\ THE ENGLISH HOME Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2014 https://archive.org/details/englishhomeOOflet THE ENGLISH HOME BY BANISTER FLIGHT FLETCHER ARCHITECT, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.I. BARRISTER-AT-LAW OF THE INNER TEMPLE AND HERBERT PHILLIPS FLETCHER ARCHITECT, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.I., A.M.I.C.E. BARRISTER-AT-LAW OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.T. WITH 336 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK CHARLES SGRIBNER'S SONS 1910 PREFACE Along preface would be out of place for this work, as the Duke of Argyll has very kindly written an Introduction which explains suc- cinctly the objects we had in writing this book. We can only hope that our attempt to show the why and wherefore " in the building of the home may to some slight extent stimulate the general interest in Architecture. We have had the manuscript in hand during the last three years, and its publication has been unavoid- ably delayed owing to various causes. BANISTER F. FLETCHER H. PHILLIPS FLETCHER 29 New Bridge Street LuDGATE Circus, E.G. June ist^ igio INTRODUCTION BY HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.T. OUR Home! How best to build it for comfort and beauty ? So many things go to the making of an ideal house, and yet how little do many of us concern our- selves with its construction or with the reasons for the particular design of each separate part, the nature of the floors we walk over, the walls which protect us from the cold and heat, and the roofs that afford us shelter from the weather ! It is but too true that the education of most of us includes but little study of architecture — the oldest of all the arts — which throug^hout successive aofes has been the outcome of progressive civilization. It is the one art upon which we are always depen- dent, whether in the secluded village or the crowded town. The lowly country cottage, the stately town house or castle, all in their place must have their suit- able architectural form. In our public schools we are taught something of the dwellers in many lands with various climates, and but little of their dwellings. But our own habitation where we spend the greater part of our lives often remains a secret as to its con- struction, which we are mostly content to leave to others, although the practical usefulness of our business vii viii THE ENGLISH HOME premises, the grandeur and dignity of our public buildings and churches, the effective treatment of our bridges, and the general aspect of our streets depend upon the adoption of suitable architectural treatment, the application of sound architectural principles, and the co-ordination of the various parts of the plan. People are beginning to show a little interest in town-planning as a matter of national concern, and the sequel of this may be that architecture will take its place as a necessary part of any liberal education, for it teaches men not only to know but to do the right thing in the right place in the matter of building. In Stalky Jtmior Rudyard Kipling makes someone say that he thought all floors were of solid wood, instead of having joists or beams of timber at inter- vals supporting thin floor-boards. It has been suggested to the Brothers Fletcher that a book written in a terse and popular style and giving concise information about details of the house would be of practical use and interest to the public. Many books have been published dealing with small houses, but they are mostly of the scrap-book type of "pretty pictures" collected by the amateur. This book attempts to explain the "why and where- fore " of things in building and to draw attention to essentials in design and construction from the point of view of the layman. Messrs. Fletcher have dealt with sanitary construc- tion at some length in their book upon Architectural Hygiene but that work is written more especially for the architect. INTRODUCTION ix It has been their endeavour in this book to use no perplexing technical terms which cannot be easily explained and understood. It has been sought so to divide the subject as to deal concisely in each chapter with one portion of the house or its adjuncts. The book commences with an historical review of the development of the English Home, and the continuing chapters deal with the details necessary to promote health and comfort in a modern house. A number of examples with short explana- tions of small homes executed by various architects are given. In addition to the illustrations of houses designed by the authors, Messrs. Arthur T. Bolton, Walter Cave, E. Guy Dawber, Forsyth and Maule, Arthur Keen, E. L. Lutyens, Maurice H. Pocock, A. N. Prentice, M. H. Baillie Scott, Harrison Towns- end, and C. F. A. Voysey have kindly lent copies of some of their works for reproduction. By this means a number of comprehensive and com- pleted structures have been illustrated, showing how various architects have dealt with different problems that have been referred to them. The small illustra- tions explanatory of the printed matter are placed in juxtaposition therewith, thus obviating as far as pos- sible the necessity of searching for illustrations in other parts of the work, though frequent cross references are given for the use of those desiring fuller informa- tion upon any point. Takinor the house from the commencement to the completion, this little book contributes to the right understanding and practical knowledge of all those X THE ENGLISH HOME small things which in these days go to build up the English Home, which is the envy and the ideal of all other nations of the world. We have in this book two practical architects of large experience giving information and advice in a popular, concise, and convenient form to the increas- ing number of the general public who take an interest in the design and construction of the houses in which they live. I think they have succeeded in this. The book may also assist the reader in dealing successfully with local builders and craftsmen when initiating small repairs and alterations. It is possible that the summarized suggestions may help to crystallize the somewhat vague notions of many who wish to build with reo^ard to the kind of structure they deem desirable, and it may give them some approximate notion of the cost it would entail. It may also enable some of us to have more or less mature ideas of our requirements before we consult with our architects, which will greatly facilitate the preparation of preliminary sketches ; for every house should Dossess its distinctive character, which should reflect the sentiment of the occupant, quite apart from the professional impress of the architect's hand. ARGYLL 2 1st Aprils igio CONTENTS CHAPTER PACiE I. An Historical Review of the English Home . i H. The Site . . ... 39 HI. The Plan . . ... 46 IV. The Exterior . . . . . 58 V. Construction . . ... 74 VI. The Interior . . . . . 91 VII. Water Supply and Fittings . . .102 VIII. House Drainage . . . . 1 24 IX. Sanitary Fittings . . . . 139 X, The Ventilation, Trapping and Siphonage of Drains . . ... 154 XI. Typical Drainage Plans . . . . 1 60 XII. The Collection and Disposal of Sewage and Refuse . . ... 166 XIII. Heating . . . . . 176 XIV. Lighting . . ... 192 XV. Ventilation . . ... 208 XVI. The Decoration and Finishing of the House . 220 XVII. The Adaptation of Existing Houses to Modern Requirements . ... 229 XVIII. Modern English Homes by different Architects 246 XIX. The Garden . . . • • 358 XX. Stables and Motor Garages . . . 364 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS CHAPTER I, — An Historical Essay on the English Home 1. Plan of Keep of the Tower of London 2. Kenil worth Castle, Warwickshire 3. Plan and Elevation of Penshurst Place, Kent . 4. Hatfield House, Herts. Ground-floor Plan 5. ,, First ,, 6. Plans and Elevation of Holland House, Kensington 7. Stoke Park, Northants. First-floor Plan 8. Plan, Section and Elevation of Castle Howard, Yorkshire Q. Holkham Hall. First-floor Plan CHAPTER HI.— The Plan 10. A Suburban House. Ground-floor Plan . . • • 53 11. A Semi-detached House. First-floor Plan . . • • 53 12. Ground ,, . . • • 53 13. A Bungalow. Ground-floor Plan . . ... 54 14. An Entrance Lodge ,, ,, . . . . . 54 15. A Doctor's House ,, ,, . . . . . 54 16. Workmen's Cottages ,, ,, . . • • 55 17. A Town House. Ground-floor Plan . . • • • 55 18. ,, Second ,, . . . • • 55 19. A Large Country House . . . ... 56 CHAPTER IV.— The Exterior 20. Georgian Sash Window. Elevation . . ... 64 21. ,, ,, Plan . . ... 64 22. ,, Section . , ... 64 CHAPTER V.^CONSTRUCTION 23. A Hollow Wall . . . . ... 77 24. Wall Tiling . . . . ... 78 25. A Horizontal Damp-proof Course . . ... 79 26. A Vertical ,, . • . . . 80 27. A Covered Dry Area . . . ... 80 28. An Open Dry Area . . . ... 80 xui XIV THE ENGLISH HOME ILL- rA(;E 29. The Gathering of Flues . . . ... 81 30. A Timber Floor with Herring-bone Strutting . . . . 82 31. Hygienic Floor . . . . ... 82 32. A Double Floor . . . . ... 83 33. A Fire-resisting Timber Floor . . ... 84 34. A Steel and Concrete Fire-resisting Floor . . . . 84 35. A Reinforced Concrete Floor . . ... 85 36. A Wood-block Floor . . , ... 85 37. Eaves of Roof . . . . ... 86 38. A King-post Roof . . . ... 87 39. A Queen-post Roof . . . . . . M7 40. An Open Timber Roof . . . ... 87 41. Pantiling . . . . ... 88 CHAPTER Vn.— Water Supply and Fittings 42. Section showing source of Spring Water . ... 103 43. Section of Well . . . . .... 104 44. Lifting Pump . . , . ... 104 45. Force Pump . . . . . . . 104 46. ,, . . . . . . . 105 47. Artesian Well . . . . . . . 105 48. Section of Sand Filter . . . . . . 108 49. Berkefeld Filter . . . . • . . . 109 50. Automatic Self-cleansing Pllter. Elevation . . . . 1 10 51. ,, ,, Section . . . . 1 10 52. Hydraulic Ram . . . . ... 114 53. Water-wheel Pump . . . . . , 116 54. Turbine-driven Pump . . . . . . 117 55. Underground Cistern . . . . . . 117 56. India-rubber Cone Closet Joint . . . . . 118 57. Barrel Union, Lead to Iron . . . . . 118 58. Iron to Iron. . . . . . 118 59. Connector Joint ,, • . • ... 118 60. Boiler Screw . . . . ... 119 61. Waste to Bath . . . • ... 119 62. Stop cock . . . . ... 120 63. Kelvin's Tap . . . . . . . 120 64. Quarter-turn Bib-valve . . . . . . 120 65. Clear-way Wheel Valve . . . ... 120 66. Full- way Valve . . . . . . . 121 67. Spring Valve . • . . • . . 121 68. Bath Fitting . . . • • . . 121 69. Flap-valve . . • . ... 121 70. Full- way Ball-valve . . . . . . 122 71. Air Chamber . . . . ... 122 72. „ . . . . ... 122 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV CHAPTER VIII.— House Drainage ILL. PAGB 73. Drain laid on Concrete Bed . . ... 124 74. Stanford's Joint . . . . ... 126 75. M . . . . ... 126 76. Caulked Lead Joint . . . . . . 126 77. Taper Pipe . . . . ... 127 78. Single or Y-Junction . . . . . . 128 79. Right-angled Iron Bend . . . ... 128 80. Pedestal Bend . . . ... 128 81. Inspection Chamber. Plan . . . . . 129 82. ,, Sectional Elevation . ... 129 83. Channel Pipe . . . . ... 130 84. . . . . ... 130 85. Inspection Chamber Junction . . ... 130 86. Interceptor Trap . . . . . . 131 87. Stopper . . . . > . . 131 88. Manhole Cover . . . . ... 131 89. ,, for Internal Use . .• . . . 