staining Spirit Varnish for Furniture, etc.—White hard 
 spirit varnish, as it comes from the makers, is generally 
 much too thick for mixing with stain, and does not 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 I $9 
 
 distribute evenly. Stained varnishes should be diluted 
 with spirits or turpentine, whichever may be the 
 solvent. Two applications of thin varnish will give far 
 more satisfactory results than one heavy coating of 
 thick varnish. Brown hard spirit varnish with the 
 addition of red stain will give much better results. 
 When the work is streaky, it would be advisable to 
 remove it by softening with spirits or grinding down 
 with pumice-stone powder and water, then using 
 varnish as advised above. Oil varnish, such as church 
 oak varnish, is generally considered too garish for use 
 on furniture. In repolishing old work, the idea of 
 filling up a deep scratch with beeswax and resin is a 
 good one, but it requires considerable practice to get a 
 quite level surface and a perfect match as regards 
 color. The surface that has been disturbed during the 
 operation maybe treated by coloring up; that is, body¬ 
 ing up to fill the grain of the wood; then, by blending 
 together suitable colors, mixed in I part of polish to 
 3 parts of spirits, carefully penciling in till a perfect 
 match is secured. 
 
 DYEING WOODS 
 
 For a Black Dye.—Put 6 pounds of chip logwood into 
 the copper, with as many veneers as it will con¬ 
 veniently hold, without pressing too tight; fill it with 
 water, and let it boil slowly for about three hours; 
 then add y 2 pound of powdered verdigris, y 2 pound of 
 copperas, and 4 ounces of bruised nut-galls; fill the 
 copper up with vinegar as the water evaporates; let it 
 boil gently two hours each day till the wood is dyed 
 through. 
 
 Another.—Procure some liquor from a tanner’s pit, 
 or make a decoction of oak bark, and to every gallon 
 
i6o 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 of the liquor add a quarter of a pound of green 
 copperas, and mix them well together; put the liquor 
 into the copper, and make it quite hot, but not boil; 
 immerse the veneers in it, and let them remain for an 
 hour; take them out, and expose them to the air, till 
 it has penetrated its substance; then add some logwood 
 to the solution, place the veneers again in it, and let it 
 simmer for two or three hours; let the whole cool 
 gradually, dry the veneers in the shade, and they will 
 be a very fine black. 
 
 Dyeing wood is mostly applied for the purpose of 
 veneers, while staining is more generally had recourse 
 to, to give the desired color to the article after it has 
 been manufactured. In the one case the color should 
 penetrate throughout, while in the latter the surface 
 is all that is-essential. 
 
 In dyeing pear tree, holly and beech, take the best 
 black; but for most colors holly is preferable. It is 
 also best to have wood as young and as newly cut as 
 possible. After the veneers are cut, they should be 
 allowed to lie in a trough of water for four or five days 
 before they are put into the copper, as the water, 
 acting as a purgative to the wood, brings out an 
 abundance of slimy matter, which must be removed, or 
 the wood will never be a good color. After this 
 purificatory process, they should be dried in the open 
 air for at least twelve hours. They are then ready 
 for the copper. By these simple means the color will 
 strike much quicker, and be of a brighter hue. It 
 would also add to the improvement of the colors, if, 
 after the veneers have boiled a few hours, they are 
 taken out, dried in the air, and again immersed in the 
 coloring copper. Always dry veneers in the open air, 
 for fire invariably injures the colors. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 161 
 
 Fine Blue Dye. —Into a clean glass bottle put I pound 
 of oil of vitriol, and 4 ounces of the best indigo 
 pounded in a mortar (take care to set the bottle in a 
 basin or earthen glazed pan, as it will ferment); then 
 put the veneers into a copper or stone trough; fill it 
 rather more than one-third with water, and add as 
 much of the vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as 
 will make a fine blue, 'which may be known by trying 
 it with a piece of white paper or wood. Let the 
 veneers remain till the dye has struck through. 
 
 The color will be much improved if the solution of 
 indigo in vitriol be kept a few weeks before using it. 
 The color will strike better if the veneers are boiled 
 in plain water till completely soaked through, and then 
 allowed for a few hours to dry partially, previous to 
 being immersed in the dye. 
 
 Another.—Throw pieces of quicklime into soft 
 water; stir it well; when settled, strain or pour off the 
 clear part; then to every gallon add ten or twelve 
 ounces of the best turnsole; put the whole into the 
 copper with the veneers, which should be of white 
 holly, and prepared as usual by boiling in water; let 
 them simmer gently till the color has sufficiently 
 penetrated, but be careful not to let them boil in it, 
 as it would injure the color. 
 
 A Fine Yellow Dye. —Reduce 4 pounds of the root of 
 barberry, by sawing, to dust, which put in a copper or 
 brass trough; add 4 ounces of turmeric and 4 gallons 
 of water, then put in as many white holly veneers as 
 the liquor will cover; boil them together for three hours, 
 often turning them; when cool, add 2 ounces of aqua 
 fortis and the dye will strike through much sooner. 
 
 A Bright Yellow Dye. —To every gallon of watef 
 necessary to cover the veneers, add 1 pound of French 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 162 
 
 berries; boil the veneers till the color has penetrated 
 through; add to the infusion of the French berries, the 
 liquid for brightening colors given as stated, and let 
 the veneers remain for two or three hours, and the 
 color will be very bright. 
 
 Bright Green Dye.— Proceed as in either of the 
 previous recipes to produce a yellow; but instead of 
 adding aqua fortis or the brightening liquid, add as 
 much vitriolated indigo as will produce the desired 
 color. 
 
 Green Dye. —Dissolve 4 ounces of the best verdigris, 
 and of sap-green and indigo y 2 ounce each, in 3 pints 
 of the best vinegar; put in the veneers, and gently boil 
 till the color has penetrated sufficiently. 
 
 The hue of the green may be varied by altering the 
 proportion of the ingredients; and it is advised, unless 
 wanted for a particular purpose, to leave out the 
 sap-green, as it is a vegetable color very apt to change, 
 or turn brown, when exposed to the air. 
 
 Bright Red Dye.— To 2 pounds of genuine Brazil 
 dust, add 4 gallons of water; put in as many veneers 
 as the liquor will cover; boil them for three hours; 
 then add 2 ounces of alum, and 2 ounces of aqua fortis, 
 and keep it lukewarm until it has struck through. 
 
 Red Dye. —To every pound of logwood chips, add 2 
 gallons of water; put in the veneers, and boil as in the 
 last; then add a sufficient quantity of the brightening 
 liquid till you see the color to your mind; keep the 
 whole as warm as the finger can be borne in it, till the 
 color has sufficiently penetrated. 
 
 The logwood chips should be picked from all 
 foreign substances, with which it generally abounds, 
 as bark, dirt, etc.; and it is always best when fresh 
 cut, which may be known by its appearing of a 
 
HARDWOOD FINJSHER 163 
 
 bright-red color; for if stale, it will look brown, and 
 not yield so much coloring matter. 
 
 Purple Dye. —To 2 pounds of chip logwood and 
 pound of Brazil dust, add 4 gallons of water, and after 
 putting in the veneers, boil them for at least three 
 hours; then add 6 ounces of pearlash and 2 ounces of 
 alum; let them boil for two or three hours every day, 
 till the color has struck through. 
 
 The Brazil dust only contributes to make the purple 
 of a more red cast; you may, therefore, omit it, ii 
 you require a deep bluish purple. 
 
 Another. — Boil 2 pounds of logwood, either in chips 
 or powder, in 4 gallons of water, with the veneers; after 
 boiling till the color is well struck in, add by degrees 
 vitriolated indigo till the pur.ple is of the shade required, 
 which may be known by trying it with a piece of paper; 
 let it then boil for one hour, and keep the liquid in a 
 milk-warm state till the color has penetrated the veneer. 
 This method, when properly managed, will produce a 
 brilliant purple, not so likely to fade as the foregoing. 
 
 Liquid for Brightening and Setting Colors. —To every 
 pint of strong aqua fortis, add I ounce of grain tin, and 
 a piece of sal-ammoniac of the size of a walnut; set 
 it by to dissolve, shake the bottle round with the cork 
 out, from time to time; in the course of two or three 
 days it will be fit for use. This will be found an 
 admirable liquid to add to any color, as it not only 
 brightens it, but renders it less likely to fade from 
 exposure to the air. 
 
 Orange Dye.— Let the veneers be dyed by either of 
 the methods given as above, of a fine deep yellow, and 
 while they are still wet and saturated with the dye, trans¬ 
 fer them to the bright red dye, till the color penetrates 
 equally throughout. 
 
164 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Silver Gray Dye. —Expose to the weather, in a cast- 
 iron pot of six or eight gallons, old iron nails, hoops, 
 etc., till covered with rust; add 1 gallon of vinegar 
 and 2 of water, boil all well for an hour; have the 
 veneers ready, which must be hardwood (not too dry), 
 put them in the copper used to dye black, and pour 
 the iron liquor over them; add 1 pound of chip log¬ 
 wood and 2 ounces of bruised nut-galls; then boil up 
 another pot of the iron liquor to supply the copper 
 with, keeping the veneers covered, and boiling two 
 hours a day, till the required color is obtained. 
 
 Gray Dye.— Expose any quantity of old iron, or what 
 is better, the borings of gun-barrels, etc., in any con¬ 
 venient vessel, and from time to time sprinkle them 
 with spirits of salt (muriatic acid) diluted in four 
 times its quantity of water, till they are very thickly 
 covered with rust; then to every 6 pounds add I 
 gallon of water, in which has been dissolved 2 ounces 
 of salt of tartar; lay the veneers in the copper, and 
 cover them with this liquid; let it boil for two or 
 three hours till well soaked, then to every gallon of 
 liquor add a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and 
 keep the whole at a moderate temperature till the dye 
 has sufficiently penetrated. 
 
 GILDING, SILVERING, BRONZING, AND COMPOSITION 
 
 In gilding, the design should be simple and fairly 
 open, so that the gold leaf can be laid in water without 
 too many difficulties. As the particular method of 
 gilding here described requires the whole surface to 
 be burnished, it will be found that a design should be 
 treated in a broad way, as, if the surface is too much 
 broken up, it will, on account of its being burnished, 
 and therefore reflecting light in a high degree, be 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 165 
 
 worrying in its effects, as well as entailing an enormous 
 amount of time to lay the gold leaf in water. The 
 clever craftsman is he who gets his effects by means 
 as simple as possible. That piece of work will be the 
 most satisfactory that fulfills the purpose for which it 
 was designed, however simple the means, so long as 
 the result is lasting. 
 
