FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
 Class .. 6.- 7..:^..... Book-LTrS-^ ^^ Accession 3.GJ^. L^ 
 
 Given by ..Mr.*-M.^-t:>.y:M.M.<>.w:..^o^^ 
 
Digitized by 
 
 the Internet Archive 
 
 
 
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THE ARTS 
 
 OP 
 
 TANNING, CURRYING. 
 
 AND 
 
 LEATHER-DRESSING. 
 
THE ARTS 
 
 OF 
 
 TANNING, CURRYING, 
 
 AND 
 
 LEATHER-DEESSING; 
 
 THEORETICALLY AND PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED 
 IN ALL THEIR DETAILS. 
 
 EDITED FROM THE FRENCH OF 
 
 J. DE FONTENELLE AND F. MALEPEYRE, 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS EMENDATIONS AND ADDITIONS, 
 BY 
 
 CAMPBELL MORFIT, 
 
 PRACTICAL AND ANALYTICAL CHEMIST, AUTHOR OF "APPLIED CHEMISTRY," 
 "CHEMICAL AND PHARMACEUTIC MANIPULATIONS," ETC. 
 
 > » o 
 
 TLLUSTHATED BY TWO HUNDRED WOOD ENaHAVINGS. 
 
 > ^ i iO ') , , , ', , ', , J ] > • I J ) J )"j 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 No. 7 HART'S BUILDING, 
 SIXTH STREET, ABOVE CHESTNUT. 
 
 1852. 
 
TS 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the 
 Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 T. K, AND P, G. COLLINS, PEINTERS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The present work has been prepared to meet" the 
 growmg demand for information as to the practical ap- 
 plication of scientific principles, which characterizes the 
 progress of the arts; and is offered to that portion of 
 the public which is interested in the branch of manufac- 
 tures of which it treats. 
 
 The first intention of the Editor was to reproduce, 
 in translation, the French Manual of J. de Fontenelle 
 and F. Malepeyre, but in the course of his labors its 
 imperfections became so manifest that the original plan 
 was abandoned for a substitute which would better 
 realize his purpose of making a full and comprehensive 
 treatise upon the manufacture of the different kinds of 
 leather. To this end, such portions of the French work 
 as were valuable and novel, were either translated or 
 remodelled; while the information in which it was de- 
 ficient, was directly supplied or derived from other 
 sources. 
 
 For the purpose of procuring the desired information, 
 inquiries have been directed over a wide range of the 
 country, sometimes by letter, and frequently in person. 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 In this way, most accurate knowledge has been obtained ; 
 and although, often, much of the time of manufacturers 
 and others has been exacted in giving explanations and 
 descriptions, these have always been rendered with 
 willingness, and with the manifest desire to co-operate 
 for the advancement of the Art. The editor takes 
 pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness to those 
 who have so kindly assisted him by contributing im- 
 portant facts, and desires to express his particular obli- 
 gations to the Hon. Z. Pratt, Plon. J. C. G. Kennedy, 
 Prof. J. C. Booth, Prof. L. D. Gale, and S. Sparhawk, 
 Esq. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface v 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 17 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 THE DIGNITY OP LABOR WHEN ASSOCIATED WITH INTELLIGENCE , WITH 
 A REFERENCE TO THE CAREER OF ZADOCK PRATT, THE TANNER. 25 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OP TAN AND TANNIN. 
 
 Preparation. — Processes: 1. Proust's. 2. Deyeux's. 3. Dize's. 
 4. Merat-Guillot's. 5. Bouillon-Lagrange's. 6. TromsdorfiF's. 
 7. Serturner's. 8. Laubert's. 9. Pelouze's. 10. Domine's. 
 11. Mohr's. — Impure tannin. Chemical properties and varie- 
 ties: 1. Tannin from catechu. 2. Tannin from sumach, kino, 
 &c. 3. Artificial tannin. 4. Tannin from various sources. — 
 Pure tannin. Chemical properties 39 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 GALLIC ACID. 
 
 Preparation. — Processes: 1. Scheele's. 2. Fiedler's. 3. lire's. 
 4. Braconnot's. 5. Kent's. 6. Wetherill's. — Properties. — 
 ElLAGIC ACID 58 
 
' viii 
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 EXTRACTIVE. .... 64 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TANNING MATERIALS. 
 
 Tanning juices. — Catechu, japonica, or cutch: 1. Cake catechu. 
 2. Pegu catechu. 3. Bengal catechu. 4. Bombay catechu. 5. 
 Gambir. 6. Arecha catechu. — Kino. — Vegetable fungi: Nut- 
 galls; Chinese galls; Aleppo galls. — Tree leaves. — Tea: green; 
 black. — Flowers and jiower toi^s. — Fruits. — Seeds and hulls : divi- 
 divi; squills; valonia. — Woods. — Roots: leadwort; filix mas; 
 rhatany; leopard's bane; statice. — Barhs: cinnamon; birch; 
 chestnut; horse-chestnut; sassafras; larch; hemlock; hazel; 
 beech ; Lombardy poplar ; black thorn ; pomegranate ; ash ; elm ; 
 cinchona; cork-tree; poison oak; sumach; willow; sycamore; 
 tamarisk; winter's; tulip-tree; St. Lucia; wattle ... 66 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OAK-BARKS. 
 
 European oaks : quercus robur; quercus pedunculata; quercus ses- 
 siliflora; quercus coccifera, or garronille. — American oaks: 
 quercus falcata ; quercus rubra ; quercus prinus montieola ; quer- 
 cus tinctoria; quercus alba; quercus coccinea; quercus ambigua ; 
 quercus virens ......... 95 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 BARKING OF TREES. . . .104 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE TANNING POWER OF ASTRINGENT 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Processes: Davy's; Bell Stephens's; Warington's. Table of the 
 average quantity of tannin in different substances . . .107 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ix 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 TAN, OR POWDERED OAK-BARK. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Grinding apparatus: French bark-mill; BagnalFs bark-chopper; 
 Weldon's bark-mill ; Farcot's bark-chopper; Bourgeois's bark-mill ; 
 Lespinasse's bark-mill ; Wiltse's bark-mill and breaker; Birely's 
 mill 113 
 
 CHAPTEE XL 
 
 THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF SKIN. 
 
 Corium ; rete mucosum ; cuticle. — Composition : fibrine ; gelatine ; 
 albumen . . . . • 137 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SKINS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 146 
 
 CHAPTER Xni. 
 
 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF SKINS. 
 
 ■JVa SUING AND SOAKING. — Of the influence of the soahing-waterupon 
 the qualify of leather: 1. Rain-water. 2. Snow-water. 3. 
 Spring and fountain water. 4. River-water. 5. Lake-water. 6. 
 Marsh-water. 7. Well-water. — Swelling, or raising : raising 
 by lime; raising by acids; depilation by steam; depilation by 
 caustic soda; depilation by sulphurets of calcium and sodium; 
 cool sweating ; raising and depilating by barley ; raising by sour 
 tan-liquor ; raising by yeast. — Working ON the beam . . 154 
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 TANNING PROCESS. 
 
 Tan vats: Brown's vats; Dessables's process; Herapath and Cox's 
 process. — Cropleather : drying. — Beating amd rolling: Debergue's 
 machine; Flotard and Delbut's machine; Berendorf's machine; 
 Cox's rolling-mills; Wiltse's rolling-table .... 204 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER Xy. 
 
 IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Seguin's process; oak tanning; Desmond's process; Getliffe's pro- 
 cess; Nossiter's process; Ogereau's process .... 243 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 vauquelin's process. . . . 254 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 Berenger and Sterlingue's process; Squire's process. — Tanning ly 
 mechanical pressure : Spilsbury's process; Drake's process; Chap- 
 lin's process; Cox's process; J. F. Knowlis's process; Poole's 
 process; Hannoye's process; Danish process ; Rotch's process; S. 
 Snyder's process . • . 263 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 kkasley's process 291 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 turnbull's process, 
 warington's process 298 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 hibbard's patent process. . . . 307 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 leprieur's process 310 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 tanning with extract of oak-bark or catechu. 
 Burbridge's process 
 
 318 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XXIIL 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 Pratt's process ; hydrometers ; fulUng-mills . . . .320 
 CHAPTER XXIY. 
 
 TANNING WITH MYRTLE PLANT. 
 
 Rap^nius's process; tanning with grape-skins; tanning with 
 
 STATICE, OR MARSH ROSEMARY; ToIJRNELL's PROCESS; GaY- 
 
 raud's process; mode of preparing skins by means of tar 
 
 AND soot; tanning WITH FURZE 338 
 
 CHAPTER XXY. 
 
 ENGLISH harness LEATHER. 
 BUTTS, CALLED "RED LEATHER^ 345 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 Kampffmeyer's processes; tanniDg with oak-bark; tanning with divi- 
 divi; tanning with catechu ; tanning with alder-bark; "alumed" 
 calfskins 349 
 
 CHAPTER XXYII. 
 
 GOAT AND SHEEP SKINS. 
 
 True morocco; imitation morocco; skiver; roan . . . 361 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 HORSE-HIDES. . . . .366 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 buck, wolf, and dog skins. 
 Human skins 368 
 
xii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 .CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BUFFALO; OR GRECIAN" LEATHER. . . 309 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER. . . . .372 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 RED SKINS. . . .382 
 
 CHAPTER XXXm. 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 Barley-dressings; bran-dressings; rye-dressings . . . 385 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 Bordier's process; Cavalin's processes; Dutch or mineral tanning. — 
 Dye-tanning : Newton's process ...... 395 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 THE TEXTURE AND QUALITY OF LEATHER, AND THE MEANS OF 
 
 DISCOVERING ITS DEFECTS. . . . 404 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 TAWING. 
 
 Alumed leather; kid leather; imitation kid; housings and mats 409 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 Kresse's process; Curandeau's process . . . . .415 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 CHAPTER XXXYIII. 
 
 OILED LEATHER. 
 
 TAGE 
 
 Chamois leather; wash leather; losh leather; Nisbet's process . 433 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 TANNING AS PRACTISED BY THE MONGOL TARTARS. 
 
 Tanning as practised by the Indians 440 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 SHAGREEN. .... 443 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 PARCHMENT. 
 
 Vellum 446 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 leather bottles. 
 Leather tubes 450 
 
 CHAPTER XLin. 
 
 TANNING OF CORDAGE AND SAIL-CLOTH. . . 452 
 
 CHAPTER XLTV. 
 glazed, or patent'^ leather. 
 Didier's process; Nossiter's process 453 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 HALVORSON's PROCESS FOR RENDERING HIDES HARD AND 
 
 TRANSPARENT 458 
 
XIV CONTEXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 CURRYING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dipping; sLaving; pommelling; stretching; working with the round- 
 knife. — Stretched leather; sleeked leather; grained leather; water 
 leather; oiled leather; wax leather; English leather; white leather; 
 common russet 461 
 
 CHAPTER XL VII. 
 
 CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 Oiled calf-skins; tallowed skins; English skins; wax skins;" grained 
 skins; calf belt-leather ....... 489 
 
 CHAPTER XLYIII. 
 
 CURRYING OF GOAT-SKINS. 
 
 Morocco; Boolcliout and Coclien^ s rolling-mill . . . .497 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 RED LEATHER 502 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 FAIR LEATHER. 
 505 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 Smith and Thomas's process; Nenorj's process; Deane's process; 
 H. C. Jennings's process 507 
 
 Booth's process 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 Perkins's machine for pommelling and graining leather. 514 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 SPLITTING, SHAVING, FLESHING, AND CLEANSING MACHINES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Degrand's machine; Giraudon's machine; Richardson's machine; 
 Seguin's machine; Nossiter's machine 518 
 
 CHAPTER Liy. 
 
 EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 Bernheim and Labouriau's process; F. W. East's process . . 530 
 
 CHAPTER LY. 
 
 GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 Preparation of the intestines of cattle; disinfection of the workshop, 
 and mode of suppressing putrefaction; goldbeater's-skin; lathe- 
 cords; catgut; whip-cords; hatters' cords; clock-makers' cords; 
 musical-instrument strings . . . . . . .530 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 34, 9tli line from top, for "wall," read well. 
 " 35, 7tli line from bottom, "empires," . " emprises. 
 " 162, llth " " "peck," " quart. 
 
THE 
 
 ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, 
 
 AND 
 
 LEATHER-DRESSING. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The art of tanning is that by which animal skins are 
 converted into leather, a product possessing certain cha- 
 racteristic properties, differing entirely from those of the 
 raw material, and eminently adapting it to the useful 
 purposes for which it is employed. These properties are 
 of a physical nature, and vary with the kind of skin 
 employed, and the modifications of the process which it 
 undergoes. Chemically considered, however, leather 
 proper, whatever its kind, is a definite compound of tan- 
 nin and gelatine, possessing the all-desirable requisites of 
 durability, pliability, inalterability, insolubility in water, 
 and great power of resisting the action of chemical re- 
 agents. When mineral or earthy substances are used as 
 the leather-making agents, the result is a compound of 
 gelatine with the base employed, and is more or less in- 
 destructible, according to the nature of the material and 
 the circumstances under which the combination takes 
 place. 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Tanning, as an empirical art, dates back to antiquity; 
 but the methods resorted to in early times, consisted of 
 little more than merely cleansing and drying the skins; 
 and thus prepared, the latter were used for clothing, &c. 
 This mode, however, was very imperfect, for the bibulous 
 nature of the skins caused them, upon the reabsorption 
 of moisture by exposure, to resume their original liability 
 to putrefaction and injury. In later times, these defects 
 were remedied by immersing the cleansed and de-haired 
 skins in infusion of oak-bark, or solution of alum; and 
 thus, by effecting a union between one or more constituents 
 of the liquor and the gelatinous tissue of the skin, pro- 
 ducing a new compound endowed with desirable proper- 
 ties not possessed by its original components. The prin- 
 ciples governing this reaction, have been in more recent 
 days, developed by the investigations of Lewis, Proust, 
 Seguin, Deyeux, McBride, and Sir H. Davy; and it is 
 owing to the researches of these inquirers, that the 
 occupation of the tanner has been elevated from the 
 condition of an empirical pursuit, to that of an art based 
 upon recognized scientific principles. 
 
 Unfortunately, however, the efforts of theoretic in- 
 vestigators have not always been reciprocated by practi- 
 cal men ; and, though many improvements in the mani- 
 pulations of the art have been made by the aid of in- 
 geniously contrived machinery, and much has been done 
 to hasten the process, by promoting the absorption of the 
 tanning principle by mechanical and philosophical means, 
 any economy of time that may have been thus accomplish- • 
 ed, is counterbalanced, in the present state of the art, by 
 a corresponding depreciation of the quality of the leather. 
 We base a hope for a more propitious future in this re- 
 spect, upon the growing interest in applied science which 
 characterizes the times, and already, Prof Gale, of the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 19 
 
 Patent Office, has commenced an examination of the 
 tannin-yielding trees of the United States, beginning 
 with the oaks. This course is with a view of comparing 
 the products of the same trees growing in different lati- 
 tudes, so as to show the effect of climate in modifying 
 the secretion of tannin by the organism of the growing 
 plant — a work which will prove as serviceable to the 
 tanning interest, as it is creditable to the disinterested- 
 ness and professional skill of its author. 
 
 Leather was largely in use among the ancient Egypt- 
 ians, and the workers of that material were so numerous 
 that the Memnonian quarter of Thebes was characterized 
 as their especial locality. Their skill in fashioning it 
 was so great, that ornaments of all shapes and devices 
 were made from it. As far back as 900 years before 
 Christ, leather was made by them into tapestry; and 
 many of the Egyptian tombs bear representations of 
 artificers in leather engaged in the several branches of 
 their vocation. 
 
 The principal steps in the manufacture of leather are 
 
 1. The Washing and Soaldng^ for the purpose of cleans- 
 ing and softening the skins, and preparing them for — 
 
 2. The Depilation or Removal of the Hair. — This is 
 effected by the use of lime or other substances which 
 destroy, dissolve, or soften the bulbous roots of the hairs, 
 and thus facilitate their removal by mere mechanical 
 scraping with a blunt-edged knife. During this part of 
 the process, another important end is generally accom- 
 plished, in the swelling of the tissues, and their prepara- 
 tion for the more complete and easy absorption of the 
 tanning principle. The primitive mode of removing the 
 hair, was that of shaving it off with a knife, but the use 
 of hrae was known even among the early Egyptians. 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 When the rationale of the depilation is better understood 
 hy practical tanners, the slow and inconvenient process 
 of depilation by means of lime, will probably give place 
 to more effective, rapid, and economical methods, such 
 as the use of the hydrosulphuret of calcium. 
 
 3. Tanning. — This step consists in promoting the com- 
 bination of the gelatinous tissue with tannin, by immers- 
 ing the softened and unhaired skins in an infusion of oak- 
 bark, or other substances containing tannin. The tan- 
 ning influence is probably not exerted solely by the tan- 
 nin, but also partly by the extractive matter, more or 
 less of which always exists in tanning material. During 
 the soaking, the epidermis of the skin disappears, and the 
 tissue of the latter is gelatinized, and thus predisposed 
 to chemical union with the tannin. This gelatinization 
 of the tissue is all-essential, and is promoted doubtless 
 by the gallic acid fermentation of the tanning material. 
 This is the more probable, since the same effect may be 
 produced by the use of very dilute acetic and sulphu- 
 ric acids, and since gallic acid has no primary or direct 
 influence on the tanning. Time, exposure to moisture, 
 to air, and a temperature of 77° to 86°, F.,are the requi- 
 sites for this fermentation, which is developed by the 
 action upon tannin of a ferment which is always present 
 in tanning material, converting it into gallic acid. In 
 consequence of this change, the prolonged exposure of 
 the liquor diminishes its tanning power. 
 
 4. Drying, rolling, and other operations intended to 
 perfect the quality and appearance of the leather. 
 
 Leather is employed for many useful and ornamental 
 purposes, and numerous are its applications to various 
 branches of industry. Besides its extensive use for 
 coverings for the head and foot, wearing apparel, sad- 
 
 1 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 21 
 
 clleS; harness, carriages, and the purposes of the book- 
 binder, it is Largely employed for the embellishment of 
 objects of taste and ornament. 
 
 Independently of the direct importance of the leather 
 trade, it exerts a very decided incidental influence in de- 
 veloping the resources of a country, by giving value to 
 certain materials used in, and resulting from the manu- 
 facture. Besides the immense quantit}^ of bark which 
 it consumes, it furnishes the raw material which gives 
 employment to thousands of artisans, and it has built up 
 colonies and towns which owe their origin and progress 
 entirely to the interests connected with it. Even the 
 waste materials of slaughter-houses, tanneries, curriers'- 
 shops, and workers in leather, have important applica- 
 tions; the horns serving for the manufacture of combs, 
 buttons, and umbrella furniture, the hair for plasterers' 
 use, the spent lime for the farmer, the skin-clippings for 
 the glue-boiler, and the leather-shavings for the manufac- 
 turer of the prussiate of potash. 
 
 The following statements will suffice to give an idea 
 of the vast extent and rapid increase of the trade in 
 leather. 
 
 In France, a country eminent for the quantity and 
 quality of the leather which it produces, the average 
 number of skins annually converted into leather is 
 
 Of Oxen and Cows . . . 857,000 
 
 " Calves 2,032,000 
 
 " Horses . . . . . 111,000 
 
 amounting to 3,000,000 of whole skins, exclusive of 
 sheep and calf skins ; and equal in money value there, 
 to the very large sum of $7,171,630. 
 
 In the United States, the manufacture of leather, only 
 
22 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 beginning to be of much importance, in the early part 
 of the present century, has been rapidly extended, until 
 it has become — with its allied and dependent arts — one 
 of the most prominent elements of national prosperity. 
 Conducted originally in the most simple and primitive 
 manner, the expenditure both of time and labor is now 
 materially reduced by new^ processes and modes of treat- 
 ment, which ow^e their beginning to various improve- 
 ments which commenced in the year 1803 in Massachu- 
 setts. These improvements were the substitution of 
 water-power for manual labor in many of the most labo- 
 rious parts of the manufacture, such as the softening and 
 cleansing of the hides before tanning, the grinding of 
 the bark, the pumping of the tan-liquor from one vat to 
 another, and the rolling and smoothing of the leather. 
 After these advancements in the progress of the art, fol- 
 io w^ed the diminution of the quantity of lime used for 
 depilation, the application of heat to bark in leaches, 
 the more frequent use of decoction of bark as the tan- 
 ning agent, the introduction of steam-power, and the 
 employment of various machines for splitting, shaving, 
 graining, and finishing leather. In 1829, 36,360 sides 
 of sole leather were tanned in one establishment, in the 
 town of Hunter, Greene County, New York. They 
 weighed 637,413 pounds, and were manufactured with 
 the labor of forty-nine hands, and with 3200 cords of 
 bark. A reference to Chapter XXIIL, containing an 
 account of the Prattsville tannery, will give to the 
 reader an idea of the expenditure of labor and capital, 
 and the results obtained hj them, in a modern Ameri- 
 can tanning establishment. 
 
 In New York, wliich is the great commercial mart for 
 leather from every source of manufacture, the number 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 23 
 
 of sides of sole leather inspected during the last five 
 years, was as follows : — 
 
 1847 .... 1,168,332 
 
 1848 .... 1,325,126 
 
 1849 .... 1,750,231 
 
 1850 . . ^. . 2,098,740 
 
 1851 .... 2,185,553 
 
 For the same years, the value of raw hides and skins, 
 and of manufactured leather imported into the United 
 States, was, in 
 
 Eaw Hides Manufactures 
 and Skins. of Leather. 
 
 1847 (ending 31st June) $1,529,948 $135,217 
 
 1848 " " " 4,262,069 208,993 
 
 1849 " 3,507,300 210,143 
 
 1850 " " " 4,799,031 362,409 
 
 1851 " " " 5,964,838 411,795 
 
 We append a statistical table, compiled from the re- 
 turns of the seventh census, and showing the present 
 condition of the tanning interest in the United States : — 
 
24 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hanbs 
 
 BIONTHLT 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^3/1 UG of 
 
 Employed. 
 
 Wages. 
 
 Yalue 
 
 
 
 Capital 
 
 
 
 
 
 States. 
 
 
 Kaw 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 InTestcd. 
 
 Material. 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 '3 
 
 1 
 
 of Product. 
 
 Maine 
 
 213 
 
 732,747 
 
 892,343 
 
 787 
 
 q 
 
 1 7 09Q 
 
 9Q 
 
 1,620,636 
 
 
 163 
 
 441,975 
 
 543,779 
 
 
 
 1 1 7*^7 
 
 
 900,421 
 
 V Cl lllUll V 
 
 152 
 
 346,250 
 
 357,946 
 
 ^Q7 
 
 
 8 807 
 
 
 587,466 
 
 i\Tn <5<*i plm «!ptt«! 
 
 XTXcl.oOctj\^ll Hoc U L O 
 
 246 
 
 1,377'725 
 
 2,311,178 
 
 1 , 0 i u 
 
 
 zll 94f; 
 
 qAQ 
 
 3,519,123 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 10 
 
 42,900 
 
 40,615 
 
 oo 
 
 
 89Q 
 
 
 75,040 
 
 n f>n 11 pp ti r>n t. 
 
 115 
 
 360,500 
 
 453,854 
 
 407 
 
 
 1 A 097 
 
 
 731,000 
 
 New York 
 
 942 
 
 5,025,143 
 
 6,065,221 
 
 Q1 d 
 
 Oi 
 
 103,171 
 
 ^yo 
 
 9,804,000 
 
 N^pw .TpTCiPv 
 
 133 
 
 572,857 
 
 423,537 
 
 
 
 ft Q/f A 
 
 
 724,466 
 
 T^PTin sivl vn in fi. 
 
 i dlllo y A > €XXL1.<JU 
 
 1 039 
 
 3,540,318 
 
 3,169,309 
 
 O Q7ft 
 
 o 
 A 
 
 04, /o4 
 
 17 
 
 5,275,492 
 
 Delaware 
 
 16 
 
 99,350 
 
 99,620 
 
 1 no 
 lUo 
 
 
 Z,Ood 
 
 
 163,742 
 
 A To n Ti fl 
 
 116 
 
 628,900 
 
 725,612 
 
 A 70 
 
 
 Q AO /( 
 
 c5,Uo4 
 
 
 1,103,139 
 
 
 341 
 
 676,983 
 
 498,926 
 
 yuu 
 
 a 
 D 
 
 1 q A/I Q 
 
 
 894,877 
 
 
 151 
 
 251,055 
 
 191,237 
 
 Q79 
 
 1 
 
 0,291 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 352,535 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 91 
 
 184,335 
 
 131,679 
 
 
 
 0 fiC? 
 0,0D/ 
 
 
 261,332 
 
 (tPatd"! n. 
 
 140 
 
 262,855 
 
 185,604 
 
 
 
 7 1 07 
 
 
 261,586 
 
 Florida 
 
 4 
 
 9,400 
 
 4,300 
 
 1 0 
 
 
 1 on 
 
 
 9,200 
 
 xVlabama 
 
 149 
 
 200,570 
 
 158,247 
 
 40/ 
 
 0 
 
 7 7on 
 
 A Q9 4 
 
 40 
 
 385,911 
 
 ^lississippi 
 
 ■ 92 
 
 145,615 
 
 111,474 
 
 OA A 
 
 Q 
 
 9?^ 
 
 Jo 
 
 229,407 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 15 
 
 88,800 
 
 26,440 
 
 01 
 
 q 
 o 
 
 you 
 
 99 
 
 55,025 
 
 Texas 
 
 22 
 
 83,850 
 
 18,624 
 
 AQ 
 
 1 
 
 1 007 
 
 1 0 
 
 52,050 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 51 
 
 42,100 
 
 35,230 
 
 J. iU 
 
 
 i,oI4 
 
 
 78,774 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 394 
 
 490,320 
 
 896,159 
 
 915 
 
 6 
 
 14,338 
 
 32 
 
 746,484 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 275 
 
 763,455 
 
 537,147 
 
 877 
 
 2 
 
 14,417 
 
 9 
 
 985,267 
 
 Ohio 
 
 706 
 
 1,840,389 
 
 1,118,080 
 
 1,826 
 
 
 85,830 
 
 
 1,964,591 
 
 Michigan 
 
 60 
 
 OOr* AAA 
 
 2ob,000 
 
 
 265 
 
 
 6 782 
 
 
 ot'O no A 
 000,980 
 
 Indiana 
 
 358 
 
 514,897 
 
 405,838 
 
 836 
 
 "2 
 
 I5I199 
 
 i'i 
 
 714,818 
 
 Illinois 
 
 96 
 
 188,373 
 
 129,907 
 
 240 
 
 
 5,145 
 
 
 244,028 
 
 Missouri 
 
 148 
 
 228,095 
 
 247,956 
 
 412 
 
 "5 
 
 8,306 
 
 41 
 
 466,241 
 
 Iowa 
 
 14 
 
 20,350 
 
 10,745 
 
 28 
 
 
 543 
 
 
 24,520 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 8 
 
 78,950 
 
 93,380 
 
 75 
 
 
 1,710 
 
 
 175,710 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 1 
 
 500 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 940 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 2 
 
 25,000 
 
 25,600 
 
 10 
 
 
 270 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 6,263 
 
 18,900,557 
 
 19,613,237 
 
 20,909 
 
 102 
 
 416,214 
 
 970 
 
 32,861,796 
 
 About 6,000,000 skins of sheep, goats, and other small 
 animals, are tanned and dressed annually, which are not 
 included in the above table. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOH WHEN ASSOCIATED WITH IN- 
 TELLIGENCE; WITH A REFERENCE TO THE CAREER 
 OF ZADOCK PRATT, THE TANNER. 
 
 No one of the numerous phases of modem extrava- 
 gance is more fraught with danger to the institutions of 
 society, and the general welfare of its members, than 
 the increasing and indefinite desire for changes in the 
 established relations of intelligence, labor, and capital, 
 and the attempts to arrive at an Utopian state of exist- 
 ence, in which all men shall be producers and consumers 
 in a certain fixed ratio, irrespective of their original or 
 acquired advantages of ability and fortune. 
 
 The production of the greatest good to the greatest 
 number, should certainly be an axiom of public policy, 
 as well as a philanthropic hope ; but it is not to be ac- 
 complished by either theorists or moralists. It must 
 depend for its fulfilment upon the combination of the 
 results of individual toil and intelligence, sanctified by 
 contentment and devotion to the duties of our being, and 
 preserved by a recognition of those fixed laws which 
 have made men unequal both in mental aptitude and 
 physical circumstances. 
 
 If man were the creator of a system for his own pur- 
 suits, he would find it necessary to constitute diversities, 
 so that the inequalities would produce emulation, laud- 
 3 
 
26 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 able ambition, enterprise, and the numberless qualities 
 which make up the sum total of the good purposes of 
 life. 
 
 If all men were made alike rich or alike poor, only a 
 momentary state of circumstances would be produced, a 
 starting-point, from which, at the very first step, each 
 one would begin to diverge according to his capacity ; 
 and there would never again be such a condition as that 
 at the beginning. 
 
 Those who attempt to bring society together by arti- 
 ficial means, such as socialism, and expect to hold it in 
 compact by the influences of mere dogmas or doctrines 
 of creed, are visionary reasoners, who, in contemplating 
 the desired change in the mirrors of their own fancies, 
 would starve by their ideal creations, if it were not for 
 the industry of those who deal in tried realities. 
 
 There are two great levers which sustain us : the one 
 is employment; the other, the knowledge of how to re- 
 gulate and improve it. In other words, they are the 
 union of occupation and instruction. Nothing can 
 give more satisfaction to the mind than the enjoyment 
 of the necessaries and comforts of life, flowing from the 
 industry of him who earns them. This is the fruit of 
 occupation ; and the improvements of society follow in 
 proportion as the occupied mind advances in proper cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 The vain idea that labor is inconsistent with learning 
 or respectability is one of the attributes of weak minds, 
 ignorant of the nature of the ligaments which bind 
 society together. It is one of the follies of antiquated 
 fashion, which is passing away ; and we are now begin- 
 ning to consider the mechanic trades, and all branches 
 of honest industry, as the co-ordinate and necessary asso- 
 ciates of education, integrity, and manliness. 
 
THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 27 
 
 It may not be inappropriate to the foregoing remarks, 
 or foreign to the purpose of this work, to refer, in this 
 connection, to the career of one, a large part of whose 
 life has been spent in successful devotion to the pursuits 
 of which we are about to treat; a career which has illus- 
 trated in a striking manner the advantages of united 
 industry and intelligence, and one which furnishes the 
 strongest incentives to the exercise of those qualities on 
 the part of others. 
 
 Mr. Pratt is a native of Rensselaer County, New York ; 
 and was, at an early age, an assistant in his father's tan- 
 nery. When a boy, he had the opportunity of being 
 present at the funeral of the great Washington ; an event ♦ 
 which was calculated to consecrate his patriotism, and 
 operate as a political sacrament of devotedness to all 
 that might benefit his country and his race. 
 
 Sometimes the career of life is directed by unconsidered 
 impulses and accidental events. The humble herdsman 
 hears the mysterious voice of his destiny calling to him 
 from the burning bush, to become the future lawgiver 
 of Israel. The shepherd of the Alps, in pointing out 
 the road to an inquiring churchman, begins his own path 
 to the honors of the papal see. And so, in minor call- 
 ings of life, are men directed by seeming casualties, that, 
 when lightly seen, are considered as mere incidents upon 
 the exterior of life, having no connection with the past 
 or the future. 
 
 The history of the social operations of mankind, 
 teaches us that, in all periods of time, apparently trifling 
 events have altered the destinies of individuals as well 
 as of nations, and have had their influence upon ages to 
 come. 
 
 Sometimes the progress of oppression, rising through 
 a series of ages to its climax, exhausts its own powers, 
 
28 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOE. 
 
 and, in the form of revolution, builds up a system of 
 human freedom upon the ruins of tyrannic power. 
 
 Sometimes intolerance drives a few of the faithful of 
 a narrow sect from the homes of their forefathers to the 
 shores of a new and unexplored land, which, in time, 
 becomes the asylum as well as the hope of the oppressed 
 in every form. 
 
 The wrongs done by kings to their subjects are the 
 precursors of the grants of rights in future ages. The 
 flight of the persecuted is the first fluttering of the 
 wing of liberty that is seen to come in after times. The 
 little bark of the pilgrims is the compressed type of the 
 mighty argosies that shall hereafter spread their canvas 
 to the commerce of the world. So, too, is the industry 
 of the single and gifted laborer, who, beginning his course 
 under the auspices of good example, and having a heart 
 suited to a proper fellowship with man, is placed in a 
 category or current of association and action, which brings 
 out a development of the faculties with which Providence 
 has endowed him. The first steps in his career are all 
 connected antecedents of his future. All good and all 
 evil have their respective relationship ; and there is, per- 
 haps, metaphysically, no one act in either current which 
 could be said to stand alone ; each has its precursor and 
 its consequent. 
 
 Every man seems to be surrounded by his appropriate 
 atmosphere of life ; and all its particles are suited to the 
 course he is to pursue. The early steps partake of the 
 element with which he is encompassed ; and so he goes 
 on, accomplishing the special principle which belongs to 
 his nature, from the first germ of action to the last efibrt 
 of intelligence. 
 
 Whether this natural fixedness of object and bent of 
 pursuit entitle an individual to any personal credit for 
 
THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 29 
 
 what he may do in life, it is not necessary to determine. 
 Sufficient is it for us to say, in recounting the actions of 
 men, that they were good ; and that a wise Providence 
 has made use of them as instruments and examples for 
 such a purpose. 
 
 It is a happy reflection to believe that we are acting 
 the part of beneficial agents in the general concerns of 
 life; and that, if we are even only like animated plants, 
 we are of those whose exhalations are healthy and yield 
 grateful odors. 
 
 The career of the subject of this memoir is an illustra- 
 tion of the influences of early beginnings. He was, while 
 engaged in his father's tannery, learning the habit as well 
 as value of industry. His presence at the funeral of the 
 father of his country was an act of patriotic respect, in- 
 spired by what his young mind had learned at the fire- 
 side of his parents. Here, then, were two principles, 
 from which all his future actions might have drawn their 
 coloring. As the beginnings were good, so were the 
 results ; and we find those currents of excellences, enter- 
 prise and patriotism, running together parallel in his life. 
 He became in due time an exemplary mechanic, and 
 soon established himself in successful business. But 
 when the country required the services of her sons for 
 war, we find him, impelled by the impulse of patriotic 
 duty, serving as a soldier in her defence. 
 
 After a series of enterprises in commerce and other 
 occupations, and serving the general government in her 
 armies, and his own particular State in her enrolments, in 
 high military capacities, we see him returning to civil 
 life with new emprises in his mind. In 1825, he made 
 the beginning of what is now the flourishing town of 
 Prattsville in New York. The site was selected on ac- 
 count of its advantages for water-power. Then, it was 
 
30 THE DIGNITY OF LABOK. 
 
 a rude-looking place, a mere sloping hill covered with 
 woods, at whose base were a few small tenements with 
 their humble inmates. Since that time, it has, through 
 his agency and its accessories, become an important and 
 populous town, the sons and daughters of which, if they 
 do not, as those of the happy valley of Rasselas, live 
 only to know the soft vicissitudes of pleasure and repose, 
 at least enjoy the diversified blessings arising from fruit- 
 ful occupation, industry, and devotion. 
 
 He was, some years after, elected to Congress, and 
 also chosen a democratic elector for President and Vice- 
 President of the United States. 
 
 During his term of service in the national councils, he 
 certainly manifested great zeal and most laudable inten- 
 tions, applying his time and talents to the accomplish- 
 ment of much that was beneficial to the country. 
 
 It is here that we may pause to consider how much is 
 done in the association of labor with intelligence. The 
 physical industry of man is certainly a high quality ; but, 
 vigorous as it is, it gains so much by its association with 
 a cultivated intellect, that while the one, when alone, 
 resembles the rough materials of handicraft, and the 
 other the latent genius that is to fashion them, they 
 both united represent the perfection of skill and its fruit- 
 ful application to the production of human happiness. 
 
 In former days, trades were merely physical ; none of 
 the sciences, and but few branches of the fine arts entered 
 into their action. True, there were some few exceptions 
 dependent upon individual condition and scholarship; 
 but generally, labor, in any calling, was strictly and ex- 
 clusively mechanical. There is now, however, a pro- 
 gressive spirit which belongs to the times. Whether it 
 has resulted from the institutions of this country, which, 
 by casting off the trammels of political tyranny, and by 
 
THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 31 
 
 the abundance of our land for an easy support, have 
 enabled men to think more freely and consistently with 
 the objects of their creation and position, or is a part of 
 a pervading principle which the Divine Being has per- 
 mitted to spread through the world, is a problem for so- 
 lution. Be this as it may; we see that there is evidently 
 an advance in the different trades and their branches ] a 
 more intimate relationship between mind and the labors 
 of the operator ; a clearer working through the lights of 
 reason; so that, even among the inferior callings, the 
 lamp of science sheds its rays, even if it is only seen in 
 flickerings from the distance at which it stands. 
 
 The position of Mr. Pratt, as a member of Congress, 
 no doubt gave him great insight into subjects germane to 
 his genius, as well as to those of national polity, in which 
 he was necessarily an actor. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no pursuit in which so much general 
 knowledge of men, of the interests which concern them, 
 the structure of political society, and the various subjects 
 of national relations, can be acquired, as in that of legis- 
 lation. 
 
 There, in the councils of the nation, every representa- 
 tive who has ears and eyes of understanding, is per force 
 of position obliged to learn ; and when to the opportuni- 
 ties as well as necessity of learning is added the inclina- 
 tion, and still further the ambition for knowing, the result 
 is great, in acquisition. 
 
 There is scarcely a subject of any general concern pre- 
 sented for the consideration of Congress, that does not 
 involve great research; embracing in various ramifica- 
 tions a diversity of knowledge with which members must 
 make themselves acquainted. The discussion of a new 
 tariff brings out a knowledge of our national wants, our 
 resources, our relative interests in the respective States 
 
32 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 and with other countries, the character and extent of 
 our manufactures, the special articles of consumption 
 and trade which yield the largest amount of duties, and, 
 finally, our national revenue. 
 
 The inquiry into grants of public lands, or the intro- 
 duction of new States into the Union, gives rise to the 
 geological examinations of soils, and eventually to the 
 discovery of fossils, ores, and metals, which, in printed 
 reports, become handbooks of information upon those 
 special subjects. 
 
 The discussion of treaties makes them familiar with 
 international laws as well as diplomatic history. Memo- 
 rials in regard to private claims often bring to light im- 
 portant incidents connected with revolutionary and other 
 events, and furnish materials for biography valuable to 
 our citizens. 
 
 The inquiry as to a standard for weights and measures 
 unfolds a wonderful amount of unexpected knowledge, 
 not only as concerns quantities, values, and weights, but, 
 in connection with the trade of other countries, carries us 
 back to their early dealings, and shows us the depend- 
 ence upon and affinity between the different steps for the 
 civilization of mankind throughout the world. 
 
 Philosophy, for which man has a natural tendency, 
 becomes a prevailing principle from such causes; and, 
 even if a representative, when he quits this arena in 
 which strife and knowledge are often so much in com- 
 pany, has strengthened his ties and prejudices of party, 
 he, nevertheless, goes forth to the community with much 
 and precise information upon important subjects which 
 have engaged his especial attention, and becomes a well- 
 instructed man in the general business of life. 
 
 Learning of any kind which has an intellectual found- 
 ation, and more particularly when associated with mo- 
 
THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 33 
 
 rality, is of a propagative character, and gives an appetite 
 which grows by what it feeds upon ; and hence we often 
 find that men who have begun as unpretending repre- 
 sentatives in halls of legislation, advance by the im- 
 pulses of knowledge to still greater acquirements, and 
 eventually become leaders in talent and position. 
 
 The mind of Mr. Pratt seems to have been particu- 
 larly adapted to realize such a condition. He was, 
 throughout, an active participant in congressional labors, 
 and engaged not only in co-operating with his colleagues 
 and co-legislators in their general duties, but was himself 
 the pioneer and originator of many serviceable acts^ in- 
 stitutions, and works. 
 
 In glancing through his memoirs, we are struck with 
 the great variety of concerns in which he bore an active 
 part; from the report, as chairman of a select commit- 
 tee in favor of establishing a bureau of statistics and 
 commerce, to an inquiry into the condition of a new ter- 
 ritory ; embracing, in the numerous ramifications of labor, 
 every subject of polity pertaining to his day. 
 
 It has been said that all men have their mental afiini- 
 ties; that some pass unheeded away without having left 
 any " footprints in the sands of time," only because the 
 period of their sojourning presented no occasions — no 
 elective influences to draw out their energies or their 
 talents ; while the great are but the creatures of oppor- 
 tunity; or who, having been touched by the Ithuriel 
 wand, have sprung out into light, brightness, and renown. 
 
 Opportunity is certainly a great ingredient in any 
 effort, and without it, either ofiered or acquired, no 
 voluntary act can well succeed. The characteristic 
 traits of a man are also elements of his future ; but still, 
 it should add to the credit of the individual, who, culti- 
 vating an understanding of his nature and his latent 
 
34 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 abilities, uses them to advantage in that ^Hide in the 
 affairs of men, which, if taken at the flood, leads on to 
 fortune." 
 
 He was twice elected to Congress, and coming from 
 that body with all the advantages gained in such a school 
 of varied studies, Mr. Pratt msLj be said to have become 
 a new man. He was at first the intelligent novitiate, 
 who, like one of the travellers in Gil Bias, merely 
 glanced at the inscription upon the wall; but now, re- 
 turning among his people, was like the other scholar, 
 carrying with him the treasures which in his searchings 
 he found hid beneath the ambiguous epitaph and the 
 stones. 
 
 He applied his new intelligence in various ways ; and 
 in the art of tanning, has now competed for, and received 
 for his products, the first medal ever awarded by the 
 New York Institute in that branch of manufacture. 
 He endeavors to create as well as to extend knowledge. 
 He began his efforts with the rising generation, that its 
 young members might spread and perpetuate the fruits 
 of their studies. To accomplish this, he presented five 
 thousand dollars to endow an academy in the town that 
 bears his name. 
 
 In consequence of the great variety of useful offices 
 which he filled for the public benefit, and without any 
 other emolument to himself than honor, he was elected 
 a member of several scientific and literary institutions 
 and colleges ; and a few years since he closed his tan- 
 nery, with great personal success, after employing over 
 six millions of dollars, without a single case of litiga- 
 tion, and without loss. 
 
 Fiiiis coronat opus. 
 
 The end crowns the work ; and so have the good results 
 of his labors left a crown upon his name more endear- 
 
THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 35 
 
 ing to the good man than all the pomp and circumstance 
 that power alone or wealth could purchase. 
 
 The time was^ and in some degree still is, when re- 
 putation in honors was principally founded upon and 
 esteemed for distinction in literature, the fine arts, the 
 success of arms, the emblazonments of wealth, and the 
 exemptions, luxuries, indulgences, and positions which 
 they respectively gave. The rest, like the hewers of 
 wood and drawers of water, who served at the building 
 of Solomon's temple, were supposed to be sufficiently 
 compensated by the daily penny paid for their labors. 
 No mark or memorial was left upon the edifice of their 
 works; and except in the narrow circle of their indus- 
 try, none knew of their labors or . their zeal. In the 
 general operations of society, it is not to be expected that 
 the mere ordinary components of that great whole shall 
 be held in any special remembrance, either in the pre- 
 sent or the future, for that would be the exercise of a 
 weak and sici^ly anxiety to elevate those who have no 
 distinctive merit, and to pull down in some degree others, 
 so as to create a false, unnatural, and unjust equality. 
 