131 90. Open-grid Cover . . . ... 132 91. Inspection Pipe . . . . ... 132 92. Lip Trap . . . . ... 132 93. Bad Form of Gully . . . ... 132 94. U-Trap . . . . . • . 133 95. Bell Trap . . . . ..133 96. Back-Inlet Gully . . . ... 134 97. Section of Ordinary Gully . . ... 134 98. Dean's Grease Trap . . . . . . 134 99. Winsers ,, . . . ... 135 100. Channel Shoe . . . . ... 135 101. Flushing Gully . . . . ... 136 102. Inspection Gully . . . . . . 136 103. Stable Gully . . . . ... 137 104. Back-flow Trap . . . . ... 137 CHAPTER IX.— Sanitary Fittings 105. Pan Closet . . . . ... 140 106. Long-hopper Closet . . . . . . 141 107. Wash-out Closet . . . ... 141 108. Short-hopper Closet . . . ... 141 109. Wash-down ,, . . . ... 142 no. Simplicitas ,, . . . ... 142 111. Bracket Closet . . . . ... 142 112. Hellyer's Optimus Valve Closet. Elevation . ... 143 113. ,, ,, Section . ... 143 114. Shank's Siphonic Closet . . . ... 144 115. Silent Combination Closet . . . . . 145 116. Urinal Basin . . . . ... 145 117. Range of Urinals . . . ... 145 xvi THE ENGLISH HOME 11. 1.. PAGE 118. riusluDg Cistern. Old type . . ... 146 119. ,, Modern type . . ... 146 120. Wiped Soldered Joint . . . ... 146 121. Astragal and Lead Tack . . . . . . 147 122. Section of Soil Pipe and Lead Tack . ... 147 123. Brass Ferrule Joint . . . ... 148 124. Enamelled Iron Bath without Casing , ... 149 125. Ajax Bath Overflow . . , ... 150 126. Range of Lavatory Basins , . , . . 151 127. Scullery Sink . . . . ... 152 128. Housemaid's Sink , . . ... 152 129. Telescope Joint . . . . •••153 CHAPTER X.— The Ventilation, Trapping and Siphonage OF Drains 130. S-Trap . . . . . . . 156 131. D-Trap . . . .... 157 132. P-Trap . . . . ... 158 133. Anti D-Trap . ' . . . ... 158 134. Siphonage Diagram . . . ... 159 CHAPTER XL— Typical Drainage Plans 135. Terraced Houses drained towards the Front . ... 161 136. ,, the Back . ... 162 137. Semi-detached Houses . . . . . . 163 138. A Detached House . . . . . . 163 139 A Town House . . . . ... 164 140. A Small Stable . . . . ... 165 CHAPTER Xn.— The Collection and Disposal of Refuse AND Sewage 141. Pail Closet . . . . ... 166 142. Moule's Earth Closet . . . ... 167 143. Cesspool . . . . ... 168 144. Settling Tank . . . . ... 168 145. Kaye- Parry's System. Plan . . . . . 173 146. ,, Longitudinal Section . ... 173 147. Transverse . . . .173 CHAPTER XHL— Heating 148. The Devon Fire . . . ... 177 149. The Bond ,, . . . ... 177 150. The Tilt ,, . . . ... 178 151. „ „ . • • ... 178 152. The Nautilus Fire . . . . . . 178 153. Welsbach Kern Radiator . . . ... 179 154. Anthracite Stove . , . ... 180 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvu ILL. PAGE 155. Low-pressure Hot-water System . . ... 181 156. A Saddle Boiler . . . ... 182 157. A Chambered Boiler . . . . . . 182 158. A Hot-water Coil . . . ... 183 159. ,, Radiator . . . . . . 184 160. Prometheus Electric Radiator . . ... 185 16 [. Electric Cooking Stove . . . ... 186 162. Flat Iron . . . ... 186 163. ,, Kettle . . . . ... 186 164. The Tank Hot-water System . . ... 187 165. Safety Valve . . . . ... 188 166. The Cylinder Hot-water System . . ... 189 167. Combined Radiator and Towel Drier . ... 190 CHAPTER XIV.— Lighting 168. Luxfer Prisms . . . . ... 194 169. ,, . . . . ... 194 170. Stott Gas Governor . . . • • • I95 171. Inverted Incandescent Burner . . ... 195 172. De Laitte System . . . ... 196 173. Electric Light Pendant . . , ... 202 174. ,, Balance Pendant . . ... 202 175. ,, Newel Standard . . ... 203 176. ,, Table Lamp . . ... 203 177. ., Arc Lamp . . . ... 205 CHAPTER XV.— Ventilation 178. Sheringham Ventilator . . . . . . 212 179. Tobin Tube . . . . ... 212 180. Air Currents in Room . . . ... 214 181. Doulton's Ventilating Flue . . . . . 214 CHAPTER XVII. — The Adaptation ok Existing Houses 182. A House in Guernsey. Ground-floor Plan . ... 232 183. • First . ... 232 184. ,, Second ,, . ... 232 185. ,, ,, The Front . . . . 233 186. A Country House in Hampshire. Ground-floor Plan . . . 235 187. „ The Staircase Hall . . . 237 188. ,, ,, The Sitting-hall showing Fireplace 237 189. ,, ,, The Library . . . 238 190. ,, ,, The Drawing-room . . . 23S 191. ,, The Entrance Front . . 239 192. A Town House. First-floor Plan . . ... 242 193. ,, ,, Second • . ... 242 194. ,, ,, The Drawing-room . ... 243 195. A Small Country House. Sitting-hall showing Fireplace . . 244 196. ,, ,, Bay Window . . 244 xviii THE ENGLISH HOME CHAPTER XVIII.— Modern English Homes Arthur T. Bolton, F.R.I.B.A. A Seaside Home in Thanet ILI- PAfiK 197. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 247 198. First ,, . . . ... 247 199. Attic Plan . . . . ... 247 200. Drawing-room . . . . ... 249 201. Sea Front . . . . ... 249 Walter Cave, F.R.I.B.A. Bengeo House, Hertford 202. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 252 203. p'irst ,, , . . ... 252 204. Attic Plan . . . . ... 252 205. The Hall . . . . ... 253 206. The Drawing-room . . . ... 253 207. South Elevation . . ... 254 208. South-west Elevation . . . ... 254 Sherwood, Nezvton St. Cyres [nr. Exeter), Devon 209. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 256 210. First ,, . . . ... 256 E. Guy Dawher, F.R.I.B.A. Maes Heulyn, Trefnant, North Wales 211. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 258 212. First ,, . . . ... 258 213. The Entrance Forecourt .... . 259 214. The Garden Front . . . . . . 259 215. The Hall and Staircase . . . ... 260 216. The Drawing-room . . . ... 260 Wynnes Pa7X, North Wales 217. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 262 218. First ,, . . . ... 262 219. The Parlour . . . . ... 263 220. The Entrance Forecourt . . . ... 263 Banister Fletcher and Sons, FF.R.I.B.A. Seldown, Potters Bar 221. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 266 222. First ,, . . . ... 266 223. Attic Plan . . . . ... 266 224. Garden Front . , . . ... 267 225. The Entrance Front . . . ... 267 Honieleigh, Potters Bar 226. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 270 227. First ,, . . . ... 270 228. Attic Plan . . . . ... 270 229. The Sitting-hall . . • ... 271 230. The Dining-room . . . . . . 271 231. The Garden Front . . . ... 272 232. The Entrance Front . . . ... 272 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix The Three Gables, Potters Bar ILL. PAGE 233. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 274 234. First . . . ... 274 235. Attic Plan . . . , ... 274 236. The Drawing-room . . . ... 275 237. The Dining-room . . . ... 275 238. Ingle-nook in Inner Hall (of Homeleigh) . ... 276 239. The Sitting-hall and Dining-room Ingle beyond . . . . 276 240. The Garden Front . . . ... 277 241. The Entrance Front . . . ... 277 The Fourth House, Potters Bar 242. Ground -floor Plan . . . ... 28 243. First ,, . . . ... 280 244. Attic Plan . . . . ... 280 245. Dining-room . . . . ... 281 246. The Entrance Front . . . ... 281 The Fifth House, Potters Bar 247. The Entrance Front . . . ... 282 Chtirchill, West Hanipstead 248. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 285 249. First ,, . . . ... 985 250. The Entrance Front . . . ... 285 House at Ashford 251. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 286 252. First ,, , . . . ... 286 253. The Garden Front . . . . \ . 286 Cuthbert Villas, Westgafe-on-Sea 254. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 289 255. First ,, . . . ... 289 256. Attic Plan . , . . ... 289 257. The Entrance Fronts . . . ... 291 Canterbtiry Parade, Westgate-ou-Sea 258. The Entrance Fronts . . . ... 291 Observatory House, Wcstgale-on-Sea 259. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 294 260. First ,, . . . ... 294 261. Second . . . ... 294 262. The Entrance Front . . . ... 295 Ladywell, West Hampstead 263. Half-basement Plan . . . ... 296 264. Ground-floor ,, . . . ... 296 265. First . . . ... 296 266. The Entrance Front . . . ... 296 XX THE ENGLISH HOME Country House in Surrey ILL. PAGE 267. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 299 268. First ,, . . , ... 299 269. The Entrance Front . . . ... 299 Garden Pavilion 270. View from Lake . . . ... 300 Forsyth and Manle, FF.K. I.B.A. Nezv Farm-house, Astonbury^ He rtfo ; xisJi ii e 271. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 303 272. First . . . ... 303 273. Sitting-room . . , . ... 304 274. The Entrance f>ont . . , ... 305 Cottages at Asionbnry, Hertfordshire 275. Ground-floor Plan . .... 307 276. First ,, . . . ... 307 277. Interior of a Bedroom . . . ... 308 278. The Entrance Front . . . ... 308 Arthur Keen, F. R. I.B.A. Ei/nstead^ LiJiipsJield, Siii-rey 279. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 310 280. P^irst ,, . . . ... 310 281. The Entrance Front . . . ... 311 282. The Garden Front . . . . . . 311 E. L. Liityens, F.R.I.B.A. Giey lld//s, GuUane, N.B. 283. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 314 284. First , . . ... 314 2S5. Block Plan . . . . ..-315 286. Entrance Lodges for Valets and Chauffeurs . . . • 3^5 287. The Entrance Door . . . . . . 316 288. The Drawing-room . . . ... 316 289. The Garden Front . . . . • • 3^7 290. The Entrance Front . . . ... 317 291. The Roundel . . . . ... 318 292. Dining-room, "Anglebay." Banister, Fletcher and Sons, FF.R I B A., Architects . . . . ... 318 Maurice H. Pocock. Liltlewick Meauozu, Horsell, Surrey 293. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 320 294. First . . . ... 320 295. The Garden Front . . . ... 321 296. The Entrance Front . . . ... 322 Cottage at IJ^endover, Bucks 297. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 324 298. First . . . ... 324 299. The Entrance Front . . . ... 325 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxl A. N. Prentice^ F.R.I.B A- O'chard Fanii, Broadway^ IVorccstcishire nr.. PAGE 3C0. View from Road . . , ... 327 301. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 329 yl/ H. Baillie Scott. Semi-detached Houses, Hanipstead Garden Si^hurb 302. Ground-floor Plan , , , ... 333 303. First ,, . . . ... 333 304. The Entrance Front . . . ... 333 305. The Garden Front , , , , , . 333 306. View from Road . . , , , . 333 307. The Living-room . , . ... 334 House at Biddenham 308. The Living-room . . . ... 336 C. Harrison Toivnsend, F. R. I. B, A. House at Letchworth 309. The Garden Plan . . . ... 339 310. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 340 311. First „ . . . ... 340 312. The Hall Mantelpiece . . . ... 341 313. The Dining-room Mantelpiece . . ... 341 314. The Garden Front . . , ... 342 315. The Entrance Front . . . ... 342 C. F. A. Voysey. The Hotnestead, Frinton-on-Sea 316. Ground-floor and Garden Plan . . ... 344 317. Part of Dining-room . . . ... 345 318. The Parlour, showing Ligle-nook Fireplace . ... 345 319. The Dining-room Fireplace . . ... 346 320. The Parlour looking S. W. and showing Billiard Tal)le . . . 346 321. The Garden Front . . . ... 347 322. The Entrance Front . . . ... 347 Hollymount, Beaconsjield 323. The Garden Front . . . ... 351 324. The Entrance Front . . . . . . 351 325. Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 353 326. First » . . ... 353 The Orchard, Chorley Wood 327. The Dining-room looking North . . ... 355 328. South . . • • • 355 329. The Ground-floor Plan . . . ... 357 330. The First ,, . . . ... 357 331. The Entrance Front . . , ... 