 In the design Fig. 115 now given, the frame is to 
 take a mirror, 
 the sight size of 
 which should 
 be inches 
 
 high by 13^ 
 inches wide, the 
 full size of the 
 plate being 17 
 inches by 14 
 inches. The 
 extreme dimen- 
 sions of the 
 frame are 24 y 
 inches high, 
 
 25^4 inches 
 wide. The 
 
 plinth will require a piece 20^4 inches by 3 7 /% inches 
 by 74 inches thick; the moulding for it will require a 
 piece y inch by ^4 inch. The pilasters are 3^ inches 
 by y inch thick. They are tenoned into the plinth, 
 the mortises in which should not be more than i}( 
 inches deep, so that they do not come below the mar¬ 
 ginal line of the carving along it. The top rail, which 
 shows 7 /q inch on the face of the frame, is tenoned 
 into the pilasters; the top of the carving on the pilasters 
 should come on a line with the rail, so as not to weaken 
 
 Fig. 115 
 
166 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 or cut through the mortises. The 
 hollow moulding is got out of 3^ 
 inches by Y inch, and is returned on 
 the sides, as is the moulding on the 
 plinth. The ogee moulding requires 
 a piece 25^4 inches by sH inches by 
 Y inch; the returns in this are shaped 
 out of the solid at each end of the 
 piece, and it is screwed on the frame 
 from the top. 
 
 The design for the pilasters, Fig. 
 116, is one-fifth full size. It is very 
 important when carving to treat the 
 ground freely; the worker should 
 aim at having the ground somewhat 
 uneven, not in an abrupt and obvious 
 way, but with a soft up and down sort 
 of feeling, which will, when the work 
 is gilded, make it look ever so much 
 more human. The result will be 
 more interesting than if the ground 
 is cut perfectly flat and even. The 
 edges round the carved parts should 
 not be set in, but should slope un¬ 
 derneath the forms in an easy hollow. 
 The pilasters should be grounded 
 out a inch at the base, and more 
 shallow at tine top, so that the smaller 
 leaves and flower should be in fainter 
 relief. The plinth should not be 
 grounded out deeper than inch. 
 Pine or whitewood may be used to make the frame. 
 
 Having made the frame and put it together, we now 
 want to gild it. The way here described is a modi- 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 167 
 
 fication of the old Italian method. First of all, it will 
 be necessary to slake some fine plaster of Paris in 
 water for three weeks (about 1 pound of plaster to 
 4 gallons of water). It should be stirred frequently 
 the first day to prevent setting. At the end of three 
 weeks the water is poured out, the plaster is put into 
 a cloth, and the water squeezed out; it is then left to 
 dry into a solid cake. When wanted for use, break a 
 piece that will go in a small pipkin, and cover it with 
 water for half an hour. While the plaster is soaking 
 the frame should be got ready. Clear parchment size 
 will now be wanted; it can be had from gilders’ 
 material dealers. Some should be melted in a pipkin, 
 care being taken that it does not boil; if it does, its 
 setting property will be* destroyed. With a round 
 hog-hair brush give the frame two coats of clear size, 
 using it its full strength; then pour the water off the 
 plaster and pour some warm size, full strength, over it 
 and mix together; it should be mixed to the con¬ 
 sistency of cream; warm it up, and strain through 
 muslin, working it through with a brush; warm it 
 again, and give a coat to the carved work with the 
 hog-hair brush, and to the plain parts with a camel- 
 hair mop. Four coats should be given on the carved 
 parts, using the soft brush after the first coat, and 
 six coats given on the plain parts. They should be 
 given as soon as the preceding coat is set, but not dry. 
 
 When the coats are quite dry, which should be the 
 next day, the plaster has to be smoothed down. It 
 will be more possible to preserve the shape in the 
 small work if emery cloth is used. When all rough¬ 
 ness has been smoothed down, all parts should care¬ 
 fully be gone over with finest sandpaper. 
 
 The work has now to be prepared so that the gold 
 
i68 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 will stand burnishing. Armenian bole, which can be ob¬ 
 tained of chemists, will be required, and some pipeclay. 
 Blanc’s will do, as it is fine. Three-fifths of bole to 
 two of clay are ground together on a piece of glass 
 with a muller, using some water while grinding. The 
 grinding should proceed for a good half hour, in fact, 
 it cannot be too well ground, as, if it is in the least 
 gritty, it will rub through when burnishing. For the 
 frame in hand, about half a pipkinful will be required. 
 
 Melt down some size, and put some water in a 
 pipkin about a quarter full; add some melted size, so 
 that there should be just a bit more size than water. 
 Then put in the ground bole and clay, and mix well 
 together. The mixture should flow easily from the 
 brush, but should not be too thin. Before using all 
 over the frame, it will be as well to try some on the 
 back edge; allow it to dry. If it dries the same color 
 as when put on wet, there is too much size, and it 
 should be weakened with water. If it dries a lighter 
 color, rub it down with D emery paper, wearing down 
 the sharpness of the paper first, as it is too strong if 
 used fresh. If, on being papered, it polishes without 
 rubbing off, it is the proper strength, and may be used. 
 Should it rub off, it is weak, and more size should be 
 added. Having our burnish gold size the proper 
 strength, we give the work four coats all over, using 
 a camel-hair mop, allowing each coat to set, and 
 taking care to take up all pools that may collect in the 
 bottoms. When quite dry, it must be rubbed down all 
 over with D emery paper, and then well bristled with 
 a short hog-hair brush until there is a good polish 
 everywhere. If there be any dull parts, there is 
 something wrong, and the gilding should not proceed 
 until put right, as failure will be the result. The 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 169 
 
 most essential points are that the bole be well 
 ground, and that the size is not too strong. 
 
 The frame is then ready for gilding. The water to 
 gild with must have three teaspoonfuls of size to a 
 small pipkin full of water. The gold is laid on in the 
 usual way. The writer will attempt to describe how 
 to lay it; but it is an operation that really requires 
 demonstration. A cushion, a knife, a whole and a 
 three tip (the whole tip to take a whole leaf, the three- 
 tip to take smaller pieces of the leaf), a camel-hair 
 pencil and liner; these should be placed on the same 
 handle—one at each end will be wanted. The plinth 
 had better be laid first, then the pilasters, all the 
 smaller fillets and mouldings next, leaving the hollow 
 and ogee mouldings to be laid last, as the beginner 
 will by then have acquired some facility in the handling 
 of the leaf. It will be better for a beginner to blow 
 out one leaf at a time on to his cushion; it will save 
 waste until he is more expert in the handling. To 
 take out a leaf, hold the book almost perpendicularly, 
 expose a gold leaf, and gently blow it on to the 
 cushion; then take the cushion in the left hand,' 
 passing the thumb through the leaf which is under¬ 
 neath; pass the knife very carefully underneath the 
 leaf, lift it up, and spread it open on the cushion. If 
 no corners are folded underneath it, blow gently in 
 the center of it, so that it will be flattened out; then 
 cut the leaf by drawing the knife firmi}^ through the 
 middle of it; then divide the two halves into three 
 pieces, so that the leaf is divided into six pieces 1% 
 inches by 1 inch. A piece of gold is picked up by 
 the three-tip being placed about halfway on the piece; 
 if it does not adhere to the tip the worker should rub 
 the tip briskly on his hair—a slight oiliness will make 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 170 
 
 the gold take kindly to the tip. Great care must be 
 taken to keep the knife clean and free from grease. 
 The tip with the piece of gold attached to it must be 
 held between the first two fingers of the left hand, and 
 the knife by the next two fingers. Take up the pencil, 
 wet it in the water and size, and wet the ground 
 between two of the forms on the plinth. The place to 
 be gilded must be wet, but pools must be avoided, else 
 the gold will not reach the ground, or, if pressed 
 down, the water will burst through the gold and cause 
 a stain. Holding the pencil and liner in the right 
 hand, the tip is now taken with the right hand, held 
 over the place where the gold has to go, and the piece 
 gently pressed down on it. With the liner the gold is 
 pressed home, and if the piece is somewhat larger than 
 the ground, the overlapping gold is turned into the 
 corners of the ground and ornament with the liner, or 
 faulter as gilders call it. All the ground should be 
 gone over in this way; gentleness is required so as not 
 to break the gold, and smaller pieces should be cut and 
 used where needed. When all the ground has been 
 laid over, the leaf is cut in suitable pieces to cover the 
 forms of the ornament. Great care must be taken in 
 wetting the former that the pencil does not touch the 
 parts already gilded, for that will mean a stain. In 
 laying the fillets and smaller mouldings the gold 
 should be used the length of the leaf, but cut the width 
 required to cover the space. It will be better to lay 
 all the narrowest parts first, going on to the wider and 
 gaining experience, so as to be able to use a whole 
 leaf on the hollow moulding. In taking up a whole 
 leaf with the large tip, the tip must not quite take up 
 half of the leaf, so as to be able to lay it without 
 break in the hollow. For wetting the larger parts, the 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 171 
 
 camel-hair mop should be used. The parts laid should 
 be burnished within two or three hours of the gold 
 being laid. With an agate or flint burnisher sound 
 the part laid first—if it sounds dull, it is not dry 
 enough; if sharp, it is dry and should be burnished at 
 once. The burnisher must be used lightly and across 
 the form. If everything has been done satisfactorily, 
 the burnisher will go very smoothly and softly. The 
 resultant burnish will be the color of the gold, and 
 not dark, as, indeed, one may say black, as all ordinary 
 burnish usually is. When the work has been 
 burnished, the beginner will, no doubt, feel distressed 
 at seeing parts where the gold has not adhered, but 
 that happens to all gilders, more or less, depending on 
 the worker’s skill, and all those parts must be 
 faulted, using a smaller pencil to wet the faults. 
 When done, the frame should sparkle with light and 
 shade, full of life and having a depth of color that is 
 absent in the frames gilded in the ordinary way. 
 
 Gilding Furniture. —Gold leaf, applied to articles of 
 furniture as a means of decoration, is used in two ways; 
 it is applied over an ordinary varnish or other finish, 
 in which case but little special preparation is 
 necessary; or, as when used for picture frames, 
 cornices, etc., it is applied to a specially prepared 
 foundation, the basis of which is whiting, mixed 
 with various other ingredients suggested by 
 experience or fancy. In either case, the gold leaf is 
 caused to adhere to the work by size specially 
 prepared for the purpose, recipes for which follow 
 herewith; the size being first applied to the work, 
 and when it has become of the right consistency, the 
 gold is laid upon it. Oil gilding and burnish gilding 
 are different methods used to obtain certain desired 
 
1 72 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 effects, the former principally for articles exposed to 
 the weather, and for heightening the effect of incised 
 carving or engraving, and the latter for picture 
 frames and articles having a specially prepared 
 foundation, whose entire surface is to be gilded. It 
 is intended that the gold shall adhere to the work 
 only in the places to which the size has been applied, but 
 the smallest portion of oil or even a slight dampness 
 may cause the gold to partially adhere to the adjoining 
 surface, resulting in slightly ragged edges; to prevent 
 this, before applying the size to the desired design, 
 the entire surface is covered with a thin film of some 
 substance perfectly free from moisture, and easily 
 removable by water, after completion of the process. 
 