 But while no such expectation could be justified, and 
 none such will ever be realized, while public opinion is 
 regulated by either good sense or the dictates of justice, 
 much will be, as has already been done by the agency 
 of those very qualities, in placing honorable occupation 
 of labor upon the true level of its merits. 
 
 The days of chivalry, founded upon the power of 
 kings and nobles — the empires of war and victories — 
 crusades of faith, and the necessary maintenance of the 
 followers of such errantries, as well while they lasted 
 as in "the cankers of a long peace," w^ere the beginnings 
 of the false distinctions which made idleness honorable, 
 and left industry with only the reward of its own pro- 
 ducts. 
 
36 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 Within the last century, man has been advancing to 
 an equahty in all his relations with his fellow-man. It 
 is not merely a political change, but one which belongs 
 to his whole range of association and rights. 
 
 The toleration in religion, the extension of the elec- 
 tive franchise, the repeal of tests of faith, the abolish- 
 ment of imprisonment for debt, the utilitarian spirit of 
 the age, requiring every one to contribute something of 
 value to increase the general stock, have all tended to 
 produce this equalization. Now, men are beginning to 
 be appreciated for their actual usefulness, not for their 
 mere artificial position, based upon either political 
 causes or the accidents of fortune. Even the iron ties 
 of party are becoming softened by the spirit and solvent 
 influences of sense and improvement. Those who have 
 heretofore tramped on in the downy paths of public 
 honors and offices, enjoying by the permission and cre- 
 dulity of the people one high office after another, not- 
 withstanding their own doctrine of rotation for all, are 
 now looked upon as unprofitable antiquities, demagogues, 
 creators of an oligarchy whose benefits are enjoyed only 
 by themselves, and as a host of politicians, whose occu- 
 pancy of places and profits, time after time, amounts to 
 an exclusive and hereditary right in those who have no 
 merit and contribute nothing to the common fund of 
 good. 
 
 These are now becoming the subjects of scrutiny, and 
 are likely, soon, to be swept away as drones upon society, 
 and 
 
 " Whistled down the wind, to prey at fortune/' 
 
 So, too, with the men of patrimonial wealth or riches 
 acquired by speculation. Society, while giving them a 
 proper security for all their possessions, begins to diminish 
 the respect formerly and lately paid to rnere property. 
 
THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 37 
 
 The value of wealth, its uses, and the protection of it, 
 are as much appreciated and considered as ever; and so 
 they should always be ; but there is a separation of the 
 merits of the man — through his talents, his industry, the 
 diffusion of his wealth in a general usefulness — from 
 those which proceed solely from the ownership of that 
 lamp of Aladdin, which builds without earning, and ex- 
 hibits palaces and brightness that derive no reality from 
 their possessor. 
 
 It takes time to accomplish any revolution which shall 
 be of permanent benefit, and it is proper it should be so; 
 as improvements are worked out in the progress of expe- 
 rience which could not be made in a leap from one con- 
 dition to another. 
 
 The doctrine of a necessity for useful occupation in 
 all men is a great element in this change. Men do not 
 begin to think calmly or wisely in the turmoil of excit- 
 ing pursuits. It is only when they are falling into their 
 proper places in the great community, and putting their 
 shoulders to the wheel to do something useful, that they 
 perceive their relative positions, their obligations, and 
 the duties which belong to them as integrants of the 
 whole. It is, therefore, industry which is the ground- 
 work of reform both moral and political; it is the basis 
 of domestic virtue, comfort, and plenty, and the producer 
 of what sustains a nation and improves its condition. 
 When to this is added education, its followers are the 
 supporters of man in all his conditions, wants, advances, 
 and elegances of life, and are the safeguards of society. 
 
 These reflections rise spontaneously from the nature 
 of the subject we are discussing, as being intimately con- 
 nected with the career of one whose doings, as a useful 
 citizen, we are considering. 
 
 Biography is said to be a branch of history, and is the 
 
38 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 reclaiming or saving from time of what would otherwise 
 be lost. If it be creditable to perpetuate the knowledge 
 of the deeds of men in arms ; of wars, that have desolated 
 the earth and left misery and sighs to be felt again in 
 after ages, by those who deprecate and sympathize while 
 they read; how much more worthy an effort is it to 
 record, in imperishable form, the good civic conduct of 
 those unpretending men who have labored during their 
 lives for the common weal ; who make in every field two 
 blades of grass grow where only one grew before ; - who 
 distribute among little children the means and the books 
 of learning, so that the future man may be saved from 
 the evils of ignorance ; who endow and perpetuate places 
 of instruction; who build up manufactories, and lasting 
 and ii^creasing towns; and, by giving employment to 
 thousands and thousands of their fellow-citizens, lay the 
 foundations of occupation and industry — the sources of 
 comfort, wealth, and social independence ? 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF TAN AND TANNIN. 
 
 The name of tan is applied to coarsely-powdered bark 
 containing a principle which is the active agent in the 
 tanning of hides. This component is named tannin^ and 
 is classed among the proximate principles of plants. As 
 the essential agent in the process of tanning, we proceed 
 to make known its chemical characters, varieties, and 
 particularly, its action upon animal substances and oxy- 
 salts. 
 
 Dr. Lewis, in examining nutgalls, was the first to ob- 
 serve that it contained an ingredient which gave a black 
 precipitate with persalts of iron, and a coagulum with 
 isinglass. Deyeux, who also examined galls, considered 
 it a peculiar resinous matter, but gave it no name. Soon 
 afterwards, Seguin, in his researches on the art of tan- 
 ning, distinguished it from gallic acid, with which it is 
 so often associated in vegetable substances. This chemist, 
 in discovering its property of combining with animal 
 matters, and especially with albumen and gelatine, and 
 forming with them an unalterable insoluble compound, 
 which is the basis of leather, found the key to the whole 
 theory of tanning. 
 
 To tan a skin, is to saturate it with tannin in such a 
 manner as to promote the slow combination of this prin- 
 ciple with the gelatine, albumen, and fibrine contained in 
 
40 
 
 TAN AND TANNIN. 
 
 the former, so as to form with them a new compound. 
 This reaction, in the operation of tanning, does not pro- 
 ceed spontaneously, but is the result of a slow process, 
 requiring great care and skilful manipulation. 
 
 Tannin has been the subject of investigation with 
 many chemists, and, among others, Davy, Chevreul, Pel- 
 letier, Lagrange, Guillot, Hatchett, Tromsdorff, Friedler, 
 Eichter, and particularly Proust, to whom we are in- 
 debted for our first knowledge as to its nature, proper- 
 ties, and mode of preparation. 
 
 According to Wahnlenberg, it exists only in perennial 
 plants, and almost solely in the permanent parts; for 
 example : — 
 
 1. In the perennial roots of certain annual plants — as 
 the septfoil and bistort, or snake-weed. 
 
 2. In the bark of the trunks and roots of nearly all 
 perennial trees, especially in the true cortical portion, or 
 that part next to the liber and sap-wood. Extractive 
 predominates in the cellular integument, while the epi- 
 dermis is usually destitute of both that and tannin. 
 
 3. In the trunks and sap of many trees. 
 
 4. In the leaves of perennial plants — but in small 
 quantities. 
 
 5. In the leaves of different varieties of the oak; 
 of the tJius coriaria (sumach) ; of the arbutus uva ursi 
 (bear-berry) ; of the arbutus unedo (strawberry-tree), &c., 
 in large proportion. 
 
 6. In the capsule of unripe fruit of the quercus robur, 
 cegilops (velonia oak) ; juglans regia (walnut) ; cesculus 
 hippocastanum (horse-chestnut), and terminalia cJiebula, 
 
 7. In the pulp of the fruit of the punica granatum 
 (pomegranate); rosa pimpinelUfolia ; garcinia mongostana 
 (mangos teen) ; and in the different species of anona. 
 
 Tannin has also been found in numerous other plants, 
 
PREPARATION OF TANNIN. 
 
 41 
 
 of which special mention will hereafter be made. At 
 present, however, it must be noted that — 
 
 1. It is never found to any extent in the interior of 
 the trunk. 
 
 2. It does not exist in poisonous plants, or in those 
 with a milky or viscid sap. 
 
 3. Its proportion is greater in young than in old 
 plants. 
 
 4. It is transformed into a bitter principle, as the plant 
 increases in age. 
 
 5. It exists most abundantly in the cortical layers 
 of the bark, and is usually altogether absent in the 
 epidermis. 
 
 6. The proportion of tannin in barks varies with the 
 season, and decreases as the severity of the weather 
 augments. 
 
 7. The two extremes of quantity are attained in 
 winter and spring. 
 
 PREPARATION OF TANNIN FROM NUTGALLS. 
 
 The liquor or infusion of bark which is used in the 
 process of tanning, contains not only tannin, but gallic 
 acid, extractive, and other principles of the plant, soluble 
 in water. In order to present a clear understanding of 
 the subject, we proceed to describe the various methods 
 by which tannin may be separated from the other con- 
 stituents. 
 
 Processes. — 1. Proust first attempted to obtain pure 
 tannin from nutgalls, by macerating them in water, and 
 treating the strained infusion with a solution of muriate 
 of tin until it ceased to produce any precipitate. The 
 yellowish-white subsident, tannate of oxide of tin, after 
 having been well washed, was diffused in cold water and 
 4 
 
j 
 
 42 PREPARATION OF TANNIN. 
 
 saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, then filtered 
 and evaporated to dryness. The evaporated, desiccated 
 filtrate, said by the author to be pure tannin, contains 
 also a little gallic and hydrochloric acids, and some ex- 
 tractive. 
 
 2. Deyeux directs that the aqueous infusion, as ob- 
 tained above, be concentrated by evaporation, and pre- 
 cipitated with a saturated solution of carbonate of potassa. 
 An abundant flaky precipitate, of a yellowish-white 
 hue, will subside. This precipitate, which in drying 
 becomes a white powder, is not, as the author believes, 
 pure tannin, but a compound of it and gallic acid with 
 potassa and lime, and is only partially soluble in water. 
 
 3. According to Dize, when a concentrated infusion of 
 nutgalls is treated with strong sulphuric or hydrochloric 
 acid, a curdy white precipitate immediately falls. Proust 
 regarded this precipitate as a compound of tannin with 
 the acid employed, which, for its purification, requires 
 only to be washed with distilled water, then dissolved in 
 pure water and deprived of its acid by saturating with 
 carbonate of potassa. The tannin thus prepared, however, 
 is not pure, but contains some extractive thrown down 
 by the sulphuric acid, and probably, also, some gallic 
 acid. 
 
 4. MeratrGuillot's method is to precipitate the infusion 
 of nutgalls by lime-water, and then to treat the precipi- 
 tate with dilute nitric or hydrochloric acids. Efferves- 
 cence ensues, the liquor assumes a darker shade of color, 
 and the brilliant brown residue is to be separated by fil- 
 tration. This tannin is not pure, but contains, according 
 to Davy, a compound of extractive with lime. 
 
 5. Bouiilon-Lagrange's method consists in precipitating 
 the infusion of galls, by carbonate of ammonia, washing 
 the precipitate with cold water, and digesting repeatedly 
 
V 
 
 PREPARATION OF TANNIN. 43 
 
 in fresh portions of alcohol of 0.817. This process is no 
 less defective than that of Deyeux. 
 
 6. Tromsdorff directs the infusion of three parts of 
 powdered galls in forty parts of water, for three days, at 
 a temperature of 70 to 100° F. The mixture is to be fre- 
 quently stirred during the intervals, and then strained. 
 This manipulation is repeated four separate times, with 
 as many quantities of fresh water ; and when the galls 
 are exhausted, the strained liquors are to be mixed to- 
 gether, evaporated at a gentle heat, and again strained 
 through a fine sieve in order to separate extractive and 
 suspended matters. Evaporation is then continued until 
 the filtrate attains the consistence of a jelly, when it is 
 to be dried upon a stove and freed from gallic acid, by 
 successive washings with alcohol of .796°. To remove 
 the little mucilaginous matter which it contains, Troms- 
 dorjQf advises that the tannin be dissolved in pure water, 
 and exposed to the air until the surface becomes mouldy, 
 when it must be filtered and evaporated to dryness. The 
 residue is pure tannin, containing some sulphate of lime, 
 which is to be separated by dissolving in water, adding 
 carbonate of potassa, filtering off the precipitate and treat- 
 ing with solution of acetate of lead, which throws down 
 a pulverulent compound of tannin and oxide of lead. 
 After washing and drying the latter, diffuse it in water, 
 saturate with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, filter off the 
 sulphuret of lead which is formed, and evaporate the 
 filtrate to dryness. The residue is impure tannin. 
 
 7. Serturner employs an alcoholic infusion of galls, and 
 precipitates while warm, with a solution of carbonate of 
 potassa. After decanting the supernatant liquid, the 
 residue is to be washed with alcohol, then dissolved in 
 water, the potassa to be separated by sulphuric acid, the 
 liquor evaporated, and the residue treated with alcohol. 
 
44 
 
 PREPARATIOIS" OF TANNIN. 
 
 After precipitating the excess of sulphuric acid by means 
 of carbonate of lime, the liquid is to be filtered and 
 evaporated. The residue is tannin, containing only 
 traces of gallic acid. 
 
 None of these different processes furnish tannin in a 
 state of absolute purity. Indeed, its characteristic pro- 
 perty of being soluble in water, and precipitating gelatine, 
 is shared by other substances of a totally different nature, 
 but which necessarily are comprised under the generic 
 title of tannin ; and the chemical properties of this mixed 
 substance are those now referred to. For obtaining a 
 much purer tannin, recent investigations have given rise 
 to the following processes. 
 
 8. Laubert's method, which possesses advantages supe- 
 rior to those of any process heretofore given, 
 consists in infusing 60 grains of nutgall in 
 120 grains of ether, for 24 hours, then filter- 
 ing and evaporating the filtrate to dryness. 
 The residue is tannin, containing a little gallic 
 acid. 
 
 9. The nutgalls, in coarse powder, according 
 to Pelouze, are placed in a long conical tube 
 (Fig. 1.), the narrow mouth of which is loosely 
 closed with cotton wool; and the tube thus 
 charged is made to rest upon the rim of a stout 
 bottle as a receiver. Common sulphuric ether 
 is then poured upon the galls, and as it tra- 
 verses the powder, it takes up both the tannin and gallic 
 acid. The latter, however, gives a lighter and more fluid 
 solution than tannin, and forms the upper stratum of 
 the ethereal solution which has traversed the galls and 
 dropped into the receiving bottle. The dense and dark 
 colored stratum below, contains tannin. The galls are 
 treated successively with new quantities of ether, until 
 
PREPARATION OF TANNIN. 
 
 45 
 
 they cease to yield soluble matter. The several ethereal 
 solutions are then mixed together, and poured into a 
 separating funnel. When the two strata have formed, 
 the lower one containing the tannin is drawn off into a 
 retort, distilled to save ether, then repeatedly washed with 
 pure sulphuric ether, to remove traces of gallic acid, and 
 evaporated over a warm sand-bath, or under the receiver 
 of an air-pump. Ether and water are disengaged during 
 the desiccation ; the tannin swells up and becomes bulky, 
 and forms brilliant, straw-colored, resin-like masses. 
 The yield of this process is from 35 to 40 per cent, of 
 tannin, of a very astringent taste, entirely free from 
 bitterness. The ether for this process must be washed 
 with water, for tannin is not soluble in anhydrous ether. 
 
 10. Domine's method is a modification of Pelouze's 
 displacement process, and has the great advantage of 
 yielding a large product, and of being adapted for 
 practice on a manufacturing scale. 
 
 The powdered galls are left for several days in a damp 
 cellar to absorb moisture. At the end of this time they 
 are transferred to a wide-mouthed jar, and are made into 
 thin paste with commercial ether of specific gravity .750. 
 After thoroughly mixing its contents with a wooden 
 stirrer, the vessel is to be hermetically closed and left at 
 rest for 24 hours. Its contents are then transferred to a 
 strong linen bag, and subjected to gradual pressure. The 
 syrupy liquid which exudes is caught in a receiver, and 
 evaporated by stove heat (at 100° to 110° F.), in shallow 
 dishes. The tannin puffs up and dries, in the form of 
 light-colored resin-like scales. 
 
 The marc, or pressed cake, which still retains some 
 tannin, is made to yield it on being treated in the same 
 manner as at first, but with ether which has been mixed 
 with six per cent, of water. The expressed liquid is 
 
46 
 
 PREPARATION OF TANNIN. 
 
 evaporated to dryness as before. The tannin obtained 
 by this process, as well as by that of Pelouze, though 
 sufficiently pure for the purposes of medicine and the 
 artS; contains a little chlorophylle, volatile oil, gallic, and 
 ellagic acids. These, according to Guibourt, may be re- 
 moved by repeatedly agitating a mixture of equal parts 
 of the tannin, water, and washed ether, and then leaving 
 the bottle or containing vessel at rest. In due time, the 
 liquid will separate into three strata, of which the lower 
 contains tannin. The latter being drawn off from the 
 other two, will, on being evaporated and dried in the 
 usual way, yield pure tannin. 
 
 11. Tannin, according to Mohr, dissolves in ether of 
 0.725, and forms a syrupy liquid which possesses the 
 peculiar property of not mixing with new portions of 
 ether; hence it follows that tannin cannot be extracted 
 by ether which is not hydrated. 
 
 The syrupy liquid, upon being shaken with a little 
 water, separates after repose into three strata. The 
 lower stratum is an aqueous solution of tannin ; the mid- 
 dle layer is tannin in ether, and the upper one is ether 
 containing tannin and coloring matter. The addition of 
 a few drops of alcohol renders the ethereal solution more 
 fluid; but too large a quantity causes the strata to com- 
 mingle. Mohr, therefore, recommends that the ether 
 used for extracting tannin from galls, be mixed with al- 
 cohol in the proportion of one part to four parts of ether. 
 In this way, by repeated treatment of the galls with 
 fresh quantities of alcoholized ether, until they were 
 exhausted, he obtained seventy-eight per cent, of pure 
 tannin. 
 
IMPURE TANNIN. 
 
 47 
 
 IMPURE TANNIN. 
 
 Chemical Properties. — This substance is a brown, in- 
 odorous, transparent, friable, uncrystallizable solid, with 
 a shining fracture, and of an acrid astringent taste, but 
 sweetish after taste. It is heavier than water, reddens 
 litmus, softens between the fingers, melts at a slightly 
 elevated temperature, and is very soluble in water ; but 
 its hot solution, on cooling, drops a bright yellow pow- 
 der. The solution is of a brown color, and is not affected 
 by exposure either to air or moderate heat. It is slightly 
 soluble in absolute alcohol, but, according to Kichter, is 
 not entirely taken up by it until the addition of 0.10 of 
 water. According to Proust, Deyeux, and. Davy, it will 
 combine with oxygen, but becomes altered in its nature 
 by the union. Lagrange says that this absorption of 
 oxygen generates gallic acid. It precipitates albumen 
 and gelatine from its solutions, and thus forms insoluble 
 and imputrescible compounds. 
 
 Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids precipitate the 
 aqueous solution of tannin, and the precipitate, which is 
 only slightly soluble in cold water, but soluble in hot 
 water and in alcohol, is generally a compound of the 
 acid employed, with tannin. 
 
 Infusion of nutgalls is also precipitated by acetic, ar- 
 senic, malic, oxalic, and tartaric acids, and the precipi- 
 tate, after being washed with cold water, and dissolved 
 in boiling water, possesses all the properties of tannin. 
 Nitric acid and chlorine readily destroy it, the first, by 
 converting it into a brownish-yellow extractive matter, 
 soluble in alcohol. According to Proust, peroxide of tin 
 gives a similar reaction. The pure alkalies and their 
 carbonates form with it nearly insoluble compounds. 
 
48 
 
 IMPURE TANNIN. 
 
 Metals, apparently, are without any decided action upon 
 tannin; but most of the metallic and earthy oxides com- 
 bine with and render it insoluble in water ; and the same 
 oxides are insoluble, or only slightly soluble in this 
 liquid. 
 
 Thus, baryta and lime-waters discolor solution of 
 tannin, and precipitate a compound of tannin with the 
 earth, which is very slightly soluble in water, and is 
 without action upon gelatine. The peculiar precipitate 
 of tannin with gelatine differs from the preceding in being 
 inseparable into its two constituents. In the compounds 
 of tannin with the alkalies or earths, the latter may rea- 
 dily be abstracted by means of an acid. By stirring re- 
 cently precipitated magnesia or alumina into a solution 
 of tannin, t annates of the earths are produced ; these are 
 insoluble in water and decomposable by acids which eli- 
 minate the tannin and leave it in solution. If infusion 
 of nutgalls is treated with baryta, strontia, or lime-water, 
 the resulting precipitate is olive-colored, and composed 
 of t annate and gallate of the earth united with extract- 
 ive. By boiling the magnesia in the infusion, the preci- 
 pitate which forms is dirty yellow, insoluble, and com- 
 posed of tannin, extractive, and magnesia ; the gallate of 
 magnesia, simultaneously generated, remaining in solution 
 and imparting to it a greenish color. Albumen in small 
 proportions gives similar reactions. In larger quantity, 
 it carries down all the constituents of the infusion. The 
 alkaline and earthy carbonates also throw down tannin 
 and extractive from the infusion. The gallate formed 
 remains in solution and imparts a greenish color. 
 
 Solution of tannin precipitates many of the metallic 
 salts. The strength of the solution, as well as the cha- 
 racter of the salt, has an important influence in the re- 
 
VARIETIES OF TANNIN. 
 
 49 
 
 action. In copper solutions the precipitate is olive-green, 
 and in the state of deutoxide. 
 
 In those of the protosulphate of manganese it is a 
 bright green. 
 
 In those of nitrate of mercury it is a bright yellow. 
 
 In those of titanium it is blood red. 
 
 In those of deutoxide of iron it is of a bluish hue. 
 
 In those of peroxide of iron it is grayish black. 
 
 Tannin also unites with various kinds of bitter prin- 
 ciples, with starchj gluten, woody fibre, albumen, caseine, 
 the coloring matter of blood, osmazome, animal mucus, 
 &c., forming with them insoluble or only slightly soluble 
 compounds. 
 
 By heat it swells up, decomposes, and when distilled 
 gives an acid liquor, which blackens iron solutions, owing 
 to the formation and volatilization of pyrogallic acid. 
 A little empyreumatic oil passes over at the same time, 
 and the residuum in the retort is a bulky charcoal, 
 amounting, according to Proust, to .0263 of the tannin 
 emploj^ed. 
 
 Varieties. — Notwithstanding the assiduous labors of 
 the numerous chemists who have investigated the sub- 
 ject, it was a long time before tannin was separated in a 
 pure state. Its intimate connection and combination 
 with the extractive matter was the chief impediment to 
 its separation; and the differences observed in specimens 
 of tannin were owing in part to the nature and proper- 
 ties of this impurity. 
 
 The least impure was that extracted from grape-seed, 
 which precipitates gelatine white. Gelatine is j)recipi- 
 tated yellow by tannin from sumach ; deep red by tannin 
 from cinchona; and dark brown by that from catechu. 
 
 That from Brazil wood, the hematine of Chevreul, 
 forms with gelatine a precipitate very soluble in water. 
 
50 
 
 VARIETIES OF TANNIN. 
 
 This substance seems to partake equally of the properties 
 of tannin and of extractive matter. 
 
 Proust affirms that there are many kinds of tannin in 
 plants, just as there are many kinds of resin; but it is 
 possible that the varieties arise from combinations of this 
 body with the substances before mentioned. It is also 
 known that, in many instances, the analogy between 
 tannin and gallic acid, is such that it is difficult to sepa- 
 rate the former entirely from the latter; and, moreover, 
 that tannin is convertible, under certain circumstances, 
 into gallic acid. For example, an infusion of nutgalls, 
 will, by protracted exposure to air, have its contents of 
 tannin mostly transformed into gallic acid. 
 
 I. Tannin from Gatecliu. — Davy recommends the fol- 
 lowing method of extracting tannin from catechu. The 
 alcoholic tincture is to be evaporated, and the residue 
 exhausted with water and evaporated to dryness. This 
 tannin, though astringent at first, has a sweetish after 
 taste ; is soluble in alcohol and in w^ater, with a deep 
 brown color, which is heightened by ammonia, potassa, 
 soda, and magnesia, without any precipitate being formed. 
 Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids give a light brown pre- 
 cipitate. This tannin does not throw down the prot- 
 oxide of iron, but precipitates the deutoxide of an olive- 
 green color. Starch, gluten, lignin, gelatine, albumen, 
 &c., form with it an equally insoluble precipitate. 
 
 II. Tannin from the Barh of Trees^ Sumach, 0am Kino, 
 &c. — The astringent matter of vegetables, though indis- 
 criminately designated as tannin, presents diffisrences 
 which are unimportant as respects its application to tan- 
 ning purposes, but materially affect its chemical habi- 
 tudes. 
 
 Heretofore, tannin has been classified into two varie- 
 ties, one of which is distinguished for giving a bluish 
 
VARIETIES OF TANNIN. 
 
 51 
 
 black, and the other a dark green precipitate with per- 
 salts of iron. 
 
 Berzelius and other chemists attribute this difference 
 to accidental impurities; but Glenhouse thinks that the 
 dissimilitude as to the color of the precipitates produced 
 by the tannins of different sources in persalts of iron, is 
 a chemical peculiarity, indicating that they are not iden- 
 tical. Moreover, tannin from oak bark, and certain other 
 sources, unlike that from galls and sumach, does not yield 
 pyrogallic acid by destructive distillation. 
 
 The following is a list of the chief varieties of tannin, 
 classified in accordance with their relations to the per- 
 salts of iron: — 
 
 1. Tannin wliicli forms a Blue Precipitate in Solutions 
 of Persalts of Iron. — Tannin from nutgalls, oak, poplar, 
 beech, hazel, chestnut, maple, horse-chestnut, cherry, 
 apricot, plum, elder, and other barks; sumach and log- 
 wood, from the roots of lithruni salicana^ iris pseudaco- 
 Tus, geum urhanum (Avens) ; polygonum histortum (bis- 
 tort) ; alcliemilla vulgaris (ladies mantle) ; from the 
 leaves of the arbutus uva ursi (bear-berry) ; amothera 
 hiennis, geranium pratense ; from the husks of the ccesal- 
 pina coriaria; from lentils, &c. 
 
 2. Tannin which forms a Green Precipitate in Solutions 
 of Persalts of Iron. — Tannin from catechu (juice of the 
 mimosa catechu) ; gum kino (juice of the coccoloba uvi- 
 fera) ; most of the cinchona barks ; horse-chestnut bark ; 
 the roots of the rumex aquaticus (water dock) ; tormen- 
 tilla erecta (septfoil) ; Jcrameria triandria (rhatany) ; 
 poll/podium filix mas (male-fern) ; tea, and badian, a 
 species of anise; the leaves of salvia officinalis (sage), and 
 of arnica montana (Leopard's bane), and in date-stones. 
 
 III. Artificicd Tannin. — Hatchett first discovered this 
 substance in 1800, while experimenting upon the slow 
 
52 
 
 ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 
 
 carbonization of plants, and in the following year com- 
 municated his results to the Koyal Society of London. 
 
 First Variety. — Is prepared by digesting powdered char- 
 coal with dilute nitric acid, until solution ensues. The 
 proportions are 
 
 Charcoal .... 1 part by weight. 
 Nitric acid of sp. gr. 1.40 . 5 parts " 
 Water . . . . 10 " " 
 
 The acid and water are mixed together, a part is 
 poured upon the charcoal, and heated along w^ith it in 
 an open flask; lively effervescence, and escape of nitrous 
 fumes ensue. After two days, the residue of the acid is 
 added, and digestion continued until the entire solution 
 of the charcoal. The resulting liquor is of a deep brown 
 color and transparent. By evaporation to dryness, it 
 leaves artificial tannin, as a brown mass, containing a 
 slight excess of acid, which is to be removed by repeated 
 treatment with water, and evaporation to dryness at a 
 gentle heat. The product amounts to 1.2 parts. Any 
 greater quantity is, according to Hatchett, owing to the 
 presence of water. 
 
 Chemical Pro]L>eTties. — Artificial tannin is a brown in- 
 odorous solid, with a vitreous fracture, and bitter astring- 
 ent taste, and is very soluble in water. It dissolves, also, 
 in alcohol of .800, according to Thompson, and therein 
 differs slightly from ordinary tannin. Its aqueous solu- 
 tion forms, with gelatine, a brown precipitate, insoluble in 
 hot or cold water, and lighter or deeper in color in pro- 
 portion to the strength of the solution. This compound 
 consists, according to Hatchett, of 36 tannin and 64 ge- 
 latine in 100 parts. With sulphuric and hydrochloric 
 acids it gives an abundant brown precipitate, soluble in 
 boiling water; the gelatine being precipitated. Nitric 
 
ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 
 
 53 
 
 acid dissolves it unaltered, whereas every other variety 
 of tannin is decomposed by it. 
 
 It combines with potassa, soda, and ammonia, forming 
 solutions which deepen in color, and become cloudy in 
 a few hours. With carbonate of potassa, the behavior 
 is similar, except that, after a time, instead of mere 
 cloudiness, a magma is precipitated from the solution. 
 If the ammoniacal solution be evaporated to dryness, the 
 aqueous solution of the residue will not precipitate gela- 
 tine unless the ammonia retained in it is first removed 
 by neutralization with hydrochloric acid. The alkaline 
 earths y such as lime, strontia, baryta, and magnesia, 
 form, with artificial tannin, precipitates very slightly 
 soluble in water. The metallic oxides are also thrown 
 down from their solutions by artificial tannin, and gene- 
 rally of a chocolate color. 
 
 Heated gradually in a retort, it yields at first water, 
 and afterwards nitric acid, ammonia, carbonic acid, and 
 another gas, which is probably nitrogen. The residuum 
 is a charcoal, amounting to 0.425 per cent, of the tannin 
 subjected to distillation. 
 
 According to Chevreul, this tannin is a compound of 
 nitrous or nitric acid, with a carbonaceous matter. 
 
 Hatchett remarks that all kinds of carbon, whatever 
 their source, will yield artificial tannin by the action of 
 nitric acid. Other substances will also furnish it. Vege- 
 table carbon, however, is the most convenient and prolific 
 source. 
 
 Second Variety. — This is prepared by treating indigo, 
 resins, and similar substances rich in carbon, with nitric 
 acid, in the manner above directed. The solution of 
 indigo thus made, gives a very bitter orange-colored 
 residue, soluble in water. It forms an insoluble com- 
 
54 
 
 ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 
 
 pound with gelatine, reacts with metallic salts more feebly 
 than tannin, and contains nitric or nitrous acid. 
 
 Third Variety. — Is obtained by dissolving camphor or 
 one of the resins in sulphuric acid, and digesting until 
 the solution becomes black. Cold water is then added. 
 The black powder which precipitates is to be digested 
 in alcohol and the solution evaporated to dryness. The 
 brown residue is soluble in alcohol and water, forms an 
 insoluble precipitate with gelatine, and reacts feebly with 
 persulphate of iron. According to Chevreul, this variety 
 of tannin contains hyposulphuric acid. 
 
 IV. Tannin from various Sources. — Having shown that 
 many substances by combination with certain acids yield 
 either natural or artificial tannin, it is more than probable 
 that tannin is not an immediate vegetable principle, but a 
 true compound of a peculiar substance, and an acid, with 
 more or less of extractive matter, and thus constituting 
 the different varieties of natural tannin. 
 
 1; Thus the tannin from nutgalls, oak bark, sumach, 
 willow, horse-chestnut, cherry, &c., is united with a 
 greater or less amount of gallic acid, from which it is 
 difficult to separate it entirely. The older the plant, the 
 smaller the quantity of tannin, and consequently the 
 more of gallic acid is contained in it. 
 
 2. The artificial tannins are always combined with 
 nitric or sulphuric acid. 
 
 3. It is also in the acid fruits, such as the pomegranate, 
 that tannin exists ; and generally, associated with gallic 
 acid, and the vegetable acid of the fruit, which possibly 
 may be the source of the tannin. 
 
 Chemists reckon four varieties of tannin. 
 
 1. Natural tannin^ comprising several species origi- 
 nating from the different proportions of extractive and 
 gallic acids. 
 
PURE TANNIN". 
 
 55 
 
 2. Artificial tannin, obtained by the action of nitric 
 acid upon charcoal. 
 
 3. Artificial tannin, obtained by the action of nitric 
 acid upon indigo and the resins. 
 
 4. Artificial tannin, obtained by the action of sulphuric 
 acid upon the resins and camphor. 
 
 PURE TANNIN. 
 
 Chemical Properties, — Pure tannin is colorless, inodor- 
 ous, very astringent, and largely soluble in water. This 
 solution reddens litmus, and hence its acid reaction has 
 procured for it the name of tannic acid. Moreover, it 
 decomposes the alkaline carbonates with effervescence, 
 and as the solution forms with most of the metallic solu- 
 tions, precipitates which are true tannates, it is entitled 
 to be ranked among the acids. Solutions of the proto- 
 salt of iron do not disturb this solution, unless both are 
 concentrated; but those of the peroxide give an abund- 
 ant blue precipitate. This precipitate is formed only by 
 the excess of acid, for the portion first added is decom- 
 posed in reducing the peroxide to protoxide of iron, and 
 the precipitate which is eventually produced, is a mixed 
 compound of proto and per tannate of iron. 
 
 Alcohol and ether dissolve tannin, but by no means 
 so largely as water; their solvent power decreasing in 
 proportion as they approach the anhydrous state. These 
 solutions, by prolonged exposure to the air, absorb oxygen 
 and deposit crystals of gallic acid. Apotlieme is also an 
 accompanying product of the slow conversion of tannin 
 and tanning solutions by exposure to air. It is a dark 
 brown substance soluble in water, and is the source of 
 the objectionable color of several kinds of leather. 
 
 As before observed, tannin has not been obtained in a 
 
56 
 
 PURE TANNIN. 
 
 crystallized form, although attempts have been made with 
 various solvents. When burned upon platinum foil, it 
 leaves no residue. 
 
 A concentrated solution gives an abundant white pre- 
 cipitate, with sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric, 
 and arsenic acids ; but not wdth oxalic, tartaric, lactic, 
 acetic, citric, succinic, and selenious acids. Nor does 
 sulphurous acid gas cause a precipitate. By being heated 
 with nitric acid, tannin is rapidly decomposed with the 
 evolution of nitrous fumes, and converted into crystals 
 of oxalic acid. 
 
 The salts of cinchona, quinia, brucia, strychnia, codeia, 
 narcotina, and morphia, form, with solution of tannin, 
 white precipitates, very soluble in acetic acid, but only 
 slightly in water. 
 
 Poured into solutions containing an excess of gelatine, 
 it produces a white opaque precipitate, soluble, particu- 
 larly by heat, in its own liquid. On the contrary, when 
 the tannin predominates, the precipitate, instead of dis- 
 solving when heated, collects into grayish elastic coagula. 
 In either case the liquid, when filtered, is colored deeply 
 blue by the persalts of iron. 
 
 The insolubility of the compound of tannin with gela- 
 tine is no guarantee of the purity of the former or of the 
 absence or presence of gallic acid. Pelouze determines 
 these facts by leaving the suspected tannin in contact with 
 a piece of hide freed from hair and prepared for the tan- 
 vat. After a time, during which the liquid is repeatedly 
 stirred, it is filtered, when, if the tannin is pure, there 
 is no residue left uncombined with the hide ; and the water 
 used as menstruum does not give the slightest color with 
 salts of iron, and moreover is tasteless, and evaporates 
 without residue. If the tannin contains the slightest 
 
PURE TANNIN. 
 
 57 
 
 trace of gallic acid^ then the liquid is perceptibly tinged 
 of a blue color by the salts of iron. 
 
 Gelatinous alumina, when mixed with solution of tan- 
 nin, is rapidly absorbed, and produces an insoluble com- 
 pound. The supernatant liquor does not color the salts 
 of iron blue. Gallic acid behaves similarly. 
 
 At the temperature of boiling oil (630° F.), tannin is 
 decomposed into water, carbonic acid, and an abundant 
 residue of metagallic acid, or, in other words, the same 
 products as from gallic acid. But with tannin, whatever 
 the care observed in maintaining the temperature uni- 
 formly at as low a degree as will suffice for the reaction, 
 the generation of a notable quantity of metagallic acid 
 is unavoidable. 
 
 Tannin, as formerly prepared, in an impure form, was 
 composed, according to Berzelius, of 
 
 Carbon 52.69 
 
 Oxygen 43.45 
 
 Hydrogen 3.86 
 
 100.00 
 
 The more recent analyses of pure tannin, by Pelouze, 
 prove that its composition is CisHgOig = 
 
 Carbon 51.77 
 
 Hydrogen 3.98 
 
 Oxygen 44.25 
 
 100.00 
 
 5 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GALLIC ACID. 
 
 Gallic acid was first obtained hy Scheele, in 1786, 
 from nutgalls, whence its name. It exists also in the 
 cypress nut, arnica flowers, white hellebore, meadow saf- 
 fron (colchicum autumnale)^ and in a large number of 
 astringent barks, as a concomitant of tannin, but not in 
 any considerable quantity. To be obtained abundantly, 
 the assistance of active chemical agents is necessary. 
 
 Preparation. — 1. Scheeles Process. — A strong aqueous 
 infusion of nutgalls is made, and after being filtered, 
 is exposed for some time at 70°, to the action of the 
 atmosphere. Gradual fermentation ensues, and the 
 tannin is more or less transformed into gallic acid; a 
 mouldy scum being simultaneously generated. After 
 two months the scum is removed, and the yellow or 
 grayish deposit at the bottom of the vessel is separated 
 from the liquid, dissolved in boiling water, filtered, 
 and cautiously evaporated and set aside, in order that 
 the gallic acid may crystallize upon cooling. Solution 
 in water, filtration through animal charcoal, and recrys- 
 tallization, will remove all impurities from the acid. 
 
 2. Fiedlers Process, — Three hundred grains of pow- 
 dered nutgalls are to be boiled in five thousand grains of 
 water, and filtered. To the filtrate, add six hundred 
 grains of alum, the alumina of which has been pre- 
 
GALLIC ACID. 
 
 59 
 
 cipitated by carbonate of potassa; stir the mixture, leave 
 it at rest until the next day, and then filter. Wash the 
 precipitate with warm water, until what passes through 
 ceases to blacken sulphate of iron; mix the wash 
 liquors, concentrate by careful evaporation, and set 
 aside. The gallic acid crystallizes, on cooling, in fine 
 needles. 
 
 3. Ures Process. — Add muriate of tin to a strong in- 
 fusion of nutgalls until it ceases to give a precipitate; 
 filter, diffuse the precipitate in water, treat with a stream 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen gas ; filter, and evaporate the 
 filtrate. Gallic acid will crystallize out on cooling. 
 
 4. Braconnofs Process. — Powdered nutgalls are to be 
 drenched with water and exposed to the air at a tempera- 
 ture of from 70° to 75°. A quiet reaction ensues, and 
 the mixture becomes pasty. This paste is subjected to 
 pressure, and is then heated with boiling water, which 
 dissolves out the gallic acid and yields it in impure crys- 
 tals by evaporation. It may be freed from color by 
 solution in water, filtering through bone-black, and re- 
 crystallization. 
 
 5. Kent's Process. — E. N. Kent obtained gallic acid 
 from ink which had been exposed to the air, by agitating 
 it with an equal volume of sulphuric ether devoid of 
 alcohol, allowing the two strata of liquids to separate by 
 repose, decanting the ethereal stratum, and distilling 
 nearly to dryness. The residue, on cooling, deposits 
 crystals of gallic acid. The ether, in this process, takes 
 up gallic acid to the exclusion of the other constituents 
 of the ink. 
 
 6. WetherilTs Process. — Thirteen drachms of dry tan- 
 nin are to be boiled with twenty-two fluidounces of sul- 
 phuric acid of 1.84°, diluted with four times its volume 
 of water. Crystals of gallic acid are deposited, the pro- 
 
60 
 
 GALLIC ACID. 
 
 duct amounting to upwards of 80 per cent, of the tannin 
 employed. This process is founded upon the hypothesis 
 that gallic acid differs from tannin only in containing 
 water. The separation of this constituent is effected; in 
 the above process, by the sulphuric acid. 
 
 Properties. — This acid, when pure, is in very white 
 silky needles, which are unalterable in the air. It is 
 inodorous, of an acid, slightly astringent, but sweetish 
 taste, and reddens litmus. It dissolves in 100 parts of 
 cold and in 3 of hot water. This solution, by exposure, 
 becomes covered with mould, and spontaneously decom- 
 poses and turns brown. It is also soluble in 4 or 5 parts 
 of cold, and in 1 part of hot alcohol. The spirituous 
 solution, though more permanent than the aqueous, also 
 yields to the decomposing action of the atmosphere, as 
 well as to that of light ; for, even if the containing vessel 
 be closely stoppered, the liquid soon becomes colored. 
 By a gentle heat it may be sublimed, and it is this mode 
 which Deyeux recommends for obtaining it pure. At a 
 red heat, it is partially decomposed. The aqueous solu- 
 tion of gallic acid, upon treatment with potassa, soda, or 
 ammonia, assumes a reddish-yellow color, which turns 
 to deep brown upon exposure to the air, probably from 
 absorption of oxygen. By the use of alcohol as a solvent, 
 and certain precautions, definite, crystallized, and soluble 
 compounds of the acid with these bases may be formed. 
 If the acid is associated with tannin, it decomposes nearly 
 all the permanent metallic salts. With baryta, strontia, 
 and lime, it forms slightly soluble compounds. Its 
 affinity for magnesia is very strong, and the compound 
 which it forms with that earth is insoluble in w^ater, but 
 soluble in excess of acid. Gallic acid is also neutralized 
 by alumina. 
 
GALLIC ACID. 
 
 61 
 
 Gallic acid gives 
 
 An orange-yeUow precipitate with the soluble salts of 
 mercury. 
 
 A hrown precipitate with the soluble salts of copper, 
 A lemon-yellow precipitate with the soluble salts of 
 hismutJi, 
 
 A loJiite precipitate with the soluble salts of lead, 
 A deep hlue-hlach precipitate with the soluble salts of 
 'peroxide of iron. 
 
 This last per-compound of iron is the basis of black ink 
 and of black dyes. Its characteristic behavior with iron 
 renders gallic acid an efficient reagent for the detection 
 of salts of that metal. With protosalts of iron, it gives no 
 color. Pure gallic acid, when free from tannin, does not 
 produce any change in solutions of gelatine or alkaline 
 salts. It is consequently of no value for tanning pur- 
 poses, and proper precautions must be observed to pro- 
 tect the tan liquor from decomposing influences, so as to 
 prevent the loss that would accrue by the conversion of 
 its tannin into gallic acid, or other equally valueless de- 
 rivatives. The tannin from galls and sumach is particu- 
 larly susceptible in this respect; the malic acid of the 
 latter serving as a ferment to promote the transforma- 
 tion. The only service of gallic acid in tanning is to 
 swell the hides which have been cleansed in lime-water, 
 and thus facilitate the penetration of the ooze. For this 
 purpose, they are suspended in spent liquors, which 
 always contain gallic acid, and afterwards transferred to 
 the strong liquor. Sulphuric acid would answer the 
 same purpose, and is frequently employed. 
 
 By dry distillation in a retort over an oil bath, heated 
 cautiously to, and maintained at 420°, it gives off pure 
 carbonic acid gas, and a white sublimate of pyrogallic 
 
62 
 
 ELLAGIC ACID. 
 
 acid in brilliant crystalline plates, which line the dome 
 of the retort. No water or empyreumatic matters are 
 formed; nor is there any residue remaining. If, how- 
 ever, the heat of the bath be rapidly increased, so as to 
 make the oil boil, carbonic acid is given off instead of 
 the crystalline sublimate ; water distils over, and a bril- 
 liant black mass remains in the retort. This latter re- 
 sembles carbon in appearance, and is tasteless and inso- 
 luble, and being a true acid has been termed by Pelouze 
 the metagallic. 
 