357 CHAPTER XX.— Stables and Motor Garages 332. Churchill Stables. The Ground-floor plan . ... 365 333. ,, The First . . • • 365 334. The Elevation . . ... 365 335. Motor Garage. Plan ... . . . . 373 336. ,, Section . , , • • • 373 THE ENGLISH HOME CHAPTER I AN HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE ENGLISH HOME Feudal System — Saxon (eleventh century) — Norman (the latter part of eleventh century and the twelfth century) — Early English (thirteenth century) — Decorated (fourteenth century) — Perpendicular (fifteenth century) — Tudor (the first half of sixteenth century) — The Early Renaissance, Elizabethan and Jacobean (the latter half of sixteenth century and first half of seventeenth century) — The Late Renaissance, Anglo-Classic, Queen Anne and Georgian (the latter half of seven- teenth century and eighteenth century) — Modern Architecture (nineteenth and twentieth centuries). THE evolution of the English Home through the past ages is an integral part of the history of the English people, and provides an index to the progressive social conditions which were re- sponsible for the type of houses erected in each century. The domestic architecture of England de- veloped concurrently with the expansion of its trade, civilization, wealth and power, and reflected in each period the manners and customs of the people, and was influenced by increased intercourse with Con- tinental nations. Feudal System — The feudal system for centuries largely determined the character of the domestic architecture of England. Every baronial seat and manor-house, owing to the ample jurisdiction granted I 4 THE ENGLISH HOME mencement of the foundation of the Gothic nations circa a.d. iooo, dwelling-houses and indeed all build- ings, with the exception of some important monasteries and churches, were extremely primitive, and thus corresponded with the habits of the people. It is unnecessary to commence our research earlier than the Saxon period, for the effect on domestic architecture of the Roman occupation of Western Europe was not permanent, as the villas of the Imperial Roman officers were not constructed in accordance with the local and climatic requirements. Castles — Among the Saxons, castles were of little account, and were not utilized as residences ; they con- sisted of an earthwork fortification surrounding a central mound, sometimes with a tower built, not infrequently, of wood. The Hall — The Gothic nations, owing to their com- mon origin and similar methods of life, evolved a distinctive type of dwelling, consisting of the Common Hall or House Place ; this latter was a single apart- ment often some thirty to forty feet in length and about half that in width. The first essential, due to the rigour of the climate, was shelter from the elements, and this was provided by the Hall or covered enclosure, which continued to be the principal apartment throughout the mediaeval period. This is in direct contrast to the ancient Roman House in which the chief feature was the uncovered court or atidum derived from the East, where it pre- vails even to the present day. In this and even in succeeding centuries the Hall sometimes formed the sole living-room, sleeping-room and kitchen for the owner, his family, his guests and his serfs. Light was admitted through small windows, closed NORMAN PERIOD 5 with wicker shutters, and warmth was obtained from the log fire on a central hearth, the smoke escaping through an opening in the roof. Chamber — In the better class of dwellinors a second apartment known as the Chamber was sometimes added, and was used during the day as a withdrawing- room for business, and during the night as a private sleeping-room. The royal residences, however, were provided with extra accommodation, consisting of the Chapel, Gran- ary, Bakehouse, Storehouse and Kitchen, the latter being usually detached on account of the risk of fire. NORMAN (the latter part of eleventh CENTURY AND THE TWELFTH CENTURY) Castles — During the latter part of the eleventh and the commencement of the twelfth centuries numerous castles were constructed, and over one thousand were built during the reign of Stephen alone. The Square Keep, or stronghold, w^as usually four stories in height, and was surrounded by an inner and occasionally also by an outer " Bailey" (i.e. ward or court) and by a lofty wall with ramparts and a deep moat. The Royal Castle known as the Tower of London (111. i), constructed by Bishop Gundulf, in A.D. 1078, for William I, is an important example to which 1 1- • 1 1 III. I. Plan of Keep of many additions were made by the tower of London. later monarchs. It has an Outer Ward protected by a surrounding wall with eight towers and an Inner Ward protected by another wall with thirteen towers. (ifiwr?w 6 THE ENGLISH HOME The Shell Keep is another type supposed by some to be derived from an Anglo-Saxon precedent, in which the buildings were arranged round a polygonal or circular court. Windsor, Rochester, Alnwick, Warkworth, Berke- ley, Warwick, Newcastle, Arundel, Norham, Bam- borough, Dover, Richmond (Yorks), Cardiff, Farnham (Surrey), Durham, Chipchase, Scarborough, Oakham (Rutland), Oxford, and Castle Rising (Norfolk), are all examples of the period, which have been either much altered to bring them into line with modern require- ments or have been allowed to fall into a ruinous condition. Monastic Buildings — Monastic buildings were con- siderably in advance of the primitive castles. Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk, has apartments, such as the Refectory, Dormitory, Library, Scriptorium (Writing- room), arranged around a cloister garth, on the north side of which was the church. Manor-houses — Manor-houses, Farm-houses and Granges were frequently walled and moated, and appear to have been built on one uniform plan, com- prising a Hall with chambers adjacent. The Hall was frequently the only large apartment in such edifices to accommodate the owner, his retinue and servants. In Saxon and Norman times the Manor-house was known as the Hall (from the Anglo-Saxon heall), which appears to be the origin of the modern term Hall as applied to so many country residences. This apartment, and not infrequently the whole building, was in mediaeval Latin termed the aula. Thus the Hall with its central log fire, the Solar or chamber, frequently on an upper story, the Kitchen, EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 7 the Servery or general service-room, the Larder for preserving- (larding) meat, and the Cellar (frequently situated under the Solar), made up a typical Manor- house of the period. In the succeeding centuries this arrangement was adhered to, other rooms being added to correspond with the new ideas of comfort and convenience. Boothby Pagnall (Lines) Manor-house and the old house at Christchurch (Hampshire) are examples of this period. Peasants' Dwellings — The smaller houses of the peasants or serfs, which were gradually grouped around the castles, were of a very simple character, and frequently had only one living-room. Town Dwellings — The town dwellings often con- sisted of a ground-floor shop, behind which was the living-room and a yard. An external door sometimes led to a staircase which gave access to an upper floor. The Jews' House, Lincoln, and Moyses' Hall at Bury St. Edmunds are fine specimens of this period. EARLY ENGLISH (thirteenth century) Castles — The thirteenth century was largely de- voted to the enlargement and improvement of exist- ing castles. The inconvenient four-storied Keeps, although still retained in some cases for use in times of war, were frequently abandoned in favour of a Hall and Chambers constructed in the Inner Ward. The Hall, which was usually the third story of the Keep and had over it the Chamber or Withdrawing- room, was reached by spiral stairs and was found to be in a very inconvenient position, more especially having regard to the increased hospitality of the 8 THE ENGLISH HOME period. Many castles therefore still retained the Keep and surrounding walls and defences, and were brought up to date by the addition of a new building on the lines of the Manor-houses which were then being built. Such houses were constructed in the space within the Inner Bailey, and consisted of a capacious Hall, one wall of which formed part of the circumvallation. At one end of this Hall were placed the Kitchen and domestic offices, and at the other the Solar and other family apartments. The new castles built principally in Wales by Edward I were designed on the new concentric model, in which the Citadel was not the Keep of the Norman period but the Inner Court or Bailey, which contained the residential building ranged around its walls, and formed a private court surrounded by a massive line of towers, and further defended by other lines of circumvallation, which contained the stables and other out-buildings. Examples — Caerphilly (Glamorganshire), Beau- maris (Anglesey), Conway (Carnarvonshire), Prudhoe (Northumberland), Pembroke, Leeds (Kent), and Stokesay (Shropshire) are examples of this period. Manor-houses — There was now a considerable im- provement in the arrangement and an increase in the number of the apartments in the Fortified Manor- houses belonging to the Clergy and to the Crown, and during the reign of Henry III licences to " crenellate " or fortify Manor-houses were largely issued. Yan- wath Hall (Westmorland), Charney Bassett (Berkshire), and Little Wenham Hall (Suffolk) are of this period. Such Manor-houses were preferred as permanent family residences to the inconvenient Keeps of the earlier period. Much information concerning those EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 9 which belonged to the Crown is to be obtained from the Liberate rolls of Henry III, and we first hear of the Buttery, Pantry, Larder, and Wardrobe, but these were more commonly found in the fourteenth century and are there described (see p. 14). The Hall — The Hall was still the principal living- apartment and also formed the general dormitory, in conjunction with the lofts and stables which were still utilized by the retainers. Family Apartments — The apartments adjacent to the Hall were sometimes so arranged as to form three sides of a quadrangle, as at Charney Bassett (Berk- shire), where a Chapel or Oratory adjoins the Solar or Upper Chamber. The apartments were all approached through one another, and thus formed thoroughfare rooms. The fireplaces were few ; the Hall still preserving its central hearth ; other rooms being probably heated by portable braziers. Windows — Windows of domestic buildings appear to have been first glazed in this century, but glass was a luxury and was still used in conjunction with wooden shutters, such as may be seen in the poorer districts of old Continental towns. The absence of glass in domestic buildings was due to the fact that none was manufactured in this country until the fifteenth century, and it is not till a.d. 1439, in connection with the Beauchamp Chapel (Warwick), that any mention of English glass occurs. Up to this period it had been obtained from Normandy, the Low Countries and Venice in exchanoe for wool — the English staple production — but owing to its fragile character there had not been any extensive importa- tion of it. lO THE ENGLISH HOME Furniture — The walls were generally bare, without either tapestry or wainscoting. The furniture was of the rudest description, and was limited to tables resting on trestles and benches and forms made by carpenters on the spot. The bed was occasionally of the tester {testier) type, i.e. provided with a canopy for the protection of the head. Floor Covering-s — The Hall F'loor was still usually of clay. Carpets were introduced from Spain by Eleanor of Castile, but were extremely rare, and could only have been used in the better type of houses, for the poorer classes had only the barest necessaries. DECORATED (fourteenth century) Castles — Castles were now constructed upon the model of the Manor-houses of the day. Kenilworth 5WAN T0W[RJ ANCIENT MOAT .L0NN5 TOWLR Ii7y iimmm CAMIE a 'NORMAN kelp 1120, B'B/SNQUETII1(i HALL I3S2^ C-MERVYN'^ TOWER, D^WHITEHALL E=PR[m[ CHAMBER 15^2. r = HENRY BUILDINGS 1520, G-LEICE5TEr>"j 601LDING5 1571 III. 2. Plan of Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire. Castle, which came to John of Gaunt by marriage in A.D. 1362, is an example of a castle which was much altered during this period. The Norman Keep was retained as a relic of the past and as a means of DECORATED PERIOD defence, but was not incorporated in the new build- inos which were constructed round the Inner Court. These had a fine entrance porch, and there was a magnificent banqueting-hall with screens and dais, family apartments, kitchen and offices (111. 