 The Requisites. —First, a sufficient quantity of leaf 
 gold, which is of two sorts, the deep gold, as it is 
 called, and the pale gold. The former is the best; 
 the latter very useful, and may occasionally be 
 introduced for variety or effect. 
 
 Second, a gilder’s cushion: an oblong piece of wood, 
 covered with rough calfskin, stuffed with flannel 
 several times doubled, with a border of parchment, 
 about four inches deep, at one end, to prevent the 
 air blowing the leaves about when placed on the 
 cushion. 
 
 Thirdly, a gilding knife, with a straight and very 
 smooth edge, to cut the gold. 
 
 Fourthly, several camel-hair pencils in sizes, and 
 tips, made of a few long camel’s hairs put between 
 two cards, in the same manner as hairs are put into 
 tin cases for brushes, thus making a flat brush with a 
 very few hairs. 
 
 Lastly, a burnisher, which is a crooked piece of 
 agate set in a long wooden handle. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 173 
 
 Sizes. —These are of two kinds: oil sizes are those 
 which, when applied, present an adhesive surface, 
 requiring the immediate laying of the gold leaf upon 
 it; of this class is the oil size commonly used in 
 decorating furniture; water sizes are those that are 
 allowed to become dry and hard when applied, and 
 are rendered adhesive when the gold is to be laid, by 
 brushing over with water; for burnish gilding these 
 are always employed, as oil size does not dry 
 sufficiently hard to permit of burnishing. 
 
 Oil Size for Oil Gilding. —Grind calcined red ocher 
 with the best and oldest drying oil. When desired 
 for use, add sufficient oil of turpentine to make it 
 work freely. 
 
 Parchment Size. —For preparing frames, etc. To half 
 a pound of parchment shavings, or cuttings of white 
 leather, add three quarts of water, and boil it in a 
 proper vessel till reduced to nearly half the quantity; 
 then take it off the fire, and strain it through a sieve. 
 Be careful in the boiling to keep it well stirred, and 
 do not let burn. 
 
 Gold Size for Burnish Gilding. —Grind fine sal- 
 ammoniac well with a muller and stone; scrape into 
 it a little beef suet, and grind all wet together; after 
 which, mix in with a pallet knife a small proportion 
 of parchment size with a double proportion of water. 
 When about to use, add parchment size until it will 
 just flow from the brush. 
 
 Another. —Grind a lump of tobacco pipe clay into 
 a very stiff paste with thin size; add a small quantity 
 of ruddle and fine black lead, ground very fine, and 
 temper the whole with a small piece of tallow. 
 When ready to use, reduce with parchment size until 
 it will just flow from the brush. 
 
174 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 Another. — Grind separately in water, I pound 
 Armenian bole, 2 ounces red lead, a sufficient quantity 
 of black lead; mix, and regrind with a small quantity 
 of olive oil. Reduce with parchment size to the 
 proper consistency. 
 
 To Prevent Gold Adhering. —Either one of the follow¬ 
 ing methods will prevent gold leaf or bronze from 
 adhering to the surface beyond the outlines of the 
 sizing laid on to receive it: 
 
 1. Whiting used dry, and applied by means of a 
 pounce bag. 
 
 2. Whiting mixed in water, and applied with a 
 soft brush. When the water has evaporated, dust 
 off the superfluous whiting with an ordinary paint 
 duster. By this method a very thin coating of whiting 
 remains, which is free from any grittiness. One 
 advantage gained by the use of whiting thus applied 
 is, it furnishes a whitish ground over which clear 
 varnish or oil size may be distinctly seen as the 
 striping progresses. After the leaf or bronze has been 
 applied, the work must be carefully washed, so as to 
 insure the removal of the whiting. 
 
 3. White of egg reduced with water, and applied 
 with a piece of sponge. 
 
 4. A thin wash of starch water, either brushed on 
 with a flat camel-hair brush, or applied with a soft 
 sponge. 
 
 5. Take ball liquorice and water, a weak solution, 
 and apply with a soft brush. This may be kept in a 
 bottle ready for use at any time. 
 
 6. Cut a new potato in two, and rub over the part to 
 be sized with the raw face exposed, allowing the 
 juice to remain until dry. 
 
 It will be observed that any substance which inter- 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 175 
 
 poses a film over the varnish, itself being free from 
 tackiness and readily removed by water, will answer 
 the purpose. 
 
 Oil Gilding. —Applying the gold.—If the wood to be 
 gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no 
 additional foundation is necessary upon which to lay 
 the gold leaf; if the wood is not finished, after it has 
 been smoothed and dusted, give it one or two coats 
 of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, 
 again smoothing the surface with fine sandpaper. 
 That the gold may not adhere to any part of the work 
 except where the size is hard, powder the surface 
 lightly with whiting from a pounce bag, which is a 
 small bag made of material sufficiently loose to permit 
 the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust; if 
 preferred, any of the preceding recipes for that 
 purpose can be used instead. Remove the surplus 
 whiting with the dusting brush, and the work is then 
 ready for the size. Apply this with a sable or fit brush 
 of the proper size, carefully observing to make the 
 outer lines of the design clear and ‘sharp, that the 
 work may not appear ragged. Let the size remain 
 until it feels tacky, when the gold may be applied. 
 This is the most difficult part of the operation, and 
 experience is necessary before gold leaf can be laid 
 smoothly without a wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf 
 of gold out of the book upon the cushion; breathe 
 gently upon the center of the leaf and it will lie flat 
 on the cushion; cut it to the proper size by bringing 
 the knife perpendicularly over it, and sawing it gently 
 until divided. Take your tip (a brush used for the 
 purpose) and after drawing it lightly over your hair 
 to remove any particles or dust that may be upon it, 
 breathe upon it gently, which will dampen it 
 
176 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 sufficiently to cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it; 
 lay the tip upon the leaf of gold and carefully 
 transfer it to the work; blow upon it gently and it will 
 straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered quite 
 smooth by slightly dabbing it with a bit of cotton. 
 In about an hour wash off the superfluous gold from 
 the edges, with a sponge and water. If the article is 
 to be exposed to the weather or much wear, the 
 gilding may be varnished with copal varnish. 
 
 Burnish Gilding.—As previously stated, this process 
 requires a specially prepared foundation upon which 
 to lay the gold, and as the preparation of this 
 foundation is a distinct trade, the furniture dealer or 
 cabinetmaker seldom finds it necessary to undertake 
 it, the articles coming to his hand ready-prepared for 
 gilding; but as in repairing picture frames, cornices, 
 mirror frames, etc., it frequently becomes necessary 
 to renew the foundation, a comprehensive description 
 of the whole process is given. 
 
 Preparing the Woodwork. —After smoothing and 
 dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with 
 boiling-hot parchment size, as previously described, 
 then mix a sufficient quantity of whiting with size to 
 the consistency of thick cream, and with it by means 
 of a brush, coat every part of the frame several times, 
 permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before 
 proceeding with the next. The wood will thus be 
 covered with a layer of hard whiting nearly or quite a 
 sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The size must not 
 be too thick, and when mixed with the whiting should 
 not be so hot as the preliminary coat of size. 
 
 Polishing.—When the preparations are quite dry, 
 clean and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece 
 at a time, and, with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 177 
 
 dipped in water, rub the part till all the bumps and 
 inequalities are removed; and for those parts where 
 the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind 
 the wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this 
 means make the surface all smooth and even alike. 
 
 Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes 
 be necessary to bring the mouldings to their original 
 sharpness by means of chisels, gouges, etc., as the 
 preparation will be apt to fill up all the finer parts of 
 the work, which must be thus restored. It is some¬ 
 times the practice, after polishing, to go over the 
 work once with fine yellow or Roman ocher; but this 
 is rarely necessary. 
 
 Applying the Size. —Select the proper gold size from 
 the recipes previously given; add parchment size until 
 it will just flow from the brush; make it quite hot, 
 and apply it to the wood with a very soft brush, 
 taking care not to make the first coat too thick; let 
 it dry and give two or three successive coats, after the 
 last brushing it with a stiff brush to remove any 
 inequalities. The work is then ready for the gold. 
 
 Laying the Gold. —The manipulation of the gold leaf 
 has been described under the heading Oil Gilding. In 
 the paint now being described, size used (being water 
 size, which, as previously explained, is permitted to 
 become hard and dry after being applied) must be 
 moistened to cause the gold leaf to adhere to it. For 
 this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil, 
 dipped in water, go over as much of the work as you 
 intend the piece of gold to cover; then lay the gold 
 upon it in the manner previously explained. Be sure 
 that the part to which the gold is applied is 
 sufficiently wet; indeed, it must be floating, or the 
 gold will be apt to crack. Proceed in this manner a 
 
178 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 little at a time, and do not attempt to cover too much 
 at once, until by experience you are going to handle 
 the gold with freedom. 
 
 Burnishing.— When the work is covered with gold, 
 set it by to dry; there is a particular state or degree 
 of dryness, known only by experience, in which the 
 moulding is in a fit state for burnishing; it will ' 
 probably be ready to burnish in about eight or ten 
 hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room 
 or state of the air. 
 
 When it is ready, those parts intended to be 
 burnished must be dusted with a soft brush; then, 
 wiping the burnisher with a piece of soft wash-leather 
 (quite dry), begin to burnish about an inch or two in 
 length at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, but 
 with a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool 
 until all the parts of the surface are equally bright. 
 
 Matting or Dead Gold. —Certain portions only of the 
 work are burnished, according to the fancy, and the 
 facility with which the burnishing tool can be applied; 
 the remaining parts are now to be deprived of their 
 metallic luster, to make a more effective contrast with 
 the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said to be 
 matted or dead gold. The process is as follows: 
 
 Grind some vermilion or yellow ocher very fine, 
 and mix a very small portion either with the parch¬ 
 ment size or with the white of an egg, and with a very 
 soft brush lay it evenly on the parts to be dulled; if 
 well done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the 
 work. Previous to matting, the work must be well 
 cleared of superfluous gold, by means of a soft brush. 
 