 The composition of crystallized gallic acid, according 
 to Pelouze, is C7H305+HO= 
 
 Carbon 50.10 
 
 Hydrogen . . . . 3.64 
 Oxygen .... 46.26 
 
 100.00 
 
 ELLAGIC ACID. 
 
 This title has been given by Braconnot to a substance 
 simultaneously formed with gallic acid, by the pro- 
 tracted exposure of moistened galls to contact with air. 
 Gallic acid is dissolved out with boiling water; and the 
 residue treated with dilute potassa lye to extract the 
 ellagic acid. Dilute hydrochloric acid added to this lye 
 throws down the acid in yellow powder. It is tasteless, 
 almost insoluble, slightly reddens litmus, and forms 
 crystalline salts with the alkaline bases. 
 
 The following is a table of the various derivatives of 
 tannic acid (C18H8O12) : — 
 
 1. Oxy tannic acid (CisHgOu), generated by the com- 
 bined action of potassa and the atmosphere. 
 
ELLAGIC ACID. 
 
 63 
 
 2. MelanoianniG acid (CuHeOg), generated by the joint 
 
 action of potassa, air, and heat. 
 
 3. Melanogallic acid, Metagallic (C12H3O3), by the sudden 
 
 action and continuance of a temperature of 480°. 
 
 4. Gallic acid (C7H3O5), by the action of air and water 
 
 alone, or by the joint action of heat, water, and 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 5. Ellagic acid (C7H2O4), by the action of air and water. 
 
 6. Paraellagic acid (C7H2O4), by the joint action of water, 
 
 sulphuric acid, and a temperature of 285°. 
 
 7. Pyrogallic acid (CeHgOa), by sublimation of galls, or 
 
 of gallic acid at 410°. 
 
 As this acid plays no part in tanning, it is unnecessary 
 to extend the description. Pelouze's formula for it is 
 
 C^HA+HO^ 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen . 
 Oxygen 
 
 100.00 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 EXTRACTIVE. 
 
 The opinion of chemists generally is adverse to the 
 consideration of extractive as an immediate principle of 
 plants. It is rather a mixture of acid and of coloring 
 and nitrogenous matters. Albumen, tannin, starch, 
 gluten, &c., may also be constituents according to the 
 source of the extractive. Strictly speaking, extractive 
 does not exist as such in vegetable substances, but is 
 generated by the action of heat, the oxygen of the air, 
 or by chemical agents upon the constituents of the plant. 
 Consequently, it is not of uniform composition, but va- 
 ries in its chemical characters. 
 
 The older chemists applied the term extracf to the 
 incongruous mixture obtained by evaporating the juice 
 or aqueous infusion of plants to inspissation. The ap- 
 plication of the term was afterwards extended to the 
 residue resulting from the evaporation of alcoholic or 
 ethereal solutions; but it is now limited to a peculiar 
 body contained in these extracts, and is still considered 
 to be an independent principle by a large number of 
 chemists. 
 
 Hermbstadt directed the evaporation to dryness of an 
 infusion of saffron, as his method of obtaining it in a state 
 of purity ; but the product thus obtained could not be 
 other than an aqueous extract. 
 
EXTRACTIVE. 
 
 65 
 
 The extractive principle is soluble in water, and the 
 liquid, which is always colored, yields by evaporation a 
 deep brown, brittle extractive of a bitter taste, soluble in 
 alcohol, but almost insoluble in ether. When oxidized, 
 it is insoluble in water ; chlorine precipitates it from its 
 solutions in dark yellow flakes, termed by Saussure 
 Apotheme; it is also precipitated by strong sulphuric and 
 hydrochloric acids. With most of the metallic salts, it 
 forms insoluble compounds ; and by distillation yields an 
 ammoniacal liquor. 
 
 Deyeux and Yauquelin found it in the sap of all the 
 trees which they examined. It, or rather its constitu- 
 ents, forms a part of the barks of all trees which have as 
 yet been analyzed. Davy found it in numberless trees, 
 and especially in the bark of the oak of the Leicester 
 and common willows, Spanish chestnut, elm, &c. It ex- 
 ists also in the catechu, senna, and Peruvian bark, &c. 
 In fact, according to Thompson, extractive is always an 
 associate of tannin. Still, we adhere to the opinion that 
 extractive is a compound of several vegetable principles, 
 varying in character with the plant whence it is obtained, 
 and thus more or less influencing the operation of tan- 
 ning. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TANNING MATERIALS. 
 TANNING JUICES. 
 
 The sap of a plant is its life-juice, which starts into 
 motion as soon as the genial warmth of spring arouses it 
 from its winter torpor. It ascends from the roots and is 
 the source of all the secretions of the plant. In its ori- 
 ginal and natural state, it consists of gaseous and earthy 
 matters dissolved in water; but in coursing the permeable 
 tissue or sapwood of the trunk, it takes up other sub- 
 stances. These serve as nourishment to the plant, which 
 assimilates them by the action of its vital chemistry. 
 The sap is a clear, transparent, colorless liquid, some- 
 times insipid, occasionally sweet, and nearly always acid. 
 Confined in a bottle, its fermentation becomes so active 
 as to drive out the cork; it has then acquired acidity, 
 and is more or less turbid. By exposure to air, it 
 becomes yellow and brown, and deposits flakes of an 
 albumino-extractive character. 
 
 Vauquelin and Deyeux, who made numerous analyses 
 of saps, found tannin in the following : — 
 
 1. In the sap of the beech-tree [fagus sylvatica). The 
 analyses were made in March and at the end of April. 
 During the latter month, it was of a fawn red color, 
 had a tan-like taste, and slightly reddened litmus. In 
 
CATECHU. 
 
 67 
 
 either month it was composed of much water ; tannin 
 precipitating sulphate of iron black; mucus and ex- 
 tractive matters ; acetates of potassa and alumina, and 
 gallic and acetic acids. 
 
 Tannin is also found in the sap of the oak, and pro- 
 bably in that of many other trees. 
 
 As soon as the sap reaches the leaves, it undergoes 
 various transformations, and is converted into liquids 
 which circulate in vessels returning towards the roots. 
 These liquids differ in their nature. Some are saccharine, 
 and others mucilaginous, gummy, resinous, oily, milky, 
 astringent, &c. 
 
 A large number of these vegetable saps contain tannin, 
 and we will name two which have been analyzed. 
 
 1. The sap of an old horse-chestnut, dried upon the 
 bark, and having the appearance of chalk, was found to 
 contain tannin, which gave a green color with the sul- 
 phate of iron. 
 
 2. The inspissated juice of the cachou, known under 
 the names of catechu, terra jajponica, 
 
 CATECHU, TERRA JAPONICA, 01^ CUTCH. 
 
 This is a product of the fruit of the mimosa catechu^ 
 obtained by evaporating the decoction. Catechu is im- 
 ported from Calcutta, and several varieties are found in 
 commerce. 
 
 1. Cahe Catechu. — This variety is brought to us in 
 circular, plano-convex cakes, with rounded edges, the 
 size and weight of which vary from two to six inches 
 in diameter, and from several ounces to two pounds. 
 Externally they are dark brown and smooth, internally 
 always brown, frequently dark, sometimes blackish, and 
 rarely of a light yellow or chocolate color, and more or 
 
68 
 
 CATECHIT. 
 
 less cellular. The fracture is smooth in the compact 
 parts, and rough or spongy in other portions. This 
 variety is often of good quality. 
 
 2. Pegu Catechu. — This derives its name from the 
 province in Burmah, whence it is obtained. It comes 
 in masses of one hundred pounds' weight, but as met 
 with in the shops is in angular irregular fragments/ in 
 double layers, with leaves intervening. This is an 
 excellent quality of catechu, and is remarkable for its 
 compactness, shining fracture, and deep brown color. 
 
 3. Bengal Catechu is originally in the form of quad- 
 rangular cakes about two or three inches long and broad; 
 but as found in market, is in fragments. It is rusty 
 brown externally, and dark brown or brownish gray 
 internally, and has a rough, dull fracture. 
 
 4. Bombay Catechu occurs in globular lumps, of the 
 size of an orange, flattened, and two pieces generally 
 adhering together. It resembles the Bengal catechu in 
 color and fracture. 
 
 5. Gambir, — This is an astringent extract, imported 
 from the East Indies under the name of ferra japonica. 
 It is prepared from the uncaria gambir , or nauclea gambir^ 
 and contains, according to Esenbeck, from 36 to 40 per 
 cent, of tannin. It is in cubes, with sides of an inch square. 
 External color deep yellow or reddish brown, but paler 
 within; fracture dull and earthy; taste bitter and 
 astringent, but subsequently sweetish. Is porous, lighter 
 than water, wholly soluble in it by boiling; swells up 
 when heated, and leaves but little ash when burned. 
 
 6. Arecha Catechu, — Prom the arecha catechu, a palm 
 of India. Obtained by evaporating a decoction of the 
 nuts. There are two varieties, viz., Jcassu, black, astring- 
 ent, and intermixed with husks; and couri/, which is 
 yellowish brown with an earthy fracture. The latter is 
 
KINO. 
 
 69 
 
 made from the nuts, which have already been partially 
 exhausted in yielding the former. 
 
 As found in commerce, catechu is often adulterated 
 with starch, which is readily detected by treatment with 
 water, which will dissolve the catechu and leave the 
 starch as residue. This residue, moreover, gives a jelly 
 upon being boiled with water. Davy's analyses of cate- 
 chu give the following results : — 
 
 Bengal Catechu. Bombay Catechu. 
 
 Tannin ... 97 109 
 
 'ExtrsiGtiYe {Catechuic acid) 73 68 
 
 Mucilage ... 16 13 
 
 Kesidue of lime and alumina 14 10 
 
 200 200 
 
 Cooper found in cuich, which is a commercial name 
 for catechu, 
 
 Water 12.8 
 
 Tannin 47.7 
 
 Extractive matter . . . . 9.2 
 
 Gummy .... 13.6 
 
 Eesinous . . . . 6.8 
 
 Insoluble residue . . . . 9.4 
 
 99.5 
 
 The white coating which invests the leather made 
 
 with decoction of catechu, is catechuine or tanningenic 
 acid, one of the constituents of the drug.* 
 
 KINO. 
 
 This is the inspissated juice of certain plants, met with 
 in commerce, in brown, dry, shining masses or grains. 
 
 * Cooper, Phil. Mag. 3d ser. xxiv. 
 
70 
 
 VEGETABLE FUNGI. 
 
 There are several varieties: 1. African kino, from the 
 ^terocarpus erinaceus; 2. Asiatic kino, from the 'ptero 
 carpus marsupmm ; 3. American kino, from a decoction 
 of the fibrous wood of coccoloba uvifera. The African, 
 which is the most common kind, differs from the rest in 
 coming in small, angular, glittering, black granules, 
 giving a beautiful brownish-red powder. It consists of 
 seventy-five parts of tannin and extractive, twenty-four 
 parts mucilage, and one part lignin ( Vauquelin) . Kino- 
 tannin forms a red mass, and yields no pyrogallic acid 
 in dry distillation. 
 
 VEGETABLE FUNGI, OR EXCRESCENCES CONTAINING TANNIN. 
 
 Nutgalls. — This material is so rich in tannin that it 
 merits an extended notice. The name of nutgall ap- 
 plies to the round excrescences upon the quercus infec- 
 toria. They are produced by the puncture of an insect 
 called by LinnaBus cynips quercus folii^ and by Geoffrey, 
 diplolepsis gallce tinciorice. These excrescences, which re- 
 sult from a morbid action, induced as above stated, have 
 their source in the juice of the plant, to which they are 
 more or less similar in chemical character. The above 
 species of oak is very plentiful throughout Asia Minor 
 from the Archipelago to the confines of Persia, and from 
 the banks of the Bosphorus even into Syria. It seldom 
 attains a greater height than six feet. Its stem is 
 crooked; the leaves are of a beautiful green color, and 
 the acorn is two to three times larger than its cup. 
 
 The cynips is a small, hymenopterous insect, with a 
 yellowish body and brown antennse. It pierces the 
 young boughs and then deposits its eggs. This prick or 
 wound inflames the surrounding vessels and causes a 
 swelling, which in two or three days results in a tumor- 
 
NUTGALLS, 
 
 71 
 
 like excrescence called nutgalL The eggs grow with 
 the increase of the galls, and maintain the inflammation 
 until the young are hatched, when they eat their way 
 out from the cavity in the centre of the nut. The most 
 perfect galls are those harvested before the larvae have 
 become matured. Those collected at this period, ap- 
 proach the size of a cherry, and are known in commerce 
 as green, blue, or black galls, while those gathered later 
 are called white galls. 
 
 The gree7i galls have a dark green or bluish color, 
 sometimes inclining to brown; are hard, compact, and 
 heavy, with pointed excrescences on their surfaces. 
 Their taste is very astringent and bitter. These galls 
 are of the best quality, as they are the richest in tannin. 
 They are brought from Aleppo, Smyrna, and the interior 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 The ivJiite galls have a brownish-yellow color, and are 
 larger than the green and much lighter, owing to inju- 
 ries received from the insects. They are also less bitter 
 and astringent, and contain less tannin, and are there- 
 fore inferior. 
 
 French galls, produced by the same insect upon the 
 oaks of that country, are round, smooth, and brownish, 
 and as to proportion of tannin, rank between the green 
 and white galls. 
 
 Chinese galls, are, according to Decaisne, a product of 
 the distylium raeemosumygvowmg in Japan, originating 
 from punctures by an insect allied to the aphis. They 
 * are described in the U. S, Dispensatory, as " irregularly 
 spindle-shaped bodies, often more or less bent, with ob- 
 tusely pointed protuberances about two inches long by 
 an inch in diameter at the central thickest part, of an 
 ash color, and soft velvety feel, very light, hollow, of a 
 slight odor resembling that of ipecacuanha, and of a 
 bitter astringent taste." 
 
72 
 
 NUTGALLS. 
 
 According to Blej, they contain : — 
 
 J. dlllllll •••••• 
 
 69.00 
 
 Eesin and fat .... 
 
 3.00 
 
 Gallic acid, soluble salts, extractive 
 
 
 and albumen .... 
 
 4.00 
 
 Starch 
 
 7.35 
 
 Lignin ...... 
 
 8.65 
 
 Water 
 
 8.00 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 The eminently astringent property of galls, and their 
 large content of tannin, render their use very service- 
 able in certain operations, of which we shall have occa- 
 sion to speak. 
 
 Aleppo Gulls, — Guibourt's analysis of Aleppo galls 
 shows the following composition : — 
 
 Water 11.5 
 
 Woody fibre 10.5 
 
 Tannin 65.0 
 
 Gallic acid . . . . . 2.0 
 
 Ellagic acid 2.0 
 
 Brown extractive . . . . 2.5 
 
 Gum 2.5 
 
 Starch 2.0 
 
 Chlorophylle and vol. oil . . . 0.7 
 
 Sugar 1.3 
 
 Albumen and salts .... — 
 
 100.0 
 
 Galls, therefore, contain sixty-five per cent, of tannin, 
 while the oak bark collected in the spring gives but 
 0.6, and that cut in the autumn only 0.45. Braconnot, 
 who also analyzed galls, obtained 30 of gallic acid, and 
 
TREE LEAVES. 
 
 73 
 
 an insipid, inodorous constituent in white powder, and 
 insoluble in boiling water, which he named Ellagic acid. 
 According to this chemist, the soluble part of galls con- 
 sists of gallic and ellagic acids, tannin, and oil. Istrian 
 galls, according to Roder, contain only twenty-four per 
 cent, of tannin. 
 
 TREE LEAVES. 
 
 1. The leaves of the different species of willow : the 
 salix alba (or common white willow) ; salixcaprea (water 
 willow) ; salix fragilis (cracking willow) ; salix pentan- 
 dria (red willow) ; salix arenaria (downy-mount willow) ; 
 salix Bahylonica (weeping willow) ; salix aurigerana ; 
 salix grandifolia; salix Pyrendica (Pyrenean willow); 
 salix nigricana (black willow) ; salix ccesia; salix lanceo- 
 lata (sharp-leaved willow) ; salix vitellina (yellow wil- 
 low); salix incana; saZicc mmmaZzs (Osier willow). 
 
 2. The leaves of the sorbus domestica (service-tree); and 
 of the sorbus aucuparia (mountain ash). 
 
 3. Of the pomegranate, or punica granatum. 
 
 4. Of the fagus sylvatica, or beech-tree; and of the 
 fagus castanea (chestnut-tree). 
 
 5. Of the olea Europa^ (olive-tree). 
 
 6. Of the mespilus Germanica (common medlar); and 
 mespilus cotoneaster, 
 
 7. Of the cornus mas, and cornus sanguinea (common 
 dogwood) . 
 
 8. Of the corylus avellana (hazel-nut-tree) . 
 
 9. Of the betula alnus, and betula alba (common birch). 
 
 10. Of the Tosa gallica (red rose), and rosa semper vi- 
 reus (evergreen rose), and others. 
 
 11. 0^ the riibus fruticosus (common bramble); rubiis 
 cousins (dewberry); and probably also of the rubus idceiis 
 
 6 
 
74 
 
 TREE LEAVES. 
 
 (raspberry). The cloudberry [ruhus chamcemorus) con- 
 tainSj according to Wolfgang, 7.3 per cent, of tannin. 
 
 12. Of the Titmex aguaticus (yellow-rooted water dock) . 
 
 13. Of the Tosmariims officinalis (rosemary). 
 
 14. Of the qiierciis robur (common European oak) ; 
 quercus cerris (Turkey oak); quercus sessiflora (sessile- 
 flowered oak); quercus toza (hoary oak); quercus Apen- 
 nina (Apennine oak); and quercus ilex (evergreen oak). 
 
 The leaves of the quercus robur contain the most tan- 
 nin. 
 
 15. Of nearly all of the Cistus family, especially of the 
 cistus ledon, or Monspeliensis (Montpelier rock-rose); cistus 
 albiclus (white-leaved rock-rose); cistus incanus Ion gifolius 
 (hoary rock-rose) ; cistxis populifolius^ &c, (poplar-leaved 
 rock-rose) . 
 
 16. Of the erica vulgaris (common heath); erica cinerea 
 (fine-leaved heath) ; erica scoparia; erica tetralix (cross- 
 leaved heath); erica purpurescens. According to Tournal, 
 the leaves of the heath have not half the tanning power 
 of oak bark, and this fact is confirmed by the abandon- 
 ment of their use in England, where they were once 
 largely employed. Oak barks, from the North of Europe, 
 and especially from Belgium, though of inferior quality, 
 are now substituted for them. 
 
 17. Of the tamarix Gallica (French tamarisk) ; and tama- 
 rix Africana and Germanica (African and German tama- 
 risk) . 
 
 18. Of the cynara scolymus (garden artichoke). It is 
 recorded [Bibliotlieque Physico-Economique, vol. i. 1789) 
 that goat and calf skins, for bookbinders' use, have been 
 tanned, in England, in a decoction of artichoke, as well as 
 they could be done by nutgalls or willow bark. The 
 twigs and leaves of the cynara cardunculus (cardom.) 
 are equally eflBcient. 
 
TREE LEAVES. 
 
 75 
 
 19. Of the prunus spinosa (sloe-tree). Calfskins have 
 been tanned in London with the leaves of this tree boiled 
 in a decoction of barley. It is probable that small pro- 
 portions of tannin are contained in the prunus domestica 
 (common plum); primus Brigantiaca (Briancon apricot); 
 prunus Armeniaca (common apricot) ; in the amygdalus 
 communis (sweet almond) ; amygdalus Persica (common 
 peach) ; and in the primus cerasus^ or common cherry, 
 and other kinds of cherry. 
 
 20. Of the conmw2 wac2^toi«m (spotted hemlock) . The 
 tanning principle is prepared by macerating the powdered 
 bark and shoots in cold water, and then boiling in a cop- 
 per kettle. The bark is reboiled with fresh waters until 
 exhausted, and the several liquors are then united and 
 evaporated to a proper consistence. 
 
 Schroeder analyzed the fresh leaves, but as his result 
 does not show the presence of tannin, it must either be 
 incorrect or else there are other tanning principles. 
 
 An infusion of the artemisia absinthium (wormwood) 
 precipitates gelatine in brown flakes, though Braconnot 
 does not give tannin in his analysis as one of its con- 
 stituents. 
 
 An infusion of the gentiana centaureum also precipi- 
 tates gelatine in straw-colored flakes. 
 
 21. Of the wscidits Jiippocastanum (horse-chestnut). 
 The hulls, as well as the young fruit, also contain tan- 
 nin. 
 
 22. Of the geranium pratense (crowfoot-leaved cranes- 
 bill). 
 
 23. Of the Oenothera hiennis (common Oenothera or 
 evening primrose). 
 
 24. Of the tilia Europcea (lime-tree). 
 
 25. Of the arbutus uva ursi (bear-berry). 
 
 This evergreen shrub is indigenous to the mountain 
 
76 
 
 TEA. 
 
 regions of Catalonia^ Italy, and the South of France, but 
 grows abundantly in this country, in New Jersey and 
 in the northern States. It has a trailing, round, and 
 reddish stem, and thick, oval, shining leaves, of a deep 
 green color on the upper, and pale green on the lower 
 side. They are slightly odorous, and very astringent. 
 The flowers cluster at the ends of the branches, and have 
 red calyces and white corollas with red lips. The fruit 
 is a small, round, red berry, containing five seeds, and has 
 a tart, acidulous taste. The market in this vicinity de- 
 rives its supply of leaves mostly from New J ersey. The 
 imported article is frequently adulterated with the leaves 
 of the cow-berry (yaccinum vitis idceae). The genuine 
 leaves are of a beautiful green color, thick, oval, and less 
 round than the fraudulent ones, which are dotted instead 
 of being reticulated on the under surface. The genuine 
 leaves have a strong odor and astringent taste, and give, 
 by triturition with distilled water, a cloudy, yellowish 
 liquor, which, by filtration through sulphate of iron, pro- 
 duces a blue precipitate, and becomes almost discolored. 
 This reaction is due to the presence of tannin, the large 
 proportion of which renders the leaves available for tan- 
 ning, - 
 
 TEA. 
 
 The tea plant, tJiea Cliinensis, is an evergreen shrub, 
 indigenous to China and Japan, in both of which coun- 
 tries it is largely cultivated. It has also been grown 
 with success in South Carolina, and may yet become one 
 of the agricultural products of that State. 
 
 There are several commercial varieties of tea : the Hy- 
 son, Gunpowder, Imperial, Scliulong, and Bohea, classified 
 
TEA. 
 
 77 
 
 under the designations of green and hlach teas; but War- 
 rington's investigations (Chemist^ 1851) have well esta- 
 blished the fact that the green and black teas are from 
 the same plant, and this strengthens the belief that there 
 is but one species of tea plant. Thea stricta, T. BoJiea^ 
 and T. viridis, are consequently not different species, but 
 identical. 
 
 The color, flavor, form, and strength of the different 
 kinds of tea in commerce, vary with the preparation and 
 mode of manipulating. The leaves for green teas, are 
 transferred to the roasting or drying pan as soon as har- 
 vested, and are at once highly heated during stirring; but 
 those for hlack teas are left in heaps for some time, where 
 by spontaneous heating they undergo a kind of slow fer- 
 mentation, which changes the nature of their constituents 
 and consequently their flavor. The leaves thus heated, 
 as soon as they have withered and acquired a certain 
 degree of fragrance, are removed to the roasting-pan. 
 The black color is due to the oxidation of the extractive 
 of the leaves, and not to artificial coloring matter, which 
 is probably the same for both kinds of tea, and consists 
 of a mixture of Prussian blue, gypsum, and turmeric. 
 This coloring matter is called the glazing, and tea glazed 
 to the maximum, is that variety known as gunpowder. 
 Schulong tea is the hyson aromatized with the leaves 
 of the olea fragrans (fragrant olive). The manner of 
 rolling, and possibly the age of the leaves at the time of 
 harvesting, constitute the difference in other varieties. 
 
 The composition of tea is shown by G. J. Mulder's 
 analyses {Ann. der Pharm. xxviii.), as follows: — 
 
78 
 
 FLOWEES AND FLOWER TOPS. 
 
 
 Green. 
 
 Black. 
 
 Volatile oil 
 
 . 0.79 
 
 0.60 
 
 Clilorophylle 
 
 . 2.22 
 
 1.84 
 
 Wax .... 
 
 . 0.28 
 
 
 Resin 
 
 . 2.22 
 
 3.60 
 
 Gum .... 
 
 . 8.56 
 
 7.28 
 
 Tannin (as in galls) 
 
 . 17.80 
 
 12.88 
 
 Thein 
 
 . 0.43 
 
 0.46 
 
 Extractive . 
 
 . 22.80 
 
 19.88 
 
 Apotheme . 
 
 . traces 
 
 1.48 
 
 Muriatic extract . 
 
 2o.o0 
 
 19. 
 
 AlliiiTnPTi 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.80 
 
 Lignin 
 
 . 17.68 
 
 28.32 
 
 Salts .... 
 
 . 5.56 
 
 5.24 
 
 
 104.94 
 
 103.50 
 
 Franck obtained 34.6 tannin from green, and 40.6 
 from black tea. Rochelder found hoJieic acid, also, in 
 the latter. The amount of thein, according to Peligot, 
 is from 2.5 to 4 per cent. The tannin of tea is similar 
 in properties to quercitannin. 
 
 FLOWERS AND FLOWER TOPS. 
 
 1. Of the poi^e/i^^7Za a725m72a (wild tansy) . 
 
 2. Of the agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony). 
 
 3. Of the eugenia caryojphillata (clove-tree), which, 
 according to Tromsdorff, contains .13 of a peculiar 
 tannin. 
 
 4. polygonum historta (snake's weed). 
 
 5. Of the geum urbanum (common avens). This is a 
 perennial European plant, which grows wild in damp 
 and shady places. The root is a quarter of an inch 
 thick, more or less; white interiorly, reddish exteriorly 
 
FLOWERS AND FLOWER TOPS. 
 
 79 
 
 and at the centre, and has long descending fibres. The odor 
 of the dry root assimilates to that of cloves, and its taste 
 is astringent and slightly bitter. The proper time for 
 gathering it is the spring, and the heat by which it is 
 dried should be low and cautiously managed. 
 
 TromsdorfF's analysis of the root shows that it is rich 
 
 in tannin. 
 
 Volatile oil (heavier than water) . 0.39 
 
 Kesin 40.00 
 
 Tannin (soluble in alcohol and ether, 
 
 and blues iron salts) . . . 410.00 
 
 Adragan thine . . . . 92.00 
 
 Gummy niatter .... 158.00 
 
 Woody fibre 300.00 
 
 1000.39 
 
 The water avens [geuni rivale), which grows in Europe 
 and in this country from Canada to Pennsylvania, as 
 well as that from the Pyrenees {geum Pyrendicum) ^ 
 likewise possess tanning properties. 
 
 6. Of the filix mas (male fern). The other species of 
 fern may also be used in tanning. 
 
 7. Of the fragaria vesca (wood strawberry). 
 
 8. Of the spircea filipendula (drop wort). 
 
 9. Of the Jiypericum 'perforatum (St. John's wort). 
 
 10. Of the filago Oermanica (common cotton rose). 
 
 11. Of the vinca, major and minor (greater and lesser 
 periwinkle) . 
 
 12. 0^ the j)oIygonum persicaria (spotted persicaria). 
 
 13. 0^ the plantago 7najor (plantain). 
 
 14. Of the alcfiemilla vidgaris (ladies mantle). 
 
 15. Of the grapJialium diaicum (everlasting). 
 
 16. the equisetum palustre (marsh horse-tail). 
 
80 
 
 FRUITS — SEEDS AND BULBS. 
 
 17. Of the potei^um sanguisorba (common burnet). 
 
 18. Of the lichen pulmonarius (lungwort). 
 
 19. Of the potentilla reptans (cinquefoil) ; potentilla 
 canilescens (Alpine cinquefoil) ; and potentilla palustre 
 (marsh cinquefoil). 
 
 20. Of the spircea ulmaria (meadow-sweet). 
 
 21. Of the tormentilla erecta and reptans (common and 
 large-flowered septfoil) . 
 
 22. Of the geranium grandifioTum ; g. sylvaticum (wood 
 cranesbill) ; and g. pratense (crowfoot-leaved cranesbill). 
 
 23. Of the humulus lupulus (hop plant). Lupulin, a 
 yellowish powder, which is separated from the fruit or 
 strobiles by rubbing and sifting, contains, according to 
 Ives, more than 0.4 of tannin and gallic acid. 
 
 24. Of the rosa GalUca (red rose). The infusion of 
 properly dried rose-leaves reddens litmus; precipitates 
 gelatine, sulphate of iron, nitrate of bismuth, and oxalate 
 of ammonia, thereby proving, by these reactions, the 
 presence of an acid, a lime salt, tannin, &c. 
 
 FRUITS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 1. The nuts of the common cypress [cupressus semper 
 virens). 
 
 2. The marc of grapes {vitis vinifera), * 
 
 3. The outer shell of the butternut [juglans regia), 
 
 4. Star aniseed or badiane of the French {illicium 
 anisahim), which contains, according to Meisner, 3.2 per 
 cent, of tannin. 
 
 SEEDS AND BULBS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 1. Those of the grape contain much tannin, and give 
 very good results. 
 
SEEDS AND BULBS. 
 
 81 
 
 2. Of the liydro-sapathum and loild cornel. 
 
 3. Attempts have frequently been . made to use the 
 dividivi, or leby-diby, the hulls of the fruit of the ccesal- 
 "pina coriaria, a tree growing in Carthagena and Mexico. 
 They contain a considerable quantity of tannin. The 
 pods are dry and curled, about three inches long, and of 
 a dark-brown color. The tannin of this substance, which 
 exists wholly in the rind beneath the epidermis, gives 
 no gallic acid upon dry distillation, but produces the 
 same color with persalts of iron as gall-tannin. The ob- 
 jectionable brown color imparted to leather made with 
 this material, may be prevented by keeping the infusion 
 out of contact with the air during the process of tanning. 
 This color is thought to be produced by the fermentation 
 of the infusion. 
 
 4. The bulb of the scuilla maritima, a perennial plant, 
 indigenous to Barbary, Sicily, and Spain. There are 
 two varieties of squill, the red and white bulb ; but they 
 do not differ in properties. Before being sent to market, 
 they are thinly sliced and dried. During this desicca- 
 tion, the loss of weight amounts to 82 in every 100 parts. 
 
 Squill has a bitter, nauseous, acrid taste ; and when 
 applied to the skin causes it to inflame. It partially 
 loses its acrimony by drying. The viscid juice which 
 it contains reddens syrup of violets. Squill yields its 
 active principles to water, alcohol, and vinegar. Yogel 
 found in one hundred parts of dry squill, 
 
 Gum 
 
 Bitter principle {scillitin) 
 Tannin 
 
 Saccharine matter 
 Woody fibre 
 
 100 
 
 35 
 24 
 6 
 29 
 
82 
 
 WOODS AND ROOTS. 
 
 According to Duncan and Buchner, the presence of 
 tannin, in any considerable quantity, is doubtful. 
 
 5. Yalonia, — This material comes from Smyrna and 
 the Morea. It consists of the dried acorn hulls of the 
 prickly-cupped oak [quercus cegilops). There are two 
 varieties, the common and the camata. The latter is of 
 the size of a cherry, and is the richest in tannin. The 
 diameter of the common is nearly two inches. 
 
 The leather made with valonia is said to be firmer 
 and heavier than the oak-tanned. When mixed with 
 oak bark, it forms a very economical and advantageous 
 material. Two pounds of valonia are required to make 
 one pound of leather. 
 
 WOODS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 The wood of almost every tree, the bark of which is 
 rich in tannin, also contains it. Among others, we will 
 name the different species of oak, the horse-chestnut, 
 service-tree, and Pernambuco or Brazilletto. 
 
 ROOTS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 1. The dentellaria, or lead wort [plumbago Europcea), 
 a perennial herbaceous plant, growing wild in the south 
 of France, contains, according to Tournal, a considerable 
 quantity of tannin. 
 
 2. The male fern (aspidium filix mas), growing abund- 
 antly in moist and shady places throughout Europe. Its 
 root, when dry, is externally brown and yellowish-white 
 or reddish within. According to Morin and Peschier, it 
 is composed of volatile and fat oils, gallic, and acetic 
 acids, tannin, starch, resinous and coloring matters, 
 woody fibre, &c. 
 
ROOTS. 
 
 83 
 
 3. Khatany (Jcrameria triandria). A shrub, indigen- 
 ous to Peru, growing in mountainous districts, and flow- 
 ering at all seasons. As found in commerce, it is in 
 pieces of irregular shapes and size, sometimes not thicker 
 than a pipe-stem, and at others an inch in diameter, and 
 two or three feet in length. Occasionally, several of the 
 stems issue from one head. The bark is of a dark yel- 
 low or brown color, readily separable from the wood, and 
 has an astringent, nauseous, and slightly bitter taste. 
 The woody part has less taste, and a color more ap- 
 proaching to red. Boiling water extracts its virtues, and 
 this decoction, which has a deep brown color, is abund- 
 antly precipitated by the mineral acids. The alkalies 
 only change its color to that of urine. Sulphate of iron 
 produces a black, and acids a fawn-colored precipitate. 
 Gelatine proves the presence of tannin. From the ana- 
 lyses of various chemists, we find that it is composed of 
 tannin, woody fibre, gum, starch, saccharine matter, and 
 krameric acid. One portion of the tannin has lost its 
 astringency and been rendered insoluble by the action of 
 the air ; another portion exists as soluble extractive, and 
 the remainder is normal. 
 
 Composition of Khatany Root. 
 
 C. G-. G-melin. Peschier. 
 
 Tannin . 
 Gallic acid 
 Sweet matter . 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 Mucilage 
 Lignin 
 
 Krameric acid 
 Gum, extractive and color- 
 
 38.3 42.6 
 
 — 0.3 
 6.7 — 
 2.5 — 
 8.3 — 
 
 43.3 — 
 
 — 0.4 
 
 ing matter ... — 56.7 
 
 99.1 
 
 100.0 
 
84 BARKS. V 
 
 4. Leopard^ s hane {arnica montana). — Ffaff obtained 
 from the root of this plant thirty-two per cent, of ex- 
 tractive matter analogous to tannin, and which gave a 
 green precipitate with the salts of iron. 
 
 5. Statice, or Marsh Rosemary. — The Kalmucs use a 
 decoction of statice and sour milk for tanning goat and 
 sheep skins as materials for clothing. Tournal has drawn 
 attention to this plant as a substitute for oak bark, in 
 localities where that substance is not abundant. Of the 
 several species, the statice limonium contains the most 
 tannin. Parrish found in the statice Caroliniana 12 A 
 per cent, of tannin. 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 The bark is that portion of the plant which envelops 
 the root, trunk, and branches, and may be compared to 
 the integument of an animal; like it, protecting the deli- 
 cate organs within from external injurious impressions, 
 and subserving other and somewhat similar purposes. It 
 consists of four distinct layers, the epidermis, the cellular 
 integument, the cortex, and the liher. 
 
 The epidermis is the thin, dry, transparent, non-elastic 
 membrane forming the outer covering of the bark, and 
 presenting a striking analogy to the cuticle of animal 
 skins. As the plant grows old, this coating thickens by 
 the superposition of internal layers, and eventually 
 cracks — becomes detached, and falls off. The vital prin- 
 ciple seems wanting in the epidermis, and it seldom or 
 never contains astringent or other substances. 
 
 The cellular integument, or parenchyma, is the greenish, 
 succulent layer, immediately under the epidermis. It is 
 generally the seat of color, being thus analogous to the 
 rete-mucosum of animals. The stems and branches of 
 
BARKS. 
 
 85 
 
 both annual and perennial plants are invested with it; 
 but in woody plants it is dried up and reproduced con- 
 tinually. The old layers remain — are pushed outwards 
 by the new ones, and form, at length, the rigid, dry, dead 
 covering of the old trunks of trees. 
 
 The cortex J or true harh, consists of but one layer in 
 plants and branches only a year old; but in the older 
 branches and trunks of trees, it consists of as many 
 layers as they have years of age. The bark contains a 
 large number of woody fibres running generally in a 
 longitudinal direction. These give it tenacity, and when 
 separated by maceration, usually exhibit a network of 
 a regularly reticulated structure. The virtues or pro- 
 perties of particular plants reside chiefly in this bark, 
 and principally in its inner layers. This is the case 
 with certain resins and aromatic oils, with the bitter of 
 cinchona, and the tannin of the oak and willow. 
 
 The liber is the inner layer of the cortex, and con- 
 sists of laminaB, bound together by a cellular matter, 
 which when dissolved by maceration in water, detaches 
 these plates from each other. The most essential vital 
 functions are carried on in this layer, and its destruction 
 is generally fatal to the life of the plant, while the outer 
 bark may be peeled off without injury to it. Advantage 
 of this fact is taken in girdling trees, an operation which 
 is not successful unless the axe is made to penetrate 
 below the liber. 
 
 Cinnamo7i. — This is the bark of the laurus cinnamo- 
 murn, from which the epidermis or cuticle has been re- 
 moved by scraping. The tree is indigenous to, and 
 abounds in the island of Ceylon; and grows also in Co- 
 chin-China, Sumatra, the Cape de Yerds, Isle of France, 
 Brazil, Cayenne, and some of the West India Islands. 
 
86 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 Of the many varieties^ the following are the most im- 
 portant : — 
 
 1. Cinnamon of Ceylon, — This is found in commerce 
 in thin, quill-shaped pieces, the smaller of which are in- 
 closed in the larger, so as to form concentric cylinders. 
 These quills are met with in bundles tied together with 
 bamboo string. It is of a light-brown yellow color, of a 
 peculiar agreeable odor, and aromatic, pungent, sweetish 
 taste. It is very brittle and friable. This is the most 
 costly variety, and it owes its flavor to a volatile oil. 
 
 2. Cinnamon of China. — This variety, though of 
 very good quality, is inferior to the preceding. The 
 bark is heavier, thicker, of a deeper color, and of 
 stronger but less agreeable taste. It is known in com- 
 merce as cassia, and comes in single quills. 
 
 3. Cayenne Cinnamon. — Of this there are two sub- 
 varieties. The first is that from trees of Ceylon stock. 
 It is paler and thicker than that from Ceylon, owing, as 
 Guillemin says, to the too great age of the branches 
 from which it is taken. The second is the product of 
 a cinnamon-tree introduced from Sumatra, and is very 
 similar to that from China. It is thick, of a very strong 
 taste and smell, and very mucilaginous. 
 
 Birch Bark. — This is the bark of the hetula alnus, a 
 tree which abounds in the dry, barren portions of the 
 Middle States, and grows to a great height. The epi- 
 dermis consists of thin, white layers, which in ancient 
 times served as a substitute for writing-paper. The 
 inner bark is astringent, and is used for tanning " Rus- 
 sia" leather. According to Davy, it contains 6.75 per 
 cent, of tannin. Distillation hy descent yields a fragrant 
 brown oil, to which the Russia leather owes its odor and 
 durability. 
 
 Chestnut Barh. — We have already mentioned the chest- 
 
BARKS. 
 
 87 
 
 nut-tree. The American species [castanea vesca) grows 
 in gravelly or sandy soils, and yields a bark wliich con- 
 tains upwards of 4.0 tannin. Leather tanned with it 
 is said to possess greater solidity and flexibility than that 
 made with oak bark. 
 
 Hoi'se-cJiestnut. — This tree is the cesculus Mppocastanum, 
 indigenous to America, but cultivated in Europe. It con- 
 tains, according to Davy, 1.875 per cent, of the kind of 
 tannin which colors the salts of iron green. The Ame- 
 rican variety is known as OJiio hucheye. 
 
 Sassafras. — The bark of the root of the laurus sassa- 
 fras consists, according to Reinsch, of 
 
 Water 
 
 90 
 
 Essential oil .... . 
 
 8 
 
 Fatty matter ..... 
 
 8 
 
 Balsamic resin and wax 
 
 50 
 
 Sassafride 1 extracted by . . . 
 
 92 
 
 Tannin J strong alcohol . 
 
 58 
 
 Sassafride, 
 
 
 Tannin, > extracted by weak alcohol 
 
 68 
 
 and Gum j 
 
 
 Soluble albumen ..... 
 
 6 
 
 Gum, coloring matter, and salts . 
 
 30 
 
 Fecula, tannin, &c. (extracted by boiling 
 
 
 water) 
 
 54 
 
 Fecula, tannin, &c., dissolved out by 
 
 
 caustic potassa lye .... 
 
 289 
 
 Lignin ...... 
 
 247 
 
 
 1000 
 
 Larch Barh. — The larch-tree, known also as cedar of 
 Lebanon^ is a beautiful tree, much valued for its timber. 
 There are three varieties: the ahies larix, or common 
 
88 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 white larch, indigenous to Germany; the black (L. pen- 
 dula)y and the red (Z. microcarpa), natives of North 
 America, but all largely cultivated in the mountainous 
 parts of Scotland. Its bark contains nearly two per 
 cent, of tannin. It is mostly used for tanning hasils, an 
 inferior quality of sheepskins. 
 
 The American larch, or so-called Jiackmatach or tama- • 
 rach^ is doubtless one of the above varieties. It abounds 
 in Newfoundland, near the St. Lawrence, and as far 
 south in the United States as the northern part of Penn- 
 sylvania. The bark of the trunk is smooth, but rugged 
 on the smaller branches. 
 
 Hemlock Spruce, or Abies Canadensis. — This tree is 
 natural to the coldest regions of America, and consti- 
 tutes three-fourths of the evergreen woods in Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, Maine, Vermont, and part of 
 New Hampshire. It is less common further south ; but 
 is found in the middle and southern States on the Alle- 
 ghanies. It grows to a height of 70 to 80 feet, with a 
 uniform circumference, for two-thirds of its length, of 6 
 or 9 feet. The bark is of a gray color when young, but 
 grows lighter when old, and is generally covered with 
 moss. The leaves are 6 or 8 lines long, flat, irregularly 
 disposed in two ranks, and downy at their unfolding. 
 Its flowers, which appear in May, are preceded by cones 
 of a dark ash color. The bark is largely used in this 
 country as a substitute for that of the oaks in tanning. 
 It is taken from the tree in June, and half of the epi- 
 dermis is shaved ofi" before it is ground. It imparts its 
 red color to leather made with it, which is said to be in- 
 ferior to that made with oak bark; but the two kinds 
 united are supposed to produce better leather than 
 either of them alone. 
 
 Hazel Bark. — The product of the corylus avellana, a 
 
BARKS. 
 
 89 
 
 bushy tree, growing wild in Europe, and in our middle 
 States, and in some countries cultivated extensively for 
 its fruit, which is the filbert, or stochiut Davy obtained 
 2.916 of tannin from it. 
 
 Beech Barh. — From the fagus sylvatwa, a beautiful 
 forest-tree, indigenous to the North of Europe and North 
 America. It grows throughout the United States, and 
 is very abundant in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, 
 and Tennessee. It is classified into two varieties, which 
 take their names from the color of the wood : the white, 
 or fagus sylvestris ; and the red, or fagus ferruginea. The 
 latter is very rare in the western or southern States. 
 Beech bark is of a silvery color, and contains nearly 3 
 per cent, of tannin. In some localities, where oak is 
 scarce, the white beech bark is used for tanning pur- 
 poses, and makes a white but inferior leather. 
 