2). The castle was further altered two centuries later by the Earl of Leicester. Pele Towers — The fortified houses known in the border counties of Wales and Scotland as Pele Tozvers were in many cases merely the original Keep round which the later buildings were grouped. The ground floor of the Pele Towers was usually vaulted, the upper stories having wooden floors and roofs with the staircase in the thickness of the wall. Manor-houses — A characteristic Manor-house of the period was built round either three or four sides of a quadrangle, and the entire space thus occupied by the court and buildings was surrounded by a moat. The gatehouse on the entrance side was protected by a portcullis and drawbridge, and the whole pre- sented a castellated appearance. On the side opposite the entrance was the porch leading to the Hall, with the Kitchens and Offices arranged on one side, and the family apartments and chapel on the other (111. 3). A Porch led into the screens (111. 3c), a passage- way or vestibule which was separated by two doors from the Hall itself, and by three doors on the other side from the Kitchens and Offices. Over this passage was the Minstrels' Gallery. In the Vestibule there was usually a lavatory basin with water-drain, for washing the hands before and after meals. The Hall— The Hall, which had already taken the place of the older Keep, and had become the ,/ THE ENGLISH HOME central feature of these buildings, attained its highest development, and perfection in this century. The Royal Palace or Hall of Westminster, with its lofty walls, large traceried windows and elaborate timber ^^^^^^^ A.GRErtT c. 5cr-" III. 3. Plan and Elevation of Penshurst Place, Kent. roof, is as fine as any ecclesiastical edifice of the period. The Lord of the Manor still held his Court in the Hall (111. 3), and his vassals and serfs met at one large table for meals in this feudal period when the English peasantry were slaves, the absolute property of their lord, "to be bought and sold as the livestock DECORATED PERIOD 13 of an estate." The Hall, as in the previous century, frequently formed the sleeping-place for the retainers, who were, however, sometimes lodged in dormitories or in the stables. It was also still the general custom for the family, the quests and retainers to take their meals in the Common Hall, where the family were seated at the high table on the raised dais (111. 3 a) at the opposite end to the screens ; but as time went on there was a desire for greater privacy, and so the family dined in one of the smaller rooms. Family Apartments — The Family Apartments were also gradually increased in number in order to afford more privacy. The old Solar, also known as the Lord's Chamber or Parlour, was increased in size and became known as the Withdrawing-room (hence Drawing-room), and was frequently situated behind the dais on the upper floor, with an opening which enabled the master to have surveillance of the proceedings in the Hall below. There was sometimes a Cellar or a second Parlour under this apartment on the ground-floor level. A Lady's Chamber (or bower) was now often pro- vided in the larger houses in proximity to the With- drawing-room, and no doubt frequently also answered the purpose of the best bedroom. Bedchambers — Besides the Withdrawing-room and Lady's Bower which usually contained beds, there were a number of Bedrooms in these larger houses, many of which were no doubt provided with several beds according to their size. Bathroom — This room appears to have come into existence in a very primitive way, and was provided merely with a large tub and a lead-lined stone laver. 14 THE ENGLISH HOME Wardrobe — The Wardrobe served as a store for clothes instead of the chests, and this room was also used for the makincr of the various ofarments. Chapel — The Chapel had occasionally two stories in its western portion, the upper being used for the family and guests, the lower for the retainers and domestics. A small chamber was frequently attached for the use of the priest, chaplain, or friar, as at Brouohton Castle. Kitchen and Offices — Of the three doorways (see p. Il) in the screens leading to the service department, the central one often opened into the Kitchen, or to a passage leading to the same (111. 3 n). The Kitchen in the Bishop's Palace at Chichester and the famous monastic Kitchen at Durham (dating from A.D. 1368) are well-known examples. Kitchens were, however, frequently detached, probably as a security against fire, as in the Abbot's Kitchen at Glaston- bury, and also at Raby Castle, where the Kitchen is still in use. One of the other two doors opened into x}(\^ Buttery (111. 3B). The word buttery is derived from the French bouteille^d, bottle, hence the word butlery or buttery as applied to the room where the wine bottles and other vessels were kept, and the word butler (i.e. bottler) as applied to the man in charge. The term is still employed in colleges. The remaining door opened into the Pantry (from the French /^z/;^ = bread), which was the room in which the bread, butter, cheese, also platters and salt- cellars, etc., were kept (111. 3 d). An important room, not usually reached from the screens, was the Larder [Lardartu7?i), in which the meats were larded or preserved, and which also formed the storeroom for the cook, the preserved DECORATED PERIOD 15 meat being brought into the kitchen in such quantities as were required Sometimes salting was preferred, in which case the apartment was known as the Sal- sariiiin. Fireplaces — Wall fireplaces with corbelled chimney hoods became more usual in this century, but although these were found in the Withdrawino-room and smaller apartments, the Hall frequently had only the central fire placed on a hearth. Charcoal, wood and turf were the most usual fuels, but coal appears to have been used to a certain extent, although it was from time to time prohibited as a nuisance. Windows — Glazed windows were still rare except in the most important houses owing to the costliness of orlass and the fact that it was not then manu- factured in England (see p. 9). Walls and Floor Coverings — Rushes and Straw, some- times mixed with sweet herbs, formed the usual carpet- ing, but the dais in the Hall frequently had a wooden floor. The walls were now hung with tapestries and trophies of the chase. Examples — Penshurst Place, Kent (111. 3), of the period of Edward II, is a typical example of a fine Hall with raised dais and bay window at one end and the screens at the other, while the open timbered roof has still the louvre or opening for the escape of smoke from the central fire. Ightham Mote (Kent), Raglan, Langley and Haworth Castles, Sutton Courtenay Manor-house (Berkshire), Prior Crawden's House, Ely, parts of Broughton Castle (Oxfordshire), and Ludlow Castle (Shropshire) are smaller examples of the Manor-house type. i6 THE ENGLISH HOME Town Houses — The smaller town houses of the period had most commonly the lower vaulted story of stone and the upper part of wood-framing as may be seen at Winchelsea, where, however, the original timber upper part has disappeared. PERPENDICULAR (fifteenth century) Important Historical Events — During the fifteenth century many new influences affected the social con- dition of the people and naturally left their mark on the architecture of the time. Most powerful among these new factors were the Renaissance in Italy, the dispersion of scholars from Constantinople, the wider establishment of scholastic foundations and the invention of printing with its consequent increase of knowledge and higher standard of intelligence. At the same time that this increase of opportunities gave the people a wider mental outlook the use of the mariner's compass opened up distant parts of the world. Wealth was largely increased by the discovery of India and America and by the progress of industrial arts ; while the commercial classes grew in importance through the establishing of Trade Guilds and the granting of commercial charters. Mention must also be made of the effect of the use of gunpowder, which rendered ancient castles obso- lete as defensive strongholds and thus incidentally strengthened the power of the Crown against the barons. There was also a gradual reduction in the number of feudal dependents or retainers, for the duties which to a large extent had heretofore been performed by them were now carried out by independent craftsmen who lived in dwellings of their own outside the castle. PERPENDICULAR PERIOD 17 The serfs became the hired labourers, and had greater freedom than their predecessors. Castles — The castles of the border counties, such as Alnwick, however, still retained the same military character owing to the troubled state of these districts, so that the Border Manor-house or Pele Tower (see p. 11) was built on the old lines even as late as the sixteenth century. Warwick Castle, dating from the end of the four- teenth and the beginning of the fifteenth century, retained features which before the invention of gun- powder must have rendered it wellnigh impregnable. Among these were the portcullis, which we believe is still used every night, the walls of enceinte^ the battle- ments and allures behind them, bastions and machico- lations from which hot tar, stones and other missiles could be dropped on the besiegers. The Hall, as in other examples of the period, had its former prominence somewhat diminished by the provision of separate Dining- and Drawing-rooms. The remains of Hurstmonceaux Castle (Sussex), Lumley Castle (Durham), Warkworth Castle (North- umberland), Tattershall Castle (Lincolnshire) are other examples which date from this period. Manor-houses — The Manor-houses of the period on the borders of Scotland and Wales, although still fortified to a considerable extent, show the conflict between the increasino^ desire for domestic comfort o and the occasional necessity for resisting attack. The authority of the Crown and increased efficiency of armaments rendered the fortification of the houses useless ; so that when the gatehouse, battlements and towers of the earlier period were still retained, they were more as ornamental features than for defence. 