 Finishing.— In elaborate works it is frequently 
 impossible to lay gold leaf into all the intricacies of 
 an elaborate design, and the parts thus left bare must 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 179 
 
 be finished by touching up with a small brush charged 
 with shell gold, or gold powder, mixed with gum 
 Arabic to the proper consistency. The following 
 recipe describes the preparation of shell gold: 
 
 Shelled Gold. —Take any quantity of leaf gold and 
 grind it with a small portion of honey, to a fine 
 powder, add a little gum arabic and sugar candy, with 
 a little water, and mix it well together; let it dry. 
 
 Silver Size.— Grind pipe clay fine with a little black 
 lead and good soap, and add parchment size as 
 directed for gold size. 
 
 Composition for Frame Ornaments. —The ornaments 
 for gilded mirror frames, etc., are usually moulded 
 from some plastic substance that is somewhat 
 tougher and more durable than the ordinary gilding 
 foundation of whiting and size. The proper moulds 
 being prepared, they are thoroughly rubbed upon the 
 inside with sweet oil, and the composition firmly 
 pressed in; after removing the mould the cast may be 
 dried by a gentle heat, or while still plastic it can be 
 applied in its proper place and bent into any position. 
 Following are recipes for composition: 
 
 Dissolve I pound of glue in 1 gallon of water. In 
 another kettle boil together 2 pounds of resin, 1 gill 
 of Venice turpentine, and 1 pint of linseed oil; mix 
 all together in one kettle, and boil and stir till the water 
 has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of finely 
 rolled whiting, and work till it is the consistency of 
 dough. 
 
 Boil 7 pounds of best glue in 7 half pints of water. 
 Melt 3 pounds of white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed 
 oil. When the above has been well boiled put them 
 into a large vessel and simmer them for half an hour, 
 stirring the mixture and taking care that it does not 
 
180 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 boil over. The whole must then be turned into a 
 box of whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is 
 of the consistency of dough. 
 
 To Manipulate Gold Leaf. —Get a piece of paper, thin 
 enough to show shadow of gold leaf through, slightly 
 wax it, lay it on gold leaf; the latter will then adhere, 
 and can be easily worked and will come off clean. 
 The paper should be slightly larger than the gold 
 leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make 
 the gold leaf adhere. 
 
 Bronzing. —This is a process for imitating on metal, 
 plaster, wood, or other material, the peculiar 
 appearance produced by chemical action upon the 
 surface of bronze metal. It is accomplished by 
 spreading over the surface of the material to be 
 ornamented a very thin coating of bronze powder, 
 which is caused to adhere either by applying it 
 directly upon a coating of any of the sizes mentioned 
 in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a vehicle, 
 such as gum arabic or transparent varnish. The 
 latter is most desirable, as in the other case, being 
 subject to the direct action of the atmosphere, the 
 bronze powder soon tarnishes. In ornamenting 
 furniture, bronzing is generally employed to represent 
 gilding, a variety of bronze called gold bronze being 
 used, which affords an excellent imitation, but is not 
 very lasting. It is usually applied after the com¬ 
 pletion of the other finishing processes, the ground 
 work being prepared in the manner described under 
 Oi 1 Gilding, and the size likewise applied as there 
 described. A small wad of cotton batting is then 
 dipped in the bronze and passed gently over the sized 
 portions, causing the bronze to adhere. In the other 
 method—that of applying the bronze by means of a 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 181 
 
 vehicle—the preliminaries of whiting the ground and 
 sizing are not necessary, a small quantity of bronze 
 being simply mixed with the vehicle employed to 
 such a degree of fluidity that it will flow easily, and 
 in that condition applied with a fine brush. Many 
 preparations are used as vehicles, such as transparent 
 varnish thinned with turpentine, gum arabic dis¬ 
 solved in water, and gold size reduced with parchment 
 size. There are a variety of colors in bronze powders, 
 and to produce the best effect the size or vehicle 
 should be of a color similar to that of the bronze 
 used; in gold size the coloring pigment is ocher, and 
 in its place, for green bronze, or blue bronze, may be 
 employed respectively verditer, vermilion or Prussian 
 blue, a very small quantity being sufficient. In 
 bronzing on painted work the ground should be as 
 nearly as possible the color of the bronze to be 
 applied. 
 
 Banana Solution.— The so-called “banana solution” 
 (the name being derived from its odor) which is used 
 in applying bronzes of various kinds is usually a 
 mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone and 
 benzine, with just enough pyroxylin dissolved therein 
 to give it sufficient body. Powdered bronze is put 
 into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so 
 formed applied with a brush to the article to be 
 bronzed. The thin covering of pyroxylin that is left 
 after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze 
 from the air and keeps it from being wiped off by the 
 cleanly housemaid. Tarnished picture frames and 
 tarnished chandeliers to which a gold bronze has been 
 applied from such a solution will look fresh and new 
 for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze 
 and the various colored bronze powders can be used 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 182 
 
 in the “banana solution’’ for making very pretty 
 advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering 
 and bordering work upon the signs can be done with 
 it. Several stiff, very small painter’s brushes are 
 needed for such work and they must be either kept in 
 the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed in 
 benzine or acetone immediately after use and put away 
 for future service. It is needless to add that as the 
 “banana solution’’ is volatile it must be kept well 
 corked. 
 
 STAINING WOODWORK WITH ACIDS 
 
 For staining wood brown, sulphuric acid, more or 
 less diluted, according to the depth of stain desired, is 
 applied to the wood, previously cleaned and dried 
 with a brush, and when the acid has acted enough its 
 further action is arrested by the application of liquid 
 ammonia. „ 
 
 To age oak artificially, liquid ammonia is laid on 
 with a rag or brush, which does the work rapidly and 
 effectually. 
 
 To darken cherry, rub it over with nitric acid of 1.2 
 specific gravity, and after permitting it to stand for 
 twelve hours, wash and dry thoroughly. Nitric acid 
 gives a permanent yellow stain, which may be con¬ 
 verted into dark brown by subsequent application of 
 tincture of iodine. 
 
 A hot, concentrated solution of picric acid gives a 
 very fine yellow effect. Aqua fortis, diluted with 
 three times its own weight of rain-water, brushed over 
 the wood, gives a more true yellow effect than the 
 undiluted nitric acid (aqua fortis). 
 
 A bright golden yellow stain is made by digesting 
 y 2 ounce of powdered madder for twelve hours in 2 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 133 
 
 ounces of sulphuric acid and then filtering through 
 cloth. The articles to be stained should be immersed 
 in the fluid for three or four days. 
 
 ON HARDWOOD FLOORS 
 
 The finish and care of hardwood or parquette floors 
 has been and is now a source of great trouble and 
 annoyance to housekeepers. In many cases where 
 beautiful floors have been laid, they have been left to 
 be finished by persons who have not troubled them¬ 
 selves with finding out the best method of finishing, 
 and the usual way for such persons to do is to treat 
 them with shellac or varnish, says a writer in one of 
 our exchanges. This is all wrong, as a moment’s 
 thought will convince any one that a surface that is 
 constantly walked over needs something different from 
 the coating of gum that is left on the surface after 
 the spirit used in dissolving the shellac or varnish is 
 evaporated. This coating then becomes brittle, and 
 is ground up into minute particles by the nails in the 
 boots and swept away, leaving the wood bare, right 
 where it is most exposed to view. 
 
 As a matter of course, the beauty of the floor is soon 
 gone, and instead of being an attractive part of the 
 furnishing, the sanitary consideration very often is 
 about all that keeps one from nailing a carpet over the 
 whole floor. Others use linseed oil, and everybody 
 knows that an oil finish is one of the best methods of 
 finishing wood, but the objection is, that each time 
 the oil is applied it darkens the wood, and in a sho*"t 
 time the different kinds of wood are of the same color. 
 
 Now the question arises, which is the true and only 
 way of finishing floors properly? And the answer is, 
 by the use of hard wax, which, however, must be so 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 184 
 
 prepared that the trouble of applying it and the 
 stickiness attending ordinary beeswax and turpentine 
 are entirely obviated. The wax is treated with special 
 liquids and made into a preparation. 
 
 Among the many different things tried, hard wax 
 was found to be the most satisfactory in its results. 
 It is so simple, that when once the floor has been 
 properly filled and finished with it, any servant can 
 renew and keep the floors fresh and bright as long as 
 the wood lasts, and as it does not materially change 
 the color, the wood always retains its beauty. An 
 application about once a year is all that is necessary, 
 if the floors are rubbed over, when a little dull, with a 
 weighted brush or cloth. 
 
 In repolishing old floors that have been in use for a 
 length of time and become dull looking, it is only 
 necessary, after they have been cleaned, to rub on a 
 thin coat of the hard wax finish with the brush or 
 cloth, as stated above. If the floors have been 
 varnished and the varnish is worn off in places, as 
 mentioned above, the best way is to have the varnish 
 scraped off, and then a thin coat of the hard wax 
 should be applied and treated as the new wood after 
 it is filled. But if it is inconvenient to have the floor 
 scraped, or the expense too much, the main object 
 being to restore the color in those places which are 
 worn and defaced, the following mixture is recom¬ 
 mended: One part linseed oil, 1 part liquid dryer and 
 2 parts turpentine; a cloth should be dampened with 
 this and applied to the worn and defaced places, which 
 will have the desired effect. After being wiped 
 off clean, it ought to dry twenty-four hours, and then 
 be polished with the hard wax finish. It is very 
 important never to use the wax over oil that is not 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 185 
 
 thoroughly dry, as the floor would invariably be 
 sticky. 
 
 Finally, it would be well to mention that hardwood 
 or parquette floors should never be washed with soap 
 and water, as it raises the grain and discolors the 
 wood. After the floors have been properly filled and 
 finished with the hard wax, dirt will not get into the 
 pores, but stays on the surface and consequently can 
 be removed with a brush or cloth, or, if necessary, 
 dampen cloth with a little turpentine. This will take 
 off any stain from the finish. 
 
 An excellent method of waxing floors is as follows: 
 Take 1 pound of the best beeswax, cut it up into very 
 small pieces and let it thoroughly dissolve in 3 pints 
 of turpentine, stirring occasionally, if necessary. The 
 mixture should be only a trifle thicker than the clear 
 turpentine. Apply with a rag to the surface of the 
 floor, which should be perfectly clean. This is the 
 difficult part of the work; for if too much or too little 
 is put on a good polish is impossible. The right 
 amount varies, less being required for a hard, close- 
 grained wood, and more if the wood is soft and open¬ 
 grained. Try a square foot or two at first. Put on 
 what you think will be enough, and leave the place 
 untouched and unstepped on for twenty-four hours, or 
 longer, if needful. When thoroughly dry, rub with a 
 hand brush. If it polishes well, repeat the whole proc¬ 
 ess over the entire floor. If it does not, remove the 
 wax with fine sandpaper, and lay again, using more or 
 less than before, as may be necessary, and continue 
 experimenting until the desired result is secured. If 
 the mixture is slow in drying, add one part japan to 
 six of turpentine. 
 