 Lomhardy Poplar Barh. — From the populus fastigiata. 
 It contains 3.12 of tannin, and makes a lighter-colored 
 leather than oak bark, imparting, at the same time, a fra- 
 grant odor similar to that of Russia leather. 
 
 Blach Thorn Barh. — This is from the sloe-tree (prunus 
 spinosa) or wild plum-tree, and contains 3.32 of tannin. 
 The black thorn of the United States is the yellow cratce^ 
 gus of botanists. 
 
 Pomegranate Barh, — The pomegranate {pimica graria- 
 turn) is a shrubby tree of African origin ; but growing 
 wild in Spain, Italy,, and the West Indies. It is also 
 cultivated in our southern States. There are two varie- 
 ties, distinguished by the taste of their fruit, which is 
 sour from one, and sweet from the other. The rind of 
 the fruit, the flowers and bark of the root, each and all 
 abound in tannin. The rind of the fruit, as found in 
 commerce, is reddish-brown, hard, dry, and of a sharp 
 astringent taste. The bark of the roots, which are com- 
 7 
 
90 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 pact and knotty, is thin, of a brownisli-yellow color, and 
 of a short, brittle fracture. It comes in quills, is very 
 astringent, and, when chewed, colors the saliva yellow. 
 
 Ash Baric. — The tree [fraxinus exce?<s?'or), bearing this 
 bark, abounds in our forests, and grows to a great height. 
 Both the leaves and bark have a very bitter astringent 
 taste. The bark contains, according to Davy, 3.3238 
 per cent, of tannin. 
 
 Elm Barh. — The elm (idmus campestris), cultivated 
 in the United States as an ornamental tree, yields a 
 rough, iron-gray colored bark, of a sharp bitter taste, 
 which contains, according to Davy, 2.706 per cent, of 
 tannin. Some of the varieties of the elm exist in parts 
 of the United States as forest- trees. 
 
 Cinchona Barh, — The cinchona is a South American 
 tree, of which Guibourt has described twenty-five species, 
 and the number is further increased by the additions of 
 other naturalists. We shall confine our notice to those 
 more particularly containing the tanning principle. 
 
 The most valuable kinds of bark come from the Pa- 
 cific coast of South America, and are classified in com- 
 merce, according to their color, into ^aZe, yellow^ and red 
 barks, all of which contain tannin. 
 
 The j^ale harh, called by the French gray bark, from the 
 color of the epidermis, reaches market in single or dou- 
 ble quills. Its taste is somewhat astringent. This bark 
 is derived from the cmchona Cmdaminea. The yellow 
 harhy in quills or flat pieces, is from the cinchona calisaya. 
 Red harky called, in South America, cascarilla roxa and 
 color ada, comes also in quills or flat pieces, but the spe- 
 cies of cinchona which bears it is unknown. The Car- 
 thagena barks, an inferior species of cinchona, also 
 contain tannin. 
 
 All of the foregoing possess highly medicinal proper- 
 
BARKS. 
 
 91 
 
 ties, and, on that account, are too valuable to be used as 
 tanning material in this country. 
 
 Corlc-tree Barh, — The inner bark of the querciis liher, 
 or cork oak, a tree indigenous to, and abundant in Corsica 
 and Spain. The tannin which it contains is similar to 
 that from catechu, and imparts to the leather an objec- 
 tionable dark color. It has twice the tanning power of 
 oak bark, and is largely used for the purpose in Ireland 
 and England. 
 
 Poison OaJc, — The poison oak is the rJius toxicoden- 
 dron and rJms radicans of Linnasus. The two were for- 
 merly considered distinct varieties, but they are only 
 different stages of the same growth, radicans being ap- 
 jDlied to the creeping parasite, and toxicodendron to the 
 early vine. It grows wild throughout the United States, 
 and bears small, greenish- white flowers in J une and July. 
 This plant contains tannin, gallic acid, resin, &c., and 
 evolves a volatile principle, which is very poisonous. 
 
 Sumach. — This tree is the rhus glcdjvmn^ or Pennsyl- 
 vania sumach, indigenous to Asia, but growing wild in 
 Spain, Portugal, and throughout the United States. It 
 is a shrub of from four to twelve feet in height, with 
 crooked stem and reddish-gray bark, and differs from the 
 poisonous species. The new leaves are green on the 
 upper, and whitish upon the under surface, but they be- 
 come red in the autumn. The flowers are greenish-red, 
 and bloom in July, and the fruit, which consists of clus- 
 ters of small crimson berries, ripens in the fall. Both 
 the leaves and the bark contain tannin. So also do the 
 warty excrescences which grow under the leaves. Su- 
 mach is used largely for tanning in this country and 
 abroad. In some cases it is mixed with oak bark, and 
 in others is employed alone, as in the manufacture of 
 morocco and glazed skins, for which purpose it is pecu- 
 
92 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 liarly adapted, by reason of its not imparting any color. 
 It is said, however, to diminish the phability of the 
 leather. 
 
 There are several varieties of sumach met with in 
 commerce. The most esteemed is the product of the 
 rhiis glabrum or coriariay which is composed of the leaves, 
 peduncles, and young shoots thoroughly mixed and 
 powdered. 
 
 Sicily sumach is in high repute. It is in bright-green 
 powder, with astringent taste and violet odor. Of the 
 two varieties of this species, the sumach alcamo is pre- 
 ferred for morocco. The other, which is feeble in tan- 
 ning constituents, is only used for dyeing (Dumas 7, 
 527). 
 
 French sumach occurs in grayish-green powder. 
 
 The preparation of sumach consists in sun-drying the 
 branches, separating the leaves by threshing with a flail, 
 and then grinding them in a mill. When packed in 
 bags, it is then ready for the market. Sometimes the 
 young branches are ground with the leaves for fraud- 
 ulent purposes. 
 
 Willow. — The white willow [salix cdha) is the common 
 European willow, which is found growing in the northern 
 and temperate parts of North America. Its bark is 
 easily separable in the summer, and when dried, is of an 
 ash-gray color on the upper, and of a reddish yellow on 
 the under surface. It is brittle, wdth a fibrous fracture 
 and bitter astringent taste. The bark of the branches 
 is thin, and in drying assumes the quill form. The white 
 willow contains, according to Davy, 2.295 per cent, of 
 tannin, and the Leicester willow 6.86 per cent. The 
 willow genus comprises upwards of one hundred species, 
 nearly all of which are native to Europe or North Ame- 
 rica. The black willow {S. nigra) is the most common 
 
BARKS. 
 
 93 
 
 American willow, and grows extensively in the "Western 
 and Middle States. 
 
 In the north of Europe, they use the bark of S. alba 
 for tanning; and in Iceland, that of the S. herbacea. 
 
 The leather which is made from kid and lamb skins, 
 owes its agreeable odor to the willow bark with which it 
 is tanned. 
 
 Sycamore. — The bark of the acer pseudo-jplatanuSj 
 growing throughout the United States, south of Maine, 
 and abounding in the fertile valleys of the West. It 
 takes the name of buttonwood, sycamore, plane-tree, and 
 water-beech, according to locality. The bark contains 
 2.3 of tannin. 
 
 Tamarish. — The tamarisk {tamarix gallicd) is a hardy 
 shrub-plant, indigenous to Spain, Italy, and the south of 
 France. Its leaves resemble those of the savin-tree, but 
 are of a lighter green color. The bark is deep reddish- 
 brown on the upper, and yellowish on the under side. 
 Both the wood and bark have an astringent, slightly 
 bitter taste. The bark should be taken from branches 
 of two to four years' growth. 
 
 Winters Baric. — The product of an evergreen tree 
 (drymis winteri, orwinterana aromatica), indigenous to all 
 South America, but growing chiefly in Brazil. The bark 
 is of a gray color, inclining to reddish, and reaches mar- 
 ket in flat and very large pieces, or in quills of about 
 twelve inches in length, and an inch or more in diameter. 
 It has always the appearance of having been scraped 
 externally, and breaks, with a grayish color of the outer 
 fracture, while that of the internal part is reddish. It 
 has a sharp burning taste and terebenthine odor. Henry 
 found tannin among its constituents. 
 
 Tulip'Tree. — The bark of the poplar {Jiiriodendron iu- 
 lipi/era) also contains tannin. This tree grows through- 
 
94 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 out the United States. The bark is grayish-brown with 
 the epidermis, and yellowish-white without it. It is 
 brittle, heavy, and has a disagreeable odor, and a pun- 
 gent, aromatic taste, which it loses by age. 
 
 SL Lucia Bark. — This bark is the product of the ex- 
 ostemma florihunda, and is said to be suitable for tan- 
 ning. 
 
 Wattle Barh. — The bark of the different species of 
 mimosa, growing abundantly in Australia and New Zea- 
 land. Sometimes a fluid extract of the bark is imported. 
 The leather tanned with wattle bark is of excellent 
 quality, but highly colored. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OAK-BARKS. 
 
 The oak-tree, from its majestic appearance, great 
 strength, hardiness, and durability, has been termed the 
 " patriarch of the forest," and is considered as the em- 
 blem of grandeur. It is said to live from three to five 
 hundred years, and is the most valuable of trees for its 
 wood as well as bark. 
 
 The oak is indigenous throughout Britain and North 
 America. There are many species, and all contain a 
 large amount of tannin in their bark, leaves, and fruit. 
 The bark is gathered from May to J uly, because it con- 
 tains more tannin in the spring than at any other 
 season. 
 
 Skins may be converted into leather more or less per- 
 fectly, by the action of any of the vegetable substances 
 which contain tannin ; but the small quantity of it ex- 
 isting in most of them, and the costliness and rarity of 
 those of which it is a principal constituent, together with 
 the injurious effects upon the leather which often attend 
 their use, have restricted the substitution of other sub- 
 stances for oak-bark, which tanners have employed from 
 the earliest times, and which, when ground, seems to 
 present the tannin to the skins exactly in the proportion 
 and under the circumstances best calculated to effect their 
 conversion into superior leather. 
 
96 
 
 EUROPEAN BARKS. 
 
 More than eighty species of the oak are known, of 
 which at least one-half inhabit the United States, and 
 the elevated portions of Mexico. The bark of all the 
 species abounds in tannin and gallic acid, and is, or may 
 be used in tanning; but in Europe, that of different va- 
 rieties of quercus rohur, and of the quercus coccifera^ and 
 in America, the bark of quercus falcatay quercus rubra, 
 quercus tinctoria, and quercus j>rinus monticola are most 
 esteemed for the purpose. We proceed to give a short 
 account of these, and of a few other American species 
 which are, or may be used to furnish bark suitable for 
 the purposes of the tanner. 
 
 EUROPEAN OAKS. 
 
 1. Quercus Rohur. — The common European oak, or 
 British oak, as it is commonly called, is a tree of the 
 utmost importance on account of its general distribution 
 throughout Europe, and the excellent qualities of its 
 wood and bark. The term rohur is used by most au- 
 thors to designate a group of closely allied species, or 
 perhaps only varieties; the two principles of which, the 
 Q.pedunculata, and the Q. sessiliflora, which are too much 
 alike, in magnitude and general appearance, to require 
 a separate description, are both widely spread. They 
 are majestic trees, attaining the height of from sixty to 
 a hundred feet, with trunks from six to twelve or more 
 feet in circumference; with spreading tortuous branches 
 and spray, and, when standing singly, with heads usually 
 broader than they are high. The leaves are deciduous, 
 oblong, smooth, dilated upwards; with sinuses rather 
 acute, and lobes obtuse; stalks of the fruit elongated; 
 nuts oblong. The leaves resemble, in form and appear- 
 ance, those of the American white oak. Except in 
 
EUROPEAN OAKS. 
 
 97 
 
 the north of Russia, and in the limited districts of 
 France, where the Q. cocci/era is used, the bark from 
 the varieties of this oak is exclusively employed in 
 the manufacture of leather; and that from the small 
 branches is preferred, because in them the epidermis is 
 thinner and the cellular integument which contains the 
 tannin is more abundant. 
 
 2. Quercus Cocci/era. — The Kermes oak is a tortuous, 
 branching shrub, inhabiting Spain, Portugal, and the 
 South of France. It grows to the height of from three 
 to four and a half feet, in close, thick tufts, or clumps, 
 which, by the interlacing of their matted roots, consoli- 
 date the soil around them, and prevent it from being 
 washed away by the heavy rains prevailing in its native 
 localities. 
 
 The leaves are elliptic-oblong, rigid, smooth on both 
 sides, with spreading, bristly, spinous teeth; fruit on pe- 
 duncles ; nut ovate ; calyx with spreading, pointed, some- 
 what recurved scales. The whole plant resembles a 
 holly in miniature ; but the leaves are of a paler green. 
 
 The bark of the root is of a yellowish-brown color, 
 and is very rich in tannin. This species of oak is chiefly 
 known from its being fed upon by the coccus ilicis, a little 
 insect, resembling in appearance a red berry, which fur- 
 nishes a scarlet dye, highly valued in commerce before 
 the introduction of cochineal ; but it is also worthy of 
 notice on account of the bark of the root, which is em- 
 ployed for tanning to a considerable extent in various 
 parts of France. It is there called garronille, and is 
 said to abound in tannin, and to be used with great ad- 
 vantage in the tanning of a very superior quality of 
 thick, impervious sole-leather. 
 
98 AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 3. Quercus Falcata. — This oak, known in Delaware, 
 Maryland, and Virginia by the name of Spanish oak, 
 and in the Carolinas and Georgia by that of red oak^ is 
 a large tree, inhabiting all those parts of the Union which 
 are south of the forty-first parallel of latitude, but most 
 abundant in the Atlantic States. 
 
 This oak is remarkable from the great dissimilitude 
 which exists in its leaves and general appearance in 
 different climates. In the southern States it grows to 
 the height of eighty feet, with a trunk four or five feet 
 in diameter; while in New Jersey it is never above 
 thirty feet high, with a trunk four or five inches thick. 
 The bark is thick, black, and deeply furrowed, and the 
 wood is reddish and cross-grained, with open pores. The 
 leaves on the trees in the South are falcate, and, as well 
 as the young shoots to which they are attached, are 
 covered with a thick down upon the under sides. In 
 New Jersey the leaves are three-lobed, except a few 
 upon the summit, which are slightly falcated. This tree 
 fructifies once in two years. Its flowers put forth in May, 
 and are succeeded by small, round, brown acorns, con- 
 tained in scaly, shallow cups, supported by peduncles one 
 or two lines in length. They resemble those of the bear- 
 oak, and preserve, for a long time, the capability of 
 germination. The Spanish oak is chiefly valuable on 
 account of its bark, which is preferred to any other for 
 tanning coarse leather, which it is supposed to render 
 whiter and more supple. The quality of the leather 
 prepared with it is said to be improved by the addition 
 of a small quantity of hemlock bark to the tan. 
 
 4. Quercus Euhra. — The red oak is one of the most 
 
AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 99 
 
 common species in the northern States and in Canada. 
 It is very abundant in the lower part of New York, in 
 New Jersey, the upper districts of Pennsylvania, and 
 along the whole range of the Alleghanies. 
 
 It grows to a large size, being often eighty feet high, 
 and three or four in diameter. . Its leaves are large and 
 deeply laciniated, smooth and shining on both sides, and 
 rounded at the base. On the middle or summit of the full- 
 grown tree, they resemble the leaves of the Spanish oak, 
 but unlike them are not downy beneath. The fructifica- 
 tion is biennial and it flowers in May. The acorns are 
 large and numerous, compressed at the base, rounded at 
 the summit, and contained in flat cups, covered with 
 compact, narrow scales. 
 
 The bark of this tree consists of a very thin epider- 
 mis, with a thick, cellular integument. It is very gene- 
 rally employed in tanning, but is considered inferior to 
 that of the Spanish, black, and rock-chestnut oaks. 
 
 5. Quercus Prinus Monticola. — The roch-cJiestnut oalz is 
 most frequently met with in the middle and some parts 
 of the northern States, but is rarely found along with 
 other trees in the forest, but only on high grounds thickly 
 covered with stones or rocks. Along the Alleghanies, 
 it often constitutes nine-tenths of the growth upon some 
 of the mountains. In Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Mary- 
 land, it is called cJiestnut-oah, on account of the resem- 
 blance of the bark to that of the chestnut; and on the 
 banks of the Hudson and the shores of Lake Champlain, 
 it is known as the rock oah, from the situations in which 
 it is found. The rock-chestnut oak, when growing in a 
 fertile soil, is often sixty feet high, and three feet in di- 
 ameter; but usually growing in sterile soil, it rarely 
 attains these dimensions. The leaves are five or six 
 inches long, and three or four broad; oval, and uniformly 
 
100 
 
 AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 denticulated. When opening in the spring, they are 
 covered with a thick down ; but when expanded, they 
 are perfectly smooth and whitish beneath. The flowers 
 appear annually in the month of May, and are succeeded 
 by brown acorns of an oblong oval shape, and sometimes 
 an inch in length, a third part of which are contained in 
 spreading cups with loose scales. 
 
 When the trunk of this tree is more than a foot in 
 diameter, it is covered with a thick, hard, deeply-furrowed 
 bark. The epidermis is strongly impregnated with the 
 tanning principle, which in other species resides chiefly 
 in or under the cellular integument. The bark is esteemed 
 as among the best for tanning, in Pennsylvania and New 
 York; but only that of the secondary branches, and of 
 the trunks of young trees, is employed. 
 
 6. Quercus Tlnctoria. — The black or quercitron oak is 
 a large tree, found throughout the United States, south 
 of latitude 43°, and abundantly in the middle States, 
 and in the upper parts of the Carolinas and Georgia. It 
 is one of the loftiest trees of the American forests, being 
 often eighty or ninety feet high, and four or five in dia- 
 meter. The trunk is covered with a deeply furrow^ed 
 bark of medium thickness, and of a deep-brown or black 
 color, which in the North serves to distinguish it from 
 the red, scarlet, and gray oaks, when the leaves have 
 fallen ; but as the bark of the Spanish oak in the South 
 is of the same color, all doubt of its identity may be re- 
 moved by chewing a piece of the cellular integument, 
 that of the quercitron being very bitter, and imparting 
 a yellow color to the saliva, which is not the case with 
 the other. The leaves are large, deeply laciniated, and 
 divided into four or five lobes. They are like those of 
 the scarlet oak ; but, during the summer, have their sur- 
 faces roughened with small glands which are evident to 
 
AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 101 
 
 the eye and the touch. The fructification is biennial 
 and occurs in May. The acorns usually grow in clusters, 
 are of a brown color, sub-sessile, and half buried in a 
 thick, scaly cup. 
 
 The quercitron, so much used in dyeing, is obtained 
 from the cellular integument; and the bark is very ex- 
 tensively employed in tanning, for which it is well 
 adapted, as it is produced in great abundance and is 
 rich in tannin. The only inconvenience is, that shoes 
 made of leather tanned with it are apt to impart a yel- 
 low tinge to the stockings. This color of the leather 
 does not increase its value, as has been stated by some 
 authors, and is often removed by a particular process. 
 
 7. Quercus Alba. — The white oak is found throughout 
 the United States, being widely, but unequally distri- 
 buted from about latitude 46°, to Florida, and from the 
 Atlantic to some distance beyond the Mississippi River; 
 extending somewhat further northward in these western 
 regions. It is most abundant in Virginia and in the 
 middle States, particularly in the southwestern part of 
 Pennsylvania, upon the Monongahela and its branches, 
 where it sometimes composes nine-tenths of the forest. 
 
 The white oak reaches the elevation of seventy or 
 eighty feet, with a diameter of six or seven feet. The 
 leaves are regularly and obliquely divided into oblong, 
 rounded lobes, destitute of points. Soon after unfolding, 
 they are reddish above, and white and downy beneath, 
 but, when full grown, they are smooth and of a light 
 green above, and glaucous below. The leaves change 
 in autumn to a bright-violet color, and a few of the dried 
 leaves persist till the circulation is renewed in the spring. 
 The tree is easily distinguishable- in winter by this pecu- 
 liarity, and by the whiteness of its bark. It puts forth 
 flowers in May, which are succeeded by oval acorns, 
 
102 
 
 AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 large, very sweet, contained in rougb, shallow, grayish 
 cups, and borne singly, or in pairs, by peduncles eight or 
 ten lines long, attached to the shoots of the season. 
 
 The bark is often variegated with large black spots, 
 and, on trees of less than sixteen inches in diameter, the 
 epidermis is divided into squares ; on old trees, growing 
 in moist grounds, it is in the form of plates, laterally 
 attached. The bark is considered by many tanners to 
 be the best for preparing leather for saddles and similar 
 objects; but it is little emploj^ed, as that from the trunk 
 and large limbs alone is used, and on these the cellular 
 integument is much thinner than it is on those of the 
 red oak. The inner bark of the small branches con- 
 tains the greatest quantity of tannin. 
 
 8. Qiiercus Coccinm. — The scarlet oak is most abund- 
 ant in the middle States, and on the mountains of Caro- 
 lina and Georgia, but is found as far north as latitude 
 43°. It grows to more than eighty feet in height, and 
 three or four in diameter. The leaves, w^hich are sup- 
 ported by long petioles, are of a beautiful green color, 
 shining on both sides and remarkably laciniated, having 
 usually four deep sinuses, which are very broad at the bot- 
 tom. They change with the first cold, and after several 
 frosts become of a bright scarlet color. It fructifies 
 biennially, flowering in May. The acorns are large, 
 similarly rounded at both ends, and half covered with 
 scaly cups. The tree produces galls, which are applied 
 to the same purposes as the European galls of com- 
 merce. 
 
 The bark of the scarlet oak is very thick, and is gene- 
 rally employed in tanning, though it is not preferable to 
 that of the red and gray oaks. 
 
 9. Quercus Ambigua. — The gray oak is abundant in 
 Maine, New Hampshire, and on the shores of Lake 
 
AMERICAN OAKS. 
 
 103 
 
 Champlain in Vermont. It attains a height of fift}^ or 
 sixty feet, and a diameter of fifteen or eighteen inches. 
 The leaves are large, smooth, and deeply sinuated at 
 right angles to the main ribs. The flowers put forth in 
 May, and are succeeded by acorns of a middling size, 
 rounded at the end and contained in scaly cups. The 
 wood and bark are similar to those of the red oak, and 
 the latter may be employed in tanning. 
 
 10. Quercus Virens. — This species, known as the live 
 oaJc, is confined to the vicinity of the Atlantic coast, south 
 of latitude 37°, and of the Gulf of Mexico as far as the 
 Sabine River, being never found more than twenty miles 
 inland. It is commonly forty or fifty feet high, and one 
 or two feet in diameter. The leaves are oval, coriaceous, 
 of a dark green color above, and w^hitish beneath, per- 
 sisting during several years, and being partially renewed 
 every spring. It fructifies once in two years, the flowers 
 appearing in May, and being succeeded by acorns of an 
 oval, lengthened form, nearly black, and contained in 
 shallow, grayish, pedunculated cups. 
 
 The bark is hard and thick, and of a blackish color. 
 It is very excellent for tanning leather, but is not largely 
 employed for the purpose. 
 
 The bark from a number of other species of American 
 oaks may be and is incidentally employed in tanning, 
 but manufacturers of leather in the United States make 
 use almost entirely of those which have been described, 
 and particularly of the first four kinds. 
 
CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 BARKING OF TREES. 
 
 The four distinct layers of which^ as we have already 
 stated^ bark is composed, are not equally rich in tannin. 
 Indeed, the epidermis contains none, and the liber very 
 little. It exists chiefly in the inner layers of the cortex, 
 or true bark; extractive matter predominating in the 
 middle-colored portion. Davy found that the bark of a 
 medium-sized oak contained 6.04 per cent, of tannin, 
 while the external layers gave only 1.50. 
 
 Barks with thick epidermis are the least valuable in 
 tanning ingredients. 
 
 It is a mooted point whether the quantity of tannin in- 
 creases with the age of the bark. Fontenelle and Male- 
 peyre say that the older the bark the more of tannin it 
 contains, and in support of their opinion they cite the 
 European and American practice of collecting the bark 
 chiefly from the maturer trees. 
 
 The proper season for separating the bark from trees 
 is in the spring of the year, when the sap is circulating 
 most actively, and before the complete expansion of the 
 leaf Davy found that the bark of oak trees, cut in the 
 spring, contained nearly one-third more of tannin than 
 that obtained in the autumn, thus proving the advantage 
 of cutting the trees in the former season. The proper 
 time for barking the oak in this country is from the end 
 
BARKING OF TREES. 
 
 105 
 
 of April to the end of June, varying with the degree of 
 latitude, the exposure of the locality, and the tempera- 
 ture of the season which has preceded the cutting. 
 The operation should be postponed until after the usual 
 time of harvesting the bark, if the previous winter has 
 been uncommonly severe or prolonged, and should be 
 anticipated, if a mild season has caused an early cir- 
 culation of the sap. In our northern States, the bark 
 does not generally acquire its full strength of tannin, nor 
 is it proper to gather it until the middle of May, and 
 in some places not until June. In lower latitudes, and 
 in a warm spring succeeding a mild winter, it may be 
 harvested as early as April. The bark of southern oaks 
 yields generally more tannin than that of those growing 
 in higher latitudes ; and that of trees in dry and elevated 
 places, with a warm exposure, is superior to the bark 
 taken from oaks growing in low, damp, and shady loca- 
 tions. Wet seasons have likewise an influence in dimi- 
 nishing the tanning power of bark. 
 
 The process of barking is in general well understood. 
 Immediately after the tree is felled, the bark is cut across 
 circularly at the two extremities of the trunk, and is then 
 split off in longitudinal pieces of the proper size, and 
 dried slowly in the shade. The greatest attention should 
 be paid to harvesting it properly, as it loses color and 
 becomes mouldy and otherwise injured in quality, if 
 suffered to heat or ferment. The best mode is to make 
 what are called by foresters temporary lofts^ about two 
 feet wide, and long enough to hold a day's peeling of 
 bark. These lofts are made by driving uprights of forked 
 stakes into the ground, three feet high in the back row, 
 and two and a half in the front, and a sloping floor is 
 laid upon these by placing loppings between the forks of 
 the bearers. The bark is then laid upon this floor, with 
 8 
 
106 
 
 BARKING OF TREES. 
 
 the thick ends towards the highest side ; the smaller bark 
 is placed over this to the height of six or eight inches, 
 and the broad pieces are laid over the whole, to protect 
 it from rain or djew. The pieces should be turned in four 
 or five days, in order to prevent moulding ; and in about 
 ten days, they will be sufficiently dry to be stacked until 
 wanted by the tanner. The stack should not exceed 
 eight feet in width, in order that fermentation may not 
 occur, and it should be covered with a roof formed and 
 thatched like that of a hay or corn stack. 
 
CHAPTER IX, 
 
 METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE TANNING POWER OF 
 ASTRINGENT SUBSTANCES. 
 
 The quality of bark may be determined by inspection ; 
 but a chemical examination alone will enable us to esti- 
 mate accurately its degree of excellence. 
 
 A good bark may be recognized by its color. That is 
 good which is white on the outer surface, and reddish in 
 the interior : which is rough, dry, fragile, and with a clean 
 fracture, free from fibres. The astringency of its taste, 
 and its odor should be decisive, more particularly when 
 it is ground. 
 
 When the epidermis and liber are dry, thick, and 
 blackish, and channelled with large crevices, the bark 
 is of inferior quality. These old barks are in an incipi- 
 ent state of decomposition ; as is also the case with bark 
 which has been long exposed to dampness. 
 
 Bark internally of a red color, which has become 
 nearly inodorous, dingy and rusty, has likewise depre- 
 ciated in useful properties. 
 
 The determination of the quality of bark by chemical 
 means, is based upon the separation of the tannin, that 
 component upon which its value as tanning material ex- 
 clusively depends. The requisite manipulations are as 
 follows : — 
 
 We have already mentioned the fact that a character- 
 istic behavior of gelatine is to form an insoluble com- 
 
108 
 
 THE TANNING POWER OF 
 
 pound with tannin, which is entirely distinct in properties 
 from its constituents in their original states. Upon this 
 reaction depends the whole theory and practice of the 
 tanner's art. 
 
 To ascertain the relative value of barks, or tanning 
 substances, it is only necessary to determine the ratio, by 
 weight, of the precipitates thrown down by gelatine from 
 aqueous infusions of equal weights of the materials. These 
 precipitates, separated by filtration and dried, give, by the 
 differences in weight, the relative proportions of tannin. 
 
 Davys Process. — Davy's process is to digest 460 grains 
 of the powdered bark in a pint of boiling water, and 
 after a day's repose, and frequent stirring during the in- 
 terval, to filter. The filtrate is then mixed with an equal 
 volume of a liquid made by dissolving 60 grains of 
 gelatine, or pure isinglass, in two pints of hot water, and 
 the mixture is then filtered. The precipitate on the 
 filter is to be dried in the air and accurately weighed. 
 As the precipitates of gelatine by tannin, when dry, 
 average 40 per cent, of tannin, it is easy to obtain an 
 approximate result by calculation. For example, sup- 
 pose the precipitate weighs 150 grains, then as 
 
 100 : 40 : : 150 : 60 = the amount of tannin in the 460 
 grains of bark operated upon, or 13.04 per cent. 
 
 Bostock is convinced that the precipitate of gelatine by 
 tannin, in the above process, is so intimately suspended 
 through the liquid as to render its entire separation by 
 filtering almost impossible, a portion always passing 
 through the filter. At the same time, the proportion of 
 tannin which it contains is not uniform, as that which 
 goes down first carries about 50 per cent. ; while that 
 which ensues takes scarcely any with it. Acting upon 
 these suggestions. Bell Stephens proposed the following 
 improvement upon Davy's method : — 
 
ASTRINGENT SUBSTANCES. 
 
 109 
 
 Bell Stephens s Process. — Small strips of hides are to be 
 soaked for some hours in a weak solution of tanning ma- 
 terial, made with water at 90° F. In from 8 to 10 hours 
 the whole of the tannin is abstracted, and the increase 
 of the weight of the strips, thus acquired, will indicate 
 the precise amount absorbed by them. 
 
 The strips must be weighed in a dry state ; but before 
 they are placed in the tanning liquor, they should be 
 softened by being soaked in warm water, and by work- 
 ing with the fingers, so as to facilitate the subsequent 
 absorption of the tanning principle. When they are 
 taken out, drying must precede the final weighing. The 
 best skins for this essay are sound fresh ox hides, shaved 
 to the greatest possible degree of thinness. 
 
 Though Davy's method is not faultless, it is preferable 
 to that of Stephens, which, owing to the unequal ab- 
 sorption of water by the skin at different times, cannot 
 give the exact amount of tannin. 
 
 A thorough examination of all the parts of the several 
 species of oak at different stages of their growth, showing 
 the comparative value in tanning principle, under differ- 
 ent circumstances, would be interesting to the tanner as 
 well as satisfactory to the man of science. 
 
 Warrington s Process. — The following method, as com- 
 municated by the author, is taken from the memoirs of 
 the London Chemical Society, 1847 : — 
 
 " Gelatine was selected as the basis for the estimation 
 of their comparative value ; and after several trials with 
 various kinds of natural and manufactured gelatine, such 
 as varieties of isinglass, glue, patent gelatine, &c., the 
 finest long staple isinglass was found to be the most 
 constant in its quality and least liable to undergo change. 
 
 " With this, therefore, the test solution was prepared, 
 of such a strength that each division, by measure in the 
 
110 
 
 THE TANNING POWER OF 
 
 ordinary alkaliraeter tube, should be equivalent to the 
 one-tenth or one-fourth of a grain of pure tannin, and 
 thus the number of divisions used would indicate the pro- 
 portion of available tannin, or substance precipitable by 
 gelatine contained in any specimen. A given weight of 
 the sample under trial was then infused in water, or, if 
 necessary, the astringent matter extracted by boiling, 
 and the clear liquid precipitated by the test solution 
 until no further deposit occurred. 
 
 " It was necessary in the course of this operation to test 
 at intervals a portion of the solution under examination, 
 to ascertain the progress of the trial; and this, from the 
 nature of the precipitate, was attended at first with some 
 little difficulty; paper filters were inadmissible from the 
 quantity of the solution they would absorb, and thus 
 introduce a source of extensive error; subsidence ren- 
 dered the operation very tedious. The plan I have 
 adopted is as follows : A piece of glass tubing, about 
 twelve inches in length, and about half an inch internal 
 diameter, is selected, and this has a small piece of wet 
 sponge loosely introduced into its lower extremity, and 
 when it is wished to abstract a part of the fluid under 
 investigation, for a separate testing, this is immersed a 
 few seconds in the partially precipitated solution; the 
 clear liquid then filters by ascent through the sponge 
 into the tube, and is to be decanted from its other ex- 
 tremity into a test glass ; if, on adding a drop of the 
 gelatine solution to this, a fresh precipitate is caused, the 
 whole is returned to the original bulk, and the process 
 proceeded in, and so on until the operation is perfected ; 
 this method of operation is facilitated by conducting the 
 examination in a deep glass. After a few trials the 
 manipulation will be found exceedingly easy, and in this 
 way considerable accuracy may be arrived at." 
 
ASTRINGENT SUBSTANCES. Ill 
 
 Table of the Average Quantity of Tannin in different Suhstances. 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Percentage 
 of tannin. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 CatechU; Bombay .... 
 
 ■ 55.0 
 
 Davv. 
 
 " Bengal .... 
 
 44.0 
 
 
 T^.hataTiv root, 
 
 
 PpsphipT* 
 
 u u 
 
 38.3 
 
 C. Gr. Gmelin. 
 
 Kino (^tanniii and extractive) 
 
 75.0 
 
 Vanquelin . 
 
 Tilltpa, O'llin fhiifpn 'fvnvirlntn nr rlhnJi'- 
 
 
 
 tree') ...... 
 
 73.2 
 
 E. Solly. 
 
 Nutgallsj Aleppo 
 
 65.0 
 
 Gruibourt. 
 
 Chinese . 
 
 69.0 
 
 Bley. 
 
 Xo LI ictl-l f • . . 
 
 94 0 
 
 TinnPT 
 
 XiULlL/l . 
 
 Oakj old^ white inner bark 
 
 21.0 
 
 Cadet de Gassincourt. 
 
 u u (c a _ ^ 
 
 14.2 
 
 Davv. 
 
 Younff; " . . 
 
 15.2 
 
 (( 
 
 
 4 0 
 
 a 
 
 d-iUllC Udl A. ... 
 
 
 "Daw and rrPicpr 
 
 
 
 Tin w 
 
 TCpTinpsi* bjirl? flip mnf 
 
 
 a 
 
 T'prva iflDonir^a, or trambir 
 Avens root (jgeurn urhanuni) 
 
 40.0 
 
 E<?PTiV)pnk 
 
 41.0 
 
 Tromsdorfif. 
 
 Sauill bulb 
 
 24 0 
 
 V u^ei. 
 
 Statlp(^ of SmitVi riarnlirifi 
 
 12 4 
 
 T^arrisili 
 
 X dx 1 lOUL. 
 
 X^iX L/li Udl JV • • • • • 
 
 
 Davy. 
 
 u u 
 
 1 4 
 
 jDiggers. 
 
 Beech 
 
 2.0 
 
 Davv. 
 
 •XJUjXVU .... 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 XXdACl ..... 
 
 ^ 0 
 
 O. V 
 
 li 
 
 I .npcifTrnf. A mPT'if'fin vaco 
 
 V^llCo Lil Li JLA.iIJCX Ivdll^ i UOC • . 
 
 
 rinr^pt flp rTa<!«;inpmit*t 
 
 VydLlCw IXC \JI doOlUwL/Lii. L. 
 
 Carolina 
 
 6.0 
 
 a a 
 
 " French .... 
 
 4.0 
 
 Julia de Fontenelfe. 
 
 " Spanish, white inner bark . 
 
 1.3 
 
 Davy. 
 
 " " colored or middle 
 
 
 
 bark 
 
 0.3 
 
 a 
 
 " " entire bark 
 
 0.5 
 
 a 
 
 " horse .... 
 
 2.0 
 
 Julia de Fontenelle. 
 
 Poplar, Lombardy .... 
 
 8.5 
 
 a a 
 
 Black thorn 
 
 3.3 
 
 Davy. 
 
 Ash bark ..... 
 
 3.8 
 
 a 
 
 Sassafras, bark of the root 
 
 58.0 
 
 Reinsch. 
 
 Elm 
 
 2.9 
 
 Davy. 
 
 Sumach, Sicily .... 
 
 16.2 
 
 u 
 
112 TANNIN IN DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES. 
 
 U. U o t ci ii ^ o • 
 
 Percentage 
 of tannin. 
 
 A nf Ti fw\ f V 
 
 XI. KJl ki±X W J. i. (j V ■ 
 
 Sumach^ Malaga .... 
 
 16.4 
 
 Daw. 
 
 
 10.4 
 
 Franck. 
 
 Carolina .... 
 
 5.0 
 
 Cadet de Gassincourt. 
 
 " Virginia .... 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 Willow, Leicester: white inner bark . 
 
 16.0 
 
 Davy. 
 
 " ^' colored or middle 
 
 
 bark 
 
 3.1 
 
 (( 
 
 " entire bark . 
 
 6.8 
 
 a 
 
 " " bark of the trunk 
 
 1.4 
 
 BiffSfers. 
 
 weeping .... 
 
 16.0 
 
 Cadet de Grassincourt. 
 
 Sycamore bark .... 
 
 16.0 
 
 a a 
 
 
 1.4 
 
 Bie"P"ers. 
 
 fee 
 
 Elder " .... 
 
 2.3 
 
 Daw. 
 
 Plum-tree " .... 
 
 1.6 
 
 Biffffers. 
 
 Cherry-tree 
 
 24.0 
 
 Cadet de Grassincourt. 
 
 " Cornish .... 
 
 19.0 
 
 a a 
 
 Tormentil root .... 
 
 46.0 
 
 ic u 
 
 Cornus sanguinea of Canada 
 
 44.0 
 
 u u 
 
 Alder bark ..... 
 
 36.0 
 
 a a 
 
 Apricot bark ..... 
 
 32.0 
 
 a u 
 
 Pomegranate bark .... 
 
 32.0 
 
 u a 
 
 Bohemian olive .... 
 
 14.0 
 
 CC iC 
 
 Tan shrub with myrtle leaves, bark . 
 
 13.0 
 
 
 Service-tree bark (June berry) . 
 
 18.0 
 
 a u 
 
 Cloves ...... 
 
 15.0 
 
 Davy. 
 
 Winter's bark .... 
 
 9.0 
 
 Henry. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 TAN, OK POWDERED OAK-BARK. 
 
 The more finely divided a substance, the sooner and 
 more readily does it yield to the action of the liquid 
 which dissolves its constituents. Water, accordingly, 
 dissolves the tannin from bark in powder much more 
 readily than from bark in coarse pieces. The grinding 
 of the bark for tanning purposes is, therefore, indispen- 
 sable. It must not, however, be reduced to impalpable 
 fineness, else the solvent will act upon it too rapidly. 
 Very fine powders also form a compact mass when wet, 
 and thus obstruct or retard the infiltration of the solvent 
 liquid. 
 
 Bark is ground in mills varying in construction in dif- 
 ferent countries, and driven or propelled by horse, water, 
 or steam power. In England, it is crushed between 
 chasers, or stones. There is a mill of ingenious construc- 
 tion used in Salleron's tannery in France, but as its 
 rapid motion so modifies the bark as to cause it to impart 
 color to the hides, we omit a description of it. 
 
 In the south of France they use a vertical mill of 
 hard stone, similar to that employed for crushing oil 
 seeds. It consists of two vertical stones (Fig. 2), of 
 about 7 J feet in diameter, and 18 inches in thickness. 
 The axle of these stones is fixed in a frame which in- 
 closes an upright shaft turning upon a pivot, and fixed 
 in the centre of a strong stone bed. Rotary motion 
 
114 
 
 TAN. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 being communicated, imparts to each stone a double 
 movement; that upon the other, and that which it under- 
 goes in describing a circle upon the stone bed upon 
 which it rolls. 
 
 The axle of each stone should be so adjusted as to 
 allow it to be raised or lowered according to circum- 
 stances. One of the stones is placed nearer to the verti- 
 cal shaft than the other, so as to give a greater extent of 
 crushing surface beneath. Two followers press the bark 
 forward under the stones, and a cloth is attached to the 
 outer one, for the purpose of rubbing off any pieces of 
 bark that may adhere to the edges of the stones. 
 
 BagnalVs Machine for Chopping Bark and Fleshing 
 Hides. — Fig. 3. General plan of the mill. 
 
 Fig. 4. Longitudinal section, showing the elevation of 
 a part of the machinery. 
 
 Fig. 5. Section across part of the mill. 
 
 A (Fig. 3) . Part of an undershot wheel moving the 
 machinery, b. Shaft of the wheel, giving motion to the 
 bevelled cog-wheel c. Another wheel f, placed upon a 
 vertical shaft, is made to revolve by the motion of the 
 
TAN. 
 
 115 
 
 Fig. 3, 
 
 iinM'nrrMiii 
 
 wheel c, and the cogs upon its periphery move the ham- 
 mer for beating the bark, and also the choppers, in the 
 second story of the building. 
 
 D (Fig. 4) . A horizontal wheel bevelled upon its inclined 
 surface, and toothed in an epicycloidal manner upon its 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 periphery. This wheel turns upon the upper part of the 
 large horizontal shaft e, which passes through the first 
 floor of the building. F. Cog-wheel, before referred to, 
 gearing with the large bevelled wheel c. 
 
 G. Pinion upon the axle of the millstone i (Fig. 5). 
 
 p. The beam or handle of the cutting-blades, moving 
 
116 
 
 TAN. 
 
 upon a pivot^ and made to rise or fall, by the motion 
 communicated to the lever by the cogs upon the wheel 
 C. When one of the cogs becomes disengaged from the 
 end of the lever, the beam falls by its own weight, 
 and the steel blades upon its extremity come in contact 
 with and divide the pieces of bark placed between them 
 and similar knives fastened to the platform at i. The 
 platform i is made of strong timbers firmly secured by 
 bolts to the rafters of the floor, so as to enable it to 
 resist the shock of the falling beam. The intervals be- 
 tween the knife-blades are open, so that the divided 
 pieces of bark may fall through them into a conduit Q, 
 from which they enter the hopper of the mill h, to be 
 conducted to the latter by a guide J (Fig. 5). The lower 
 part of the conduit Q is provided with a wire-cloth, which 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
TAN. 
 
 117 
 
 allows the powder to fall into a box k. The tan, ground 
 in the mill, passes through the conduit o, and falls upon 
 the sieve or bolter l, its finer particles passing through 
 into the trough M ; those which have not been sufficiently 
 exposed to trituration being received upon the concave 
 mortar or support s, and there reduced to a state of fine 
 division, by the action of the round-headed hammer r, 
 which is worked by the cogs upon the wheel c. The 
 support is hollowed out in such a way that, at each 
 blow of the hammer, the particles of tan acted upon are 
 thrown out upon the side opposite to that at which they 
 entered it. 
 