2 i8 THE ENGLISH HOME The Entrance Porch, the Screens with Minstrels' Gallery above and the brazier in the centre of the Hall were still sometimes kept, while newer features were introduced, such as the large bay window at the side of the dais, and the wall fireplace. The Hall no longer appears to have been used as a general dormitory in this century, although when the house was crowded on special occasions the retainers no doubt still slept upon straw laid down for the purpose. Family Apartments — The Withdrawing-room and Lady's Bower, which in the previous century had contained beds, were now in many cases reserved entirely as Sitting-rooms. The Bedchambers, such as the Camera (for one bed), Cubiculum (for two or three), and the Dormi- torium (for many), increased in number as the Hall diminished in importance, showing a desire for greater comfort and refinement. Wardrobe Closets, Washing -closets (eweries) and Cupboards were common ; the latter were used instead of chests and lockers. The Kitchen and Offices — The Kitchen, which in the previous centuries was often detached from the main building, was now for greater convenience frequently connected with it. Some fine examples exist at Stan- ton Harcourt (Oxfordshire), New College (Oxford), Christ Church (Oxford), Hampton Court and Berkeley Castle. The Buttery and Pantry in this century were often formed as one, hence the compound term Butler's Pantry. The word buttery is still used in collegiate establishments, but while the office of the butler is retained that of the pannetier is lost. PERPENDICULAR PERIOD It also became the custom to provide a Scullery {scute liar iu77i), Bakehouse {pistrina), Brewhouse, Dairy and Mill, while granaries and outbuildings became more numerous. Stables were sometimes built apart round a special court or stable yard. Furniture — Original furniture of the period is rarely seen, and our knowledge of it is obtained principally from illustrated manuscripts. Chairs were not com- monly used, but window recesses had stone benches on each side such as still exist in college rooms at the Universities, and these were the favourite nooks and corners of the apartments. Tables were principally formed of boards and trestles, and chests were also used for this purpose. The floors were still covered with straw, rushes or matting (see pp. lo and 15), carpets not having yet come into general use. Examples — Wolterton Manor-house at East Bar- sham (Norfolk) is very complete as an example of the development of this period. It has a fine detached gatehouse, while the main building contains the Porch, Screens and Hall with Bay Windows. The family rooms are reached from the dais and the Kitchen and Offices from the Screens. South Wraxall Manor-house and Great Chalfield (both in Wiltshire) are fine examples of convenient dwelling- houses erected in a peaceful county, with scarcely any attempt at fortification, although the latter house is surrounded by a moat. Oxburgh Hall (Norfolk), a moated quadrangular example,^ Haddon Hall (Derbyshire), with a double ^ See Plate 131 of A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method (5th Edition) for a plan of this house. 20 THE ENGLISH HOME Court partly built in the Elizabethan period, Hever Castle (Kent), a castellated moated house, and Ock- wells (near Windsor) are other examples of the change from the older fortified castle to the newer and more fully developed dwelling-house. The Bishop's Palace, Wells, is an ecclesiastical structure which still has its separate wall of enceinte, with gatehouse and moat. Town Houses — The smaller Town Houses under- went considerable improvement ; but as they were mostly constructed of wood, few remain, although some are still to be seen in Coventry, in the Butcher Row at Shrewsbury, in Chester and other old towns. Peasants' Dwellings — The Peasants' Dwellings prob- ably showed little improvement on the preceding cen- turies, as in many cases they merely consisted of a single apartment used as living-room and bedroom by the whole family. The accommodation appears to have improved in the latter part of the century, when the dwellings may have resembled the Irish Cabins of the present day, which frequently have two rooms separated by the chimney-stack. TUDOR (first half of sixteenth century) The latter part of the fifteenth century and the first half of the sixteenth century were remarkable for that phase of national architecture known as Tudor. During this period there was a growing demand for houses for the new and wealthy trading families, which in the reign of Henry VII were taking the place of the old nobility, many of whom had disappeared during the Wars of the Roses, between the years 1455 and 1485. The suppression of the monasteries (a.d. 1536-40) enabled Henry VIII to TUDOR PERIOD distribute vast sums of money and great tracts of land among his courtiers, many of whom were also rich and prosperous citizens, who gratified their ambition as landed proprietors by the erection of houses suit- able to their newly acquired rank. Manor-houses — The Tudor Manor-house of the sixteenth century was a continuance of the fifteenth- century type ; the rooms were grouped round a quad- rangular Court, as at Compton Wynyates (Warwick- shire) and Sutton Place (Guildford). The typical examples have battlemented parapets which, although no longer useful for defence, were still retained as ornamental features. The entrance to the Courtyard was usually in the centre of one side under a gate- house which gave it prominence. On the opposite side of the Court was the entrance porch leading to the Screens and Hall, while the various living-rooms and offices were rano^ed alonof the two remaininof sides. Such rooms were usually thoroughfare " rooms, and in some cases were also entered from the Courtyard. The Great Hall (see pp. 4, 9, 11, and 18) declined still further in importance, pari passu with the state and grandeur of the hereditary landowner, but it was still the principal apartment and formed the central feature of the plan. Its decrease in size was in some measure due to the reduction of the number of military retainers by legal enactment, and also to the fact that many industries formerly carried on in the feudal house were transferred to craftsmen who lived and worked in the village instead of in the great house. The better accommodation provided by inns may also have contributed to this change. The side fireplace with its richly carved overmantel 22 THE ENGLISH HOME was now fast developing into an important decorative feature, and was indeed generally used in all the principal rooms. Family Apartments — In addition to the Withdrawing- room and the Lady's Bower (Boudoir), the Study, the Private Dining-room, the Summer and Winter Parlours are also mentioned in connection with some of the larger houses. Bedchambers were more plenti- fully provided, and in some instances would certainly have been considered sufficient for our own day. Hen- grave Hall (Suffolk) (a.d. 1538) had no fewer than forty bedrooms. Generally speaking, rooms still continued to be thoroughfare rooms, although in Hengrave Hall we find a corridor introduced round the internal court. The ceilings of the Hall and Living-rooms were frequently ornamented with richly moulded plaster ribs dividing the surfaces into panels of various shapes. Furniture — It is very difficult to trace authentic examples of the Tudor furniture of this period, but there are notable exceptions with regard to that appertaining to some of the churches, which are often still found in a good state of preservation, such as the choir stalls of Christchurch, Hampshire, Kitchen and Offices — The offices increased in num- ber, and the inventory of Hengrave Hall mentions many new uses to which they were assigned. Thus we read of the Hind's Hall, Kitchen, Pantry, Dry and Wet Larders, Pastry-room, Scouring-house, Still-houses, Laundry and Linen Room, Wardrobe, Wine-cellar, Outer Cellar, Dairy, Cheese-room, Brew- house, Bakehouse, Malthouse, Hophouse, Fish-house and many others. TUDOR PERIOD 23 From this list it will be seen that many offices were provided which in these days would not be necessary, owing to the ease of communication and accessibility to external sources of supply. Gardens — Gardens were laid out in accordance with simple theories, based upon a definite plan em- bracing some architectural design in the way of steps, balustraded terraces and the like. A Bowling-green was often introduced into the gardens attached to the larger houses. Examples — ComptonWynyates(Warwickshire)(A.D. 1520) consists of a complete quadrangle, entered on one side through a gateway opposite to the door of the screens on the other side of the Court. The lofty Hall has a fine bay window, and there are several staircases, the principal one being added in a later period. This is a picturesque example in which there is considerable irregularity of disposition, especially in the case of the entrance, which is not central to the court or facade. Sutton Place, Guildford (a.d. 1523-5), is another example of the quadrangular type, but the en- trance side has been removed. There was more attempt at symmetry in this example, for the en- trance to the Hall is on the axial line, and an extra bay window was placed in the angle of the Courtyard to balance the Hall bay at the corre- sponding angle. The rooms round the Court must have been thoroughfare rooms in this example, as no space exists for a passage or corridor. The windows are still cusped in the late Perpendicular manner, and the battlemented parapet is a feature of the design. Hengrave Hall (Suffolk) (a.d. 1538) also supplies an 24 THE ENGLISH HOME early example of special planning to produce a sym- metrical fa9ade. Layer Marney Towers, Essex (a.d. 1500-26), a terra-cotta building ; Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (a.d. 1559), a half-timbered structure, and many smaller houses in the towns and provinces may be attributed to this period. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE PERIOD: Elizabethan and Jacobean (the latter half of sixteenth century and first half of seventeenth century) Next come the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles, v^hich together form a transitional type of art con- necting the Tudor style with the Anglo-Classic art of Inigo Jones. The Elizabethan style coincides with the final settlement of the Reformation by Elizabeth, the patriotic outburst caused by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in a.d. 1588, and the literary period of Spenser, Shakespeare, Burleigh and Sir Philip Sidney. The settlement of foreign craftsmen in England, caused by the massacre of S. Bartholomew (a.d. 1572), also helped to introduce the new form of architectural art as practised for some time previously in France. The first English book on the new style of architecture, as it was called, was published in a.d. 1563 by John Shute on his return from Italy. The Country Mansions — The period is specially re- markable for the erection of a large number of country residences in which many Gothic features, such as mullioned windows, towers, oriels and large chimney- stacks, were retained, but were ornamented with Re- naissance detail. EARLY RENAISSANCE PERIOD 25 Two general types of plan were in use. The smaller type, derived from the simple mediaeval manor-house, consisted as before of a Hall placed centrally with Kitchen and offices at one end and family apartments at the other. The larger type was evolved from the quadrangular mediaeval plan, which the Elizabethan and Jacobean architects modi- fied by omitting one side. This resulted in an mmm nm^ iplm m%T n®m mm Ills. 4 and 5. Hatfield House, Herts. " E "-shaped plan, securing sunlight and a freer circulation of air into the Court, as at Hatfield House (Ills. 4 and 5). The " H "-shaped plan was evolved by extending the wings as at Holland House, London (111. 6). Other fanciful plans showing extreme originality were also employed, as, e.g., Longford Castle, a tri- angular house attributed to John Thorpe. The Hall — The Great Hall was not universal in this period, and even when found does not occupy such a disproportionate space as formerly, being, in fact, retained from the mediaeval period in order to give a certain state and dignity to the house, although the spirit and meaning of its old character had de- parted. The old college Halls of the Universities and the Inns of Court of London still retain the old arrange- 26 THE ENGLISH HOME ment with dais and high table, but these would appear to have had their origin in early monastic institutions and not in the feudal system which produced the Hall of the mediaeval period. The Hall was usually lined to a height of eight or ten feet with oak panelling, while above were arranged the trophies of the chase, armour, ancestral portraits, family relics and heirlooms. III. 6. Plans and Elevation of Holland House, Kensington. The carved oak screen and Minstrels' Gallery, the raised dais and lofty bay windows, the imposing fire- place richly carved with the owner's coat-of-arms, and the ornamental plaster ceiling are well-known features. The staircases — Staircases are important because the chief living-rooms, which were frequently on the first floor, demanded an easy means of approach, and they are numerous because the Hall was frequently EARLY RENAISSANCE PERIOD 27 two stories in height, thus dividing the upper floors into two parts, access to which was only obtained by separate staircases. They are generally placed in connection with the Hall, and with their heavily carved newels, pierced balustrading and rich carving give an air of spaciousness and dignity to the in- terior. The Long Gallery — There is no feature more charac- teristic of the period than the Long Gallery from which the modern term picture gallery appears to be derived. Their origin is doubtful, but they may have been used for exercise or for the display of objects of art ; for the fashionable pastime of ''collect- ing " seems to have commenced about this period. They undoubtedly sometimes served as a means of communication between the wings of the upper floors of the house, when the Hall was two stories in height. They were situated on the upper floor, and often extended the whole length of the house. The pro- portions of the Long Gallery vary from those of the Great Hall, in being comparatively low and narrow in proportion to their length. This effect, however, was frequently relieved by projecting room-like bays, like those at H addon Hall, which are as much as fifteen feet by twelve feet. The walls usually had oak panelling for their full height, and the plaster ceilings were richly modelled.^ Family Apartments — The Dining, Withdrawing-room, Chapel, Bedrooms and offices were based on those of the mediaeval period, but arranged with greater regard to convenience. ^ For lists and dimensions of some Elizabethan Galleries, see A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method (5th Edition), P- 555- 28 THE ENGLISH HOME Furniture — The oak furniture, chairs, tables, side- boards, chests and bedsteads of the period form very important features of the house, being constructed in the prevaiHng architectural style, and therefore adding to the unity and completeness of the general desiofn. Carpets appear to have been imported from Turkey and to have come into oeneral use in the reig^n of Elizabeth. The Formal Garden — The art of Italian landscape gar- dening now made its influence felt in the planning of the Formal Garden. This was set as a frame round the more important houses, and with its series of forecourts, parterres, arcades, fountains and ter- races it gave a complete and finished appearance to the house. Examples — Amongst well - known examples of Elizabethan and Jacobean houses are Kirby (North- ants), A.D. 1570-5 ; Knole (Kent), a.d. 1570 ; Burghley (Northants), a.d. 1575-89; Hardwick Hall (Derby- shire), A.D. 1576-97; Longleat (Wilts), a.d. 1567; Bramshill (Hants), a.d. 1607-12 ; and Hatfield House (Herts), A.D. 161 1. The Charterhouse and the Inns of Court in London, the Colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, already referred to on page 25, are also good ex- amples. Sir Paul Pindar's house, the front of which is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a fine specimen of a small town facade. LATE RENAISSANCE PERIOD 29 THE LATE RENAISSANCE PERIOD : Anglo- Classic, Queen Anne and Georgian (the latter half of seventeenth century and eighteenth century) During this period the influence of the work of Palladio on the great English architect, Inigo Jones, resulted in a breaking away from the English model ; so much so that the new style is termed Palladian " and resulted in an architectural revolution, such as was effected by Brunelleschi in Italy. The "Orders of Architecture" were used to give importance and dignity, and were employed in the smaller houses in the entrance doorways, fireplaces and wall-surfaces, etc. The fireplace with open dog-grate, after Jacobean models, was often richly treated with columns, while the overmantel had carved festoons with coat-of-arms, the whole design being in harmony with the treat- ment of the walls. Architecture was also to a certain extent taken up as a fashionable study, as may be seen in the erection by the Earl of Burlington of the well-known villa at Chiswick, which was a copy of the Villa Rotonda at Vicenza by Palladio. It is an Italian country house quite unsuited to the English climate, and has had no effect on the traditional architecture of this country. Anglo-Classic Period : The Country Mansions — A large number of mansions were erected which exhibit a stateliness and grandeur well suited to their purpose as country seats for the English nobility, although the practical requirements of domestic convenience were still frequently ignored. so THE ENGLISH HOME III. 7. Stoke Park, Northants. The " E " and " H " shaped plans of the preceding period were now superseded by the Italian type of plan introduced by Inigo Jones, as evidenced in his design for Stoke Park (111. 7), which consists of a central block containing the principal apartments, which were placed above a basement story. These rooms were reached by an external flight of steps. On either side of this central block were wings containing the Kitchens, offices, and Stables frequently connected to the main building by colonnades. The principal entrance was sometimes provided with a two-storied portico, which, however, is un- suitable to the English climate, as it causes the rooms behind to be dark and unhealthy, and so it has in many cases been removed. The Elizabethan Hall was succeeded by a thorough- fare room forming the Entrance Hall, as seen at A in 111. 8. Behind the Entrance Hall was the Saloon, an Italian modification for country villas of the open cortile of the larger town palazzi, and this often formed a large apartment in the centre of the garden fa9ade, with the principal living-rooms ranged on either side (see B in 111. 8) ; such rooms were sometimes octagonal or circular on plan. Examples — Inigo Jones designed Raynham Hall, Norfolk (a.d. 1630), the Queen's House, Greenwich (a.d. 1639), Coleshill, Berks (a.d. 1650), and Chevening House, Kent (since destroyed). Sir Christopher Wren continued the same ideas LATE RENAISSANCE PERIOD 31 of planning-, but his designs were principally of the central block type. Amongst his reputed domestic works are Groombridge Place, Kent ; Belton House, near Grantham (a.d. 1689), and Marlborough House, London (a.d. 1698), with wings added later; besides considerable additions to Kensinoton Palace and Hampton Court. III. 8. Plan Section and Elevation of Castle Howard, Yorkshire. Queen Anne and Georgian Period : The Country Mansions— A laro^e number of mansions were erected in the eighteenth century by later architects, among whom may be mentioned Nicholas Hawksmoor, Sir John Vanbrugh, William Talman, William Kent, John Carr of York, Colin Campbell, Isaac Ware, George Dance, the Brothers Adam, John Wood of Bath, Sir William Chambers and many others. The Italian type of plan still prevailed, the Entrance 32 THE ENGLISH HOME Hall and Saloon forming the nucleus of the central block, which contained also the principal living-apart- ments. Winers on either side containino- Stables and Kitchens were still arrano^ed as at Castle Howard (111. 8), but sometimes also four wings were ar- ranged symmetrically as at Holkham Hall (111. 9) and Kedlestone Hall. The Jacobean Long Gallery still survived in a modified form in some of the larger houses, as at Holkham and Blenheim. Little advance was made with regard to privacy and the convenient arrangement of the apartments, for corridors are seldom found and thoroughfare rooms were usual. Compactness was frequently not much studied, the Kitchen in the East Wing at Blenheim being one hundred yards from the nearest Dining-room ! The accommodation shows an improvement on that given in the account of H engrave Hall, and begins p.,r^l« to accord more with modern ideas. The Dining and Draw- mor-rooms, w hich are henceforward com- mon to all homes, '^©LfflAM H1MUI>®~'^''^ are supplemented in III. 9. First-floor Plan of Holkham the larger examples Hall, Norfolk. ^j^j^ Morning-rooms, Libraries, Business - rooms, Boudoirs, Ball-rooms, Music-rooms, Billiard-rooms and Conservatories. Bedrooms were again increased in number, and occasionally they were grouped for visitors in a separate wing, as at Holkham (111. 9). LATE RENAISSANCE PERIOD 33 Staircases leading to the Bedrooms on the upper floor were usually symmetrical (111. 