 Birch makes an entirely satisfactory floor for dancing, 
 
THE UP - TO - D/YTE 
 
 186 
 
 as well as for kindred uses. It is easily brought to a 
 smooth surface and a fine polish, and is of a rich 
 amber color of an even shade. In addition, it has that 
 rare elasticity and resiliency that make it alike delight¬ 
 ful for walking and dancing. It costs about io cents 
 laid, and is in no way a disappointment to those using it. 
 
 What is said of birch applies equally well to hard 
 maple, both the white and the red varieties, the white 
 being that chosen for floors, and is the lightest-colored 
 of the woods so used. It is very hard, takes readily a 
 fine polish; the boards are not liable to warp, but, 
 unfortunately, require the very closest care in the 
 drying to prevent shrinkage when laid. It is lasting, 
 and is but little affected by water. Only beech, 
 hickory and white oak approach it in lightness of 
 color. Hickory has sterling qualities, too generally 
 appreciated to need detailed discussion of its intrinsic 
 worth, yet it is sadly neglected when the question of 
 flooring is under consideration. Perhaps this is due 
 to the difficulty with which it is laid. It is an open- 
 grain wood, but takes polish with ease. 
 
 Beech makes almost an ideal floor, light-colored and 
 hard, and has the rare quality of wearing smoother 
 with age; at times it is found beautifully bird’s-eyed. 
 In the Southern States it grows in the greatest profusion 
 in the swamps and lower woods, but is unappreciated, 
 only enough being preserved for use in making plane 
 stocks and other tools requiring a hard, durable wood 
 that does not shrink, warp or split. It could be laid 
 for 20 cents per foot. And along with it goes apple, 
 which polishes to a rich, delicate amber color; the cost 
 being about the same as beech, but the apple wood 
 has the tremendous disadvantage of not being obtain¬ 
 able in large boards, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 187 
 
 The laying of a hardwood floor requires not only a 
 good carpenter, but an expert judge of woods, and of 
 the individual boards, because only by carefully 
 selecting and placing like planks can we get a 
 permanently even surface. Suppose a plank of heart 
 and one of sap should be placed side by side; no 
 matter what the wood, when a rainy season may come 
 the sap will swell more and rise above the heart. 
 Even when they come from like relative positions in 
 two like trees, their texture may differ so widely as to 
 make them undesirable companions. In spite of the 
 nicest workmanship and the best judgment in select¬ 
 ing, some inequalities of surface will be present till 
 removed by the most thorough sandpapering. This 
 should be done with enough care to avoid scratching; 
 then comes the polishing. 
 
 To get the best results, hardwood floors should be 
 laid after the building is thoroughly dry, and in case 
 of new building it should be the last work done. 
 
 Care should be taken that the surface on which the 
 floor is laid is clean and smooth. Drive the flooring 
 well up and be careful not to break the tongue. 
 
 Seven-eighths-inch flooring should be nailed with 
 2y2-inch special flooring nail. For ^ 4 -inch flooring 
 i^-inch finishing nail, No. 15, will be found about 
 right. 
 
 An oak floor after being laid should be evenly 
 cleaned off and sandpapered until perfectly smooth. 
 It must then be filled with what is known as “wood 
 filler,’’ and allowed to stand for six to ten hours. This 
 filler can be made any shade desired. 
 
 If a wax finish is desired, apply two light coats of 
 white floor shellac. Let the first coat stand one hour 
 before putting on the second. After the second coat 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 188 
 
 has stood for two hours, sandpaper with No. o sand¬ 
 paper and the floor is ready for the wax, an article 
 made expressly for this purpose and ready for use. 
 
 Put the wax on as thin as possible and let it stand 
 for half an hour, then with a rubbing brush rub across 
 the grain of the wood and again lengthways until the 
 
 Fig. 117 
 
 brush slips easily, then take a piece of soft carpet and 
 rub until the desired polish is obtained. 
 
 For maple, birch, or other close-grain woods, use 
 the same process, omitting the “wood filler ’’ 
 
 Estimate of Material Required.—For laying and finish¬ 
 ing 3 /q flooring per ioo feet surface: ioo feet ^4 floor¬ 
 ing, 2)4 pounds finishing brads No. 15, 3)4 pounds 
 wood filler (for oak only), 3 pints shellac, )4 pound 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 189 
 
 floor wax. For Tfo flooring, 6 pounds 2j^-inch flooring 
 nails will be sufficient per too feet. 
 
 A weighted brush with a long handle is generally 
 employed for polishing a wax-finished floor, similar to 
 the one shown in Fig. 117. The wax is applied with a 
 rag or brush, after the filler has been properly rubbed 
 down and all is hard and dry. The weighted brush is 
 then rubbed over the surface to and fro until the 
 desired polish is attained. 
 
 Stained Floors. — A floor stained to represent dark 
 old oak is preferred by many. The mixture for 
 accomplishing this is sold at all paint shops, and 
 comes in grades 1, 2, 3, and 4, varying from light to 
 dark. If the boards are smooth and fine-grained, a 
 satin wood or pitch pine stain or polish is preferred; 
 but if the floor is old or rough it is folly to attempt 
 any stain except that of dark oak or dark mahogany. 
 Some of the mixtures used for this can be put on with 
 a rag, although a brush is better. Pour the liquid into a 
 saucer, dip the brush in, saturate thoroughly, rub evenly 
 over the wood, and dry instantly with a soft cloth. 
 
 For the ultra-fashionable floor, which is of a pale 
 shade of oak, sized and varnished, buy the desired 
 amount of raw sienna powder; mix with water, and 
 rub into the boards as directed above. Mahogany 
 staining: Make a mixture containing pound of 
 madder, 2 ounces of logwood chips, boiled in I gallon 
 of water; brush this over the wood while hot. When 
 dry, go over this with a solution of pearlash, 2 drachms 
 to 1 of water, size and polish. If a redder shade is 
 required, it can be produced by smearing the surface 
 with a strong solution of permanganate of potash, 
 which is left on for five minutes. The wood is then 
 carefully washed, dried and polished. 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 190 
 
 A good cheap oak stain is made of equal parts of 
 potash and pearlash, 2 ounces of each to a quart of 
 water. As potash is a solvent, care must be taken to 
 keep it from the hands; and an old brush should be 
 used. 
 
 For other stains and methods of applying them, see 
 recipes described in previous pages, where stains for 
 nearly all purposes are given. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS 
 
 Floor Polish. —Cut beeswax into small pieces, or else 
 grate it up; add turpentine, and allow the mixture to 
 stand for twelve hours; then heat it over the fire till 
 it dissolves. Care must be taken not to heat the 
 mixture too hot, and also the flame must not come too 
 near, for explosive vapors are generated, which are 
 liable to catch fire. 
 
 Dull Polish on Stained Whitewood. —The dull polish 
 that is seen on most furniture is obtained by partly 
 French polishing the article, and then removing any 
 apparent shine or gloss by well brushing the surface 
 over with medium grade pumice-powder or fine emery; 
 or the stained wood might be coated with spirit 
 varnish. In the absence of details as to the purpose 
 for which the stained wood is to be used, no other 
 procedure can be suggested. Stained floor-boards, for 
 instance, would not require French polishing, nor 
 even spirit varnishing, because a suitable polish can 
 be readily obtained by using beeswax dissolved in 
 turpentine, applied with a weighted brush. On the 
 other hand, on furniture goods French polish serves 
 a double purpose; the polish partly fills the grain or 
 pores of the wood, and gives a hard surface that can 
 be dulled without rubbing off the stain. 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 tgl 
 
 Refinishing Oak Doors that are Badly Weather- 
 Stained. —If possible, take the doors off the hinges and 
 lay them down flat on some trusses or boxes, and 
 remove the old varnish with ammonia or a mixture of 
 2 parts strong ammonia and I part of turpentine and 
 benzine, using a stubby brush to get into the outwork 
 and about the mouldings. When all the varnish has 
 been removed, dope over stained portions with a 
 strong oxalic acid solution, and see whether you can¬ 
 not bleach the wood by that operation. If this will 
 not work, }'ou have to resort to staining. Use raw 
 sienna for light effect, and, after staining, use paste 
 wood filler, colored to match the stain. Then proceed 
 as you would on new work. If the light stain does 
 not hide the weather stains, you will be obliged to use 
 a darker stain-and darker filler. 
 
 Coloring Wood Clear Through.. —All the sap is expelled 
 and the log is then treated with chemicals, and the 
 color or colors are pressed into the wood. Any shade 
 desired can be obtained, and, in fact, several colors 
 can be merged one into the other, producing a very 
 beautiful effect. On cutting up the samples we 
 received, we found that the color was evenly dis¬ 
 tributed all through the fibers, the grain of the wood 
 giving a very pleasing effect, especially when polished. 
 The wood, it is claimed, dries sooner than by ordinary 
 seasoning, and it can also be rendered fireproof by 
 adding special chemicals. Of course, painting is done 
 away with, so that the natural structure of the wood 
 is seen to better advantage than when painted in 
 the prdinary way. The coloring is, we understand, 
 free from arsenic and quite harmless; the colors do 
 not fade, and, of course, cannot be worn off by rub¬ 
 bing, etc. 
 
the Up-to-date 
 
 1Q2 
 
 Cleaning Polished Wood. —A good encaustic, which 
 will clean and polish at the same time, may be made 
 from wax, sal soda and any good soap. The wax and 
 soap should be shaved and dissolved in boiling water 
 Stir frequently and add the soda. Put the mixture in 
 something which may be closely covered, and stir 
 constantly until cool. This may be applied to floors, 
 furniture, marbles, tiles, bricks, etc. It will remove 
 ink from polished surfaces. The French use white wax 
 on white marbles, but this is not absolutely necessary. 
 
 Finishing Hardwood. —If it is open-grained wood I 
 should first fill it with paste filler, then I would give it 
 a coat of shellac, and after that I would bring it up 
 with a first-class varnish. 
 