 T. Bevelled pinion, in gear with the upper surface of 
 the wheel d, and having the end of its shaft connected 
 with the crank v, by means of which the motion is com- 
 municated to the machinery for fleshing the skins. The 
 crank is connected by means of the rod w with the lever 
 X, the end of which is perforated with a number of holes, 
 by which the bar is so adjusted that the length of the 
 stroke may be increased or diminished. 
 
 y (Fig. 3) . Shaft moving upon two axles, the sockets of 
 which are imbedded in the opposite walls of the room ; the 
 lever y (Fig. 4) is connected with it near one end ; and at 
 about two-thirds of its length the cranks n, are attached, 
 which give a reciprocating movement to the branches A, A, 
 which support the fleshing-knives ; so that, at each revo- 
 lution of the crank v, to admit the movement of which 
 there is an opening in the ceiling above it, the branches 
 h, ^, for fleshing the skins, are made to move in a trans- 
 verse direction. In Fig. 4, the knife for fleshing is repre- 
 sented at /, fixed between two springs a, a, which render it 
 sufficiently movable to prevent it from injuring the skins 
 when passing across them. It is fastened by its forked 
 
118 
 
 TAN, 
 
 extremity to the branch hhy a screw and nut, so that it 
 can be unscrewed and sharpened when necessary. 
 
 z. Stop on the branch h, which is connected with the 
 forked lever e, by means of which the knife is made to 
 return to the end of the skin without touching its surface. 
 The extremity of the branch h rolls upon the roller I, 
 By lowering the handle m, the knife is elevated, while' 
 the skin is being placed upon or removed from the table. 
 h. Table or bench upon which the skins are deposited. 
 Each table is provided with four wheels p, running in 
 the grooves g, which maintain it in position, and 
 enable it to be moved at will by the levers c, c, so that 
 each portion of skin may be in turn subjected to the 
 action of the knife. 
 
 d, A spring, pressing upon the skin near the edge of 
 the table, so as to prevent it from changing its position 
 under the fleshing-knife. The iron support, or handle of 
 the knife, is forked or divided, so as to receive the blade 
 between its two extremities. The knife is 12 or 13 
 inches in length, and from 3 to 5 inches in breadth, and 
 is adjusted in the open part of the handle, being pre- 
 vented from swerving by the two springs % a. 
 
 The roller Z, with its forked lever, should be so ar- 
 ranged that the knife can be elevated to the proper dis- 
 tance from the table, by pulling the handle m, and hook- 
 ing it upon a nail, so that the skin may be removed or 
 placed upon the table without the necessity of ungearing 
 the pinion t ; the work being again commenced when the 
 handle is allowed to rise. 
 
 Two benches or tables are used in this apparatus, in 
 order that the knife may be in operation above one of 
 them, while the workman is occupied in adjusting a fresh 
 skin upon the other. These benches should be as wide 
 as the largest skins, and should be made sloping at a 
 
TAN. 
 
 119 
 
 slight angle. The skins are kept in close contact with 
 the surface of the support, by clamps pressing their bor- 
 ders down upon its edges. The pressure of the knives 
 upon the skin is regulated by weights placed upon the 
 beams or branches which support them. The inventor 
 does not confine the application of this portion of the 
 machinery to the preparation of skins for the tanning 
 process; but also adapts it to the purposes of tawing and 
 to those of the currier, by substituting hard brushes or 
 other implements for the knives. Motion may be com- 
 municated to the machinery by the water-wheel already 
 described, by a steam-engine, or by horse power; the 
 labor of two horses being sufficient for the purpose. 
 
 Weldoris Mill for Grinding Oah-Bark. — Fig. 6, A, 
 Wooden beam or cross-piece, imbedded in the walls of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 • % 
 
 Q 
 
 
 the building, and perforated for the reception of the upper 
 axle of the main shaft. 
 
 B. Iron plate or socket for the axle. 
 
 c. Axle of the shaft, the dotted lines showing its 
 connection with the latter. 
 
120 
 
 TAN. 
 
 D. The shaft, which may be square, octagonal, or of 
 other suitable form. 
 
 E. Lever giving motion to the shaft by the power of 
 horses, harnessed to the end. When water or other 
 power is employed, the lever is replaced by a wheel with 
 the proper gearing. 
 
 F. Cylinder forming the lower part of the mill. It 
 should be made of iron or brass, and may be either com- 
 pact or hollow, as shown by the dotted lines in the figure, 
 
 G. Teeth, or projections for breaking and grinding the 
 bark. 
 
 H. Lower teeth for the same purpose. 
 
 I. External iron or brass cylinder, provided with simi- 
 lar projections upon its inner surface, and firmly clamped 
 and bolted to the solid framework Q, which forms the 
 base of the machine. 
 
 K. Lower pivot or axle, firmly united with the main 
 shaft, and turning in a socket like the upper one. 
 
 L. Iron or copper socket, fixed in the cross-beam r. 
 
 M. Eegulating screw passing through the nut n, and 
 the lower cross-beam t. By turning it, the teeth within 
 the mill may be made to approach or recede from each 
 other, so as to effect, at will, a coarser or finer division of 
 the bark. 
 
 0. Hopper, made of strong wood, for receiving the 
 materials which are to be ground. 
 
 p. Conical lining of the interior of the mill, also made 
 of strong wood. The whole apparatus is supported upon 
 four uprights Q, Q, firmly imbedded in the ground, and ^ 
 held together by the cross-beams r and t, there being 
 two at R, meeting each other at right angles. Sieves of 
 wire are placed between the cylinder f and the floor, 
 which permit the passage through their interstices of the 
 fine tan, and retain that which is too coarse. 
 
TAN. 
 
 121 
 
 Since its first introduction, Mr. Weldon has improved 
 the construction of his mill, by making the teeth mova- 
 ble, and by other changes which we proceed to describe. 
 
 Fig. 7. Section of the improved mill. 
 
 A, A. Hopper for receiving the bark. 
 
 B. Shaft of the mill. 
 
 c. Conical casing of the cutting surfaces, for feeding 
 the mill. 
 
 D, D. Collar for staying the teeth, with four bolts, h. 
 
 E. Elevation of the conical part of the mill in which 
 the teeth are placed. 
 
 G. Section of the opposite side, showing the manner 
 in which the teeth are adjusted. 
 
 d, d. One of the teeth entering the lower neck. 
 
 H, H. Lower collar in which the teeth are imbedded, 
 a, a, a. Outer cylinder, or cone, cast in one piece, and 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 9 
 
122 
 
 TAN. 
 
 showing the manner in which the movable teeth f, 
 are adjusted. 
 
 I, I. Rim or collar for the attachment of the movable 
 teeth; a part of it is seen, detached, in Fig. 8. 
 
 K, K. Support of the interior of the mill, fastened to 
 the outer cone or cylinder by two bolts c, c. 
 
 Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 
 
 L. Lower part of the shaft, turning in a copper socket 
 M, which rests upon the top of a screw by which the 
 height of the inner part of the mill is regulated. Fig. 9 
 exhibits this part, with the collar of the rim, in which 
 the socket and adjusting screw are placed. 
 
 Fig. 10. One of the movable teeth, detached from the 
 exterior of the mill. 
 
 Fig. 11 is one of the teeth from the 
 interior of the mill. 
 
 These teeth are blades of iron or 
 composition-metal, ground to an edge, and so placed in 
 the mill that the cutting surfaces are opposed to each 
 other, and inclined in a direction opposite to that of the 
 revolution of the shaft. 
 
 Farcofs Bark- CJiopping Machine. — This machine con- 
 sists of two feeding cylinders A, A (Fig. 12), which con- 
 vey the bark, previously spread out upon an inclined 
 table a, to the edges of four large steel blades b b, which 
 are fixed in a spiral direction upon the periphery of two 
 parallel circles, revolving with the shaft c. The cylin- 
 ders A, A, are grooved, and are moved by cog-wheels with 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
TAir. 123 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 long teeth. The power, from whatever source, is trans- 
 mitted at the same time to these wheels and to the 
 bladed circles ; 5 is a steel tie-piece which supports the 
 pieces of bark when exposed to the action of the knives, 
 each of the latter passing over it, like one blade of a 
 pair of shears over the other. 
 
 The levers f suspend the weight G, the object of which 
 is to bear upon the shaft of the cylinder A, which is con- 
 stantly elevated by the passage of the bark beneath it. 
 Guides are so placed as to direct these levers in their 
 vertical movements, and the bark is prevented, by guards 
 or side pieces, from falling out of the grooves, over the 
 sides of the cylinders. The feeding c^dinders are 2 feet 
 2 inches in circumference, and the relation of the pinion 
 of the wheel c to the wheel J which moves it, is that of 
 1 to 5. About 56 feet of bark will pass between the 
 cylinders in one minute; in the same time the wheel 
 makes 130 revolutions, and as it is armed with 4 blades, 
 the bark is cut into 520 pieces, each one nearly li^oth 
 inches in length. More than 1600 pounds of bark can 
 be chopped in an hour with this machine, when in good 
 
124 TAN. 
 
 order and properly worked. Some are made, with which 
 one man can work up daily more than 3000 pounds. 
 Fig. 13 is the plan in elevation. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 14 is the ground plan. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
I 
 
 TAN. 
 
 125 
 
 Fig. 15 shows the axle-pin of the bladed cyHnder; and 
 
 Fig. 16 is an end view of the latter. 
 
 Fis. 15. 
 
 Fiff. 16. 
 
 Fig. 17 represents the cast-iron frame which supports 
 the channelled cylinders and bladed cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 The bark, after being chopped as described above, is 
 submitted to the action of the mill, which consists chiefly 
 of two parts, the receiving and the revolving cylinder. 
 The former is a thin, hollow cylinder, terminated below 
 by a truncated cone, the interior of which is provided 
 with spiral blades or teeth, some of which extend as far 
 as the lower part of the cylinder. The base of the cone 
 is attached by legs to the cast framework which supports 
 the whole apparatus. Above the cylinder is a hopper, 
 which is fed from time to time with chopped bark, the 
 powdered tan falling down between the outer cylinder 
 and the inner one. The outer surface of the movable 
 
126 
 
 TAN. 
 
 cylinder is provided with spiral teeth, similar to those of 
 the inner one, and made of a wedge-shape, so as to pre- 
 sent a cutting edge to the fragments of bark, which are 
 first cut and divided by the teeth which extend towards 
 its upper part, and are then pulverized by those upon 
 the two conical surfaces. The cylinder is made to re- 
 volve by a shaft set in a socket which is stayed by a 
 tie-piece. This latter is traversed by a screw, by means 
 of which the nut may be raised or lowered, so as to in- 
 crease or diminish the space between it and the receiving 
 cylinder, and to alter at will the quality of the powder 
 as to fineness of division. A bar passes horizontally 
 across the interior of the inner cylinder, and is firmly 
 attached to the shaft passing through it. The horse 
 moving the machinery is harnessed to an arm attached 
 to a cast-iron plate on top of the shaft. This mill is 
 calculated to make 25 revolutions in a minute, and is 
 capable of grinding 8600 pounds of bark in 24 hours. 
 
 Bourgeois s Bark Mill, — This machine, which was in- 
 vented in 1841, and is described in volume liv. page 
 193, of the French reports of expired patents, is used to 
 grind bark by means of two cylinders, one of which 
 (Figs. 18 and 19), serving as a case for the handle, is of 
 a cylindrical shape externally, while the other and in- 
 ternal one is conical; the mill revolving in a vertical 
 instead of a horizontal direction. The outer cylinder 
 12 is fixed by an iron framework, 10, to the wooden sup- 
 ports of the mill, while the inner cylinder, 11, is mova- 
 ble. This cylinder and the inner surface of the outer 
 one, are both fluted with longitudinal grooves, describ- 
 ing curves along their length. Each of these grooves is 
 divided into two, at the larger end of the cylinder, and 
 into four at the smaller end, the separation commencing 
 at the middle. The inner cylinder can be completely 
 
TAN". 
 
 127 
 
 encased in the outer one, by the turning of the screws, 
 14, and the arrangement of grooves is intended to effect 
 a more or less complete division of the particles of tan. 
 
 When the cylinders are closely in contact, the bark is 
 first exposed to the action of the larger grooves, which 
 are deeper than the others, and then becomes engaged in 
 the second and third divisions, by means of which it is 
 reduced to a finer powder. If it be desired to produce a 
 less complete trituration, the screws, 14, are loosened, and 
 the spring, 13, then presses the inner cylinder from its 
 place, in such a manner that the bark is only acted upon 
 by the larger grooves. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Fig. 18. 1. Hopper of the mill. 
 
 2. Spout of the hopper. 
 
 3. Regulator of the spout. 
 
 4. 5. Escapement wheel. 
 
 6. Handle of the regulator. 
 
128 
 
 TAN, 
 
 7. his, strap attached to the spout. 
 8;, 9, 10. The spout and its motive appli- 
 ances — spring and strap. 
 
 11. Handle for turning the machine. 
 
 12. Arm of the lever turning the spout. 
 
 13. Trundle. 
 
 14. Large cog-wheel. 
 
 15. Small cog-wheel. 
 
 16. Internal conical cylinder. 
 
 17. External conical cylinder. 
 
 18. Trough for receiving the tan. 
 
 19. Wooden framework. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 \3 1 
 
 ly 
 
 \0 8 
 
 \ 
 
 J]Ili!=== 
 
 Y 
 
 =4 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 7 
 
 ^&=( 
 
 W 
 
 
 Fig. 19. 1. Fly-wheel. 
 
 2. Spout under the hopper. 
 
 3. Hopper. 
 
 4. Trundle. 
 
 5. Lever arm for turning the spout. 
 
 6. Axle of the lever. 
 
 7. 8, 9. The motor and regulating appli- 
 
 * ances of the spout. 
 10. Framework supporting the cylinders. 
 
TAN. 
 
 129 
 
 11. Internal cylinder, with grooves cut as 
 
 before described. 
 
 12. External cylinder channelled like the 
 
 inner one. 
 
 13. Spring, regulating the inner cylinder. 
 
 14. 15. Compressing screws, acting upon this 
 
 cylinder. 
 
 16. Spring acting upon the spout, 
 
 17. Escapement wheel. 
 
 18. Regulator of the spout. 
 
 19. Handle of the regulator. 
 
 20. Axis of the cylinders. 
 
 21. Small canting-wheel. 
 
 22. Large canting-wheel. 
 
 23. Axle of the trundle and fly-wheel. 
 
 24. Crank. 
 
 25. Wooden framework, 
 
 Lespinasses Bark Mill. — This apparatus was invented 
 in 1843, and is described in vol. lix. at page 428, of 
 the French expired patent reports. Fig. 20, <i, iron 
 shaft turned by the pinion, moved by the power, and 
 supporting and moving the stops of the rammers or 
 stampers, c, shown at h in the figure. This shaft acts 
 upon the conical pinion, e, and through it upon the simi- 
 lar vertical pinion,/, which communicates the motion to 
 a small horizontal shaft, upon which there is another 
 similar pinion, ^, by means of which the horizontal 
 pinion, ^, is made to revolve. This latter transmits 
 the motion to a vertical shaft, o, and gives a recip- 
 rocating movement by means of the pinions, /, h, to 
 the curb, placed horizontally between the sides of the 
 rammer, n. This curb, by its constant movement to and 
 fro, forces the portions of bark divided by the knives of 
 
130 
 
 TAN. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 the rammer, 7^, through the holes, made of different di- 
 mensions in the sides of the apparatus, into the conduit, 
 and the trough, u. Above this latter, is a drum, con- 
 nected by a strap, 5, to which the buckets, 6, are adapted, 
 with a similar drum, 2'. These two drums are made to 
 revolve by a strap, moving at one end over a drum, 7, 
 placed at the extremity of the shaft, dj and at the other, 
 upon another drum, 7', above the preceding, and which 
 is connected with that supporting the strap, 5, with the 
 buckets, so that these latter, in their revolution, become 
 filled with the tan in the trough, Uy and empty it into 
 the wooden hopper, 8. 
 
TAN. 
 
 131 
 
 In the bottom of this hopper is an opening connected 
 "with a wooden conduit, leading to a sieve, which is di- 
 vided lengthwise into three parts, each of which is per- 
 forated with holes of different sizes. This sieve is moved 
 by an arrangement below it, which is connected with the 
 strap, y. 
 
 12. Troughs to receive the residue from the sieve, 10. 
 
 13. Bags in which the residue of tan is placed. 
 
 14. Cords keeping the bags in place under the mouth 
 of the trough. 
 
 15. Lever of the rammers. 
 
 i. Arched framework for keeping the shaft, o, in a verti- 
 cal position. This shaft is divided into two parts, con- 
 nected by means of a coupling, <s, which may be separated 
 at will, by means of an iron tool, attached to the frame- 
 work of the machine. 
 
 1. Small stops for regulating the movement of the 
 rammers. 
 
 2. Cushions through which the arms of the curb pass. 
 
 3. Framework supporting the horizontal shaft, ?. 
 
 4. Supports of the drums, over which the buckets re- 
 volve. 
 
 a. Wooden framework of the machine. 
 h. Beam supporting the pegs for keeping the rammers 
 at rest. 
 
 c. Rammers with knives at their lower ends. 
 
 16. Cross-bars made to revolve by the shaft, o, so as to 
 strike against the wooden box, ^, and hasten the descent 
 of the tan into the trough. 
 
 Wiltses Mill, — This machine, known as the "Catskill 
 Mill," and extensively used in the tanneries of the United 
 States, is made by A. and B. Wiltse, intelligent and enter- 
 prising machinists of Catskill, Green Co., New York. 
 It is constructed upon the principle of the shears, the 
 
132 
 
 TAN". 
 
 teeth being arranged with their edges at an angle, and 
 thrown forward, so that the bark may be driven in and 
 ground rapidly, and passed through without interruption. 
 Fig. 21 represents the machine, which may be driven by 
 
 water or steampower, and so arranged as to receive the 
 bark from the breaker and to deliver it ground in the 
 leach-vats. To give a better idea of the manner in which 
 it works, we give, on page 133, a plan showing the rela- 
 tive positions of the breaker, bark-mill, and leach-vat. 
 Fig. 22 is drawn upon a scale of a quarter of an inch to 
 one foot. 
 
 A is the water-wheel, and G its shaft; B is the bevel- 
 wheel which drives the bevel pinion D on the foot of the 
 main upright which also carries a spur-wheel and 
 drives a spur-pinion F on the shaft G. The top of the 
 mill sets ten inches below the second floor, in order to 
 admit the bark running from the cracker /, K, above. 
 This latter consists of a cast-iron curb or hoop e/", of 18 
 inches diameter, and ten inches depth, with three jagged 
 teeth, as shown in end and interior views at/. The top 
 of the cracker K is made of two blocks of wood, firmly 
 secured to two uprights, represented by the dotted lines, 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
134 
 
 TAN. 
 
 by means of bolts passing through the portion which laps 
 them. The two blocks of K have openings in their cen- 
 treSj of 18 inches diameter at the base, and 24 inches at 
 the top, to correspond with the size of the curb on which 
 they rest. About 7i inches from the bottom are four 
 strong wrought-iron teeth, so inserted as to be in the 
 centre between the teeth on r. The latter are secured to 
 the shaft ^ inside of as indicated by dotted lines ; and 
 /S, 5, is also similarly placed on shaft X, inside of j. A 
 second length of the iron shaft X, drives N by the aid of 
 the bevel-wheels M and which are so geared as to 
 drive, in turn, the pulley-shaft 0 at the head of the ele- 
 vators. The elevators take the bark from the mill and 
 deliver it into a bark-room or loft above the leach-tubs 
 whence it may be drawn, as wanted, through a trap. 
 
 The drawing shows two leach-tubs, but the number may 
 be increased according to the demands of the tannery. 
 
 The above mill possesses superior advantages, as it 
 does its work effectually and with despatch. It cuts the 
 fibre of the bark short, without flouring it, and passes 
 it, even when wet, without becoming clogged. It is de- 
 signed, also, for purposes of economy and durability, as 
 well as of convenience; the arrangements of the parts 
 being such, that when any of them, by wear, require re- 
 newal, they may be easily removed and replaced by 
 others. 
 
 When worked to its utmost capacity, it will grind from 
 one to two cords of bark per hour, and must be driven 
 at the rate of 150 revolutions per minute by a ten-horse 
 engine. At 100 revolutions it is less efficient. With 
 one horse power, it may be driven at the rate of five 
 revolutions per minute, and will then grind one cord in 
 from one to three hours. The cracker should move at 
 the rate of 30 to 40 revolutions per minute. 
 
TAN. 
 
 135 
 
 If steam is used as the propelling force, the waste 
 steam may be economized and applied to heating the 
 leach-vats. A convenient arrangement for this purpose 
 is constructed by the Messrs. Wiltse. 
 
 Birelys Mill. — Another ingenious grinding apparatus 
 is that invented by Mr. Valentine Birely, of Frederick 
 County, Maryland. It reduces the bark to shreds and 
 strings, forms favorable to the entire extraction of its 
 soluble matter by the liquor of the vats. Fig. 23 pre- 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 sents a perspective view, and Fig. 24 a vertical cross- 
 section of the machine. 
 
 The framework is of cast-iron, with apertures at the 
 sides for the journals of three cylinders, and flanges and 
 ribs for securing a wooden hopper. These cylinders are * 
 of different diameters, and are propelled by means of a 
 drum and cogs at the ends. Being denticulated on their 
 surfaces, and revolving in concaves similarly studded 
 with teeth, and arranged in alternate order to correspond 
 with the reversed movements of the cylinders, the bark 
 
136 TAN. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 is reduced with great readiness, and the mill runs with- 
 out obstruction. The coarse teeth of the first cylinder 
 break it down preparatory to its passage through the 
 next, and finally the last cylinder, which delivers it 
 ground to the required degree of fineness. 
 
 These mills are made of three sizes, and the largest, 
 driven by a ten-horse power engine at the rate of 80 
 revolutions per minute, will turn out twenty-five cords of 
 bark every twelve hours. 
 
 The lengths of the cylinders in the three different 
 sizes are, respectively, 21, 24, and 33 inches; and the 
 smaller ones grind in proportion to the power applied. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 THE STRUCTURE AND CONSTITUTION OF SKIN. 
 
 The tegumentary membranes encase the whole surface 
 of the body, and are prolonged into its interior, so as to 
 line its various cavities and passages. These internal 
 prolongations, however, are called mucous membranes, 
 and differ in character from the external integument or 
 shin, of which alone it is our intention to treat. 
 
 The skin, or dermoid tissue, presents the same form 
 and extent as the body which it covers, and follows all 
 its inequalities of surface. It is corrugated in many 
 places into wrinkles or plaits, on account of its not being 
 susceptible of the same degree of expansion and con- 
 traction as the more mobile tissues which it envelops; 
 the largest wrinkles being produced by the contractions 
 of muscles and the flexion of joints. The outer surface of 
 the skin is comparatively smooth and uniform ; is covered 
 more or less with the secretions from bulbs or follicles 
 which are called hair, or wool, and also presents numerous 
 papillary projections and minute depressions, which latter 
 are the orifices of the perspiratory and sebaceous ducts, 
 proceeding from glands or follicles, in which the secre- 
 tions destined to moisten the surface are eliminated. The 
 inner surface of the skin is connected with and tied to the 
 subjacent parts by an areolar or cellular tissue, which 
 binds them together more or less tightly, in proportion 
 10 
 
138 THE STRUCTURE AND 
 
 to the less or greater freedom of motion of which the 
 skin is capable. This cellular tissue contains in its cavi- 
 ties adipose or fatty matter, which confers the requisite 
 firmness and solidity upon the parts, and protects the 
 structures beneath the skin from the injurious effects of 
 undue pressure. The cellular tissue is also penetrated in 
 various directions by the bloodvessels and nerves distri- 
 buted upon the skin, and in some instances, gives passage 
 to, and supports cutaneous muscles, which are inserted 
 directly into its base. 
 
 The skin is a compound membrane, and though actu- 
 ally consisting of only two distinct tissues, may be con- 
 veniently divided, as has been the habit of most anato- 
 mists, into three layers, viz. ; corium, rete mucosum, and 
 cuticle. 
 
 The Corium,— The corium, cutis vera, or true skin, 
 forms the basis or principal part of the skin, being much 
 thicker than the other layers, and giving them support. 
 It consists of a cellulo-fibrous tissue, which upon macera- 
 tion, appears to be made up of dense filaments, crossing 
 each other in various directions, so as to inclose spaces 
 or areolae. These are of considerable size at the inner 
 surface of the membrane, where granules of fat, blood- 
 vessels, and nerves project into them, but diminish to- 
 wards the outer surface, where the structure becomes 
 dense and uniform. This latter is not perfectly smooth, 
 but is studded with minute prominences called papillaSy 
 which project in many places so much as to be evident 
 to the sight and touch, and which have been supposed 
 by some anatomists to constitute a separate layer, called 
 textus 'papillaris. The tactile sensibility is believed to 
 depend upon its degree of development. 
 
 The corium is generally white, owing any changes of 
 color to the greater or less amount of blood present in it. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 139 
 
 It is supple and elastic. When dried, it presents the 
 appearance and properties of horn, and is converted into 
 gelatine by boiling in water. 
 
 The Rete Mucosum. — The next layer of the skin, the 
 rete mucosum, is a soft gelatinous tissue, spread out upon 
 the surface of the corium, between it and the cuticle. 
 The composition of this stratum has given rise to much 
 discussion. It appears to be a semi-fluid deposit or se- 
 cretion, rather than an organized substance, although 
 Gautier and other anatomists have not merely admitted 
 its existence as a separate element of the skin, but have 
 resolved it into four distinct layers, placed one over the 
 other. In white skins, it is without color, and so thin 
 that it is difficult even to demonstrate it. It is the seat 
 of the pigmentum^ or coloring matter, which darkens the 
 skins of the colored races of men and of some animals, 
 and in them is very evident. This coloring material is 
 disseminated throughout its substance, in the form of 
 minute globules, Avhich are supposed to consist chiefly of 
 carbon. The rete mucosum is now believed to consist 
 of granules, forming the deepest and most recently depo- 
 sited portion of the cuticle, not compressed into scales 
 or laminse, like the more superficial particles. 
 
 The Cuticle. — The cuticle, epidermis, or scarf-skin, is 
 the outer or superficial layer of the integument, and is 
 connected firmly with the subjacent tissues by numerous 
 delicate filaments, and by the ducts and hairs to which 
 it gives passage; but it can be readily separated from 
 them by decoction or maceration. It is usually a thin, 
 varnish-like covering to the subjacent tissues, but its 
 thickness varies with the amount of pressure to which 
 it is subjected. It is now acknowledged to consist of the 
 same granules which constitute the substance of the rete 
 mucosum, compressed and hardened into minute horny 
 
140 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 scales, which are constantly being shed; their places 
 being supplied by new particles from the moist and more 
 recently deposited granules below them. The cuticular 
 surface descends into, and lines the follicles which secrete 
 the hair, and the ducts for the discharge of the perspira- 
 tory and lubricating fluids. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Having treated of the structure of the skin, we pro- 
 ceed naturally to consider its composition. The skin of 
 animals consists of fibrine, gelatine, and small portions 
 of albumen and fatty matter. The first two form, as it 
 were, the basis or network of the whole tissue, a portion 
 of which, if boiled with water, yields its gelatine, while 
 the fibrine remains. The epidermis of the skin does not 
 combine with tannin. The properties of these substances 
 which play such an important part in tanning, are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Fibiiyie. — This is one of the immediate and most 
 abundant principles in animals. It exists in the chyle 
 and blood, and is the basis of muscle. It may be pre- 
 pared by whipping blood with a bunch of twigs, and 
 washing the coagulum of fibrous filaments in fresh water 
 until it loses color. It is a white, tasteless, inodorous 
 solid, heavier than water, soft, slightly elastic, and with- 
 out action upon litmus. Fibrine loses four-fifths of its 
 weight by drying, and becomes yellowish, hard, and 
 brittle, but regains much of its original appearance by 
 soaking in water. It is insoluble in cold water, and 
 hardens without dissolving in hot water, but is modified 
 in composition and properties. When left in contact 
 with cold water, for several days, decomposition accom- 
 panied by a cheesy odor, ensues. 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 141 
 
 With weak caustic \yes of soda and potassa, it first 
 gelatinizes and then forms yellow solutions at from 120° 
 to 130° F. If the lyes are concentrated, ammonia is 
 given off during the heating. Caustic ammonia is less 
 feeble in its action than the fixed alkalies. 
 
 These alkaline solutions are precipitated by several 
 metallic salts, with the oxides of which it forms impu- 
 trescible compounds; for example, with the chloride of 
 mercury and sulphates of copper and iron. The same 
 reactions ensue when fibrine is digested in solutions of 
 metallic salts. 
 
 Dilute sulphuric acid shrivels fresh fibrine, and ulti- 
 mately combines with it, forming a jelly soluble in water. 
 Dry fibrine is changed by strong acid into a yellow, 
 gelatinous mass, without being dissolved. In large quan- 
 tities, the reaction evolves heat, develops sulphurous 
 acid, and blackens the mass. 
 
 Nitric acid generates nitrogen and new derivatives of 
 fibrine. Hydrochloric acid forms a blue solution, from 
 which water precipitates white hydrochlorate of fibrine. 
 If the acid be very dilute, the fibrine swells and becomes 
 gelatinous. Concentrated acetic acid rapidly gelatinizes 
 fibrine, and renders it soluble in hot water. 
 
 Tannin precipitates it from both its acid and alkaline 
 solutions, and when fresh fibrine is immersed in solution 
 of tannin, it becomes, on drying, tough, hard, and impu- 
 trescible. 
 
 Its ultimate percentage composition, according to 
 Dumas and Cahours, is : — 
 
 Carbon 52.78 
 
 Hydrogen . . . . . 6.96 
 
 Oxygen, &c. (sulphur and phosphorus) 23.48 
 
 Nitrogen 16.78 
 
 100.00 
 
142 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Gelatine. — CisHioOs^Ng. This is an immediate animal 
 principle, and derives its name from the fact of its hot 
 aqueous solution forming a transparent, tremulous jelly 
 on cooling. It is found in bones, horns, muscles, tendons, 
 and ligaments, although it does not pre-exist as such in 
 these tissues ; and it may be prepared by the prolonged 
 action of boiling water upon them. 
 
 Isinglass, size, and glue are different kinds of gelatine, 
 varying in physical properties according to their source. 
 The gelatine from cartilage is named Ghondrine, and pos- 
 sesses properties different from those of true gelatine or 
 glutin, as it is termed by way of distinction. 
 
 Glutin is the principal component of glue, and is pre- 
 pared in a pure state, by soaking the latter repeatedly in 
 quantities of fresh water, until all soluble matters are 
 removed, and by then boiling and straining the residue. 
 
 Gelatine is colorless, or yellowish, transparent, taste- 
 less, and inodorous. It does not lose its transparency 
 by drying, but becomes hard, brittle, and horny. It 
 softens and swells, and very slightly dissolves in cold 
 water, but is very soluble in hot water, from which alco- 
 hol precipitates it. Repeated and successive boilings 
 and coolings of its aqueous solution impair its gelatin- 
 izing property. 
 
 By immersion in alcohol, it loses water and shrinks. 
 It is soluble in all the dilute acids and in caustic alka- 
 line lyes, and therefore its aqueous solution is not dis- 
 turbed by either. Chlorine gas, however, produces in it 
 white, elastic flocculae. Gelatine is not altered by boiling 
 with hydrated lime. 
 
 Subacetate of lead precipitates aqueous solutions of 
 gelatine, as also do the sulphate of platinum, nitrates of 
 mercury, protochloride of tin, and (by boiling) neutral 
 persulphate of iron. 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 143 
 
 Alcohol and ether are without action upon dry gela- 
 tine. 
 
 The characteristic property of gelatine is that of com- 
 bining with tannin, and forming a grayish, glutinous, 
 elastic compound, which, upon drying, becomes unalter- 
 able and imputrescible in water, and forms the basis of 
 leather. 
 
 The mutual affinity of these two substances is so strong 
 that the latter will precipitate the former from a solution 
 containing so little as one part in 5000 parts of water. 
 Gelatine, however, does not exist exactly as such in 
 skins, and therefore leather (a compound of gelatinous 
 tissue and tannin), though very analogous to, is not 
 strictly identical with this elastic precipitate of tanno- 
 gelatine, which is slightly soluble in water and becom.es 
 brittle on drying. 
 
 Mulder, who has examined the subject, says that there 
 are two definite compounds of tannin with gelatine. For 
 example, when a solution of pure gelatine is mixed with 
 one containing a great excess of tannin, the resulting 
 precipitate, which is white and curdy, and becomes red- 
 dish-brown, hard and brittle on drying, consists of one 
 equivalent of tannic acid and one of gelatine. This is 
 the neutral compound. If, however, the tannin be not 
 added in excess, then the compound will contain three 
 equivalents of gelatine and two of tannic acid. The pre- 
 cipitate of gelatine by infusion of oak bark is composed, 
 according to Davy, of 54 parts of gelatine and 46 of 
 tannin; or 100 of the former and 85.2 of the latter. 
 Schiebel found that 100 parts of gelatine in solution, 
 when precipitated by a great excess of infusion of oak 
 bark, made with 1 part of bark to 9 of water, com- 
 bines with 118.5 parts of tannin. If, how^ever, the in- 
 fusion be weak, and not added in sufficient quantity to 
 
144 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 precipitate the whole of the gelatine, the compound 
 which is thrown down and slowly subsides, consists of 
 100 gelatine, and only 59.25 of tannin. 
 The ultimate composition of gelatine is 
 
 
 Lowig. 
 
 Mulder. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 . 50.00 
 
 50.04 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 . 6.41 
 
 6.47 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 . 25.64 
 
 25.13 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 . 17.95 
 
 18.36 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Albumen is a component of nearly all the animal 
 solids ; and when free from foreign matters, is soluble in 
 water. This solution coagulates at 160° F.; but the 
 coagulum may be re-dissolved by heating it with water 
 in a digester to 400° F. 
 
 As precipitated from the aqueous solution of white of 
 eggs, or of the serum of blood, it is pure and soluble in 
 acetic acid, very weak alkalies, and in soluble salts with 
 alkaline bases. Its solution in nitrate of potassa is co- 
 agulable by boiling. 
 
 Albuminous solutions are precipitated by sulphuric 
 acid. Hydrochloric acid produces a coagulum soluble 
 in water, and in strong hydrochloric acid by heat. Ni- 
 tric acid throws down a flocculent precipitate, soluble in 
 alkalies, even from very dilute solutions. Acetic acid 
 gives no precipitate, even by heat, unless both acid and 
 solution are concentrated. In that case, a gelatinous 
 compound, soluble in excess of acid, and in water, is 
 formed. 
 
 Albumen is soluble in alkalies. Waters of lime, baryta, 
 and strontia, have no reaction upon the aqueous solution 
 of albumen ; but with the alkaline earths themselves it 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE SKIN. 
 
 145 
 
 forms insoluble compounds. Earthy and metallic salts 
 throw down double compounds, one with acid and another 
 with metallic oxide, the latter of which is wholly insolu- 
 ble, while the former is not entirely so. 
 
 Tannin precipitates albuminous solutions, but the re- 
 sulting compound is not softened by heat like the tanno- 
 gelatine. 
 
 According to Weinholt, fresh skin, freed on its internal 
 side from fat and cellular tissue, and on its grain side 
 from the epidermis and mucous membrane, contains 42 
 per cent, of solid matter, and 58 of water. The solid 
 matter consists of 
 
 Cellular tissue 32. 
 
 Albumen ...... 1.50 
 
 Extractive matter (soluble in water 
 
 and in alcohol) . . . . 1.00 
 
 Extractive (soluble in water, but in- 
 soluble in alcohol) . . . 7.50 
 
 42.00 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SKINS SUITABLE FOR 
 
 TANNINa. 
 
 Skins are technically classified : 1. As hides, which 
 comprise the skins of oxen, horses, cows, bulls, and buf- 
 fliloes, and are employed for thick sole leather. 2. As 
 hips, consisting of the skins of the younger growth of 
 the above animals, and 3. As sldns, of small animals such 
 as dogs, sheep, goats, seals, &c., which are used for upper, 
 thin, and fancy leathers. 
 
 The quality of leather depends not only upon the na- 
 ture of the skin and the mode of tanning it, but upon 
 the results of numerous minor details which require 
 especial care and attention. 
 
 Hides or skins retain their original name until after 
 they have been subjected to treatment in the lime-pit. 
 When placed in the tan-vats, they become leather. 
 
 Hides are sent to market either fresh from the slaugh- 
 ter-house; or dried, or salted; or both dried and salted. 
 
 Besides the skins furnished from the slaughter-houses, 
 our tanners work large supplies imported from Buenos 
 Ayres, Brazil, Texas, and California. They also obtain 
 small lots of stock from the Antilles, west coast of Africa, 
 and from other parts of the world. Those of Russia are 
 larger and stronger than either the French or our own ; 
 but we receive very few of them in their raw state, nearly 
 all being imported already tanned into leather. 
 
SKINS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 147 
 
 Some supplies are likewise drawn from the Levant, 
 and from the Spanish possessions in America. Sheep- 
 skins are imported from the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 Buenos Ayres; goat-skins from Barbary; lamb and kid 
 skins from Italy; and seal-skins from Newfoundland. 
 Kips come from Buenos Ayres, St. Petersburg, and the 
 East Indies. The supply of domestic hides is compara- 
 tively limited. Swiss hides are of excellent quality, but 
 we get few or none of them in this country. 
 
 Skins from large cattle are best, provided they are not 
 thin and flabby, for such will only make inferior leather. 
 Those from cattle slaughtered in the colder months, give, 
 it is said, five per cent, more leather than hides taken in 
 summer. The nature of the food and state of the ani- 
 mal's health, also, have an influence upon the quality of 
 the hide. 
 
 For the production of 40 pounds of leather, there are 
 required, as the average, 30 pounds of dry hide, 60 
 pounds of salted hide, or 74 pounds of market hide. 
 
 Those from Brazil and Buenos Ayres, whence our stock 
 of foreign hides is principally drawn, are of sufiicient good- 
 ness for tanning if they have not undergone any injury 
 during the importation. Sometimes, however, the process 
 by which they have been dried, renders them brittle and 
 only serviceable for conversion into glue. 
 
 The Buenos Ayres hides are taken from the wild cattle 
 which are run down by hunters. After being removed 
 from the carcass, they are spread upon the ground with 
 the flesh side uppermost, and left exposed to sun and air 
 until dry. To prevent shrinking and wrinkling, the hides 
 are kept stretched, by means of wooden pegs driven 
 through the corners into the earth. 
 
 Brazilian hides are nearly all slaughtered in the ordi- 
 nary manner. 
 
148 
 
 SKINS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 It would be greatly to the interest of the tanner, and 
 would save him much annoyance, if all hides were im- 
 ported in a green state, that is, merely salted ; for when 
 dry, it is very difficult, even for the most experienced, 
 to detect many defects which would impair the quality 
 of the leather into which it is to be converted. 
 
 The large ox-hides are the ones chiefly used for con- 
 version into sole leather; for cow-skins, though of denser 
 structure, are rather too thin for this purpose, and are, 
 therefore, reserved for making saddler's leather. This 
 latter remark, however, applies only to the hides of old 
 cows which have repeatedly calved. These are weak 
 and distended. The hides of heifers, on the contrary, 
 are considered equal, if not superior to those of oxen. 
 
 Bull-hides, on the other hand, are the least esteemed 
 of all, being thinner, and more flabby than those of either 
 oxen or cows. 
 
 A well-fed, moderately-worked ox, when slaughtered 
 in a healthy condition, will naturally yield a hide of 
 normal quality. But if sick, lean, or deficient in hair at 
 the time of being killed, then the hide is not adapted for 
 making good leather. Should the animal die suddenly 
 by accident, without any diseased condition, the quality 
 of the hide is not thereby impaired. The hides from un- 
 healthy bullocks or horses, present a decided difference 
 from those of the same animals slaughtered in a sound 
 condition. This difierence is not distinguishable by any 
 very evident characters, though it seldom escapes the 
 sagacity of an experienced tanner. 
 
 There are no definite rules for estimating the quality 
 of hides. If a skin is free from the defects already men- 
 tioned, and has sufficient strength and thickness, with 
 body and firmness, then it may be presumed that it will 
 tan well, and make good leather. A skin presenting the 
 
SKINS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 149 
 
 opposite characters, that is flabby, soft, thin, loeak, and 
 will not bear handling, should not be considered reliable. 
 These signs, however, are not always unerring, for ano- 
 malous cases frequently occur. Indeed, it may sometimes 
 happen that the hides from a diseased carcass, differing in 
 appearance from the rest, will produce excellent leather. 
 
 As the skins could not be kept any length of time in 
 a fresh state without being injured by putrefaction; 
 and as it would be impossible to transfer them as soon 
 as slaughtered to the tan-vats, they are preserved un- 
 altered by salting or drying them. The country butchers 
 stretch them out in drying-lofts or in the shade; while 
 those in the city generally salt them. Steger, a Hunga- 
 rian tanner, recommends the application with a brush of 
 a coating of pyroligneous acid, which he says will not 
 only preserve the hides, but even arrest incipient putre- 
 faction without impairing their good quality in other re- 
 spects. 
 
 The skins from the slaughter-houses in cities or towns, 
 and their environs, are generally sold to the tanners 
 soon after being stripped from the carcass, and in a green 
 state. Although it is the usual custom to salt hides, it 
 is never done by the butcher when the transfer to the 
 tannery is to be immediate. Those butchers who live 
 at a distance, have necessarily to salt, or else to dry 
 them, so as to preserve them in a marketable condition, 
 during their storage and transportation. 
 
 In the sale of unsalted green hides, there are certain 
 reprehensible frauds which it is diflicult to provide 
 against. For instance, not only are the horns, ears, and 
 other less valuable parts left upon the skin, but the 
 butcher, in order still further to increase its weight, beds 
 the animal, before slaughtering it, in filth and mire, and 
 
150 
 
 SKINS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 
 
 then, after skinning it^ trails the hide upon the dusty 
 ground. 
 
 Domestic, or Slaughter Hides, — Heavy hides are con- 
 verted into sole, belt, and harness leather. The very 
 largest are selected for carriage-tops. The smaller and 
 lighter ones are used for "skirting" and for enamelling. 
 When intended for ladies' shoes, or bridle-leather, they 
 undergo a bleaching process, in the currier's shop, termed 
 " fair finish." The hides from northern latitudes are 
 preferable to those from the South. Hides from the 
 extreme South are particularly objectionable for conver- 
 sion into leather. Those from California, when free 
 from the defects caused by unskilful skinning, are of 
 good quality. 
 
 Spanish, or South American Hides. — The dry hides are 
 generally converted into sole leather, and occasionally 
 into belt leather. Those imported in the green and salt 
 states, are sometimes made into upper leather, which is 
 of fair quality. 
 
 African hides from the west coast make good uppers; 
 but are largely used in their raw state for covering hair 
 trunks. Madagascar hides are good when perfect, which 
 is rarely the case, as they are liable to injury during 
 curing or transit. 
 
 Calf-sMns, — The hides of the neat yearlings go into 
 calf-skins. Of these latter, there are " Patna" kips and 
 common calf for bookbinders. The Patna kips are very 
 inferior, and though frequently sold as " Calcutta" kips, 
 have the distinctive property of greater weight. A few 
 kips come from South America, and some from England 
 and Ireland. The supplies of the tanneries are mostly 
 domestic skins. 
 
 Calf-skins are valued in proportion to their strength 
 
SKINS SUITABLE FOR TANNING. 151 
 
 and size. The French tanners, who are renowned for 
 the excellence of their calf leather, use the skins taken 
 from animals of five or six months of age. Those from 
 calves of less than two months' age are very inferior, 
 and only suitable for the manufacture of parchment. 
 
 Buffalo Hides. — Those from our plains are prepared 
 with the hair on, by the American Indians, as robes. 
 The so-called buffalo hides, imported from the East In- 
 dies, are tanned into sole leather of inferior quality. 
 Prepared in a particular manner, with oil, they become 
 buff belt" leather. An inferior " buff belt" leather is 
 also made from cow-hides. 
 
 Horse Hides are tanned for uppers and make good 
 leather. They are also tanned for thongs for sewing 
 belts, &c., and are the best material for that purpose. 
 