8), on either side of the Entrance Hall, and the various apartments were grouped with special regard to symmetry and stateliness at the expense of practical utility and con- venience. Pope satirized this prevailing idea in the following- lines : — " 'Tis very fine. But where d'ye sleep, or where d'ye dine ? I find by all you have been telling That 'tis a house and not a dwelling." The modern science of sanitation was still in a very backward state ; the supply of lavatories and bath- rooms was limited, and such as existed were badly placed, insufficiently ventilated and inadequately drained. Formal Gardens — These houses of the late Renais- sance were surrounded by formal gardens laid out on geometrical lines ornamented with sculptured figures and vases and with flights of steps and fountains, forming an ideal setting for a country house. Examples — Many of these mansions are illustrated in the volumes of the Vitrztvms Britannicus and indi- cate a passion for symmetry, together with a waste of space and inconvenience of disposition ; but no one can deny the magnificent eflect of many of these stately compositions. Castle Howard, Yorkshire (111. 8), Blenheim Palace (Oxfordshire), which is peculiar in having internal courts, Seaton Delaval (Northumberland), all have detached wings containing Kitchens, Stabling, etc., with two connecting portions of quadrant forms treated as colonnades. Holkham Hall, Norfolk (111. 9), and 3 34 THE ENGLISH HOME Kedlestone Hall (Derbyshire) are larger examples with four detached wings. Examples of the smaller country mansions which have no wings are Melton Constable (Norfolk), Eltham House (Kent), Thorpe Hall (near Peter- borough), Honington Hall (Warwickshire). The Smaller Houses — A large number of the smaller houses for the rapidly increasing middle class were erected in and around London and almost every provincial town ; and their simple and practical plans are in striking contrast with the stately and grandiose mansions we have already dealt with. These smaller houses, frequently occupied now- adays by the country doctor or solicitor, are usually of the block type, approximating either to a square or double square on plan. The centre third of the house is usually occupied by the Outer Hall, staircase and Inner Hall ; and on either side of this central portion are arranged the various rooms and offices. The general appearance of the smaller Queen Anne and Georgian house has often been described in the novels of Thackeray, Dickens and others. It is frequently set back from the road behind simple iron railings, and consists of a long, straight two-storied front raised upon a basement containing the Kitchen and offices. The principal features are the sash-windows sym- metrically arranged with stout wooden bars (see p. 64, 111. 20), the central doorway with side consoles, entab- lature and pediment, displaying the owner's coat-of- arms, and a boldly projecting consoled cornice protect- ing the walls from the frequent showers of this rain- swept country. The house is generally crowned with a plain hipped MODERN ARCHITECTURE 35 roof, with simple dormer windows which complete the ensemble of an unpretentious work of art in conso- nance with eighteenth-century civilization. Many of the smaller examples in towns, owing to the cost of land, are attached buildings, and depend mainly on the distribution of their windows and well- proportioned entrance doorways for effect. Furniture — Walnut was much used for furniture during the latter part of the seventeenth century, and the effect of the Restoration and Dutch influence, is evidenced in the designs. Mahogany appears to have replaced walnut for furniture about a.d. 1720. Chip- pendale in the first half and Heppelwhite and Shera- ton in the second half of the eighteenth century continued the traditional methods of craftsmanship, combined with sturdy Renaissance columns and scrolls in harmony with the architecture of the period. The system of veneering also came into general use, and the preference for classical designs affected even the most ordinary pieces of furniture, and pro- duced in the latter part of this period and the first quarter of the nineteenth century what has been called the Composite Age. MODERN ARCHITECTURE (nineteenth AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES) The Break-up of Tradition--The nineteenth century was in the main a century of revivals of past styles of architecture, and was remarkable for the break-up of tradition, due in large measure to the prevailing freedom of thought and desire to evade the restraint of authority. In the early part of the century the traditional Georgian art was in vogue, but this gave way to the 36 THE ENGLISH HOME Greek, Gothic (Tudor) and Elizabethan styles, which were employed successively and indiscriminately in domestic architecture, and resulted in the great con- fusion known as the Battle of the Styles, in which classic principles, based on regularity, stateliness and balance of parts, were opposed to the Gothic prin- ciples based on irregularity, unfettered freedom and convenience. The Greek Revival — During the years a.d. 1750- 1825, Homer and the Greek authors usurped the pedestals of the Latin authors, which had held sway since the Renaissance. This produced an enthusiasm for Greek literature and art, which was emphasized by the publication of Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens and other works. The importation (a.d. 1 80 1-3) of the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon at Athens also assisted in this direction. The Greek Revival, however, had little or no effect on the planning of domestic buildings, for not even the fervour of the Revivalists could make people bold enough to adopt the Pompeian classical type of plan. Frequent sacrifices of convenience were, however, still demanded, in order to comply with that general principle of regularity which was required, especially in the larger houses, which were still provided with small wings for extra accommodation. Domestic offices were still in the Basement, but were eventually brought to the ground floor, even when the Basement was retained for cellar purposes. The villas of Regent's Park, London, by Nash, are familiar examples, and some of them are on quite a large scale, although executed with stucco-faced walls which have been held up to scorn. The Gothic (Tudor) Revival— The changes of politics MODERN ARCHITECTURE 37 and the cessation of the land and sea wars that had engaged the forces of Europe from 1789-1815 tended to bring about a change in the ideas of Europeans between the years 18 15 and 1850. The study of the Middle Ages, owing to the writ- ings of Sir Walter Scott, Goethe and Victor Hugo, became fashionable, and this helped to produce the Gothic Revival in art, which was aided, in a.d. 1819, by Rickman's "Attempt to discriminate the Gothic styles." The writings of Pugin, Brandon, Britton and others also helped forward the movement. In the first instance, the revival seems to have been brought about by a desire to produce the decorative treatment of the Gothic style, but the chief reason which caused the Tudor style to be used was its adaptability of plan to modern requirements. Attention was also ably drawn to the Gothic period by Sir Charles Barry's designs for the Houses of Parliament, in which a stately classic plan was clothed with a Tudor dress. The Elizabethan Revival — A somewhat later phase, still on the same lines as regards the plan, was the Elizabethan revival which was a reversion to an eminently useful and national type of art. This revival answered the practical requirements of everyday life, in which convenience entirely governed the design, and symmetry was not considered essen- tial, except so far as it resulted from the requirements of the plan, which still, however, continued in many instances to follow the old Georgian type. Conclusion — To attempt, however, to enumerate even a selection of the types of houses erected during the nineteenth and commencement of the twentieth cen- turies would, of course, be impossible. The principles 38 THE ENGLISH HOME of plan as now established lay great stress on the hygienic distribution of the various apartments and the special attention given to sanitary requirements (see chap, iii., p. 46). The convenience and completeness of the domestic departments — due, no doubt, to the servant problem — also form a conspicuous motif in modern house plans. The reader is referred to examples by modern architects illustrated and described in chapter xviii., page 246. In whatever style — Greek, Gothic or Renaissance — the architect works, he should use it in an eclectic manner so as to answer the requirements of his client, and he should not be fettered by style, if it does not coincide with convenience. A brief review has now been made of the various stages of development by which the Englishman's home has attained that degree of comfort which is acknowledged to be unrivalled throughout the world. We will now deal in detail with the making of a modern home. CHAPTER II THE srrE Where to Live — A Healthy Site— Subsoil Drainage — Kinds of Soil — Position of Site — Points to consider in selecting a Site. WHERE to Live— The first problem to be solved in the choice of a site is whether to live in town, suburb or country. If one decides to live either in a suburb or in the country and has to go to business every day in town, a orood service of trains or a motor-car is essential ; but on the other hand if only occasional visits to town are necessary, the above desiderata are not so im- portant, and consequently there is a wider range in the choice of a site. Some people may own more than one residence, but such are by no means necessarily the happiest of mortals, and the owner of a comfortable house, care- fully planned and erected in simple taste upon a well- selected site, need envy no one his numerous pieds-a- terre. A flat in London and a little place in the country is considered by many an ideal arrangement, but those who have tried it know that it has numerous dis- advantages, and the question of servants frequently makes it extravagant and unsatisfactory. It means, moreover, the duplication of many personal neces- saries, and considerable irritation may be caused by 39 THE ENGLISH HOME finding that things are in one house when they are required in the other. A Healthy Site — Healthy conditions and surround- ings are the first essentials for any site, for no amount of care in the construction of a house will altoQfether avail if its situation is unhealthy. In many cases selection is not possible and some particular spot may have to be utilized. Then it is especially necessary to turn the peculiar circumstances to the best advan- tage, and it may save many heartburnings later on if an architect be consulted early in the matter. The healthiness of the site depends largely on its surroundings, the nature of the subsoil, vegetation and sources of contamination in the immediate vicinity. In addition, the temperature, rainfall, moisture of soil and the nature of the prevailing winds materially affect it. The general climatic conditions of a dis- trict cannot be altered, but they may be modified by drainage and by the judicious plantation or re- moval of trees. Many diseases such as phthisis and affections of the respiratory system, including bron- chitis, pneumonia and whooping-cough, appear to be derived from or fostered by dampness, which is also conducive to rheumatism, neuralgia and catarrhs. All authorities aoree that the condition which principally governs the healthiness of a soil is the relation which the ground air (i.e. air in the soil) bears to the ground water (i.e. moisture in the soil), and this depends mainly upon the rainfall, which varies greatly in different parts of the country. The principal evil is damp, caused by the evaporation of the moisture in the soil, which lowers the temperature of the air and is therefore injurious. This moisture is bound to rise, unless the level of the ground water is kept THE SITE 41 sufficiently below its surface ; for the lower the water is in the soil the less the evaporation and the warmer the adjacent air. Subsoil Drainage — Subsoil drainage facilitates the passage of the surface water into the ground beneath, and thus reduces the amount of the evaporation. This is usually effected by means of unglazed, unjointed agricultural drain-pipes, butted against each other, and generally placed about three feet six inches below the surface of the ground with a good fall to a ditch, stream or river. The lines of pipes are placed at distances which vary from three feet to six feet apart, according to the nature of the soil, for it is obvious that in a sandy soil a single drain will lower the level of the ground water over a larger area than in a stiff clay soil, where drains must be placed closer together. Some authorities hold that ground water should not be allowed nearer than five feet from the surface, but this appears to involve unnecessary expenditure. The drains, it need hardly be said, should be entirely independent of any drain used as a vehicle for sewage. Drained and undrained sites have been tested by various authorities, and many years ago Sir Douglas Galton found that a well-drained field had a tem- perature of as much as six or seven degrees Fahren- heit higher than an adjacent undrained field. Kinds of Soil — Rock is an impermeable formation which makes in many respects an admirable site for houses, but care must also be given to the surface soil, as it may consist of decaying organic matter. This was found to be the case at the Peninsular Sanatorium near Hong-Kong, where, although the site is of granite formation, a severe epidemic broke out 42 THE ENGLISH HOME amongst the troops quartered there, owing to the nature of the soil on the rock. Clay soil is generally impervious and holds the surface water, and is consequently bad unless care- fully drained. The suitability of this soil depends largely upon the subsoil, and if the latter be of gravel and the clay not very deep, it may form an excellent site to build upon. Houses near some towns have to be built on such soils, and provided they are properly drained they can be made at least unobjectionable, although clay, being a good conductor, is generally rather cold. Gravel, free from loam and with a pervious subsoil, is generally considered good for building sites, as it allows the surface water to rapidly drain away. Porous soils may, however, be objectionable if there is an impervious stratum beneath, which holds the water as in a basin. Marshy soils, including muddy sea-beaches or river banks, are unhealthy and even dangerous, and are shown by statistics to be responsible for malarial and other affections. Made o^round — i.e. o-round which has been used as a dust and refuse shoot — is frequently found on the out- skirts of towns and in the suburbs, and is, of course, unhealthy to build upon. Chalk, if permeable and free from clay, is generally considered to be healthy, but many chalks are im- permeable, and therefore damp and cold. Position of Site — Havinor touched on the various soils, the position of the site with regard to health may be briefly dealt with. It has been well stated that ground at the foot of slopes or in deep valleys which receive drainage THE SITE 43 from higher levels should be avoided, as it predis- poses people even in temperate climates to epidemic diseases. High positions exposed to winds blowing over low marshy ground, although some distance away, are in certain climates unsafe, because of the liability to induce fevers. Points to consider in selecting a Site — The suita- bility of a building site can be tested by bearing in mind the following points which are here tabulated for reference : — 1. The local climate should be healthy. 2. The soil should be dry and porous. 3. The ground should fall in all directions to facili- tate drainage. If possible a position on a steep slope should be avoided, as high ground near a building causes the air to stagnate. This was proved very conclusively at Balaclava, where the mortality in the soldiers' huts which were placed on a steep slope was much hioher than in those which were otherwise o situated. 4. There should be a free circulation of air in the district, and muddy creeks and ditches, undrained or marshy ground should not be close to the house, or in such a position that the prevailing winds would blow the damp exhalations over the buildings. 5. If the site be an exposed one it may be sheltered from the north and east by trees, which should be at a suflicient distance, however, to avoid causing stagna- tion of air or dampness. As a general rule trees should not be nearer to a house than at least their own height. 6. The healthiness may be further tested by the rate of mortality in the district, and in the case of a health resort consideration should be given to its disease-curing properties. THE ENGLISH HOME 7. The proximity of such unpleasant places as sewage farms, soap works, brick kilns, tanneries, cement works and lime kilns (which emit carbonic acid, etc.), slaughter-houses, refuse depots and stag- nant ponds should be avoided. A cemetery also has a very depressing effect on many people, and accord- ing to Dr. Whitelegge, there is evidence of increased sickness and mortality among persons residing close to a crowded graveyard, the air of which contains an excess of carbonic acid. Sites near public-houses and schools are noisy, and often have a bad effect on the nerves of delicate people. 8. The drainage system in the .district, including the position of the outflow and the method of sewage treatment, should be ascertained. Also whether the conduit is constructed on modern principles, with proper ventilation and with no backflow during high tides. If the site is in the country, where there is no drainage system, a cesspool or septic tank must be used, and there must be a convenient position with a good fall for such treatment and sufficiently distant from the source of the water used in the house. 9. The water supply is of the greatest importance, and it is necessary to know whether this can be obtained from a Water Company's Main or from an adjacent river or well, or if an artesian well will have to be sunk. We know a case where a man paid thousands of pounds for a site before taking pro- fessional advice, and then had to purchase adjacent land to secure the necessary water-bearing strata. 10. The question of lighting is important, and inquiries should be made as to the accessibility of electric and gas mains, or the possibility of utilizing THE SITE 45 waste water to provide power for an installation of electric liorht. 11. If the owner is of a sporting nature, information should be obtained as to the nearest meets of harriers, fox and stag hounds, and the proximity of fishing, golfing, polo, etc. Records of shooting-bags on the estate might also be obtained. 12. The train service, postal arrangements, shopping possibilities and cost of installing telephone should also be considered. 13. Sites near a main road should as a rule be avoided owine to the nuisance of motor traffic. 14. It is well to inquire whether any part of the neighbourhood is likely to be handed over to the speculative builder, for this might result in the erection of a class of house which would change the character of the neighbourhood. 15. The proposed tenure of the land — freehold, copyhold or leasehold — must also be borne in mind, and it is sometimes convenient to get an agreement for a lease with an option of purchasing the freehold, within a given number of years, at a stated price. 16. The amount of the rates and taxes should also receive attention, as in some districts these are almost prohibitive. It will be seen that the choice of a site is an important question, and when one has been found probably the best thing to do is to obtain an option for a given time upon it, and then to seek expert advice. CHAPTER III THE PLAN General Principles (Provision for Daylight, Disposition of Windows, Prospect) — Verandas — Corridors — The Rooms (Entrance Hall and Staircase, Dining-room, Drawing-room, Library, Morning-room, Smoking- room, Billiard-room, Lavatories, etc.. Bathroom) — Kitchen quarters (Scullery, Pantry, Larder) — Bedrooms — Types of Plans. GENERAL Principles — The plan of any building must depend upon the site, and only general principles which indicate special points to be observed can be laid down. The first principle is that the sun should enter every living-room at some period of the day, for it is just as important to the air of a room as water is to the human body, and no apartment can be considered healthy which is not periodically disin- fected by its rays. It is indeed generally an easy matter to ensure this, and even old and badly planned houses can often be made healthy by the judicious insertion of windows to admit the sun's rays. Even in awkwardly situated rooms it is often possible to put in a small sun-window, which adds much to the cheeriness of the house, and affects in no small degree the health and spirits of the occupants. Provision for Daylight — A sufficient and abundant supply of daylight should be provided for every room, the exact amount varying with regard to any ob- struction which may be contiguous thereto. We con- 46 THE PLAN 47 sider this question in chapter xiv., which deals with lio^htinof. Disposition of Windows — Much may be done by the skilful disposition of the windows ; an odd number of windows in an apartment is generally preferred, in order to avoid a pier in the centre of a wall which would cast a shadow right across the room. No dark corners for the accumulation of dirt should be allowed, for "Out of sight, out of mind," is a saying which should be remembered in all matters of sanitary planning. Prospect — The view to be obtained from the rooms and any special characteristics of the site must not be forgotten ; and, indeed, in the country they should be a factor in determining the general position of the rooms. The hygienic value of a view over a pleasing landscape should not be lightly disregarded. It is evident that in many houses the points of the compass have not been properly considered. We must remember that the sun is south at noon all the year round, and that the rooms should in general be so planned as to trap its rays. In England northern and north-eastern aspects are cold, southern are warm, and north-western and south-western aspects are subject to boisterous winds, often accom- panied by driving rain. The south-eastern aspect is dry and mild, and is perhaps best suitable for most of the living-rooms, while a north-eastern aspect is best for the kitchen and offices. Verandas — A Veranda (or Loggia) is a feature which in modern domestic buildings should be intro- duced with discrimination in Great Britain. Owing to our climate, with its comparative dreariness and 3