 It would be all right to finish it all in shellac if it 
 could be kept from moisture, but wherever a drop of 
 water touches a shellac finish it will turn white. And 
 just as like as not the mistress will set the servants to 
 wiping up the hardwood finish with a damp cloth. 
 Now a good varnish will stand it, but shellac won’t. 
 But the best way to clean furniture and hardwood 
 work is to use crude oil—only a very little of it—and 
 then wipe it off thoroughly with cotton waste or 
 cheesecloth. The latter is preferable because it has 
 no lint to catch on the woodwork, although if you rub 
 it dry enough with cotton waste you can rub off any 
 lint that may be left. The crude oil acts as a varnish 
 renewer as well as a cleaner. But if it is not 
 thoroughly wiped off with plenty of elbow grease it 
 will catch the dirt and look pretty bad. Crude oil is 
 a good thing, provided you don’t use too much of it, 
 and then, again, provided you don’t leave it on. 
 
 Making Paste Wood Fillers. — Paste fillers for hard 
 woods are made from any of the following materials, 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 193 
 
 or a combination of these: silex or silica, terra alba, 
 whiting, china clay, starch, rye flour, and sometimes 
 barytes. Silex or terra alba will, on drying, give the 
 least discoloration to the wood. The pigment should 
 be of impalpable fineness and intimately mixed to a 
 stiff paste with one-third each of pale linseed oil, pale 
 gold size japan and turpentine. This paste may be 
 either run through a mill or be given a very thorough 
 mixing, and to test it for quality it should be thinned 
 with turpentine to the consistency of a varnish, applied 
 with a varnish brush to open-grained wood, preferably 
 oak, allowed to set for about twenty to thirty minutes, 
 and the surplus filler removed by wiping across the 
 grain in the usual manner. After twenty-four to 
 thirty-six hours, the surface should be lightly sand¬ 
 papered and a good, flowing coat of rubbing varnish 
 applied, which, when fairly well set, should not show 
 any pitting or pin holes. Should it pit, however, or 
 show pin holes or needle points, the filler is defect¬ 
 ive in binding properties, and the portion of japan 
 should be increased, with a corresponding decrease in 
 the proportion of turpentine. The linseed oil and the 
 gold size japan must be of good body, and if corn¬ 
 starch or rye flour is used in connection with silex or 
 silica, the proportions should be about one of the 
 former to five of the latter by weight. 
 
 Filler for White Ash.— -As white ash is a very porous 
 wood, it should be treated with an extra light mineral 
 paste wood filler, made from clean silex, mixed with 2 
 parts bleached linseed oil, 3 parts pale japan gold size 
 and 1 part turps, to stiff paste and thinned for use 
 with turpentine to the consistency of medium-bodied 
 varnish. When dry and hard the surface should be 
 smooth sandpapered and given a coat of white shellaf 
 
194 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 varnish, after which it may be finished with rubbing 
 varnish, that may be rubbed and polished in the ordinary 
 way. 
 
 Good Wood Finish.—Richness of effect may be 
 gained in decorative woodwork by using woods of 
 different tone, such as amaranth and amboyna, by 
 inlaying and veneering. The Plungarian ash and 
 French walnut afford excellent veneers, especially the 
 burs or gnarls. In varnishing, the varnishes used can 
 be toned down to match the wood, or be made to 
 darken it, by the addition of coloring matters. The 
 patented preparations, known as “wood fillers,” are 
 prepared in different colors for the purpose of pre¬ 
 paring the surface of wood previous to the varnishing. 
 They fill up the pores of the wood, rendering the 
 surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany, 
 walnut, etc., the following is recommended: Dissolve 
 beeswax by heat in spirits of turpentine until the 
 mixture becomes viscid; then apply, by a clean cloth, 
 and rub thoroughly with a flannel or cloth. A common 
 mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with 
 linseed oil, and then with a cloth dipped in very fine 
 brickdust; a good gloss may also be produced by 
 rubbing with linseed oil, and then holding trimmings 
 cr shavings of the same material against the work in 
 the lathe. Glass-paper, followed by rubbing, also gives 
 a good luster. 
 
 There are various means of toning or darkening 
 woods for decorative effect, such as logwood, lime, 
 brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate of iron, nitrate of 
 silver exposed to sun’s rays, carbonate of soda, 
 bichromate and permanganate of potash, and other 
 alkaline preparations are all used for darkening woods. 
 The last three are specially recommended. The 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 195 
 
 solution is applied by dissolving I ounce of the alkali 
 in 2 gills of boiling water, diluted to the required 
 tone. The surface is saturated with a sponge or 
 flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. The 
 carbonate i? used for dark woods. Oil tinged with 
 rose madder may be applied to hardwoods like birch, 
 and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet root in 
 linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can be brought 
 out by two or three coats of japan much diluted with 
 turpentine, and afterwards oiled and rubbed. To give 
 mahogany the appearance of age, lime water used 
 before oiling is a good plan. In staining wood, the 
 best and most transparent effect is obtained by 
 repeated light coats of the same. For oak stain a 
 strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; for 
 mahogany, dilute nitrous acid. A primary coat, or a 
 coat of wood fillers, is advantageous. For mahogany 
 stains the following are given: 2 ounces of dragons’ 
 blood dissolved in I quart of rectified spirits of wine, 
 well shaken; or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna 
 to give the required tone; for darker stairjs boil y 
 pound of madder and 2 ounces of logwood chips in T 
 gallon of water, and brush the decoction while hot 
 over the wood. When dry, paint with a solution of 2 
 ounces of potash in i quart of v/ater. A solution of 
 permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent 
 brown stain. 
 
 Easy Method of Finishing Woodwork. —French polish¬ 
 ing as a means of finishing furniture and woodwork is 
 generally regarded as a most tedious operation, owing 
 to the number of solutions to be used on work that is 
 built up of various kinds of wood, in bringing it up to 
 uniform color, and in polishing it so as to bring out 
 and reflect to the fullest extent the markings or figure 
 
196 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 of the wood. On high-grade goods, with a bright, 
 lustrous, level finish this is so. Yet much furniture is 
 not of high-grade finish, so far as the polisher 
 is concerned; for instance, bedroom furniture that is 
 stained green is rarely finished out extra bright, and 
 the same may be said of fumed oak goods and many 
 American organs. In fact, some goods look far bettei 
 with a faintly lustrous polished surface than if finished 
 out very bright, especially if the surface is at all 
 uneven or badly cleaned up. A process of finishing 
 known as “dry shining” strikes a medium between 
 high-grade finish and simple spirit varnishing. In the 
 crudest form of this process the work is simply oiled 
 and a wet rubber of polish applied all over, not 
 sufficient being used to fill the grain, but just enough 
 to kill the oil. This treatment is generally considered 
 good enough for the insides of drawers, cupboards, 
 etc., the object being to remove an unfinished 
 appearance and to prevent the surface getting as dirty 
 as it otherwise might. From this better degrees of 
 finish may be reached. The work may be oiled, filled 
 in, one or more rubbers of polish laid on just to fill 
 up the grain, and then an even coat of spirit varnish 
 applied. If the articles are of white wood, they may 
 be stained to imitate some choicer wood before 
 oiling; and if the goods are likely to be subject to 
 hard wear, the coating of spirit varnish may be 
 omitted, the polish being worked out fairly dry to 
 ensure the removal of all oil; then apply a coat of 
 oak or painter’s varnish, which, however, gives a 
 bright surface when dry, and is merely mentioned as 
 a means of obtaining a bright finish with the minimum 
 of trouble. 
 
 Egg-shell finish also does not require the trouble- 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 *97 
 
 some operation of spiriting out. Here the work is 
 brought up to a stage nearly approaching that for 
 spiriting, but the surface of polish when hard is dulled 
 by rubbing or brushing with fine-grade pumice-stone 
 powder or flour emery, in which condition it may be 
 left. If a gloss instead of a shine is preferred, the 
 wood should have a smart rubbing of beeswax and 
 turps. Black work has a specially chaste appearance 
 thus finished, and the black stain of logwood and 
 iron solution may be used, aniline spirit black being 
 employed for imparting density of color to pale 
 shellac polish. If it is not convenient to use varnish, 
 and a simple solution of shellac in spirits (4 ounces 
 orange shellac dissolved in I pint methylated spirit) 
 is the only solution at hand, a passable finish may still 
 be gained by enclosing the pad in a piece of soft rag 
 and finishing out by working it in straight lines, after 
 a body has been put on without a covering. When 
 the articles must be stained, it will be found more 
 economical to buy the stains ready-made if only a 
 small quantity is required. Dry shining has at least 
 the merit of building up a surface that can be taken in 
 hand again and French polished. 
 
 Metallization of Wood. —Some artisans in Germany 
 have succeeded in turning to practical account the 
 recently devised process by which wood is made to 
 take on some of the special characteristics of metal, 
 that is, the surface becomes so hard and smooth as to 
 be susceptible of a high polish, and may be treated 
 with a burnisher of either glass or porcelain; the 
 appearance of the wood being then in every respect 
 that of polished metal, having, in fact, the semblance 
 of a metallic mirror, but with this peculiar and 
 advantageous difference, namely, that, unlike metal, 
 
THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 198 
 
 it is unaffected by moisture. To reach this result the 
 wood is steeped in a bath of caustic alkali for two or 
 three days, according to its degree of permeability, at 
 a temperature of between 164° and 197° Fahr.; it is 
 then placed in a second bath of hydrosulphate of 
 calcium, to which a concentrated solution of sulphur is 
 added, after some twenty-four or thirty-six hours; the 
 third bath is one of acetate of lead, at a temperature 
 of from 95 0 to 122°, and in this latter the wood is 
 allowed to remain from thirty to fifty hours. After 
 being subjected to a thorough drying it is in a con¬ 
 dition for being polished with lead, tin or zinc, as may 
 be desired, finishing the process with a burnisher, when 
 the wood apparently becomes a piece of shining, 
 polished metal. 
 
 How to Tone Down New Mahogany, Oak, etc. —In 
 
 making repairs to furniture, it usually happens that 
 the new wood is considerably lighter in tone than the 
 old, and ordinary stains will not match it so as to give 
 satisfaction. This can be done easily, however, by 
 means of a solution of bichromate of potash. To 
 make this, purchase a cent’s worth of the chemical, 
 and placing it in an ordinary medicine bottle, fill up 
 with water and shake until dissolved. To use the 
 solution, rub a small quantity on the wood to be 
 darkened, and await results. If not dark enough, give 
 another coat. It dries in a few minutes, and can be 
 sandpapered after, as it is not a surface stain, but a 
 chemical one. By a judicious use of the above 
 solution it is easy to match old work of any description, 
 so that the new and old cannot be distinguished from 
 each other. 
 