 Goat-skins, when tanned and curried, are used for the 
 uppers of ladies' shoes. Tanned in a particular manner, 
 and dyed with fancy colors, they constitute Morocco or 
 Turkey leather. By tawing, they are converted into 
 Chamois, or wash leather, which is also made from deer- 
 skins. The best goat-skins come from Mexico, and are 
 known in commerce as " Tampico" skins. The sound 
 skins from the Cape of Good Hope are very large and 
 far superior to those from Madras and the Cape de 
 Verds. 
 
 Sheep-shins make a spongy weak leather, used prin- 
 cipally for linings and trunk trimmings. Saddlers and 
 bookbinders also use them largely. When curried and 
 blackened, they may serve as inferior upper leather for 
 children's shoes. Sheep-skins are also converted into 
 parchment and vellum. 
 
 Hog-shins are tanned exclusively for saddle seats. 
 
 Dog-shins make good leather. They are also tawed 
 for glovers' use. 
 
152 
 
 MODE OF SALTING HIDES. 
 
 Beaver and hucTc shins are mostly tawed or oiled for 
 glovers' use. 
 
 Ass or mule shins serve to make shagreen or sagri for 
 the manufacture of scabbards. 
 
 Seal-shins are converted into materials for caps and fur 
 clothing. Many are also tanned into upper leather of 
 inferior quality. The large skins come from the Falk- 
 y land Islands, and the small ones from Newfoundland. 
 
 White porpoise-shins. — Porpoise leather, properly tan- 
 ned, is said to be strong, soft, and of beautiful finish. It 
 is made in Canada. 
 
 Leather is differently designated in commerce, accord- 
 ing to the mode in which it is curried or dressed, and 
 sometimes the use for which it is intended. For exam- 
 ple, "harness" leather is blackened in the grain; " russet" 
 is " fair finished" leather; wax leather is blackened in the 
 flesh; and "bufi*" is that with the grain divided by care- 
 ful shaving and blackened on the grain side. 
 
 MODE OF SALTING HIDES. 
 
 Delalande's method, which is that generally adopted, 
 consists in laying open the hides upon the ground, and 
 sprinkling the flesh sides with salt, more liberally at the 
 edges and on the spinal portions, than on other parts. 
 They are then folded, or doubled lengthwise, down the 
 centre. The remaining folds are made over each other, 
 commencing with the shanks, then the peak of the belly 
 upon the back, afterwards the head upon the tail part, 
 and tail part upon the head, and lastly, by doubling the 
 whole with a final fold, and forming a square of one or 
 two feet. This being done, they are then piled three 
 and three together, and left until the salt has dissolved 
 and penetrated their tissue, which generally requires 
 
MODE OF SALTING HIDES. 
 
 153 
 
 three or four days. Thus prepared, they are sent to 
 market. 
 
 Skms may be dried, even after having been salted, by 
 stretching them upon poles, with the flesh sides upper- 
 most, and exposing them to dry air in a shady place. 
 
 Ten pounds of salt in summer, and somewhat less in 
 winter, are requisite for each skin of ordinary size. 
 
 11 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF SKINS. 
 
 In order to prepare the raw hides for the action of the 
 tanning agent, it is necessary to subject them to several 
 preliminary operations. These consist in soahmg^ or 
 washing in water, and fulling, or heating, in order to 
 soften them, and to remove the adhering blood and filth ; 
 swelling, or raising, to "plump" the hide; depilating, to 
 separate the hair; fleshing, or worJdng on the beam, to re- 
 move the loose flesh, fatty matter, &c., from the flesh 
 side, and the epidermis and hair from the grain side ; 
 and riming. 
 
 These leading manipulations are modified to suit cer- 
 tain kinds of skins, as will be directed hereafter; and 
 some undergo an additional treatment, termed " hating,'' 
 to remove lime, and otherwise promote the thorough 
 union of the tan material and the gelatinous structure. 
 
 WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 This is the first operation that the skins must under- 
 go, and it is therefore a great convenience to have the 
 tannery located upon, or near to a stream or running 
 spring, with an abundance of water. The skins are 
 taken in a green, dry, or salted state. 
 
 The green hides are those from recently slaughtered 
 
WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 155 
 
 animals. They are placed in water, and left to soak for 
 half a day, or longer, if necessary, for the removal of 
 blood and adhering dirt. If the skins are not very dirty, 
 an hour is sufficient. They are to be well rinsed before 
 taking them out of soak. If it should be necessary to 
 soak them for a longer time, they must be handled or 
 moved about at frequent intervals. 
 
 If the water is abundant and the current rapid, time 
 and trouble will be saved by planting stakes, or a kind 
 of rack across the stream, and so fastening the skins 
 thereto that the friction of the water may loosen the dirt 
 and carry it off. Care should be taken to suspend the 
 skins so that they may not be damaged by rubbing 
 against the stones at the bottom of the stream. 
 
 Dry skins necessarily require a longer soaking; and to 
 facilitate the operation, it is necessary to remove them 
 from the water frequently, and each time to stretch them, 
 beat them under feet, and work them upon the wooden 
 horse, as shown in Fig. 25, with the fleshing-knife. Fig. 
 26, and then leave them to drain. The fleshing should 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 be repeated once or twice. This manipu- Fig. 26. 
 lation softens, cleanses, and stretches the ^^^^^ 
 hide. 
 
 The working and scraping must be continued until all 
 the slimy and other animal matters which are prone to 
 
156 
 
 WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 putrefaction are removed. No definite length of time 
 can be prescribed for the soaking of the skins; they are 
 to remain in the water until they have become supple, 
 and the intelligence of the workman must determine 
 when this point is attained. If the soaking should be too 
 prolonged, the skins will acquire a tendency to putrefy. 
 It need hardly be mentioned that skins which have been 
 salted and dried, require a longer soaking than those that 
 have only been dried. 
 
 The working and softening of the hides upon the horse, 
 or beam, are considered indispensable operations by all 
 experienced tanners, though there are some who omit 
 them. 
 
 When the skins have been all soaked and washed, as 
 above directed, and are sufficiently supple, they are re- 
 turned to, and left in the water for five or six hours. In 
 a fresh running stream they may remain as long as eight ; 
 but in still water not more than five or six hours. Re- 
 ference is here made exclusively to the large hides; for 
 cow-skins may be left without danger of injury, for 
 twenty-four, and calf-skins forty-eight hours ; some atten- 
 tion being always given to the nature of the water and 
 temperature of the atmosphere. It must be remembered 
 that a too long-continued soaking in the same water ex- 
 poses the skins to the danger of putrefiiction ; and the 
 rapidity of this decomposition is proportional to the 
 amount of filthy foreign matter contained in the water. 
 
 The skins which have been well salted, but not dried, 
 may be cleansed in forty-eight hours; but they may be 
 left to soak, without injury, for three or four days. They 
 must, however, be withdrawn once daily, left to drain for 
 two hours, worked with the back of the fleshing-knife, 
 and well rinsed in water. These manipulations are 
 necessary not only for removing salt and dirt, but also 
 
WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 157 
 
 for rendering them soft and supple. When they are 
 taken from the water for the last time, the rinsing must 
 be viororous and thorousrh. 
 
 At Saint Saens, the mode of soaking hides is pecuhar 
 to that ph^ce. They commonly use the dry hides from 
 South America, which are placed directly in vats filled 
 with lime-water, and left for six or ten days, care being 
 taken to work them in the usual manner at frequent 
 intervals during the soaking. These vats are eight feet 
 long and five feet wide. 
 
 The skins are softened by the action of the lime, and 
 rendered more easy to be handled, and it is at this stage 
 that the defective parts may be detected by critical ex- 
 amination. Sometimes they are so damaged as to be 
 suitable only for the manufacture of glue. 
 
 In the Belgian town of Liege, where they mostly use 
 the dry hides from Brazil and Caraccas, there is no allot- 
 ted time for soaking. They follow a method which, though 
 laborious, prevents an over-soaking of the hides. After 
 four or five days they examine each vat, and withdraw 
 such hides as have become soft, and leave the rest. 
 This culling process is repeated daily, until all the hides 
 have been withdrawn. The skins which require the 
 longest soaking, and are taken out the last, are those 
 which have been damaged by sea-water during transport- 
 ation. 
 
 As soon as the hides are taken from the vats, they are 
 worked upon the horse, and then returned to the water. 
 On the following day they are thoroughly rinsed, and 
 placed in the drying- room. The working, or frotting, 
 is solely to remove the wrinkles and stiffness of the dry 
 skins. These manipulations are unnecessary for the 
 green hides. 
 
 Although some manufacturers contend that the quality 
 
158 
 
 WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 of the leather is improved in proportion to the duration 
 of the soaking of the skin, it is still undeniable that, 
 when it exceeds a certain time, the skin acquires a tend- 
 ency to decomposition, and the quality of the leather 
 is thus impaired. 
 
 Of the Influence of the Soahing-water upon the Quality 
 of the Leather. — It is a mooted point whether the nature 
 of the water used for soaking has any influence upon the 
 quality of the leather. In the absence of any positive 
 knowledge, it is perhaps better to take the affirmative side 
 of the question. Dessables says, it is undeniable that 
 the leathers known as calf-skins, and which by their 
 very nature and destined uses should be soft and supple, 
 require a soft, fresh water, and consequently that it will 
 be difficult to make them with that which is hard. 
 
 We will treat this subject by giving a chemical view 
 of the different kinds of water. 
 
 In modern chemistry water is known as oxy-hydric acid, 
 or protoxide of hydrogen. When pure, it is inodorous, 
 colorless, transparent, elastic, and strongly refractive of 
 light, and a conductor of heat and electricity. It is com- 
 pressible, with disengagement of light, boils at 212° F., 
 and freezes at 32° F. Those waters which are called 
 j)otahIe, or soft, will dissolve soap, while those that do not 
 possess this property, are not so good for drinking, and 
 are termed hard. The former are nearly free from solu- 
 ble matters, while the latter contain calcareous and other 
 salts, which they have taken up in their transit through 
 the soil. The ultimate composition of absolutely pure 
 water is 88.9 parts, by weight, of oxygen, and 11.1 of 
 hydrogen. The agreeable taste of fresh water is due to 
 the atmospheric air which it contains; when this is ex- 
 pelled by boiling, water becomes insipid. 
 
WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 159 
 
 Rain-water. — The purest rain-water is that which falls 
 in the country, or in sparsely settled localities, where 
 there are no noxious emanations. That which is first 
 collected should not be retained. 
 
 The soluble impurities of rain-water are those which 
 it has dissolved from the atmosphere, and consist of 
 minute traces of chloride of sodium, carbonate of am- 
 monia, and carbonic acid. The suspended matters with 
 which it is sometimes charged, are taken up in its flow 
 over the house-roofs. The rain-water after thunder- 
 storms contains, in addition to the above constituents, 
 small traces of nitric acid and of nitrates. 
 
 Snow-water. — According to Bergmann, snow, which is 
 crystalline rain-water, loses the gases held by it, upon 
 being melted. 
 
 Spring and Fountain-water. — Rain-waters, in travers- 
 ing earthy strata, gradually collect in cavities, from which 
 they gush to the surface. It is evident, therefore, that 
 water, in its transit through the soil, must become charged 
 with such constituents thereof as are soluble in it; and 
 consequently the purity of the water is proportional to 
 the insolubility of the earths through which it has flowed. 
 
 The purest spring-waters contain air, carbonic acid, 
 and minute quantities of hydrochlorate and carbonate of 
 soda. 
 
 River-water. — River-water does not differ materially 
 from spring-water, since it is from the union of the latter 
 with rain-water that it is formed. Sometimes, however, 
 it is purer, from having deposited its suspended matter, 
 and also a part of that held in solution, which generally 
 happens when it traverses a long and silicious bed. If 
 it pass over or through limestonCj or other strata con- 
 taining soluble ingredients, it becomes less pure. 
 
160 
 
 WASHING AND SOAKING. 
 
 Lahe-Water. — Water of lakes differs from that of rivers 
 only in being more highly charged with the soluble prin- 
 ciples of the soil upon which they rest, a condition which 
 is promoted by their state of quiescence. 
 
 MarsJi-ivater. — This kind of water is in even a more 
 permanent state of stagnation than lake-water. When 
 its content of organic matter is large, putrefaction en- 
 sues, and a part passes off in gaseous form, while the 
 remainder subsides as insoluble precipitate. If the de- 
 composition has not been complete, some of the organic 
 products will remain in solution, and impart a disagree- 
 able taste. 
 
 Well-ivater. — It might be inferred that well-water is 
 analogous to that from fountains and springs; but it 
 filters through the soil much more slowly, and remains 
 stagnant usually at greater depths ; and, consequently, is 
 more readily impregnated with the soluble constituents 
 of the soil. Hence it is that well-water is generally 
 hard, because it contains earthy salts, and more par- 
 ticularly sulphate, or bicarbonate, or hydrochlorate of 
 lime, which render soap insoluble in it. 
 
 According to Sennebier, there is more carbonic acid 
 in well than in spring water. 
 
 Well-water from the vicinity of the sea has a brackish 
 taste, and contains the same constituents as sea-water, 
 but in diminished proportions. 
 
 When well-waters are very hard, the addition of a 
 little alkaline carbonate will decompose the lime-salt, 
 and render them potable. 
 
 It is very evident that rain-water is the purest ; but 
 all drinkable waters are applicable for tanning purposes. 
 To impart softness to hard waters, the French tanners 
 add a solution of pigeon or chicken dung to the vat, and 
 
WASHING AND SOAKING. 161 
 
 stir it in thoroughly by means of the implement, ^^g- ^7. 
 Fig, 27. The hides are then put into soak. In 
 some tanneries, instead of washing the skins in 
 the river, they soak them in troughs. 
 
 Waters containing iron blacken the hides, and 
 render the leather brittle. 
 
 In the Paris tanneries, it is customary to 
 purify tlie water by allowing it to infiltrate 
 through spent tan. For this purpose there is a 
 series of three vats, charged similarly with spent 
 tan ; and, as the water which is poured into the first vat, 
 is drawn through a cock at the bottom, it is transferred 
 to the second, and, ultimately, to the third vat. In this 
 manner all kinds of water may be rendered available for 
 tanning. As thus rectified, it contains a little tannin 
 derived from the spent tan, which renders it particularly 
 adapted for the early part of the tanning operation. 
 
 Experience certainly proves the superiority of some 
 waters over others for tanning purposes; but on what 
 particular quality of the water this superiority depends, 
 chemists have not yet been able to determine. 
 
 The safest course is to prefer those waters which con- 
 tain the least soluble matter, particularly earthy salts, 
 such as lime and magnesia; for these certainly reduce 
 the tanning power of the ooze, by combining with some 
 of its constituents. 
 
 The suspended matters, consisting of mud, &c., as 
 well as the soluble organic matter, which imparts to 
 water a bad taste, may be removed by filtering the water 
 through clean gravel and fresh charcoal. 
 
 If the lime exists as bicarbonate, it may be separated 
 from the water by adding lime-water, which precipitates 
 it as an insoluble neutral carbonate. Boiling produces 
 
162 SWELLING^ OR RAISING. 
 
 the same result, by expelling the bi-equivalant of car- 
 bonic acid. 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 The second process to which hides are to be subjected 
 is termed raising^ and is that by which the pores are 
 distended, the fibres swollen, and the hair loosened. 
 These results are effected by means of alkaline or acid 
 solutions, and by fermentation. Milk of lime is the alka- 
 line liquor generally employed. Lime-water has been 
 proposed as a substitute, but it is less permanent in its 
 action, and requires frequent renewal in order to insure 
 the perfect cleansing of the hides. 
 
 Swelling hy Lime. — This is the oldest and most ob- 
 jectionable method. The lime-vats in which the hides 
 are to be soaked, are made either of wood or mason 
 work, sunk in the ground, and plastered interiorly with 
 hydraulic cement. They may be round or square, and 
 of dimensions proportional to the number of hides to be 
 soaked. The usual size is five feet square, and the same 
 in depth. 
 
 About a peck of lime usually suffices for a large 
 hide ; and, accordingly, the number of skins to be 
 treated in each vat must determine the proportion of 
 lime to be added. Circumstances, however, may render 
 it necessary, sometimes, to increase the quantity. The 
 practice adopted in some factories, of economizing lime 
 by partially substituting ashes, lye, or pigeon and dog 
 dung, &c., is a very reprehensible one, as it produces 
 injurious effects. 
 
 To make a fresh vat, quicklime is thrown in, covered 
 with water, and agitated with a stirrer, Fig. 28, until it 
 
 \ 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 163 
 
 has become slaked and passed into milk. In this ^^s- ^s. 
 state the vat is left for some days j after which, 
 it is ready to receive the hides. 
 
 The vats are distinguished as dead, weah, and 
 live vats. The dead vat is that which has been 
 nearly exhausted of its strength; the weah is 
 that which has only been used enough to deprive 
 it of a portion of its force ; and the fresh or live 
 vat, is that which has not yet been worked. In 
 the progress of operations, the live vat passes 
 successively into the weak and the dead vat. 
 
 The three vats are termed the raising series, Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 The raising should be commenced in the dead vat, and 
 continued in consecutive order through the series to the 
 live vat. In some factories the series consists of as many 
 as twelve vats ; and, in this case, there should be a gra- 
 dation in the strength of the liquors. The duration of 
 this operation varies in different localities. Some tan- 
 ners leave the hides in the vats for three months, while 
 others soak them for eighteen months. The old routi- 
 nists, according to Dessables, give the hides a soaking of 
 ten, twelve, and even fifteen months; and then, when 
 they have become sufiiciently softened, transfer them to 
 a dead vat for eight days, at the end of which time they 
 
164 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 are withdrawn, hung up for eight days, and again placed 
 in the same vat for eight more days, and so on. These 
 consecutive operations are thus continued for two months, 
 or until the hair can be readily detached. 
 
 The graduation of the vats varies in different localities. 
 In those parts of France where the series consists of 
 twelve vats, the first two are dead, the four following 
 wealc, and the last six,fres7i or live vats. Where the 
 system comprises only five, the first two are dead, and 
 the three last live vats. 
 
 In Brittany, many tanners, believing that the hides 
 are raised better with the hair on than in pelt, give six 
 live vats, and do not remove them until after the fourth 
 and even the fifth. 
 
 In Auvergne, they give three raisings of a month each, 
 with a mixture of lime and alkaline lye. 
 
 We cannot see the utility of so many vats, for when 
 the skins have soaked to the saturating point, a con- 
 tinuation of the treatment is supererogatory. Generally 
 speaking, three or four vats, with skilful manipulation, 
 suffice for any kind of skins. Delalande contends that 
 from ten to twelve months are requisite for thorough 
 soaking ; but the experience of all good tanners proves 
 that two months are sufficient, and that in this time the 
 skin becomes soft and capable of being readily cleansed 
 and freed from its hair. 
 
 According to Curandeau, only ten or twelve days are 
 required for the transit of the hides through the three 
 lime-vats. He also thinks that a longer time would be 
 useless, if not injurious, and that the shorter the soaking 
 the greater is the weight acquired by the hides in tan- 
 ning. Malepeyre adds that it is now established : 1st, 
 that it is sufficient to leave the hides in the pits for 
 twenty-four hours, and an equal length of time in stack ; 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 165 
 
 2d, that this operation should not continue for more than 
 six or eight weeks at farthest ; 3d, that three, or at most 
 four good vats are sufficient ; 4th, that, after this interval, 
 the hides are easily cleansed; and when, on the other 
 hand, the treatment is prolonged, the hides become dry 
 and parched ; 5th, that after three or four pits, the hide 
 will have swollen to the fullest extent; and, finally, that 
 independently of these objections, there is a great waste 
 of time, lime, and materials, in the old method of steep- 
 ing for from ten to fifteen months. 
 
 Stacking the hides, is to pile them one upon the other 
 at the side of the vat, as they are drawn from it, and 
 thus leave them remaining (in retreat) for a shorter or 
 longer time, before returning them to the bath for an- 
 other wet. 
 
 Piling enables the working of sixty hides in a vat of 
 capacity for only thirty, by having one batch to take 
 the place of the other in alternate operations. For ex- 
 ample, while one set of thirty is in retreat, the other 
 should be in the vats, and vice versa, so as to save time. 
 
 The vats should be covered ; and as the skins in retreat 
 are liable to become hard by exposure to the sun and air, 
 they should not be kept in that state longer than is 
 necessary. Covers prevent this as well as the retarding 
 influence of cold ; for, while the liquid is frozen on the 
 surface, it is inactive. 
 
 At every handling, that is, upon each return of the 
 skins to the vats, or when new ones are put in, an inti- 
 mate mixture of the water and lime at the bottom should 
 be made by a thorough stirring of the liquor. At this 
 time, a workman at each end of the vat, by the aid of 
 tongs (Fig. 30), arranges the hides in it so that they may 
 lie smoothly and firmly. The suspended lime, by its 
 greater weight, soon subsides upon the hides, and the 
 
supernatant liquor which should cover the hides to a 
 depth of some inches^ will be clear and transparent. As 
 the greater portion of the lime is in contact with the 
 skins at the bottom of the vat, its action is more power- 
 ful upon them than on those above, and, consequently, 
 in recharging the vat after stacking, the order of position 
 must be reversed; those that were originally placed first, 
 must be then last, and vice versa. 
 
 Should the vat, as often happens, become too weak to 
 produce the desired effect, it must be strengthened by the 
 addition of the quantity of lime necessary to restore its 
 force. The advantage is thus obtained of giving the 
 hides the benefit of two vats in one. This new addition 
 of lime should be made while the skins are out of the 
 vat. 
 
 For removing the hair, the scraping-hnife alone must 
 be used. This is a dull-edged instrument, which is not 
 liable to damage the skin by cutting it, while it is all- 
 efficient in scraping ofi* the hair. It is a bad practice to 
 use the slate, or ruhher (Fig. 31), which, being rough, 
 may scratch and damage the hide upon 
 
 ^ ^Fig. 31. .^^ grain side. 
 
 The use of sand, ashes, or other simi- 
 lar auxiliaries for removing the hair is very improper, 
 as they attach themselves to the surface and thus in- 
 
SWELLING, or' RAISING. 
 
 167 
 
 crease the trouble of cleansing it. It is also a bad prac- 
 tice to wait until the completion of the soaking before 
 scrajDing off the hair, because the lime will, in time, act 
 upon the hair itself. 
 
 After the removal of the hair, the skins are rinsed, 
 and replaced in the dead vat, and so on consecutively 
 through the series to the live vat. It suffices to leave 
 the hides for fifteen days in each of these vats, but care 
 must be taken to stack and replace them every twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 " The force of habit, and perhaps the use of the Ker- 
 mes oak bark," says Tournal, " causes many tanners to 
 persist in the use of lime. But if, in riasing, great care 
 is not taken to remove every trace of lime, as is known 
 when the liquor expressed by the dull knife employed 
 for scraping them on the beam runs very limpid, the 
 minute traces remaining, will, by abstracting carbonic 
 acid from the air, become insoluble, and render the skin 
 dry, brittle, and perhaps useless. These faults are not, 
 however, solely attributable to the carbonic acid of the 
 air, but also to the formation of tannate of lime, as well 
 as of the stearate and oleate of that base, which are gene- 
 rated by the presence of fatty matters always existing 
 in the hides." 
 
 ^' The tanners," says the same authority, " who use the 
 Kermes, pretend that its warm nature imparts stiffness 
 to the leather, and that consequently the only available 
 mode of raising is by means of lime. They ow^n that 
 the sour tan-juice and barley processes distend the pores 
 of the hide much more than lime ; and that the tanning 
 principle of the Kermes, having a tendency to combine 
 rapidly with the hide thus swollen, imparts an unnatural 
 stiffness to the leather. The reality of these assertions 
 may be readily determined by tanning with Kermes 
 
168 
 
 SWELLING, OK RAISING. 
 
 some hides which have been raised by the sour tan-liquor 
 process." 
 
 In quoting these passages we have adhered to the 
 language of Tournal. We will add that, according to 
 our experience, the bark of the Kermes oak is richer in 
 tannin than that of the ordinary oak, and that admirable 
 leather may be prepared by tanning with it skins which 
 have been raised by sour tan-liquor. 
 
 There are certain drawbacks to the liming process, 
 which are worthy of enumeration. Firstly, the contact 
 of caustic lime alters, more or less, the texture of the 
 hide, and permits it to penetrate the pores, and remain 
 in them in the state of caustic lime, carbonate, or lime- 
 soap. The repeated rinsings in water, and workings, 
 only partially remove the lime, which is a serious impedi- 
 ment to perfect tanning. It hinders the ready penetra- 
 tion of the tan liquor and the perfect combination of 
 tannin with the skin, and so obstinately resists removal 
 during all the manipulation that a portion is found even 
 in the best leather. When, however, the latter is to be 
 converted into glazed leather, the curriers first remove 
 all the lime by a particular method. 
 
 Notwithstanding that experience is so opposed to the 
 use of lime, the careful and elaborate experiments of Dr. 
 J. Davy (^Ghemist, 1850), show that its action upon animal 
 textures generally is rather antiseptic than destructive. 
 Its corroding influence is limited to the cuticle, hair, 
 nails, and all gelatinous tissues. These latter become 
 soft and gelatinous, owing, doubtless, to a combination 
 which they form with the lime, for on analyzing the ash 
 of the cuticle thus treated, a large increase of its normal 
 contents of that earth was obtained. 
 
 The matters were steeped in milk of lime, kept caustic 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 169 
 
 in close vessels, by the entire exclusion of air. After 
 treatment they ceased to be putrescent. 
 
 The disadvantages of the use of lime have led to the 
 substitution of less objectionable agents, which we will 
 proceed to treat of in succession. 
 
 Raising hy Acids. — Some tanners substitute an acid 
 liquor for the milk of lime; for example, the Tartar- 
 Calmucks use sour milk for this purpose. Pfeiffer has 
 proposed the acidulated water obtained by the distilla- 
 tion of lime and peat. Sometimes a little sulphuric acid 
 is added. In fine, this acid in a dilute state, as also all 
 the vegetable acids, will produce the same effect. That 
 which is formed by the fermentation of barley meal, of 
 rye, and of tan bark is acetic acid. Acids have the 
 double advantage of loosening the hair, and swelling the 
 hides at the same time. 
 
 In some tanneries, the skins are softened by sprinkling 
 one-half with salt, and folding the other half over it. 
 They are then piled up and covered with straw. Fer- 
 mentation speedily ensues; and they must be turned 
 several times daily, until they have attained that state 
 in which they can easily be depilated. The same result 
 can be attained without the use of salt. They are to be 
 piled upon a bed of straw and covered in like manner. 
 After twenty-four hours, they are turned and then ex- 
 amined twice daily, so that the proper point may not be 
 exceeded. In some tanneries, the hides are imbedded 
 in horse manure. In others they are covered with tan, 
 or some imperfect conductor of heat. Incipient putrefac- 
 tion and consequent loosening of the hair may also be 
 effected by suspending the hides, which have been left 
 lying in a heap for several days, in a close room, kept 
 above the ordinary temperature by a smouldering tan 
 12 
 
170 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 fire. Better results might be obtained by circulating a 
 current of steam through the apartment. 
 
 All methods of fermentation are termed sweating pro 
 ^cesses. But whatever the process followed, the skins, as 
 soon as the hair begins to yield readily, are to be spread 
 upon a wooden horse, and scraped with a dull-edged 
 knife. In this manner the hair and outer skin are fleshed 
 or scraped off. As the outer skin is of a nature different 
 from that of the hide, and does not unite with tannin, it 
 must necessarily be removed in order to allow the free 
 passage of the tan liquor through the skin proper, and 
 thus facilitate the tanning process. 
 
 Depilation hy Steam. — In many tanneries, the depila- 
 tion by milk of lime is superseded by another method, 
 w^hich subjects the hides in heaps, to a slight putrefactive 
 fermentation in heated chambers. It is difficult, in warm 
 seasons, to control this fermentation; and sometimes it 
 is even necessary to salt the hides. After some days, 
 the epidermis becomes loose and detached, and may be 
 readily scraped off with the hair. 
 
 Belbut, in Paris, and Robinson, of Delaware, employ 
 steam as the heating medium, in an arched chamber of 
 eighteen feet in length, ten feet in height, and ten feet in 
 breadth, and lined interiorly with cement. The steam 
 is introduced beneath a false bottom of wood, perforated 
 with numerous holes, and serving as the bed for the sup- 
 port of the hides. As the steam condenses, it should be 
 allowed to escape through an opening at the base of the 
 chamber. 
 
 The temperature of the heap should be maintained at 
 between 70 and 80° F., and precaution should be used 
 to keep it uniform, for it must be remembered that the 
 joint action of heat and moisture may dissolve the gela- 
 tine, and thus cause the hides to be scarred with pits. In 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 171 
 
 twenty-four hours, the process is completed, and the hair 
 may be scraped off in the usual manner. If the hair 
 falls from the hides when they are taken out of the heap, 
 it is owing to incipient decomposition of the surface. 
 Beef hides weighing from eighty to one hundred pounds 
 experience a loss of from twenty-four to twenty-eight 
 pounds. 
 
 Depilation hy Caustic Soda. — Boudet proposes caustic 
 soda as an advantageous substitute for the milk of lime 
 for raising and depilating hides. The liquid for the pur- 
 pose is prepared by decarbonating a very dilute solution 
 of soda ash with a sufficient quantity of milk of lime, 
 allowing repose, and decanting the clear supernatant 
 caustic soda-lye by means of a syphon. The hides im- 
 mersed in this liquor swell out rapidly and considerably, 
 and are ready to be scraped in two or three days. More- 
 over, the alkali forming soluble soap with the fatty por- 
 tions, facilitates the cleansing, and produces a smoother 
 grained side than is common. Hides thus prepared are 
 said to imbibe the tan liquor more rapidly than those 
 which have been treated with lime, to undergo the entire 
 process of tanning in one-third of the time, and to suffer 
 less loss than those prepared by the usual process. Forty- 
 four pounds of sal soda dissolved in 132 gallons of water, 
 and mixed with 33 pounds of slaked lime, suffice for 
 steeping 2200 pounds of fresh hides. 
 
 Depilation hy SulpJiurets of Gahium and Soda, — Bou- 
 det, in trying the old method of depilating by means of 
 a mixed paste of orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic), and 
 caustic lime, observed that the arsenic was without any 
 direct influence upon the hair, and that the depilatory 
 action was due to sulphuret of calcium in its nascent state, 
 formed by the reaction of the lime upon the sulphuret 
 
172 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 of arsenic. Acting upon this observation, he replaced 
 the orpiment by sulphuret of calcium, which, when made 
 into paste with lime, acted so promptly, that, after 24 or 
 36 hours' contact, the skins were completely depilated. 
 The lime alone has no depilating effect, and the sulphuret 
 of sodium only a partial action. This principle was 
 originally announced by Martins, and first applied to 
 tanning purposes, in 1840, by Boetger. 
 
 This mode of preparing the hides is said to render 
 them highly susceptible of being quickly tanned. Ex- 
 perience has yet to decide what influence it has upon 
 the leather. The prejudice of tanners, so far, is against 
 this method, which, it is said, surcharges the leather with 
 an amount of water that escapes by evaporation during 
 storing, to the great loss of the dealer ; but we do not 
 think that this objection is tenable. 
 
 The vat formed of a mixture of potash, lime, and 
 orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic), as proposed by Abram 
 and Coste, of Marseilles, is much less convenient than 
 the preceding, and is liable to numerous objections ; not 
 the least of which is the danger to be apprehended in 
 manipulating with a liquor containing such a poisonous 
 ingredient as orpiment. 
 
 The hydrosulphuret of calcium is made by super- 
 saturating a very thick milk of lime with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas. The apparatus necessary for the purpose 
 consists of a generator and a receiver, as shown in the 
 drawings below. Fig. 32 represents a leaden generator, 
 of cylindrical form, and about thirty-six inches high, by 
 twenty-four inches diameter, supported by a wooden 
 casing or jacket. This vessel has a movable cover of 
 cast-iron, with a projecting ledge, through which pass 
 the bolts, c, c, for fastening it down. In this cover there 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 173 
 
 rr 
 
 1 
 
 IE 
 
 c 
 
 are three openings, as shown by Fig. 33. The larger 
 one, g, is the man hole, for the admission of the sul- 
 
 phuret of iron, and for cleaning out. Of the two smaller, 
 the centre one, c7, receives the stationary funnel tube, 
 through which the dilute sulphuric acid is to be intro- 
 duced. The side hole, ^, contains a short tube, with 
 a screw at its upper end, for coupling the flexible exit 
 tube, m (made of lead, or, what is much better, vulcan- 
 ized caoutchouc), which is to convey the generated gas 
 into the lime paste, contained in the closely covered 
 receiver, x. The pipe, o, running down the side of the 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
174 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 generator, interiorly, is for the coupling of the steam 
 conduit, when the admission of steam is desirable. 
 
 The protosulphuret of iron, a cheap material, sold at 
 the rate of five dollars per hundred weight, rests upon 
 the bottom of the generator, as shown at s. It consists 
 of iron and sulphur in combination. When the sul- 
 phuric acid and water (in mixture of one volume of the 
 former to three or four volumes of the latter) are poured 
 in through the funnel tube, cZ, to the height indicated in 
 the figure, chemical action immediately ensues. The 
 water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, is 
 decomposed, and the former gas goes at once to the iron, 
 which is deserted simultaneously by its sulphur, and 
 thus becoming an oxybase, indulges its affinity for the 
 sulphuric acid, and unites with it to form sulphate of 
 iron or copperas. The hydrogen disengaged from its 
 oxygen, seizes on the sulphur at the moment of its eli- 
 mination, and, uniting chemically with it, forms sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, and makes its exit through the tube, 
 m, leading into the lime-milk, with which it combines 
 as hydrosulphuret of calcium. The current of gas must 
 be uninterrupted until the complete supersaturation of 
 the lime, which may be known when a small portion 
 taken out, and exposed for fifteen minutes to the air, 
 still emits the characteristic fetid odor of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas. Whenever the flow of gas slackens, it 
 must be hastened by pouring in a small quantity of un- 
 diluted acid. The occasional admission of steam through 
 the pipe, o, by applying heat, promotes the reaction. 
 When the paste is saturated, the connection of the pipes 
 m and 7c must be severed, and the generator emptied of 
 its contents, through the ma7i hole, g, so that it may be 
 ready for a fresh charge and new operation. 
 
 The receiving vat should be of wood, strongly bound 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 175 
 
 with iron hoops, and fitted with a cover and appliances 
 for keeping it close enough to confine the gas, but not so 
 tight as to cause an explosion. It should also be fitted 
 with a revolving stirrer or churn, so as to fiicilitate the 
 agitation of its contents, which is necessary to insure 
 thorough saturation with the gas. 
 
 The paste should be made in quantities as required, 
 for it must be used without much delay, as the action of 
 the air soon renders it inert, by converting it into sul- 
 phate of lime. 
 
 It is applied to the green or softened hides, by spread- 
 ing them upon a table, and paying over the hair sides 
 with a thin coating, in such a manner that it may reach 
 the surface of the skin. Two skins thus treated, are 
 placed with their hair sides together, and are pressed 
 between boards. In two hours the hair is entirely loose ; 
 and, though much of it might be removed by mere 
 washing, it is necessary to scrape in the usual manner. 
 The paste is well known as a rapid depilatory, and being 
 totally destitute of action upon the hide, it leaves its 
 surface smooth and uninjured. This process is highly 
 commended in France; but, as it has not yet been used 
 ill this country, we can add nothing, from experience, in 
 regard to it. It certainly is an expeditious plan, and 
 seems so feasible and economical in other respects, that 
 we recommend the trial of it upon a large scale. 
 
 A serious inconvenience in the use of this paste is the 
 offensive and unhealthy odor which it disengages ; which, 
 with due caution, however, may be avoided. Sickness, 
 colic, and pains in the chest are some of its ill effects 
 upon the system, which are increased to asphyxia or 
 tetanic convulsions, when the odor is concentrated and 
 the exposure to it prolonged. 
 
 Prof J. C. Booth [Encyclopedia of Chemistry^ p. 902), 
 
176 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 who has used this gas extensively in manufacturing 
 processes, on the other hand, doubts its destructive in- 
 fluence upon the health, unless the atmosphere contain- 
 ing it is surcharged and confined. He says that, " al- 
 though offensive, it may be inhaled by men, when 
 largely mixed with air, without apparent injury; and, 
 even when fresh, it may be respired in large quantity, 
 without producing any other eflect than a temporary 
 faintness. The effect upon one workman was a plea- 
 sant, lethargic feeling ; and I have breathed a strong 
 mixture of it with air, repeatedly, and never experienced 
 the slightest injury to my health." 
 
 Kefuse-lime from the gas works, used in purifying the 
 gas, contains, when fresh, a large proportion of hydro- 
 sulphuret of calcium; and might be substituted for the 
 prepared paste ; but it is very slow, and much less cer- 
 tain in its action. 
 
 Warrington s Process. — Warrington proposes the use 
 of carbonate of soda or potassa for soaking ; and the em- 
 ployment of hydrochloric or nitric acid, and also certain 
 vegetable matters, for facilitating d epilation, and pro- 
 moting the swelling. See Chapter XIX. for details. 
 
 Cool Sweating Process. — This method of unhairing 
 hides has been in general use for some time in New 
 York, New Hampshire, and the northern part of Penn- 
 sylvania ; and experience confirms all the advantages 
 over the older processes, claimed for it by the inventor. 
 It is said to give a gain in the leather of 70 to 80 per 
 cent, on the dry hide; while the "warm sweating" pro- 
 cess yields much less, and the "liming" only 30 to 40 
 per cent. It, moreover, obviates the necessity of pre- 
 viously subjecting the dry hides to the fulling stocks, 
 which, by producing an undue distension, renders the 
 leather thin, weak, and limber, beyond the required degree. 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 177 
 
 The process and apparatus, the description of which 
 we take from the Journ. Frank. Bistit., 1843, are as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 " First, a vault or pit should be prepared for the re- 
 ception of the hides; which, for convenience sake, should 
 be twelve feet long, twelve feet deep, and ten feet wide. 
 The walls may be built of stone or of a planked frame. 
 There should be one alley, or vestibule, for entrance, not 
 less than six feet long, having a door at each end, the 
 outer one made double, and filled in with tan, to prevent 
 the communication of warm, dry air from without. A 
 ventiduct, made of plank, ten or twelve inches square, 
 should extend from the centre of the bottom of the 
 vaults, three or four rods therefrom, and placed not less 
 than four feet below the surface of the ground. This 
 serves both as a drain for discharging the water of the 
 vault, and to admit damp, cool air, to supply the place 
 of that which has become rarefied, and thus keep up a 
 current through the ventilator at top. The ridge of the 
 roof may be level with the surface of the ground ; and, 
 on the ridge, extending its whole length, set up two 
 planks edgewise, two inches apart. The space between 
 these is to be left open, but the remainder of the roof 
 must be covered with earth, to the depth of at least a 
 yard. The earth covering upon the vault and drain is 
 to preserve a low temperature for the hides, so that they 
 may unhair without tainting. Spring-water should be 
 conducted, either in pipes or logs, around the angles 
 formed by the ceiling with the walls of the vault, from 
 which water should be allowed to flow in small quan- 
 tities, either forming a spray, or falling so as to raise a 
 mist or vapor, and saturate the atmosphere of the vault. 
 The temperature of spring-water is generally about 50° 
 F. Water evaporating at all temperatures, it is plain 
 
178 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 that, if a constant supply be afforded, this evaporation, 
 by requiring a large portion of heat, would keep the 
 temperature of the vault nearly uniform. To suspend 
 the hides in the pit, place three bars lengthwise, at equal 
 distances, near the ceiling, with iron hooks, two or three 
 inches apart, inserted therein. Soak the hides as usual 
 for breaking, then hang them singly upon the hooks by 
 the butt, so that they may be spread fully open. In 
 the course of a few days, when the hair begins to loosen 
 upon the upper parts, take them down, raise the middle 
 bar, and hang them by the other end, until they will 
 easily unhair. The hides should not be broken until 
 they are taken from the vault and ready to unhair. In 
 a good vault, where the thermometer ranges from 44° to 
 56° F., which it should never exceed, and where there 
 is a free circulation of damp air, hides generally require 
 six to twelve days for unhairing. When the tempera- 
 ture falls below 44°, the ventilator should be partially 
 closed; and when it rises above 56°, cold damp air must 
 be forced in, or an increased quantity of cold spring-water 
 may be thrown from a hose or otherwise." 
 
 The hides carefully carried through this process, when 
 received by the tanner from the beamsman's hands, are 
 free from all extraneous matter, and contain all their 
 gelatine, albumen, and fibrine, in an unimpaired state. 
 It is not, as the inexperienced suppose, a fermentation 
 which produces the unhairing, for there is no ammonia 
 generated, and this is universally a product of the putre- 
 factive decomposition of animal matters. " The action 
 is confined to the surface or grain of the skin, expanding 
 the outer portion, softening the roots of the hair, and 
 thus rendering its removal easy. Its effect is due to the 
 softening action of the vapor, and it is a simple case of 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 179 
 
 absorption and swelling of the tissues of the skin and 
 roots of the hair." 
 
 Liming, which requires an immersion of three or more 
 weeks, it is true, loosens the epidermis and hair, and 
 renders their removal easy by fleshing; but, at the same 
 time, injures the gelatine and albumen, and " swells" the 
 hide so excessively, and expands its texture, as to weaken 
 the leather. Moreover, if it should be what is termed 
 high limed, the leather is light, and not durable; bad 
 properties, which it also possesses, but in a modified 
 degree, even when prepared by Icnv limiiig. More- 
 over, the ill effects of the hating which follows, are an 
 additional drawback. The bate consists of a liquor 
 made from the dung of domestic fowls, and immersion 
 in this removes the lime and reduces the skin to its 
 original thickness. It acts by means of the muriate of 
 ammonia which it contains. This salt is decomposed 
 by the lime, which drives off its base, the ammonia, and 
 taking up with the muriatic acid, then becomes soluble 
 muriate of lime, and passes off with the rinse water; but 
 carries with it, at the same time, a portion of the gela- 
 tine, rendered soluble by the putrefaction of the organic 
 matter of the bate, which undoubtedly occurs. There 
 is emitted, besides, an offensive odor, which is injurious 
 to the health of the workmen. 
 
 Suspending the hides in close chambers, heated slightly 
 above the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, and 
 thus loosening the epidermis by incipient putref\iction, 
 is as objectionable as the liming or bating process. 
 
 The German method of sweating the hides in piles, 
 or stacks, under a covering of tan or some other imper- 
 fect conducting material, in order to confine the heat 
 generated by the chemical decomposition going on within, 
 is fully as disadvantageous as either of the foregoing. 
 
180 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 The present process, its author says, has been proved 
 by experience, to obviate all the evils arising from " hot 
 sweating," or from unhairing the hides by the lime 
 process. 
 
 Yauquelin proposes the substitution of machinery for 
 the use of lime, arsenic acid, and salts; but we shall 
 delay a description of it until we come to speak of his 
 process for tanning. 
 
 Turnbull, taking advantage of the property which 
 sugar possesses of forming a soluble saccharate of lime, 
 employs it for removing any excess of that base which 
 may remain in the hide. This process, of which we 
 shall speak more fully hereafter, is said to be expensive ; 
 but it shortens the time of tanning, and improves the 
 quality of the leather. 
 
 Raising hy Barley Dressings. — The raising and depila- 
 tion of hides by barley is more effective and rapid than 
 when lime is used. It is a common error that hides, treated 
 in this manner, require more working in the water. In- 
 deed, the very reverse being frequently the case. 
 
 There should be a series of vats of this acid liquor, 
 varying in strength. The hides are first soaked in the 
 vat containing the weaker liquor, then pressed, and 
 afterwards washed. After several repetitions of these 
 manipulations, the hair becomes loose, and easily re- 
 movable from the skins. 
 