 Spirit Varnish for Violins.— Spirit varnish is difficult 
 to apply evenly, owing to its drying so quickly. The 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 199 
 
 color generally appears streaky. In any case, no 
 shellac should be used in the varnish, as shellac is too 
 hard. A good spirit varnish is made as follows: 
 First size the violin with a mixture of 3 parts of best 
 copal varnish and 1 part of turpentine, applied hot 
 with a rag, and well rubbed in. Color y 2 pint of 
 alcohol with turmeric and a little red sanders added to 
 take away the greenish tinge. Dissolve 2 ounces of 
 gum sandarach (juniper) in y 2 pint of alcohol. Put 
 the two half-pint mixtures together, and add 2 table¬ 
 spoonfuls of Venice turpentine and 2 ounces of white 
 shellac. When dissolved, filter through cotton wool. 
 
 Putting Transfers on Coach Panels. —The method of 
 transferring crests and monograms to the panels of 
 coaches, etc., is as follows: Cover carefully the face 
 of the design (that is, the colored or printed side) with 
 a thin, smooth coat of gold size mixed with two or 
 three drops of varnish, being careful to cover all parts 
 that are to be transferred. Let the gold size coating 
 become thoroughly tacky or sticky, then lay the design 
 face downward on the panel to be decorated, and roll 
 it down smoothly with a rubber roller, pressing out all 
 air bubbles. When the adhesive has got quite dry, 
 thoroughly soak the paper with water by means of a 
 sponge, then gently peel off the paper from one 
 corner. Sponge the surface composition off the 
 panel, and when the design is quite dry, apply a 
 finishing coat of varnish. Transfers can also be applied 
 without coating them with gold size, if the panels 
 have been recently varnished, and have a good tack 
 (that is to say, when the varnish is sticky , as the 
 design will then adhere by gentle pressure. 
 
 Paint for Blackboards. —The best blackboard paint is 
 made by moistening 4 ounces dry lampblack with 
 
200 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 alcohol, rubbing it out with a spatula, gradually 
 adding I quart of shellac varnish, and stirring into 
 this 3 ounces flour of pumice and 3 ounces finely 
 pulverized rotten stone; then straining through a fine 
 sieve or strainer to break up any lumps that may have 
 formed. This is applied quickly to the bare wood, so 
 that no laps are formed, and in a day or so a second 
 coat may be applied, and after standing a day or two 
 longer may be haired or mossed. 
 
 Ebonizing. —Apply to the wood, by means of a brush 
 or sponge, a solution of hydrochloric aniline dissolved 
 in water, to which has been added a little protochlo¬ 
 ride of copper. When this coating has dried, apply 
 similarly a solution of bichromate of potash dissolved 
 in water. After this process has been repeated two, 
 or at the most three, times, the wood will assume a 
 clear, full, durable black color, which is affected 
 neither by the action of light nor dampness. 
 
 Polishing Boxwood Draughtmen. —The cheaper class of 
 draughtmen are simply coated with a good quality 
 spirit varnish, but high-grade goods are polished in the 
 lathe. The polish that is used and the method of 
 applying the polish differ slightly from the method 
 that is employed in polishing flat surfaces. A bright 
 finish on both sides and edges is only obtained after 
 several handlings, the chief difficulty being the 
 manipulation in the early stages, such as the provision 
 of suitable chucks, the avoidance of the use of glass- 
 paper, and the knack of using the polish so that it 
 will not clog up the finer grooves. If ordinary French 
 polish is used, it should not be applied with new 
 wadding; a wad made from a rubber that has been used 
 on other work should be employed, so that there may 
 be less risk of loose fluff sticking to the work while the 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 201 
 
 polishing is being done. The wad would not require 
 the rag covering that is usual on flat surfaces. If a 
 lathe is not available, very good results could be 
 obtained by using polish for sealing up the pores of 
 the wood and forming a smooth foundation, and then 
 applying carefully a coating of good quality clear 
 spirit varnish. Black goods should be stained first 
 with French black water stain, and the polishing done 
 with black polish. White polish made from bleached 
 shellac, or a transparent polish, should be used in 
 preference to polish that is made from orange or lemon 
 shellac. 
 
 Softening Putty. —To soften putty that has become 
 hard by exposure, so as to remove it easily from a 
 sash, take I pound of pearlash and 3 pounds of quick- 
 stone lime; slake the lime in water, then add the 
 pearlash, and make the whole of about the consistency 
 of paint; apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it 
 remain for twelve hours, when the putty will be so 
 softened that the glass may be taken out of the frame 
 with the greatest facility. 
 
 Bruises in Wood. —To take out bruises in furniture, 
 wet the part with warm water; double a piece of brown 
 paper five or six times, soak it, and lay it on the place; 
 apply on that a hot flatiron till the moisture is 
 evaporated. If the bruise be not gone, repeat the 
 process. After two or three applications, the dent or 
 bruise will be raised level with the surface. If the 
 bruise be small, merely soak it with warm water, and 
 apply a red-hot poker very near the surface; keep it 
 continually wet, and in a few moments the bruise will 
 disappear. 
 
 Wood Stains. —The following have been published by 
 a German paper as formulae for some wood stains, 
 
202 
 
 THE UP-TO-DATE 
 
 which may be put up in a dry form, and when wanted 
 for use may be readily dissolved in water: Oak wood 
 5 kg. of Cassel brown, .5 kg., of potash, and 10 kg. of 
 rain-water, boiled together for an hour, the whole 
 strained through a linen cloth, and the clear, dark- 
 colored liquid boiled to a syrupy consistency. Walnut 
 wood: A decoction of Cassel brown, 3 kg.; potash, .3 
 kg.; and water, 7 kg.; the whole strained through 
 linen, and during evaporation to syrup 2.5 kg. of 
 extract of logwood added. Mahogany: A decoction 
 of extract of Brazil wood, 3 kg.; potash, .25 kg., and 
 water, 3 kg.; to which, before evaporating to syrup, 
 150 gr. of eosine are added. Ebony: 5 kg. of extract 
 of logwood, boiled with 11 kg. of water, and, when 
 near the syrupy state, 300 gr. of iron nitrate added; 
 evaporated to a syrup under constant stirring. All 
 the above stains are brought into a dry condition by 
 running the respective syrups into trays of sheet iron, 
 with low rims, in which the syrup hardens, and is 
 afterward broken up and ground. 
 
 It is often desirable to retain the grain of the natural 
 wood exposed to view, at the same time to preserve 
 its surface from decay and give it a more beautiful 
 appearance; this is done either by polishing or 
 varnishing. To varnish such woods a little skill is 
 required to obtain a really good gloss, smooth as 
 glass, upon its surface. All roughness should be 
 carefully removed, being particular not to leave any 
 marks, especially across the grain, of the sandpaper 
 or other material used in smoothing, and the work 
 should be afterwards well sized, either with gelatine 
 or good glue size. This size is to prevent the 
 absorption of the varnish in soft places, and to obtain 
 a more even gloss, Sizing sometimes has a tendency 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 203 
 
 to raise the grain of the wood, more particularly of 
 soft wood, especially if applied warm. Use oak 
 varnish. 
 
 Aniline Dyes. —Aniline dyes are of two kinds, one 
 dissolving in water, the other in spirits. As they have 
 a tendency to fade in the light, the water dyes are 
 preferable, as they can be mixed with a little vinegar, 
 this greatly hindering the fading out process. To dis¬ 
 solve in spirits, use a spirit varnish, such as painters 
 use. No definite amount necessary to stain varnish 
 can be given, and it will be necessary to experiment 
 with it. 
 
6^L/^. 7V^. 
 
 >, 
 
 *^r - 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 INDEX TO PART ONE 
 
 A. 
 
 American woods, 12 
 Apple wood, 15 
 A patent glue-pot, 47 
 A diagram of planes, 86 
 
 B. 
 
 Bevel dovetailing, 31 
 Bevel scrapers, 71 
 Blind nailing, 96 
 
 C. 
 
 Characteristics of woods, 13 
 Carving woods, 15 
 Construction, 40 
 Clamping veneers, 42 
 Cauls, 51 
 
 Cross-cut saws, 77 
 
 D. 
 
 Details of wainscot, 18 
 Drawing spiral baluster, 21 
 Dovetailing, 22 
 Dovetailing, plain, 23 
 Dovetail pins, 25 
 Dovetail mortises, 25 
 Dovetailing tap, 27 
 Dovetailing, miter, 29 
 Dovetailing, bevel, 31 
 Daniels planer work, 34 
 Doors, 35 
 Doors, wedges, 42 
 Diagrams for veneer, 57 
 Dry material for work, 60 
 Diagrams of scraper, 69 
 Diagram of cutting edge, 70 
 Defective sharpening of scrap¬ 
 er, 72 
 
 Dovetailing saw, 78 
 Determining pitch of saw teeth, 
 83 
 
 Direction of grain in planes, 85 
 Diagrams of cutting pitches, 91 
 Diagrams for blind nailing, 97 
 
 E. 
 
 Elevation and section of oak 
 wainscot, 19 
 
 Equipment for making hard¬ 
 wood doors, 36 
 
 F. 
 
 Flatting work, 49 
 File-sharpening a scraper, 69 
 Files and rasps, 74 
 Filing a saw, 78 
 Fixing planes, 87 
 
 G. 
 
 Glued up stuff for doors, 36 
 Glue-pot, patent, 37 
 Gluing horse, 37 
 Gluing frame, 38 
 Gluing up stuff for ■ general 
 work, 39 
 
 Gluing up joints, 46 
 
 H. 
 
 Hardwoods generally, 16 
 Hardwood wainscot, 17 
 How to use a scraper, 63 
 How to hold a scraper, 64 
 How to sharpen a scraper, 65 
 Holding a scraper, 67 
 Handled scraper, 72 
 How to use sandpaper, 74 
 Hand saws, 77 
 How to file a saw, 80 
 Hag’s tooth, 93 
 How to set a plane iron, 93 
 How to sharpen plane irons on 
 oilstone, 95 
 
 I. 
 
 Introduction, 7 
 Inserting plane irons, 89 
 
 J. 
 
 Jointing, 50 
 Jack planes, 85 
 
11 
 
 INDEX TO PART ONE 
 
 L. 
 
 Laying out dovetailing, 23 
 Lap dovetailing, 27 
 Laying out saw teeth, 83 
 Laying hold of smoothing plane, 
 88 
 
 M. 
 