 In the tannery of Bouillerat, at Paris, the proceeding 
 is as follows : The hides, as they come from the slaughter- 
 house, after being soaked and fleshed, are put through the 
 dressings, that is, subjected to the action of fermentable 
 barley water. 
 
 They remain three days in the first or dead dress- 
 ing," and as much longer in the second, when they are 
 freed from their hair, and placed in a third vat, in which 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 181 
 
 they dilate, swell out, and acquire consistence. They 
 are taken out only once, daily, from the dead dressing, 
 and twice from the others. At each time they are laid 
 in heaps, and there left in retreat^ during an interval of 
 three hours. After these three dressings, the hides are 
 subjected to a fourth, which is termed the new dressing. 
 This latter is made with 145 pounds of well-ground 
 barley meal. From this quantity 10 pounds are taken 
 out and made into a leaven, by being kneaded with 
 warm water, and left to ferment for twelve to fourteen 
 hours, in which time it sours and becomes sufficiently 
 ripe for the operation. This leaven is thinned out, in 
 winter with boiling, in spring with hot, and in summer 
 with tepid water, in sufficient quantity to form the 
 dressing. The vats for these operations are iron-bound 
 cedar tubs. 
 
 The hides are passed from the new dressing into an- 
 other similar one, and are allowed to remain four days 
 in eatjh. Eight or nine hides are generally worked at 
 one time. 
 
 The series is composed of four or five tubs, or vats. 
 The first dressing is intended to wash the hides, the 
 second for depilation, the third to swell them and impart 
 body; and the two others, which are new, complete the 
 action of the third. These preparations, termed white 
 dressings, require five weeks in summer and six in 
 winter. Fig. 29 represents the dressing series. 
 
 After having gone through the white dressings, as 
 above, the hides are carefully washed and placed in the 
 red preparation, composed of 220 pounds, or four baskets, 
 of tan, well mixed with two and a half hogsheads of 
 water; and are left in the mixture for fifteen days during 
 summer, and for one month in the winter. It is, how- 
 ever, necessary, during the first five days, to take the 
 
182 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 hides out, once daily, in order to be assured that the 
 supply of bark is sufficient. When the skins come from 
 the preparation, they are to be washed and placed in the 
 vats. Eight or nine skins may be handled at one work- 
 ing. 
 
 At Abbeville, which is renowned for the number of 
 its tanneries, and the quality of its leather, the tanners 
 adopt the following method : — 
 
 For sixteen hides, 48 pounds of unbolted barley meal 
 are put into an open-mouthed tub or hogshead, and 
 mixed with some sour paste, made of flour, thinned out 
 with hot water. To this mixture about half a pound of 
 yeast is added ; fermentation soon follows, and in from 
 fifteen to sixteen hours the leaven is formed. This 
 leaven being thoroughly mixed with 150 pounds of meal, 
 in a tub of water, forms what is termed the new dressing 
 or preparation. 
 
 The same gradation as with lime is observed as to 
 these dressings. Before the hides are worked, Hhey 
 should be cut into halves, and always placed with the 
 flesh side upwards. 
 
 The hides remain two or three days in the old, five or 
 six days in the weak, and twelve or fifteen in the third 
 and fourth, which are the strong or new dressings. Some- 
 times the hides are sufficiently raised at the fourth dress- 
 ing, and then they are taken out, while the unfinished 
 ones are put into a fifth dressing, and left until they 
 have acquired sufficient swelling. During summer, the 
 hides are drawn out twice, and in winter once, and left 
 to drain for an hour, each time, upon a trough conve- 
 niently situated near the tub. The course of barley- 
 dressings requires about six weeks in summer, and much 
 longer in winter, for cold retards their action. 
 
 According to Delalande, in Sedan they use nine or ten 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 183 
 
 small tubs, of about six hogsheads each. There is a 
 regular gradation in their strength ; for example, after 
 the first operation, the second becomes the first, the 
 third second, and so on progressively. 
 
 Five hides are placed in the first tub, and, after re- 
 maining therein from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, 
 are transferred to the second, which is a little more sour, 
 then to the third, and so on successively, through all the 
 remaining tubs, until they have passed through the 
 whole ten. The last, as we have already said, is always 
 the strongest, and the first the weakest. 
 
 If, as often happens, the skins should attain the ne- 
 cessary degree of dressing at the fourth, third, or even 
 second tub, it is needless to treat them further. These 
 sour liquors, even after having served for ten successive 
 operations, still retain acidity, and are again applicable, 
 in proportion to their degree of strength, which must be 
 determined by the experience of the workman. 
 
 All tanners are not agreed as to the exact time for 
 depilation ; some proceed to this step after the second 
 dressing, while others, holding to the old adage, that the 
 hides raise better with the hair on than in pelt, do not 
 dehair until after the dressing before the last. 
 
 After the skins have been treated, they are washed 
 in clear water, for the removal of dirt; and, when they 
 come from the last dressing, they are again rinsed and 
 scraped over with the fleshing-knife, Fig. 26. Finally, 
 they are again put in water, and brushed over on the 
 hair side. 
 
 Some few tanners, after this manipulation, lay the 
 hides in the vats; but the majority first subject them 
 to a red dressing. This latter dressing is given by 
 spreading the hides in a vat, one above another, and 
 placing between each pair two or three handfuls of ground 
 
184 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 bark. Water is then added until the hides are sub- 
 merged. This process requires two days, and the hides 
 require only one withdrawal to allow them to drain. 
 In giving them the finishing wet, care must be observed 
 to supply bark where it may be wanting. 
 
 This method of cleaning and unhairing is equally 
 objectionable as the lime process; and has, besides, 
 additional disadvantages. Exposure to a very low tem- 
 perature destroys the efficacy of the bath, which is not 
 restored, as in the case of lime, when the bath thaws. 
 And the leather is also exposed to the risk of being in- 
 jured by the putrefactive fermentation of the materials. 
 
 The English have, for a long time, used the barley 
 dressings for their coarse hides ; but, with them, the ope- 
 ration of raising is completed in six days. The hides 
 pass through four or five dressings, and progressively 
 from the weak to the strong preparations. The hides 
 remain only twenty-four hours in the last vat, which is 
 new, and which has been soured for fifteen days. It is 
 made by diffusing about sixty pounds of barley meal in 
 hot water. As a long time is allowed for the develop- 
 ment of acid, and, consequently, the dressing is more 
 active than ordinary ones, it becomes necessary to watch 
 carefully when the required point is reached, otherwise 
 the hides will suffer injury. 
 
 Barrois, an eminent French tanner, pursued a method 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 185 
 
 somewhat different from the preceding. According to 
 Delalande, he worked five series, of four tubs each, at a 
 time. These tubs were three feet and a quarter in height, 
 and five feet in diameter, and of capacity for eight hides ; 
 each series comprising thirty-two hides. It is necessary 
 to take out all the hides, twice daily, during the dress- 
 ing. 
 
 Every four days a new preparation is made up in one 
 of the four tubs ; it is deposited in that, the dressing of 
 which was the weakest, after running it off and washing 
 out the vat. The third vat then becomes the last or 
 weakest, and that which was the first and strongest, be- 
 comes the second. 
 
 The eight hides remain eight days in the fourth or 
 weakest vat; four days in the third, which then becomes 
 the weakest ; then the same length of time successively 
 in the second and the first, after six days' residence in 
 which, they are stripped and deposited in the fresh series. 
 In this they remain four days, in a dressing which has 
 only been used once ; four days more in another similar 
 one ; and four days each, in two fresh vats. 
 
 Each fresh preparation for eight hides, is composed of 
 145 pounds of ground barley, and the leaven is made 
 with 30 pounds of this quantity, mixed with yeast and 
 hot water. 
 
 This interval of thirty-two days suffices for the requi- 
 site preparation of the hides, either in summer or winter ; 
 but, in the latter season, hot water is generally used in 
 the proportion of five or six bucketsful to each prepara- 
 tion, in order to hasten the fermentation. 
 
 A barley-dressed hide of 100 pounds, takes about 200 
 pounds of bark, as follows : 25 in the red dressing, 30 in 
 the first powder, 25 in the second, and 20 in the third. 
 13 
 
186 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 The freshness of the preparations may be maintained by 
 the occasional addition of a few pints of good vinegar. 
 
 After the hides have been sufficiently raised in the 
 white dressings, they are put in the red. This latter is 
 composed of clear water, and two or three handfuls of 
 bark placed between each hide. The hides remain thus 
 for three or four days, when they are again treated with 
 the same quantity of bark as at first, and left for three 
 days longer; after which time they are ready to be laid 
 in the vats, in the same manner as limed hides. The 
 red dressings impart that degree of firmness which pre- 
 vents the too rapid action of the tan liquor, and the 
 hardening of the hides. 
 
 With some slight modifications, this process is one of 
 the best that can be followed. For example, a fresh vat 
 may be used every two days, and thus there will be a 
 gain of half of the time. Instead of clear water, it would 
 be much better to use the liquor of the tan-pits, and to 
 place between each hide a layer of coarsely ground bark 
 for the red dressings. 
 
 We will remark that 200 pounds of bark are not suf- 
 ficient for 100 hides, averaging 100 pounds each. In 
 some places they use as much as 300 pounds ; but the 
 proper quantity depends very much upon the quality of 
 the bark and the fineness of its powder. 
 
 The following is a method which may be well adopted 
 by those who prepare hides with the barley dress- 
 ings : — 
 
 For a dressing for eight hides, averaging 50 pounds 
 each, from 100 to 140 pounds of barley meal must be 
 employed. Some tanners use all the meal at once; 
 but others again make a leaven with 24 pounds of the 
 meal, which they do not mix with the rest until twelve 
 hours have elapsed. Many tanners keep up the acidity 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 187 
 
 of the dressings by throwing into each one three or four 
 bottles of vinegar, at different times. 
 
 This is a very good way of increasing the acidity of 
 the bath, and shortening the operation. 
 
 Other manufacturers, without giving themselves the 
 trouble of making a separate leaven, put the whole of 
 the meal in the tub, and drench it with enough tepid 
 water to form a fermentable paste, and leave it in this 
 state for twenty-four hours. The dressing is then made 
 by adding to the fermented farina warm water in win- 
 ter, and water of the temperature of the atmosphere in 
 summer. The quantity of water must be regulated by 
 the number of hides to be worked. These should be 
 'divided into two sides, before subjecting them to the 
 dressings, wherein they must remain three weeks in 
 summer and four in winter. To facilitate the fermenta- 
 tion, the hides should be taken out daily, placed on 
 planks across the vats, as shown by Fig. 35, and there 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 left for two or three hourg. The vats should be four 
 feet and a quarter in height, and as much in diameter. 
 In some countries, the tanners use nine or ten tubs, 
 but three are sufficient; the first for the c?eac? prepara- 
 tion, the second for the feeble one, and the third for that 
 termed the new dressing. The only rule that can be 
 given for depilation, is to operate as soon as the hair 
 
188 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 can be pulled off without resistance, a condition attained 
 frequently after the second, and even the first dressing. 
 
 The hides are then scraped, with the usual precau- 
 tions, with the round knife, and are then thrown into 
 water, in which they should not be allowed to remain 
 more than two hours. 
 
 They are then carefully rinsed, drawn out, and placed 
 in the second or weak preparation. If the tannery is 
 not in the vicinity of a stream of running water, the 
 repeated use of clean water must be substituted for 
 soaking the hides. 
 
 The experience of the workmen must determine the 
 length of time necessary for the weak bath. While they 
 are attaining the requisite body, they must be taken out' 
 daily, and again replaced in the vats. 
 
 If they had not been fleshed before the dressings, it is 
 necessary to subject them to this operation, after draw- 
 ing them from the weak vat ; but it is better always to 
 do it previously. After the fleshing, they are soaked in 
 water for two hours, then rinsed carefully, and placed 
 in the third, which is the new dressing. It is prepared 
 with barley meal, in the proportion of twelve pounds for 
 each hide. A leaven is made with one-fourth of this 
 quantity of meal, and when it begins to ferment, the 
 residue is added, and the whole thoroughly diffused in 
 an amount of water proportional to the number of hides 
 to be worked. 
 
 The exact time requisite to complete the swelling of 
 the hides, in the third dressing, cannot be determined ; 
 for it varies with the nature of the skins, the season, 
 &c.; and must, therefore, be regulated by the judgment 
 of the workman. 
 
 The hides during this, as in other dressings, should 
 be daily removed from, and replaced in the vats. 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 189 
 
 The hides, after passing through the first three, or 
 white dressings, are then put into the red, which is 
 made of liquor from the tan-vats, to which must be 
 added about forty pounds of coarse bark for every six 
 hides. 
 
 Care must be taken, in this manipulation, to avoid 
 delay, and not to give the bark time to subside to the 
 bottom of the vat, for then the skins will be unequally 
 tanned. 
 
 To prevent this, it is best to commence work with the 
 red dressing, very early in the morning, so that the ope- 
 ration may be completed before night, and the necessity 
 of leaving the skins in too long without stirring be thus 
 avoided. By this arrangement, the hides may be taken 
 out and replaced twice daily, once in the forenoon, and 
 again in the afternoon. The first time, they are al- 
 lowed to drain for eight to ten minutes, while the dress- 
 ing is being stirred, and are then immediately replaced. 
 The second time they are taken out, fifteen minutes are 
 allowed for draining, and, in the interval, forty pounds 
 of coarse bark are added, and the vat is thoroughly 
 stirred. 
 
 The next day and the day after, the skins are taken 
 out and put back again three times daily — at morning, 
 noon, and evening — and left to drip an half hour each 
 time. Twenty-five pounds of fresh bark are added in 
 the morning only ; but, upon every removal of the hides, 
 the dressing must be carefully stirred. No bark is to be 
 added on the fourth day; and the hides are taken out 
 only twice, in the morning and evening, but are allowed 
 to drain three-quarters of an hour each time. During 
 the intervals, the vat must be stirred before the hides 
 are put back. The last step, upon the fifth day, requires 
 a new manipulation. After the hides, taken out in the 
 
190 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 morning, have drained for three-quarters of an hour, 
 two workmen on one side of the vat are engaged in 
 stirring up the contents, while two others put back the 
 hides, flesh sides down, care being taken to spread some 
 handfuls of bark upon each. When the vat is full, the 
 last skin is put in, reversed, with the hair side down, 
 and some bark is sprinkled over it. After ten days, the 
 hides are taken out, rinsed in water which has been 
 used for a dressing, and laid in the vats. This is termed 
 the coloring. About fifty pounds of coarse bark are 
 generally consumed in the last dressing. 
 
 The red dressing is a very important step in the pro- 
 cess of tanning. It gives firmness to the hide, by an 
 incipient tanning, which serves as preliminary to that 
 which is to follow. According to Delalande, a skin 
 which has not received a red dressing, is tanned so 
 rapidly that it shrinks, becomes hard, wrinkled, and 
 insusceptible of perfect combination with the astringent 
 principle of the tan. Experienced tanners aver that these 
 faults arise rather from giving too strong a dressing, than 
 from having the vats too strong. The feeding of a vat, 
 according to Dessable, can never be too strong, for the hide 
 neither hardens nor shrinks in the powder. We agree 
 wdth him in part, but believe that a strong feeding of 
 the vat is injurious. Experience proves that if the hide 
 be directly subjected to contact with a concentrated 
 liquor of bark, the operation of the tannin is very active, 
 but its combination with the gelatine is so rapid upon the 
 exterior surfaces, that the interior is unacted upon, as is 
 the case in hasty tanning, where processes like that of 
 I Seguin are followed. 
 
 The red dressing is, therefore, a primary degree of 
 tanning, which should be succeeded by the stronger ones. 
 The hides, consequently, are to be placed immediately 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 191 
 
 in the vats, in the same manner as limed hides. It is 
 well to add, that there is no necessity of covering the 
 red dressings, but they must be ke'pt filled to within two 
 inches of the top of the tubs. 
 
 There are some tanners who contend that barley- 
 dressed hides require about 20 per cent, more bark than 
 those which have been limed. In many tanneries, they 
 take for a barley-dressed hide, averaging 100 pounds in 
 weight, 224 pounds of bark, as follows : 84 pounds for 
 the first, 74 pounds for the second, and 66 pounds for 
 the third. 
 
 The same results are to be obtained with rye flour; 
 but that grain being expensive, barley is substituted 
 for it. 
 
 The descriptions of these various dressings have been 
 given more for the purpose of making known the pro- 
 cesses employed in different countries, than of recom- 
 mending them to manufacturers. Their use is now very 
 generally abandoned, in consequence of the uncertainty 
 of their action, and the injurious effects which atmo- 
 spheric changes exert upon them. We accordingly 
 proceed to the consideration of more advantageous and 
 commonly used methods of procedure. 
 
 Raising hy Sour Tan-liquor. — This method of depriv- 
 ing skins of hair, and raising them by the action of tan- 
 liquor, was first practised in Germany, but has since 
 been adopted and generally resorted to in many parts of 
 France. 
 
 Its use presents more difliculties than other processes, 
 but may be regarded as advantageous in the extreme, 
 since it is actually the commencement of the main tan- 
 ning operations, and serves to abridge the time occupied 
 by them ; and since the leather prepared by it, is much 
 superior in quality to that treated by liming, or by bar- 
 
192 SWELLING^ OR RAISING. 
 
 ley or rye dressing. As the various processes of this 
 method cannot be too well known, we propose to de- 
 scribe them minutely and fully, commencing with the 
 account of those originally employed. 
 
 The first process we shall describe, is extracted from 
 a memoir by Champion. 
 
 When this method was first employed in France, the 
 skins were deprived of hair by the action of heat, and 
 in order to prevent putrefaction, from one pound to a 
 pound and a half of salt were sprinkled over one-half of 
 the surface of each skin, the other half being turned over 
 upon it, and the edges brought together so as to prevent 
 the escape of the salt. From 15 to 20 skins were salted 
 in this manner and placed one above the other; being 
 left in this position during four or five hours in spring 
 and autumn, and seven or eight in winter, the operation 
 never being conducted in summer. At the end of this 
 time, the skins were folded again in the opposite direc- 
 tions, the bellies being placed upon the backs, and the 
 heads under the tails, and the whole being piled upon 
 one another so as to be exposed equally to heat. 
 
 The skins were first dried with the hair on, and were 
 then soaked for eight hours in running water ; were 
 beaten with the feet or the mace, and again soaked 
 during four or five hours. They were then beaten a 
 second time, rinsed, and drained upon the horse, after 
 which they were salted as before described. After being 
 freed from hair by the influence of heat, to which they 
 were exposed in a tight, vaulted apartment, they were 
 soaked in running water. 
 
 After these preparatory processes, the skins were then 
 subjected to the steeping in sour tan-liquor, which softens 
 and enlarges the fibre, opens the pores, and raises them 
 sufficiently to receive the first tanning. 
 
SWELLING^ OR RAISING. 
 
 193 
 
 Another method is to deprive the skins of hair, by 
 stacking them in heaps (Fig. 36), and promoting warmth 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 by covering them with straw or manure, their position 
 being changed every day, until the hair is ready to be 
 removed. If it comes off with difficulty upon the horse, 
 its separation is facilitated by the use of sand spread 
 upon the hair side. This method of removing the hair, 
 however, is the most disadvantageous of any employed, 
 as the skins are very apt to be injured by it. 
 
 In order to prepare the tan liquor for the baths, the 
 bark which has been used for the second or third set of 
 vats in the tanyard, is deposited in a vat, so arranged 
 that the liquor percolating through it may be received 
 in a draining-well or vessel placed under it, from which 
 it can be returned into the main receptacle again and 
 again, so as to secure an increase of strength by repeated 
 filtrations and solutions. This liquor, when of the 
 proper strength, should be of a clear red color, and of 
 an acid taste like that of good vinegar, and from this a 
 number of baths may be made of different strengths. 
 For instance, a series of eight baths may be made, the 
 first one containing one part of the liquor and seven of 
 water, and so on until the full strength is arrived at. 
 
 When the skins are freed from hair, washed, and 
 fleshed, they are soaked in clear water, for two days in 
 summer, and four or five in winter, the water being 
 changed every day, and the skins left to drain during 
 
194 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 three hours. When the skins are ready for raising^ 
 after being steeped, they are deposited in vats containing 
 the infusions of spent tan, being first placed in the weak- 
 est. During their sojourn in these, they are taken out 
 every morning and evening, and allowed to drain over 
 the vats during three hours. Towards the end of the 
 proceeding, when in the stronger infusions, a removal 
 from the vats once a day is sufficient. 
 
 The baths of the English tanners have less acidity 
 than those employed in France, as they use infusions of 
 fresh bark in clear water. They work with a large num- 
 ber of baths, increasing gradually in strength ; and with 
 vats of sufficient capacity for fifteen or twenty skins. 
 
 The best of all the methods originally used for this 
 purpose in France, is that described by Delalande as the 
 one long pursued at St. Germain. In this process, a 
 series of twelve infusions is used, of which the ten first 
 consist of old infusions of tan, which had been before 
 used, and the two last of fresh tan-liquor. The skins, 
 a dozen of which are operated on at a time, when scraped 
 and washed, are deposited in the first or weakest bath, 
 made only slightly sour; are taken from it at the end of 
 twenty-four hours, and after being allowed to drain 
 during half an hour, are deposited in the next stronger 
 infusion of the series, and so on, being changed every 
 day until they have been treated in the tenth vat, or the 
 last of the old tan-liquors. The eleventh infusion, or the 
 first of the fresh tan-liquors, consists of sour liquor, to 
 which twenty-two pounds of coarse tan have been added 
 for each skin to be worked in it. The skins remain ten 
 days in this vat, and are then changed to the twelfth of 
 the series, which contains the same proportionate amount 
 of coarse bark as the other, but mixed with a stronger 
 liquor. After being allowed to soak for ten days in this, 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 195 
 
 they are ready for the tanning proper, and are removed 
 at once to the pit. An elevated temperature is very in- 
 jurious to the weakest of these infusions, and when the 
 operation is conducted in summer, care should be taken 
 to exclude the heat as much as possible from the room 
 containing the vats. 
 
 The sour liquor of the manufactories at St. Germain, 
 was prepared in the following manner : Five ordinary vats 
 were made use of; the first, which we will call No. 1, 
 being destined for the weakest, and the last, or No. 5, for 
 the strongest infusions. The spent tan from the pit in 
 which skins had been imbedded for the third time, was 
 deposited in No. 5, and warm water poured upon it 
 through a pipe or spout. The water filtering through 
 the tan, passed into a draining-well, and was pumped out 
 after four or five days, constituting then an amount of 
 tan liquor, sufiicient for four of the ordinary first or weak 
 vats. The pit was again filled with water, which, after 
 becoming tan liquor, was transferred into the vats Nos. 1 
 and 2, and the contents of Nos. 3 and 4 were composed 
 of the liquor of Nos. 1 and 2, again passed through No. 
 5, and the infusion originally drawn from No. 5, was re- 
 placed in it. The eleventh and twelfth vats originally 
 referred to, were made up from the contents of No. 5, and 
 the other ten from the contents of Nos. 3 and 4, diluted 
 in the proper manner with those of Nos. 1 and 2. The 
 exhausted and dried tan was used for fuel. 
 
 The following method is that now pursued in France 
 by the best tanners: The skins, after being carefully 
 fleshed and deprived of all superfluous parts, are soaked 
 for twenty-four hours in fresh water. When perfectly 
 clean and well rinsed, they are deposited in the liquors 
 by which they are to be deprived of hair and raised. 
 These are contained in a series of eight or ten vats, made 
 of oak, hooped with iron, and each one being three feet 
 
196 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 eight inches in depth, and five feet five inches in diame- 
 ter. Seven or eight skins are deposited in vats of this 
 size, enough liquid being poured in to cover them com- 
 pletely. The skins are left to soak for twenty-four hours 
 in the first vat, which contains the weakest liquor, and 
 are taken out twice during that time to drain for an hour; 
 being placed for that purpose on boards which are inclined 
 so that the fluid dripping from them runs back into the 
 vat. On the second day they are taken out, left to drain 
 for an hour, and are then placed in the second vat, which 
 contains a stronger infusion; and the same series of 
 operations is repeated daily, until the skins have passed 
 through all the vats. If, at the end of this time, the hair 
 appears ready to fall off, as is usually the case, particu- 
 larly in warm weather, it is removed from the skins by 
 working them in the ordinary manner upon the horse, 
 with the dull or round knife. In cold weather it is some- 
 times the case that the process has not been sufficiently 
 completed at the end of the time mentioned, and that 
 the skins require exposure to the strong liquors for five 
 or ten days longer, in order that the hair may be re- 
 moved from them with ease. 
 
 The skins thus deprived of hair, have not yet been 
 raised sufficiently to prepare them for the tanning, and 
 for this purpose must be exposed to the influence of four 
 more vats of tan-liquor gradually increasing in strength. 
 The mode of doing this is precisely the same as that de- 
 scribed above. After having passed through these four 
 vats, they are deposited in a vat of the size before men- 
 tioned, nearly full of strong, fresh tan-juice, which has 
 been previously thoroughly mixed by repeated stirring, 
 with four pounds six ounces of sulphuric acid at 65°. 
 During the first day of their soaking in this vat, the 
 skins are taken out twice, and left to drain for two hours. 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 197 
 
 On the second day they are removed once, being al- 
 lowed to drain the same length of time, and on the 
 morning of the third day, they are changed to the last 
 raising vat, which contains the strongest tan-liquor that 
 can be procured, previously well mixed as before, with 
 four pounds six ounces of sulphuric acid. On the even- 
 ing of that day they are taken out to drain for an hour, 
 and are replaced in the vat; and the next day and day 
 after that, are again taken out, exposed to drain for the 
 same length of time, and deposited again in the liquor. 
 Three hours after the last draining, they are finally re- 
 moved and are then found to be properly raised and 
 ready for tanning. In this, as in the preceding processes, 
 if the weather is so cold as to retard the raising, the 
 skins may be kept for two days instead of one in each of 
 the vats. The flesh side should always be placed up- 
 wards in the vats. 
 
 Quite as many and various processes for treating skins 
 with tan-liquor have been devised, as for the use of bar- 
 ley dressings, but we will content ourselves with the 
 description of two which seem to merit notice. 
 
 In the first of these, three vats are suflicient, and the 
 skins are exposed to five infusions. The first is weak, 
 being composed of four bucketfuls of tan, and five of 
 water, and is not prepared until it is required for use. 
 The skins, after being softened, dipped, and rinsed, are 
 steeped in this for twenty-four hours, being taken out to 
 drain for a quarter of an hour, three times during the 
 day. They are then deposited and treated in the same 
 manner in the contents of the second vat, which has 
 been prepared four or five days beforehand, and consist 
 of six bucketfuls of tan, mixed with one-fourth of tan- 
 liquor and three-fourths of water. On the third day, 
 they are placed in a vat containing six bucketfuls of 
 
198 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 tan, mixed with equal parts of tan-liquor and water. 
 At the end of two days, the skins are then put to soak 
 in a liquor composed of the contents of the last vat, 
 mixed with sour liquor from the draining-well. They 
 remain for five days in this, being taken out and drained 
 as before. On the first day, 40 pounds of coarse bark, 
 for every six skins, are added to the mixture ; and, on 
 the second, third, and fourth days, 22 pounds for the 
 same number, are mixed with it ; the skins being only 
 removed to drain twice on the fourth day. On the fifth 
 day, they are taken out once to drain for a quarter of 
 an hour, are replaced, and well powdered over with 
 about 40 pounds of coarse bark for every six skins. 
 After being left in this mixture for eight or nine hours, 
 they are removed, and placed in the fifth and last liquor, 
 which consists of a mixture of strong, fresh infusion, and 
 of sour liquor. They are left in this for three days, 
 being taken out to drain each morning and evening, and 
 12 pounds of coarse bark being thrown in every day. 
 On the morning of the fourth day, they are taken out 
 and drained for three-quarters of an hour, during which 
 time the liquor is well stirred by workmen ; after which, 
 they are returned to the vat, a large quantity of spent 
 or coarse bark being thrown upon each skin as it is put 
 in. The skins remain in this state eight days, when 
 this part of the process is concluded. 
 
 When the skins have been taken from the first vat, 
 its contents, being very weak and exhausted, may be 
 thrown away; and the second infusion, when used, may 
 be poured into it to supply its place for another opera- 
 tion; and so on to the last vat, the contents of the 
 stronger one being poured, when once used, into the vat 
 next behind it in the series. 
 
 The other method of treating skins with tan-liquor 
 
SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 199 
 
 has already been partially described in the account of 
 that pursued at St. Germains. In most tanneries, a 
 series of eight vats is used in summer, and one of twelve 
 in winter ; in the first case, the weakest infusion, con- 
 sisting of one part of strong tan-liquor to seven of water ; 
 the next strongest, of two of liquor and six of water; 
 and so on to the eighth, which consists of tan-juice 
 unmixed. 
 
 In spring and in autumn the skins are made to pass 
 through ten vats, the first containing one part of liquor 
 and nine of water, and the last, the strong infusion. In 
 winter, the weakest consists of one part of liquor to 
 eleven of water, and so on. In summer, the skins are 
 taken out and left to drain, during an hour, twice a day, 
 on the first three days; and, in winter, as often on the 
 first five days. Until the seventh day in summer and 
 the eleventh in winter, they are taken out daily, to 
 drain for two hours; and at the end of the seventh day 
 in summer, and the eleventh in winter, they are re- 
 moved, left to drain during two or three hours, and are 
 then replaced in the vat, each skin being liberally 
 sprinkled with coarse tan. They remain, for three or 
 four days without being disturbed, in the vats, which, in 
 either case, are the next to the last, and are then re- 
 moved to the last vats, which contain undiluted tan- 
 liquor; and, after being steeped in them for six or eight 
 days, are ready to be transferred to the pits. As cold 
 retards or prevents the fermentation of the materials 
 and the success of the process, the time of exposure may 
 be still further extended in winter, or the contents of 
 the vats may be kept moderately w^arm by the aid of 
 artificial heat. 
 
 Many other slight variations from these processes have 
 been resorted to by difierent manufacturers. But since 
 
200 
 
 SWELLING, OR RAISING. 
 
 the quantity of acid necessary to raise the skins has 
 been determined by Seguin, the most important opera- 
 tions of the method by tan-liquor have been conducted 
 with uniformity. The adherents of the old modes of 
 separating hair and raising skins have opposed many 
 objections to these processes, on account of their diffi- 
 culty, and the care and nice management required in 
 their use ; but there can be no doubt of their advantages, 
 and of the very superior quality of the leather manu- 
 factured by them. 
 
 Preparatio7i of the Tan-liquor. — The tan-liquors used 
 in the processes we have been describing, are obtained 
 by the filtration of water through the partially exhausted 
 bark of the second and third series of vats in the tan- 
 yard, and derive from it their astringent and acid pro- 
 perties. This tan, after remaining for a time in contact 
 with the skins in the vat, loses and gives up to them 
 the greater portion of its tanning ingredients, and then 
 is readily disposed to ferment and acidify; still retaining, 
 however, some of its tanning properties, but becoming 
 more and more acid as these are removed from it by 
 absorption into the tissues of the skins. These qualities 
 are calculated to injure the leather, and make its re- 
 moval from the vats necessary before it has been too 
 long exposed to the action of the exhausted and acidified 
 tan. 
 
 For the purpose of procuring the sour liquor, then, the 
 tan from the second or third series of pits, from which 
 the leather has been removed, is deposited in an empty 
 vat, in which a draining-well, or chimney, composed of 
 oak planks tightly joined together, has been erected. 
 Fig. 37. This well is so arranged that the fluid can only 
 enter it from below; and a pump adapted to it, serves 
 to withdraw its contents; or they may be removed in a 
 
STTELLING; OR RAISING. 
 
 201 
 
 bucket (Fig. 38). The vat is then filled with water, 
 and the solution formed by its filtration through the 
 
 tan, is raised, after a few days, from the well, and is 
 again poured over the surface. This proceeding is re- 
 peated again and again, until the tan is entirely ex- 
 hausted of its soluble contents. The top of the vat 
 should be kept closed, so as to prevent loss of fluid by 
 evaporation. In place of this method, a number of vats 
 may be filled with the spent tan, and the solution taken 
 from one of the series may be made to pass through a 
 second, a third, or more, until sufficiently saturated. 
 From fifteen days to a month are usually required to 
 give the liquors the proper degree of strength and 
 acidity. 
 
 The mode described above of withdrawing the liquor 
 from the pits, is much the most convenient; but in small 
 establishments, where great economy is practised, a vat 
 may be kept filled with tan and water for three weeks, 
 and the liquor may then be removed by making a hole in 
 the centre of the pit, and taking out the fluid collecting 
 in it, with a bucket. This liquor should again be poured 
 over the surface, and the same process be repeated, until 
 it is found to be of the requisite strength ; when it may 
 be clarified for use, by pouring it through a close wicker 
 basket, which will retain the floating particles of tan. 
 The infusion is known to be of the proper strength, 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 14 
 
202 
 
 WORKING ON THE BEAM. 
 
 when it has a clear, light-red color, and a taste slightly 
 less acid than that of common good vinegar. 
 
 After the tan has been nearly exhausted by the solu- 
 tion of its ingredients in the first liquor obtained from it, 
 fresh water may be repeatedly passed through it in the 
 same way as before, and the resulting liquid may be em- 
 ployed either alone, for the weaker baths, or for mixing 
 with the infusion first obtained. 
 
 Raising hij Yeast. — Yeast, like other substances which 
 pass into acetous fermentation, has the property of rais- 
 ing skins, and has been used for the purpose. It is mixed 
 in a vat with warm water, the vat is covered, and fermen- 
 tation takes place. When this is fully established, a 
 quantity of salt is thrown in, and the skins are deposited 
 in the vat, the contents of which are then treated pre- 
 cisely as in the case of barley dressings. The operation 
 can be conducted in the cold, but is much more rapid 
 and successful if the temperature of the liquor be kept 
 elevated."^ 
 
 WORKING ON THE BEAM. 
 
 After the skins have been prepared for the separation 
 of the hair upon them by any one of the numerous me- 
 thods which have been described, the next proceeding is 
 
 * As many of the processes for swelling, or raising the hides, de- 
 scribed in this Chapter, are not in use in the United States, a nearly 
 literal translation is retained of the parts of the French work which 
 contain them, along with the editorial "We," which, as in some other 
 instances, will be understood from the context, not to express the opin- 
 ion of the American editor. These and other parts of the book were 
 translated, before the necessity of the numerous changes and additions 
 since made was evident; and it has been thought proper to present them 
 in their original form. 
 
WORKING ON THE BEAM. 
 
 203 
 
 to remove it entirely, by working them upon the beam. 
 For this purpose the workman makes a kind of pad of 
 two or three folded skins, which he places upon the 
 horse, and over which the skin to be operated upon is 
 laid with the hair side up; and he then scrapes the sur- 
 face strongly from above downwards, with the scraper. 
 After the hair is completely removed, the skin is washed 
 and soaked in a trough, or vat full of water, and is then 
 subjected to the following operations : — 
 
 1. The flesh and other parts not properly belonging 
 to the skin, are removed with a sharp knife called the 
 fleslier^ and the skin is again washed and soaked in fresh 
 water. 
 
 2. The projecting filaments or shreds, and those parts 
 of the borders of the skin which are thicker than the 
 rest, are cut off with a sharp knife, and the skin is again 
 immersed in fresh water. The portions thus removed 
 may be set aside for the use of manufacturers of glue. 
 
 3. The hair side is then well rubbed and smoothed 
 down with a stone, similar to that used for sharpening 
 the knife-blades, but which is set in a wooden handle. 
 This done, the skin is dipped for the third time in fresh 
 water. 
 
 4. Both sides are well scraped and smoothed with a 
 knife having a curved blade, so as to equalize the surfaces 
 and remove all foreign particles. 
 
 A dozen skins can be worked in this way by one man 
 in the course of a day. 
 
CHAPTEK XIV. 
 
 TANNING PROCESS. 
 
 Having completed the consideration of the various 
 operations to which skins are subjected before they are 
 prepared for tanning, we proceed to give an account of 
 the latter process, commencing with a description of the 
 pits or vats in which it is conducted. 
 
 TAN VATS. 
 
 Some of these consist of large, square holes, excavated 
 in the ground, about six and a half feet deep, and eight 
 feet across, and lined with masonrj and hydraulic 
 cement. 
 
 At Paris, and many other places, however, they con- 
 sist of strong cylindrical, open, iron-bound, oak-wood 
 vats, covered externally with pitch, and sunk into the 
 ground. These are less liable to leak than those before 
 mentioned; and not having, in their construction, an}' 
 lime or other material which, by chemical action upon 
 the tan liquor or skins, might impair the quality of the 
 leather, are far superior to them. These advantages 
 have caused their general adoption. There is, however, 
 another form of vat, recently invented and patented by 
 T. W. Brown, of Virginia, and shown in perspective by 
 Fig. 39. This view also exhibits the movable bark 
 
TAN YATS. 205 
 
 chamber contained in the vat; the hide frame and wind- 
 lass for moving them. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 "Figure 40 is a perspective view of a locomotive bark 
 chamber detached from the vat. Similar letters in the 
 figures refer to corresponding parts. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
206 
 
 TAN YATS. 
 
 " The invention and improvement consist in the em- 
 ployment of a rectangular chamber A^ for containing the 
 bark, mounted upon four wheels B, by which it is moved 
 to and from the vat, and provided with two loops c, to 
 receive the hooks d of the windlass chain for raising 
 and lowering the said bark chamber A in the vat, one 
 side and the bottom containing a number of parallel 
 slits a, to allow the liquor to run through, and not the 
 bark; the use of the said rising and falling, and locomo- 
 tive chamber A, in combination with the ordinarj^ vat f, 
 affording to the tanner a convenient mode of managing 
 the bark, and enabling him to extract the greatest amount 
 of tanning properties from it, and to draw and handle 
 the bark as well as the hides, which is a very important 
 part of the tanning process, and to empty and supply 
 the vat of bark with great facility, the wheels not only 
 serving to facilitate the operation of transportation of the 
 bark chamber, but to prevent its bottom from touching 
 the bottom of the main vat f, when lowered into it, and 
 then allowing a free passage for the liquor to circulate, 
 and the slits in the side and bottom of the bark cham- 
 ber permitting the liquor to run freely through the bark 
 and out of the chamber as the latter is raised ; and again 
 to run into it and to circulate through the bark when the 
 chamber is again lowered into the vat f; and by a repe- 
 tition of these operations, to extract the tanning proper- 
 ties from the bark most effectually; this mode of handling 
 the bark in the process of tanning leather being entirely 
 new, the bark heretofore having remained at the bottom 
 of the vat in a compact mass, preventing a change in 
 its position and a free circulation of the water, and con- 
 sequently a proper extraction of the tanning properties 
 from the bark, and much difficulty in removing it whilst 
 changing the bark. The strongest liquor would also re- 
 
TAN VATS. 
 
 207 
 
 main at the bottom of the vat. My improved bark 
 chamber will permit the strongest liquor to percolate 
 through the bark and bottom of the chamber, and pass 
 thence into the part of the vat containing the hides, 
 and when the chamber is raised to a higher level, the 
 liquor will pass into the vat amongst the hides, at a 
 higher level." 
 
 "The hides h are suspended to a rising and falling 
 frame i, placed in the same vat that receives the afore- 
 said chamber, being raised and lowered by the same wind- 
 lass L that raises and lowers the bark chamber, k is the 
 frame that sustains the windlass, l is the windlass, m 
 are the bearings in the frame to receive the windlass 
 when the latter is applied to the raising and lowering of 
 the bark chamber." 
 
 In the common vats, after the skins have undergone 
 all the preparatory processes, they are cut in half and 
 stratified along with tan in the following manner: — 
 
 The bottom of the vat is first covered to the height 
 of six or seven inches with spent bark, and over this 
 substratum, a layer of fresh bark, an inch or more thick, 
 and well moistened and pressed down, is spread. A skin 
 is then placed on top of this layer of bark, then another 
 stratum of fresh bark, and so on, alternately a skin and 
 bark until the vat is full. 
 
 Each intervening stratum of bark must be an inch 
 deep, and always moistened like the first; and it should 
 be equally spread over the surface of the hide. 
 
 Many tanners use the dry powder as it comes from 
 the mill, but it is worked with much difiiculty when in 
 that state, and the laborers are exposed to the danger of 
 inhaling the dust which is constantly rising from it. A 
 much safer and more convenient method is to moisten it 
 outside of the vats, as, when in the humid state, it may 
 
208 
 
 TAN VATS. 
 
 with great ease be thrown upon the skins and spread 
 out upon them with a shovel. 
 
 When the skins have all been imbedded in the tan, 
 they are to be covered with a six inch stratum of bark, 
 technically termed the hat, which must be distributed 
 uniformly over the surface, pressed down by the feet, 
 and covered with boards. 
 
 In small tanneries the pits are not always filled on the 
 same day, and frequently only a small number of hides 
 are placed in them at a time. As it is essential in these 
 cases that they should be kept fully moistened, more 
 water should be added each time that the new skins are 
 deposited in them ; and in order that the relative position 
 of the contents may not be disturbed, the surface should 
 be covered with a coarse cloth, and the water carefully 
 poured over from a watering pot, and allowed to infil- 
 trate gradually. 
 
 The water being equally distributed throughout, and 
 in sufficient quantity, the liattwg of the pit is com- 
 pleted. In establishments where they do not commence 
 vatting until a number of hides sufficient to fill the vats 
 has been prepared, the watering should be completed in 
 one operation. When this is the case, it may happen 
 that the tan rapidly absorbs all the water poured in, and 
 in a day or two appears to have become perfectly dry. 
 More water should then be added, until it is certain that 
 the vat contains enough to moisten thoroughly all the 
 hides. The quantity required for each hide is about 12 
 gallons. 
 
 When, as often happens, particularly in small esta- 
 blishments, the tanner is compelled to place together in 
 the same vat, hides in different states of progress, that 
 is, those of the first, second, and third treatment, the 
 following mode of arranging them must be resorted to. 
 Those of the third treatment are to be deposited at the 
 
TAN VATS. 
 
 209 
 
 bottom; those of the second, above them in the middle; 
 and those of the first on top; so that, when those which 
 have gone through the three treatments are taken out to 
 dry, those of the second may occupy their place at the 
 bottom, those which were before at the surface being in 
 the middle, and the fresh hides, which are to be sub- 
 jected to their first treatment, being placed at the top. 
 This convenient method promotes an equalization of the 
 tanning, and should always be adopted; because the con- 
 tinued exposure of the same set of hides to those parts 
 of the vat which possess the greatest tanning power, and 
 of others to the upper strata of bark which contain the 
 least, is thus avoided. The substances at the bottom 
 of the vat, undoubtedly, are those which possess the 
 strongest tanning powers, because the descending in- 
 fusion, passing through the layers of tan above, becomes 
 more fully impregnated with tannin and extractive mat- 
 ter than that portion which remains in contact with the 
 upper strata of solid materials. Moreover, the complete 
 penetration and combination of these matters with the 
 fibrine and gelatine of the skins is promoted by the 
 pressure of the superincumbent hides, the tan, and the 
 column of fluid. 
 
 When the ordinary arrangement is adopted, it is cus- 
 tomary in filling the second vat, to place at its bottom 
 those hides which have been at the top of the first, and 
 so on throughout the ranges of vats. This is done for 
 the purpose of promoting a uniform impregnation of all 
 the hides; since, if always kept in the same position in 
 their progress through the yard, those occupying the 
 lowest one would be the most thoroughly charged with 
 tannin. 
 