 Miter dovetailing, 30 
 Mitered splay dovetailing, 32 
 Moulded panels, 42 
 Mortising doors, 43 
 Mortising tools, 44 
 Metal cauls, 52 
 
 Method of veneering columns ,56 
 Making saw teeth uniform 
 length, 82 
 
 Method of sighting iron in 
 planes, 88 
 
 P. 
 
 Preface, 5 
 Planer work, 34 
 Preparation for veneering, 48 
 Polish for scraper, 65 
 Patent scraper, 72 
 Planes generally, 84 
 Planes—how to use, 86 
 Pitch of plane irons, 91 
 
 R. 
 
 Remarks on veneering, 48 
 Round corner scraper, 62 
 Rules for scraper sharpening, 70 
 Round and hollow scrapers, 73 
 Rasps and files, 74 
 Rip saws, 76 
 
 Regulating the saw teeth, 82 
 
 S. 
 
 Spiral baluster or newel, 21 
 Section and elevation of oak 
 wainscot, 19 
 
 Secret lap dovetailing, 28 
 Surplus glue, rubbing out, 45 
 
 Sizing up work for gluing, 48 
 Scrapers, 61 
 
 Scrapers with handles, 61 
 Saw plate scrapers, 62 
 Sharpening a scraper, 64 
 Sharpening on oilstone, 68 
 Sharpening by using a file, 69 
 Sandpaper blocks, 74 
 Saws for hardwood, 75 
 Saw teeth, 78 
 Setting a saw, 79 
 Sharpening tenon saws, 81 
 Squaring over saw teeth, 83 
 Smoothing planes, 87 
 Sighting plane iron, 88 
 Setting in plane iron, 89 
 Stones for sharpening plane 
 iron, 94 
 
 Secret nailing, 96 
 T. 
 
 The better woods to make use 
 of, 16 
 
 The choice of glue, 45 
 Tenon saws, 78 
 Trying planes, 86 
 
 V. 
 
 Veneers, 40 
 Veneering, 41 
 Veneering by cauls, 51 
 Veneering round and tapering 
 columns, 55 
 
 Veneering small work, 58 
 Veneering beveled picture 
 frames, 59 
 
 Varieties of scrapers, 73 
 
 W. 
 
 Wood discussed, 10 
 Woods of various kinds, 12 
 Wedged doors, 42 
 Wood scrapers, 61 
 Wood planes, 86 
 
 i 
 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 
 
 INDEX TO PAET TWO 
 
 A. 
 
 Ash stain, 59 
 
 Another polish recipe, 75 
 A good polish, 76 
 A polish that will stand water, 
 76 • 
 
 A French polish reviver, 77 
 Antique oak, 94 
 Another method of darkening 
 oak, 119 
 
 Austrian oak, 123 
 An egg-shell finish, 141 
 A polished finish, 141 
 Ash wood, 148 
 
 A method of finishing ash, 149 
 A method of staining wood, 157 
 A brown stain, 158 
 A dark dye, 159 
 A fine yellow dye, 161 
 A fine blue dye, 161 
 A bright yellow dye, 161 
 Applying the size, 176 
 Aniline dyes, 203 
 
 B. 
 
 Black, 26 
 Brazil wood, 27 
 Blackboard wash, 29 
 Blue, 32 
 Brown, 33 
 
 Brushes for varnishing, 63 
 Brushes for flowing, 65 
 Bodying in and spiriting off, 78 
 Black oak, 123 
 Black birch, 131 
 Birch wood, 131 
 Beech wood, 150 
 Beech finishing, 151 
 Bright yellow dye, 160 
 Bright green dye, 161 
 Bright red dye, 161 
 Burnish gilding, 176 
 Burnishing, 178 
 
 Bronzing, 180 
 Banana solutions, 181 
 Bruises in wood, 201 
 
 C. 
 
 China clay wood filler, 10 
 Cherry wood filler, 14 
 Cleaning off filling, 18 
 Coloring and matching, 108 
 Cherry, 128 
 Cypress, 135 
 Cedar, white, 150 
 Composition for frame orna> 
 ments, 179 
 
 Coloring wood right through 
 191 
 
 Cleaning polished wood, 192 
 
 D. 
 
 Dark mahogany, 44 
 Darkening oak, 47 
 Darkening walnut, 54 
 Dead finish, 77 
 Dry shining, 99 
 Dyeing woods, 159 
 Dyeing blue, 161 
 Dyeing yellow, 161 
 Dyeing green, 162 
 Dyeing red, 162 
 Dull polish on stained white- 
 wood, 190 
 
 E. 
 
 Ebonizing, 34 
 Egg-shell finish, 141 
 Egg-shell gloss, 146 
 Ebonizing with shellac, 153 
 Ebonizing methods, 154 
 Estimating cost of floors, 188 
 Easy method of finishing wood¬ 
 work, 195 
 Ebonizing, 200 
 
 iii 
 
IV 
 
 INDEX TO PART TWO 
 
 F. 
 
 Filler for light woods, 13 
 Filler for cherry, 14 
 Filler for oak, 14 
 Filler for rosewood, 14 
 Filling with plaster of Paris, 15 
 Filler for redwood, 17 
 Floors, 40 
 
 French polishing, 66 
 First and best recipe, 74 
 Finishing oak, 113 
 Fumigated oak, 116 
 Flemish oak, 122 
 Fumigated oak, 125 
 For removing polish and re- 
 staining oak, 127 
 Finishing black birch, 131 
 Finishing mahogany, 132 
 Finishing redwood, 141 
 For an egg-shell gloss, 141 
 For a dull finish, 141 
 For a polished finish, 141 
 For a walnut finish, 142 
 For mahogany and cherry fin¬ 
 ish, 143 
 
 For rosewood finish, 143 
 For an egg-shell gloss, 146 
 For a dull finish, 147 
 For a polished finish, 147 
 Finishing maple, 148 
 For a brown stain, 157 
 For a black dye, 159 
 Fine blue dye, 161 
 Fine yellow dye, 161 
 Finishing good work, 178 
 Flooring generally, 187 
 Floor polish, 190 
 Finishing hardwood, 192 
 Filler for white ash, 193 
 
 G. 
 
 Gas black, 29 
 Green stains, 43 
 Gray, 43 
 Glaze polish, 91 
 German finishing, 106 
 Golden oak, 121 
 Green dyes, 162 
 Gray dyes, 164 
 
 Gilding, bronzing and composi- 
 164 
 
 Gilding mirror frame, 166 
 Gilding furniture, 171 
 Gold size, 173 
 
 Gold adhering, to prevent, 17? 
 Gold wood finish, 194 
 
 H. 
 
 Hemlock wood, 151 
 Hemlock finishing, 152 
 Hardwood floors, 183 
 How to tone down new work, 
 198 
 
 I. 
 
 Imitation oak stain, 145 
 Imitation mahogany stain, 145 
 Imitation rosewood stain, 143 
 Imitation walnut stain, 145 
 
 L. 
 
 Luxeberry finish, 23 
 Liquid slating, 29 
 Light mahogany, 44 
 Liquid for brightening and set-- 
 ting colors, 163 
 Laying the gold, 177 
 
 M. 
 
 Mahogany stains, 44 
 Mahogany, dark, 44 
 Mahogany, light, 44 
 Manufacturers’ polish, 80 
 Making antique oak, 117 
 Mahogany wood, 147 
 Maple wood, 147 
 Matting or dead gold, 178 
 Making paste wood fillers, 192 
 Metallization of wood, 197 
 
 N. 
 
 Next best recipe, 75 
 New floors, 187 
 
 O. 
 
 Oil filling, 11 
 Oak filler, 14 
 Oak wood, 47 
 
 Other French polish recipes, 75 
 Oil finishing and dry shining, 9£ 
 Oak, fumigated, 116 
 Oak staining generally, 124 
 
INDEX TO PART TWO 
 
 v 
 
 (Other woods, 150 
 Orange dyes, 163 
 Gil size, 173 
 Oil gilding, 175 
 On hardwood floors, 183 
 
 P. 
 
 Picking sticks, 18 
 Picking brushes, 19 
 Purple stain, 49 
 Polishing wad, 69 
 Prepared spirits, 76 
 Polish for turners’ work, 77 
 Pine wood, 142 
 Pine finish, 142 
 Purple dyes, 163 
 Parchment size, 173 
 Preparing the woodwork, 176 
 Polishing, 176 
 
 Putting transfers on coach 
 panels, 199 
 
 Paint for blackboards, 199 
 Polishing boxwood draught- 
 men, 200 
 
 R. 
 
 Rosewood filler, 14 
 Red stain, 50 
 Rubber for polishing, 68 
 Rules for polishing, 73 
 Repolishing and reviving, 104 
 Red oak, 123 
 Regarding cypress, 135 
 Rosewood generally, 138 
 Rosewood finish, 139 
 Redwood, 141 
 Red dyes, 162 
 Refinishing oak doors, 191 
 
 S. 
 
 Surfacing finish, 21 
 Sizing work, 24 
 Staining black, 26 
 Satin wood, 52 
 Staining oak brown, 59 
 Shellac polish, 81 
 Styles of oak finish, 120 
 Sycamore wood, 151 
 Sycamore finishing, 151 
 Stains of all kinds, 155 
 
 Staining carved panels, 158 
 Staining spirit varnish, 158 
 Silver gray dye, 164 
 Sizes, 173 
 Shelled gold, 179 
 Silver size, 179 
 
 Staining woodwork with acids, 
 182 
 
 Stained floors, 189 
 
 Spirit varnish for violins, 198 
 
 Softening putty, 201 
 
 T. 
 
 The finishing of various woods, 
 
 112 
 
 The rules for finishing oak, 113 
 To darken oak, 119 
 To finish cherry, 128 
 The mahogany stains, 133 
 To manipulate gold leaf, 179 
 
 V. 
 
 Varnishing floors, 41 
 Violet stain, 52 
 Varnishing and polishing, 59 
 Verde or green finish, 123 
 
 W. 
 
 Wood fillers and how to use 
 them, 7 
 
 Wheeler’s wood filler, 8 
 Walnut filler, No. 1, 13 
 Walnut filler, No. 2, 13 
 Wood staining generally, 25 
 Walnut wood, 52 
 Walnut stains, 53 
 Wad for polishing, 69 
 Wax polishing, 93 
 Wax and turpentine, 95 
 Wax mixture, 96 
 Weathered oak, 123 
 Walnut finishing generally, 135 
 White pine finishing, 142 
 White cedar, 150 
 Wood stains, 201 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellow stain, 55 
 Yellow dye, dark, 161 
 Yellow dye, bright, 161 
 
1 / $7 
 
 STEEL SQUARE 
 
 A TREATISE OF THE PRAGTSGAL USES OF 
 
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