 As oak bark is variable in quality, it is scarcely possi- 
 ble to give, with certainty, any proportion which it should 
 
210 
 
 TAN VATS. 
 
 bear to the skins. Skins weighing 110 pounds usually 
 require, however, about double that amount of bark. 
 From 33 to 44 pounds usually suffice for each of the 
 skins from Brescia, which do not commonly weigh more 
 than 26 pounds. Weak, thin and poor, or dry hides, 
 being of inferior quality, require very little bark, and 
 scarcely acquire any increase of substance. Common 
 hides scarcely ever need exposure to more than three 
 treatments ; the first being given upon the grain, and the 
 others upon the flesh sides. The finest powder is used 
 for the first process, which should occupy three months. 
 Coarser stufl" is employed for the second, which should 
 take four months, while the coarse harh alone is sufficient 
 for the third exposure, occupying five months. This 
 length of time may be considered sufficient for tanning, 
 though the best tanners extend it, giving to their hides 
 four, or, for the best qualities, even five exposures in the 
 pits. 
 
 Fresh hides, of course, exhaust the tanning ingredients 
 to which they are exposed in the first process much more 
 rapidly than they do in the subsequent ones; and hence 
 the necessity of a longer treatment in the second and 
 third vats than in the first. After they have been 
 thoroughly fed in the first, further contact with the spent 
 materials would be useless, as these are almost entirely 
 deprived of activity; and it may be very injurious to 
 them by promoting putrefaction. In passing through 
 the last vats, however, they run no such risk ; for, being 
 in contact with strong solution of bark, they are still 
 constantly — though from the resistance of their already 
 tanned surfaces, gradually — absorbing tannin, and acquir- 
 ing density. Small portions of alum are added to the 
 tan by some manufacturers, with the intention of dimin- 
 ishing the impermeability of these tanned surfaces, and 
 
TAN VATS. 
 
 211 
 
 hastening the process in its latter stages. The practice 
 is, however, neither a common nor a desirable one. 
 
 In changing hides from one pit to another, care should 
 be taken to remove from their surfaces all the spent tan 
 which covers them, so that there may be no mixture of 
 effete matter with the fresh bark. Some tanners even 
 take the trouble of beating and shaking the hides each 
 time that they are changed. 
 
 The importance of discovering some process which 
 would shorten the time usually occupied in tanning, 
 without injuring the beauty and durability of the leather, 
 and which would also diminish the expense of the manu- 
 facture by substituting some less costly materials for oak- 
 bark, has long been appreciated by chemists and practical 
 men. Among others who have devoted much attention 
 to this subject is Seguin, who, acting upon his opinion 
 that the combination of tannin with the gelatine and 
 fibrine of skins might be much accelerated by presenting 
 it to them in a liquid and concentrated form, succeeded 
 in greatly shortening the time required for tanning. But 
 experience has shown that, though the leather prepared 
 by such means is, to all appearances, well tanned, it does 
 not possess the requisite qualities. It is not thoroughly 
 and uniformly impregnated; for, while the outer layers 
 of the two surfaces combine rapidly with tannin, a deposit 
 of gallic acid and extractive matter forms a compact 
 coating, which prevents their complete penetration, and 
 renders their interior inaccessible to the liquid. This 
 leather is dry and by no means durable, its interior con- 
 sisting of untanned hide. An account will be given, in 
 its proper place, of the processes of Seguin and his fol- 
 lowers. 
 
 Experience has shown that, to insure the perfection 
 of leather, all the gelatine and fibrine of the original 
 
212 
 
 TAN YATS. 
 
 skins must be made to combine with tannin ; and that 
 this combination must be effected in the most gradual 
 way^ the accomplishment of which is only to be procured 
 by exposure to solutions which at first are weak, and 
 afterwards are increased in strength, until at last com- 
 plete saturation is arrived at. After this entire conver- 
 sion of substance has been attained, further exposure 
 only serves to injure the texture of the hides by intro- 
 ducing into it a dry, hard, and horny matter, which 
 renders them brittle, and easily penetrable by moisture, 
 and to consume uselessly the time and money of the 
 manufacturer. If, on the contrary, they have been ex- 
 posed too short a time, they will be imperfect and want- 
 ing in the requisite weight and solidity. It is, therefore, 
 an established fact that twelve or eighteen months are 
 required for the complete tanning of the best qualities 
 of hides, they being found to increase in strength and 
 weight up to the end of that time, which is the usual 
 duration of the process in England as well as in this 
 country. Still, there as well as here, skins are often 
 sent into the market after an exposure of six or ten 
 months, or even less time. 
 
 Dessabless Process. — Dessables reports the following 
 process — which we give in his own words, without in- 
 dorsing his views — as being one which much shortens 
 the length of time required in tanning. 
 
 "A draining-well is to be erected in one corner of the 
 pit, by means of two planks properly adjusted, and to 
 this a pump is to be adapted. The liquid which filters 
 through the tan will then accumulate in the well, and 
 can be distributed over the surface of the pit two or 
 three times a week, by means of the pump. These re- 
 peated washings will be a certain means of extracting 
 from the tan all its soluble parts, and of keeping the 
 
HERAPATH AND COX'S PROCESS. 
 
 213 
 
 hides always soft, and in a condition to be thoroughly 
 moistened and penetrated in every direction. The pro- 
 per time for discontinuing these filtrations and refiltra- 
 tions can be easily ascertained, and is doubtless much 
 earlier than in the ordinary methods." 
 
 It is supposed by some that alum would assist in ren- 
 dering leather more firm and durable, and that if any 
 substance as astringent as it is, and cheaper than oak- 
 bark, could be obtained, the time taken up by the tan- 
 ning process would be much abridged. This substance, 
 however, is not sufficiently cheap to be used in large 
 quantities, and experience has not yet shown that it pos- 
 sesses the properties attributed to it. 
 
 Herapath and Coxs Process, — Herapath and Cox, of 
 England, have devised a quick process of tanning, which 
 consists in passing the hides between two horizontal rol- 
 lers, driven by steam, once or twice daily, while being 
 handled in the tan vats. This treatment expresses the 
 spent liquor, which, if allowed to remain in the hide after 
 having become exhausted by it, w^ould impede the tan- 
 ning power of fresh ooze. The action of the rollers, 
 therefore, in the intervals between the usual transfers 
 from the weaker to the stronger vats, by driving out the 
 impoverished liquor, predisposes the hides to a more rapid 
 and thorough absorption of tannin than could possibly 
 be the case if they were passed from one vat to another 
 while saturated with exhausted liquor. 
 
 The lower roller should be about thirty inches in 
 diameter, and covered with hair cloth; and the upper one 
 only eighteen inches, and with a woollen envelop. The 
 pressure must be moderate, else the quality of the lea- 
 ther will be impaired by too great condensation of the 
 tissue. The hides are strung together with twine, and 
 drawn through continuously. 
 
214 
 
 HERAPATH AND COX'S PROCESS. 
 
 Butts may be tanned by this method in four months, 
 and kips and skins in as many weeks. 
 
 The skins must be connected together butt to butt 
 and shoulder to shoulder, as shown in Fig. 41. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 "One end of the band of skins is passed between the 
 two rollers a and h of the tanning apparatus. (Figs. 42 
 and 43 • Fig. 42 being a section and Fig. 43 a front view 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 of the apparatus.) The end having been passed between 
 the rollers, it is to be attached to the other end of the band 
 
CROP LEATHER. 
 
 215 
 
 of skins, and thus forms an endless band. Rotary motion 
 is then communicated to the apparatus from a steam- 
 engine, by means of the drum c, which is mounted on 
 the axle of the roller h. A small pinion d is also mounted 
 on the same axle, and takes into a toothed-wheel e on 
 the axis of the lower roller a. Upon actuating the ap- 
 paratus, the skins (which have been previously arranged 
 in the tan pit) are passed between the two rollers, the 
 upper one of which is weighted. The exhausted, or 
 partially exhausted tanning liquor thereby becomes ex- 
 pressed; and, w^hen the skin passes onward from the 
 rollers, it again enters the pit and absorbs a quantity of 
 fresh tannin." 
 
 CROP LEATHER. 
 
 The name is applied to leather made from the skins 
 of cows or small oxen ; the former being very eligible for 
 the purpose, provided they possess sufficient thickness, 
 as their tissue is more compact than that of ox-hides; 
 at least, if they have not already calved. The skins of 
 young oxen are deficient in firmness and thickness, and 
 are only used for conversion into belt leather. 
 
 This sort of leather requires a much more thorough 
 currying than thick hides, which are almost fit for use 
 when taken from the tanning. It is employed princi- 
 pally by shoemakers for second soles, and uppers for 
 women's shoes and men's light shoes and pumps. Young 
 ox-hides are regarded by shoemakers as inferior to cow- 
 skins, and they use the latter for the upper and thin 
 soles. The tanning of these hides is conducted in a 
 somewhat different way from that of thick hides. 
 
 They are placed first in the lime-pits, and, when ready 
 for depilation, which is usually in eight days during 
 summer, and ten or twelve in winter, are repeatedly 
 
216 
 
 CROP LEATHER. 
 
 fleshed and scraped, care being taken to rinse them each 
 time; in clean and running water if possible, so as to re- 
 move all the lime. Those intended for uppers require 
 at least four or five rinsings, while two will suffice for 
 those which are to be used as soles. 
 
 They are then deposited in wooden vats, four feet four 
 inches in height and six feet and a half wide, which are 
 nearly two-thirds filled with a weak ooze or infusion of 
 oak-bark, and are handled daily. 
 
 If the hides are worked in the same vat, the strength 
 of the ooze must be restored, as rapidly as exhausted, by 
 fresh additions of bark. When transferred to other vats, 
 the liquor in them must be made successively stronger 
 and stronger. 
 
 Tanners usually give the preference to this method, 
 but skins are sometimes treated in hot ooze, prepared in 
 vats similar to those just described, by adding hot water 
 to bark, which is used in the proportion of five basket- 
 fuls for every twenty-four cow-skins. After being placed 
 in the vats, the skins are repeatedly handled or moved 
 about by the workmen. This working is frequently 
 repeated, the skins being taken out daily to drain, and a 
 little fresh bark being added to the vats in the interval. 
 This manipulation is continued for four to six weeks. 
 
 Whichever of these methods is adopted, the hides are 
 next subjected to a mixture of ground bark and strong 
 liquor in other vats. For this purpose, the bottom of 
 the vat is covered with a layer of fresh tan, carefully 
 moistened, upon which a skin is spread out to its full 
 extent; this is covered with another layer of tan, and 
 the hides and bark are packed in alternately, till the vat 
 is full. The top hide must have a '^hat" of bark, and 
 the contents of the vat be then drenched with ooze. 
 
 The workman should be careful to place the skins in 
 every direction around the pit, the lengths of the con- 
 
CROP LEATHER. 
 
 217 
 
 tiguous ones forming slight angles with each other, and 
 to deposit tan in all the creases and doublings made by 
 the bending of the edges. This process usually requires 
 six weeks. Five baskets of tan are used for a dozen 
 ordinary cow-skins, and about six for six dozen young 
 ox-hides. The skins, having undergone this preparation, 
 are then further exposed to two treatments in the vats 
 in precisely the same manner. After remaining in the 
 first pit for three months, they are taken out, and, before 
 being transferred to the second one, are beaten or trod 
 out for the purpose of rendering them more supple. 
 This process — which should never be omitted in the 
 case of skins intended for shoemakers and saddlers — 
 having been completed, they are placed in the second 
 and last pit. Tanners disagree about the time proper to 
 be consumed in this final exposure, some being content 
 with five weeks, others extending it to three months. 
 The latter period is certainly not too long for hides which 
 are intended for leather of the best quality. 
 
 After withdrawal from the pits, the leather is dried in 
 the usual manner, care being taken to avoid exposure to 
 the sun, a strong wind, or a cool and damp atmosphere, 
 in which they might mould. They are then to be trans- 
 ferred to the currier, who prepares them according to 
 the kind and quality of the leather, and the purposes 
 for which it is intended. 
 
 Cow-skins differ very much in quality ; those of the 
 younger animals being much superior to those of cows 
 which have frequently calved ; the latter having become 
 weak and thin by the distension to which they have been 
 subjected. Young ox-skins, although long regarded as 
 inferior to the better kind of cow-skins, are equally ser- 
 viceable, and the two are now used indifferently by 
 shoemakers. A distinction is, however, made between 
 15 
 
218 
 
 CROP LEATHER. 
 
 the bellies of the former and some of the other parts which 
 are weaker, and are only used by them for upper soles. 
 
 The process of tanning which we have described, is 
 the one employed in all the best establishments in Paris, 
 but there are some Provincial tanners who vary it more 
 or less. According to Dessables and Delalande, crop 
 leather is made in Brittany, by the process of tanning 
 in sacks, hereafter to be described. After having been 
 exposed in the lime-pits for two months, and placed for 
 seven or eight days in hot ooze and water, they are then 
 filled with the decoction, and left for a week or more, 
 care being taken to change their position five or six times 
 daily. They are then unripped, placed between layers 
 of bark, and allowed to remain untouched during eight 
 days before being taken out and finally dried. 
 
 In Limousin, skins are limed for four days, and are 
 then placed in the tan-pits, in which they are allowed to 
 remain for three months. 
 
 In Dauphiny, they are limed for a fortnight, then ex- 
 posed for four weeks to two different treatments with 
 bark, and transferred to the vats, where they remain for 
 a month and a half 
 
 At Metz and Yerdun, after having lain for eight days 
 in old lime-pits, and as much longer in fresh ones, they 
 are exposed to the action of ooze for a month, and sub- 
 sequently to two stratifications with tan for five months 
 longer. 
 
 At Bourges, and in different places in Berry, they are 
 allowed to remain three months in the lime-pits and six 
 months in the tan-vats. 
 
 Lastly, at St. Germain, cow and calf skins are passed 
 through three old lime-pits and one fresh one, and then 
 undergo five cleanings and rinsings. They are then 
 beamed and relieved with the knife of all superfluities, 
 
DRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 219 
 
 and worked upon the hair side with a whetstone, and 
 wdien thus w^ell softened and cleaned, are again thrown 
 into water. After being worked for the third time upon 
 the horse with the round knife on both sides, so as to 
 expel the last portions of lime, they are again rinsed ; and 
 a fourth and fifth time treated in the same way. The 
 final rinse water should come from them perfectly clear, 
 and leave them in a proper state for the ooze bath. 
 
 Drying. — The drying of leather, however simple a pro- 
 cess it may appear, is one which requires the utmost 
 skill and attention on the part of the w^orkmen, and the 
 nicest determination of the point to which it should be 
 carried. Skins dried too slowly and in moist situations, 
 are liable to mould, which is greatly to their injury, while 
 those which are dried too rapidly, or during exposure to 
 the direct rays of the sun, become hard and brittle. 
 
 In order to prevent either of these extremes, every 
 manufactory should have attached to it a drying-room, 
 proportioned to its wants, in which numerous openings 
 or windows admit a free current of air, while the leather 
 is protected from the direct influence of solar heat. 
 
 The skins when sufficiently tanned, are to be taken 
 from the pits without being shaken or beaten, and are to 
 be stretched on pegs or hung up by their heads from large 
 nails, each one being kept expanded by two or three 
 sticks, passed through from side to side, so that all parts 
 may be uniformly exposed to the air. ' When they have 
 begun to whiten and have become slightly stiff, but before 
 they are perfectly dry, they are stretched out upon a clean 
 place, and scoured with the spent tan with which they 
 are still covered. When well cleaned in this way, they 
 are then to be trod out and beaten with the soles of the 
 feet in every direction, upon both sides ; and after the 
 inequalities and protuberances of surface have been made 
 
220 
 
 DRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 to disappear by this flattening process, they are assorted 
 in sizes and piled in uniform heaps. 
 
 "While the skins are stretched in the drying-room, they 
 should be beaten twice daily, at morning and evening, 
 upon the flesh side, with a round-faced wooden mallet. 
 If the skins should be dry, the operation may be facili- 
 tated by moistening their surface with a w^et brush. 
 This process imparts firmness. 
 
 After the skins have remained in piles for a day, they 
 are exposed to the air as before for four days. When 
 nearly dry, they are taken down and pressed under 
 planks heavily weighted with large stones. The next 
 day they are spread out upon an oak or marble table and 
 beaten with an iron mallet so as to compress their tissue, 
 and render them smooth and compact. (See Fig. 44.) 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 This proceeding should never be omitted, whatever 
 may have been the original preparation of the skins for 
 the vats. Limed hides should, however, be treated be- 
 fore they are dry, as otherwise the hair side surface 
 would be exposed to the danger of being broken and 
 rendered uneven. When they still retain a little moist- 
 ure, this cannot occur. 
 
 The process of beating leather is essential to give it 
 firmness and durability, and to make it impervious to 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 221 
 
 moisture. It is only the first step of the manipulation 
 which the shoemaker finds it so necessary to continue 
 upon the lapstone. 
 
 The leather, after having been thus hammered, is now 
 thoroughly dried for the last time, and piled up in a dry 
 and well-ventilated loft. Before it is ready for market 
 the leather should be repeatedly shuffled, as it were ; that 
 is, the position of each hide must be changed, and the 
 piles spread out in the manner of an open fan, and 
 pressed, as before, under planks and superincumbent 
 weights. 
 
 Having undergone these different processes for nearly a 
 month, it is again piled, preparatory to being sent into the 
 market. Not content with this management of it, some 
 tanners even take the unnecessary trouble of storing it 
 away in cellars for some time before they consider it 
 thoroughly seasoned. 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 Leather was originally beaten with hand-mallets, a 
 tedious and laborious mode of operating, which, in the 
 course of time, became obsolete by the invention of well- 
 adapted machinery. The chief object of these machines, 
 at first, was to accelerate the process and diminish the 
 amount of labor ; but it was afterwards found that they 
 also accomplished the desiderata of imparting smooth- 
 ness, compactness, and uniform thickness to the leather. 
 Ignorance of their real usefulness was for a time a 
 serious impediment to their general employment by the 
 trade, but their intrinsic worth soon evinced itself, and 
 they are now regarded as indispensable implements of a 
 well-conducted tannery. 
 
 In the earlier stages of this invention, the imperfec- 
 
222 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 tion of the machinery rendered it necessary, very fre- 
 quently, to finish the beating by hand, in order to im- 
 part the requisite solidity; but improvement grew with 
 experience, and has resulted in some comparatively 
 perfect apparatus. 
 
 Sterlingue and Co. were the pioneers in this branch 
 of ingenuity, and proposed the use of a hammer like 
 those employed for forging iron, but grooved ; and an 
 anvil faced with brass. The other portions of their 
 machine are a table for receiving the hides, and cylinders 
 for the cords or straps which keep the leather extended, 
 their axes being connected by an endless chain, in such 
 a manner that the straps which are rolled upon them on 
 one side are unrolled on the other. 
 
 The hides are allowed to be at rest during the descent 
 of the hammer, and are moved from under it during its 
 elevation. The blows may be increased in frequency 
 and force at the will of the operator, and if it is thought 
 proper to direct a number of blows upon one part of the 
 hides, the movement can be suspended by a catch, until 
 the required number has been applied. By these means 
 the skin is uniformly compressed in such a manner as 
 to render further beating by hand unnecessary. 
 
 Having found that the horizontal position of this 
 hammer interfered somewhat with the motion of the 
 hides, the inventors afterwards substituted a vertical 
 hammer like a pile-driver, which they patented on the 
 6th of February, 1839. By this improvement they have 
 obtained the alternate and successive action of a number 
 of hammers upon the leather, and established a system 
 by which rows of hammers of moderate weights are so 
 arranged that those of the second row descend upon the 
 prolongation of a line oblique to that of the first one, and 
 fall upon the hides with a constantly increasing force. 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 223 
 
 Dehergue's Maclivne, — This machine, invented in 1840, 
 is described in vol. Ivi. p. 40, plate 4, of French reports 
 of expired patents. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Figs. 45 and 46. 
 
 a, a. Pulleys, for communicating movement. 
 h. Longitudinal iron shaft. 
 
 c, c. Cast framework, supporting the shafts h and g. 
 
 d, Cast support, for the end of the shaft h, 
 
 e, e. Pinions, gearing with the wheels /, /. 
 
 g. Iron-shaft, carrying the wheels /, /, outside of the 
 framework. 
 
 7i, li. Crank-rods, the iron pivots of which, ^, i, are 
 fixed by means of nuts in grooves cut in the wheels /, /, 
 60 that their position can be changed at pleasure. 
 
224 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 y. Iron-shaft, receiving an oscillating motion from the 
 cranks h and 7i. 
 
 h. Cast-iron lever, carrying at its lower extremity a 
 stamper or small cylinder in a fork, and having passing 
 across it the shaft/, the movements of which it follows. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 1 i Q 
 
 I I 
 
 The upper part of this lever is equally divided into 
 two branches, in each of which is a groove traversed by 
 the iron shaft fixed at its extremities to double cast 
 supports n n. Above these grooves there are two rests, 
 o 0, for the cast-iron lever which pivots upon the trun- 
 nions q q, and to the extremity of which is attached an 
 iron rod which supports a cast box or iron plate, or else 
 a wooden box which can be weighted if necessary. Upon 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 225 
 
 the line marked by the rests, the lever can be moved 
 over the whole space between the two su23ports, and this 
 part should be accurately adjusted, so that, whatever 
 may be its position, the lever will weigh uniformly upon 
 the rests, r. Iron shaft, adjusted between the two sup- 
 ports n 01, and resting at the other end upon a simple 
 support s. The screw passes through the cast piece t, 
 forming its nut, and having two projections pierced to 
 receive the shaft upon which it moves when the screw 
 is turned. As the projections of the nut t entirely fill 
 the interval between the branches of the lever Z:, this 
 lever must follow the movements of the nut exactly as 
 if directly commanded by the screw, u u are two pul- 
 leys, across which passes the uncut part of the screw z. 
 These pulleys are commanded by the other pulleys v v, 
 the one by a straight strap, the other by a crossed one, 
 and are turned in an opposite direction to each other. 
 
 X. Toothed shaft, partaking of the rotatory motion of 
 the main shaf1>, which, being traversed by a pin, but 
 being movable to the right or left at pleasure, and fitting 
 in the claws of the pulleys 7i n, renders their movement 
 uniform with that of the shaft. At the middle of 
 this shaft there is a large groove, which receives two 
 small iron stays, fixed to the interior of the oval which 
 the lever y forms at its junction with the shaft. This 
 lever is surmounted by a ball iv, and is mounted upon 
 an iron pivot, which is fixed upon the cross-piece a', fas- 
 tened at its extremities to the supports n n. 
 
 y. Round iron rod having a square part at the end 
 which slides in one of its supports, and is, by this means, 
 prevented from being turned. This rod passes across a 
 tail-piece, attached to the nut t, and carries two rings, c' c', 
 fastened at a convenient part by a compressing screw. 
 The rod also has upon it two little projections, d' d'. 
 
226 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 which engage the lever and give it an alternate motion 
 to the right or left, when the tail of the nut encounters 
 alternately the rings d d , 
 
 e'. Cast, marble, or wooden table, surmounted by a 
 copper plate. The table, as the plan shows, may be 
 either plane or concave, without any injury to the suc- 
 cess of the process following."^ 
 
 This machine is intended to produce the most com- 
 plete contraction of the pores of leather that can be 
 attained, by means of two different movements com- 
 bined in one, and by a pressure of from 18 to 20 
 thousand weight upon a surface of some fractions of an 
 inch, this pressure being transmitted through the whole 
 thickness of the skins without injuring or abrading their 
 surfaces, and compressing those of different thickness 
 with entire uniformity. 
 
 The hides are placed upon the table e; the stamper Z, 
 to which a round, oval, curved, or straight form can be 
 given at pleasure, directed by the whole weight of the 
 lever and the additional one of the lever passes 
 over the leather and receives the oscillating motion given 
 to the lever by the cranks h, h. It also receives an- 
 other motion which makes it pass progressively across the 
 breadth of the table, first in one direction and after- 
 wards in the other, and which is caused by the screw 
 which receives an alternate rotatory motion to the right 
 and to the left, by means of the toothed shaft which 
 catches in the pulleys to the right and to the left, being 
 
 * It will be observed that an occasional discrepancy between tlie let- 
 tering of tbe cuts and the references to them in the descriptions occurs 
 in this and a few other instances throughout the work. The errors are 
 to be met with in the original French treatise much more frequently than 
 in the present edition; and those which have not been altered from the 
 originals by the engraver, will be detected at once by any machinist. 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 227 
 
 governed by the lever with the ball on top, which is 
 drawn away from its centre of gravity by the projections 
 cVy cV, of the rod and falls back upon the opposite 
 side. 
 
 The table being higher on one side than on the other, 
 and the course of the lever passing the curved part 
 where it is least elevated, the stamper leaves the surface 
 of the leather at short intervals, which are determined 
 by each revolution of the wheels /, /, and tbe pressure 
 being thus taken off, the leather can be moved by the 
 workman and replaced in another position, so that the 
 force can be directed successively upon the whole sur- 
 face. 
 
 The results of this operation are an immense economy 
 of time, labor, and trouble, the greatest possible amount 
 of compression and contraction of the substance of the 
 leather, the securing of a perfectly uniform and smooth 
 surface, and the accomplishment by one workman of 
 what can only in common be effected by ten or twelve. 
 
 Flotard and Delhufs Machine, — The following is a de- 
 scription of a machine invented in 1842, by Flotard and 
 Delbut, taken from the Eeports of expired French Patents, 
 vol. Ivii. p. 86 ; its object being to replace hand-beating 
 by more active means, which will be free from the in- 
 conveniences attaching to other machines. To attain 
 this end, the inventors have endeavored chiefly : — 
 
 1st. To bring to perfection the construction of the 
 mechanism moving the hammer, and 
 
 2d. To make the anvil elastic, so that injury to the 
 leather by the hardness and roughness of the blows may 
 be prevented. 
 
 3d. To use a table with a rolling surface, and with 
 rollers attached to the feet. 
 
228 
 
 BEATING AND KOLLING. 
 
 Figs. 47, 48, and 49. a. Cam, intended to lower the 
 arm of the lever c, so as to elevate the hammer e. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 1). Framework, or cast beam, supported on three co- 
 lumns and sustaining the whole apparatus. 
 
 Fig. 48. Fig. 49. 
 
 c. Lever, having one extremity furnished with a 
 wooden cushion, and the other rounded off to enable it 
 to move freely in the mortice of the hammer. 
 
 d. Cast arm, the end of which holds the helve of the 
 hammer and maintains it in the vertical position. 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 229 
 
 e. Hammer^ having its lower surface covered with 
 copper. 
 
 /. Support, or anvil, composed of two principal parts : 
 the one fastened to the ground, 1, is furnished with a 
 grating, 2, which receives the fuel, and is attached by 
 screws to masonry-work; the other part, 4, is that which 
 receives the impulse of the hammer. It is movable, and 
 mounted on twelve springs, 3 ; and its upper surface is, 
 like the opposing one on the hammer, composed of cop- 
 per. 
 
 g. Fly-wheel, connected with the motive power by 
 means of a band. 
 
 Figs. 50 to 53. Hammer, of cast or wrought iron. If 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
230 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 sufficiently small, it may be solids but if large should be 
 hollow. 
 
 a, a'. "Wooden teeth, against which the cam h catches. 
 These teeth are adapted to two mortices in the upper 
 part of the hammer, and are retained in place by a 
 wooden wedge. By means of the two teeth, the ham- 
 mer can be elevated more or less, either by taking off the 
 lower one, a', or by enlarging or diminishing their size. 
 
 h. Cam, acting upon the teeth a, to elevate the hammer. 
 
 d. Cjdinder, directing the hammer and keeping it ver- 
 tical. This is furnished with two projections 3, which 
 support cushions for the shaft of the cam h. It rests 
 upon a shoulder cV, upon the plate h'. The lips i, 
 against which the wooden teeth slide, prevent the ham- 
 mer from turning. 
 
 Two lateral openings, o, o, Eig. 51 (also seen in Fig. 
 50), allow the cushions r, r, (Fig. 52) to pass, which 
 
 Fig. 51. Fig. 52. 
 
 press the levers Z, I; worked by a screw, to the right at 
 one end, and to the left at the other. Fig. 51 exhibits 
 this arrangement. 
 
 The shaft m. Fig. 52, serves as a prolongation of the 
 screw n, Fig. 51, and carries a pulley Fig. 50, upon 
 which passes a cord having a weight at one end, and a 
 stirrup for the foot at the other. The cushions r, r, pro- 
 
BEATING AND EOLLING. 
 
 231 
 
 duce a friction which slackens the fall of the hammer, 
 and diminishes the force of the blow. 
 
 cV . Circular plate, or cup, intended to receive the oil 
 or grease dripping from the machinery, and which 
 might otherwise fall upon and soil the leather. Fig. 50. 
 Two vertical pieces, supporting horizontally a rabbit, or 
 wooden spring, which is elevated or depressed by the 
 screw attached to one end of it, so that the hammer a, in 
 rising, touches it with more or less force, so as to aug- 
 ment the power of the blow. A metal spring may be 
 used in the place of a wooden one. 
 
 /. Figs. 53 and 54. Table with rollers, its feet rest 
 on iron rails. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 r. Wheels, adapted to the feet of the table and running 
 upon the rails. The skins to be beaten are placed on 
 
232 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 this table, and upon its middle the anvil, upon which 
 the hammer descends, is supported. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 3_ 
 
 The anvil is chambered for the passage of a current 
 of steam, for the purpose of warming the copper face, y ; 
 and it rests upon springs, which are intended to render 
 the shock of the hammer less severe, and to diminish 
 the jarring. 
 
 As the system of vertical hammers has long been in 
 common use, the invention of Flotard and Delbut con- 
 sists really, only in the use of 
 
 1. The spring, for increasing the force of the blow. 
 
 2. The check, for diminishing it. 
 
 3. The cups, for receiving the oil drippings. 
 
 4. The movable table, with rollers. 
 
 5. The arrangement of springs, under the face of the 
 anvil, and 
 
 7. In the passage of vapor. 
 
 M. Berendorfs Machine for Pressing Hides. — The fol- 
 lowing report upon and description of this machine is 
 from the Bulletin of the Society for Encouragement of 
 Arts, &c., of the year 1845, p. 68. 
 
 The necessity of hammering by hand skins intended for 
 sole leather, formerly a very essential though fatiguing 
 means of compressing them, has now been almost entire- 
 ly prevented by methods which much more effectually 
 answer the same purposes. Among these means that of 
 M. Berendorf, which substitutes for hammering a rapidly 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 233 
 
 applied compression, somewhat analogous to it in opera- 
 tion, has been very successful. 
 
 The peculiarity of the mode employed by him in the 
 use of the machine invented in 1844, consists not so 
 much in this substitution of rapid compression for ham- 
 mering, as in the peculiar arrangement of the support for 
 the leather, which, by its elasticity, makes it possible to 
 confine the amount of pressure to any desired limits. 
 The support is an anvil, resting upon a spring composed 
 of hard wood, the amount of resistance of which can 
 be modified at pleasure by the workman, w^ho, holding 
 the hide by one hand, turns with the other a screw which 
 exactly regulates the pressure to which any particular 
 part of the leather may be exposed. 
 
 " The machine of Berendorf is powerful, and simple 
 in all its parts. A beam acts upon a lever, the fixed 
 point of which is attached to a cast-iron support, which 
 forms the top of a frame large enough to receive a great 
 number of hides, and having in its middle an opening 
 through which the piston which produces the com- 
 pression by means of a lever about to be described, slides. 
 
 " The compressing surfaces in contact with the hides, 
 are made of brass, are smooth, convex, circular, and 
 have a diameter of from SiVth to Sjoth inches. The 
 skins exposed to their action are beautifully smoothed 
 and perfectly compressed by it. 
 
 ^^The advantages of this process in improving the 
 quality and appearance of leather, and its superior cheap- 
 ness, have induced the council to bestow upon M. Beren- 
 dorf a silver medal, and to insert in their Bulletin this 
 report, accompanied by a description and plate." 
 
 This machine is composed, 1st, of a movable vertical 
 hammer, which exerts pressure upon the hides. 2d. Of 
 16 
 
234 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 a fixed anvil, upon which they are placed. 3d. Of a 
 lever which gives the impulse to the hammer. 
 Fig. 55 exhibits a front view of the machine. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Fig. 56. A plan. 
 
 rig. 66. 
 
 Fig. 57. Vertical and cross section, made upon the 
 line A, B, in the first figure. 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 235 
 
 The same letters apply to all the figures. 
 
 1. The wrought-iron hammer, A, is furnished, at its in- 
 
 cal shank or helve passes through a vertical socket in 
 the large and strong cast-iron beam B. This latter, 
 which is represented in cross section by Fig. 58 (upon 
 the line C B, Fig. 55), is strengthened by mouldings, 
 and rests, by its extremities, upon two cast upright 
 columns C C, with which it is firmly connected. The 
 space between these uprights, amounting to but 78 
 inches, only admits half hides, although M. Berendorf 
 
236 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 has also adopted another arrangement, represented in 
 Fig. 59, which admits of acting upon whole ones. About 
 the middle of the upper part of the beam and near 
 the socket, is a projection D, which supports the end of 
 the lever that transmits its action to the hammer. 
 
 2. The anvil which receives the leather to be com- 
 pressed, is composed of an iron cylinder having a 
 brass face a', like that of the hammer, and between these 
 two the leather is pressed when the latter descends. 
 
 The cylinder passes freely through the socket of the 
 large cross-piece and rests upon an elastic support, 
 which allows it to descend a little under heavy pressure, 
 and to rise again rapidly. This support consists of a 
 thick wooden plank 20 inches square, fixed at its ends 
 to the lateral projections c, which descend to the foot of 
 the columns with which they are connected. This piece 
 of wood-work is so large that it often has to be made of 
 two pieces bound together by screws with nuts d. The 
 cylinder does not rest directly upon this wood, but upon 
 a steeled gudgeon, or pin, Fig. 60, e /. The gudgeon or 
 pin is threaded for part of its length, and traverses a 
 copper nut </, sunk in a cast-iron rim A, which is let into 
 the centre of the wooden support. By turning this pin 
 to the right or left, the cylinder and the anvil-face a' are 
 made to rise or fall along with it. To effect this move- 
 ment, the workman grasps a little fly H, the axle of 
 which has an endless screw which works a toothed-wheel 
 /, mounted upon the gudgeon. The fly is turned more 
 or less, as the thicker or thinner parts of the leather are 
 being exposed to pressure. 
 
 The leather placed between the anvil and hammer is 
 thus pressed to any desired extent, and, the wood below 
 being elastic, bends or gives to some extent, and again 
 rebounds to its original position. 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 237 
 
 The cast cross-piece F which guides the anvil, rests at 
 its two ends upon the projections ii of the columns G (7, 
 and upon each side of it is placed a table upon which 
 the workman moves the hide in every direction^ so that 
 it may be touched at all points successively. 
 
 3. The lever which acts on the hammer. The head 
 of the hammer A incloses a steel block, upon which a 
 prop j pivots, which is of ovoid form and well-tempered 
 steel (Fig. 57) ; and upon this prop the large lever 
 moving upon the axis h, Fig. 61, is supported. When 
 it descends, it rests upon the prop y, which oscillates a 
 little upon its centre, and forces down the hammer in a 
 vertical direction, and, in order that it may rise again 
 with it, they are connected together by two iron bars, 
 terminated by arms, which are attached on one side by 
 the bolt rriy which passes through the lever, and on the 
 other by a similar bolt n, which goes through the head 
 of the hammer (Fig. 57). The play given to these 
 arms is regulated by small compressing screws above 
 them. 
 
 The steel axis upon which the lever moves, rests 
 upon the upper part of the projection D. A steel ring, 
 traversed by the axis is adjusted upon the centre of 
 the lever-head, and can be easily replaced when worn 
 out. In order to retain this axle in place, it is covered 
 on each side of the lever by two strong stays, the 
 branches of which extend to the top of the beam, as well 
 as to the projection D, and are. kept in place by strong 
 nuts. 
 
 M. Berendorf moves his machinery by a small oscillat- 
 ing cylinder engine, the power being transmitted to the 
 lever K by the two beams L X, joined together by the 
 double crank M. The vapor enters the conical box 
 from the boiler through the pipe 5, raises the piston, and 
 
238 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 escapes by the pipe t. The fly R turns the small crank 
 
 and works the feeding-pump which is plunged in 
 the reservoir T, The water is returned into the boiler 
 by the tube a'', when the cock h' is open, and a ball-cock 
 keeps up the communication between a reservoir above 
 and the one below. 
 
 This machine works ordinarily at the rate of 140 revo- 
 lutions in the minute, during which time more than a 
 square yard of surface is compressed by it. In M. Beren- 
 dorf's establishment, where a number of machines are 
 constantly working, from 70 to 80 half skins are pressed 
 by each apparatus in twelve hours. 
 
 Berenger and Co. have three mill-hammers at work, 
 at the rate of 100 blows a minute, each one turning out 
 from 35 to 40 whole skins in a day. 
 
 M. Berendorf has taken out a patent of fifteen years 
 duration, dating the 7th of October, 1842, and, still later, 
 two additional ones of improvements upon this interest- 
 ing machine, which is now completely established in 
 favor. 
 
 Coxs Machine. — A more modern method of rendering 
 leather smooth and compact, is by passing it between 
 rollers. This mechanical arrangement, being free from 
 tremulous motions, and easily adjusted to any desired 
 rapidity of action, produces a uniform and powerful 
 compression throughout the side of leather, without any 
 liability of damaging it, as is the case in machine heating. 
 
 Cox has invented a rolling-mill in which the roller is 
 fixed at the end of a lever, which, being suspended, 
 oscillates like the balance of a pendulum. 
 
 This roller, made of copper or brass, 5 inches in 
 diameter and 9 inches in length, is suspended by its 
 axes in the chaped end of an iron lever, 6 inches in 
 diameter and 11 feet 10 inches long. The upper end of 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 this lever, also terminating in a chape, is movable upon 
 pivots attached to a beam or block 15 feet long and 2 
 feet wide. This beam is free at its anterior extremity, 
 and is so jointed at the other as to enable it to move 
 upwards and downwards, and it rests on each side upon 
 two supports placed below it. The weight is in a box 
 resting upon the body of the lever, which is moved by 
 the aid of a crank attached to it at a distance of rather 
 less than two feet above the roller. The lever should 
 move through a space of 3 feet 8 inches, but this can be 
 increased or diminished. The copper or brass support 
 is hollowed out, so that the roller can pass along its 
 whole extent, and reach all parts of the leather. As 
 soon as the hide is placed upon this support, the block 
 or beam is made to rise, and the whole weight bears 
 directly upon the leather. At the end of its course, 
 where the support is flat, the roller is raised up by the 
 beam, the weight is borne down again upon the leather 
 when it reaches the middle, and is again elevated by the 
 supports placed under the beam. 
 
 Fig. 62. Fig. 63. 
 
240 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 Fig. 62 is a front view, and Fig. 63 a side view, of this 
 machine. F, beam, movable at its hind end by a hinge 
 C fixed in the wall, (Fig. 64), and maintained in a hori- 
 zontal position at the other end by the sup- 
 ports BB. P, lever joined to the beam i^by 
 the pivots S S, and terminated by a fork M, 
 which holds the roller running over the 
 curve A. This curve has, at either end, a 
 plane surface B, where the roller leaves it and is raised 
 up by the pivots S. D is the horizontal shaft connected 
 with a crank which moves the lever P, and (7 is a box 
 containing a weight heavy enough to cause the neces- 
 sary pressure at the moment when the roller reaches the 
 plane end of the support. 
 
 Wiltses Rolling Table. — This machine, somewhat simi- 
 lar in construction to the preceding, is shown by the 
 accompanying drawing, Fig. 65, made to a scale of the 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 eighth of an inch to a foot. The machine consists of a 
 spring pole, a lever h, to which the head of the vibra- 
 tor d is attached, and which is rendered compound by a 
 
BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 241 
 
 connection with a second lever c. This combination 
 acts through the vibrator d upon the roller and is 
 propelled by the foot working the treadle e e. The bed 
 h is of lignum vitse wood, and the table ^, upon which 
 the leather is spread while being gradually drawn under 
 the roller, is 8 feet wide and 16 long. The bed is the 
 part upon which the leather is rolled, and is firmly sup- 
 ported by a heavy log J, which, in its turn, rests securely 
 upon the supports o o o o and the sill n of the building. 
 The connection / with the balance-wheel h forms a crank 
 by which a vibrating motion is communicated to d. The 
 pulley m on the same shaft is the driving medium, and 
 the roller should move at the rate of 130 revolutions a 
 minute. 
 
 Fig. 66 is a view of the rollers A A, one of which is 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 .A 
 
242 
 
 BEATING AND ROLLING. 
 
 represented as it is retained in working position by the 
 straps, B B, and the other detached. A side view of 
 the strap is also given in a separate figure B, The 
 wrench O is used for turning the nuts K The lips F F 
 are oil-holes for lubricating the journals of the roller. 
 
 The roller is made of a composition of copper and tin, 
 with a steel shaft penetrating through it. 
 
 These mills and appliances are made in a creditable 
 style of art by Wiltse and Co., Catskill, New York. 
 
CHAPTER XY. 
 
 IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 Having treated, in detail, of the practices of the art, 
 as well as its chemical theory, the reader may now be 
 considered sufficiently conversant with the subject to 
 detect and apply the good points of the so-called ^'im- 
 proved" processes which we are about to present. 
 
 Seguin, the friend and colleague of the lamented La- 
 voisier, devoted himself particularly to the improve- 
 ment of the tanner's art, by chemical exjoeriment and 
 inquiry; and was the first to make known the distinction 
 between gallic acid and tannin, and the property which 
 the latter possesses of combining with various animal 
 substances, especially gelatine, forming with it the un- 
 alterable basis of leather. The determination of this 
 important fact revealed the key to the whole process, 
 and was the foundation of his own researches and labors, 
 as well as of those of all who have since followed in his 
 footsteps. 
 
 seguin's process. 
 
 Seguin's mode of proceeding was as follows: His 
 preliminary processes were the same as those of others, 
 excepting, according to Dessables, that he directed the 
 skins, after soaking and fleshing, to be rinsed in run- 
 ning water, so that all parts of them should be exposed 
 to contact with it. He first deprived them of hair 
 
244 IMPROYED PROCESSES. 
 
 by means of lime, and then deposited them in tan- 
 juice, with which was mixed one-five hundredth, and 
 sometimes one-thousandth part of sulphuric acid. For 
 raising the hides, he first used a vat lined with a cement 
 containing a little lime, and filled with water acidulated 
 with one-fifteen hundredth part of sulphuric acid; but 
 this did not answer the intended purpose, as the acid, 
 instead of mixing with the water, combined with the 
 lime. He therefore substituted wooden tubs for vats, 
 filled them with w^ater charged with one fifteen hundredth 
 of concentrated sulphuric acid, which was gradually in- 
 creased to one-thousandth part, and by this arrangement 
 succeeded, according to the report made by him to the 
 committee of public welfare, in raising hides in forty- 
 eight hours. He asserted, however, that this operation 
 of raising was not essential, and that he procured excel- 
 lent leather from skins which had not been submitted to 
 the treatment. 
 
 He did not stratify the skins in tan-vats, but placed 
 them in vats filled with ooze." For procuring this so- 
 lution, a number of tubs were placed in a row, and filled 
 with ground tan. A certain amount of water was then 
 emptied into each tub, and filtering through the tan, 
 dissolved out its soluble particles, and descending, ran 
 into receiving vessels beneath. The liquid from the 
 first vat was then thrown into the second one, and so on 
 through the range, until it became saturated. As a con- 
 siderable quantity of available material still remained 
 in the tubs, they were affused with fresh water, which by 
 a process of displacement, continued extracting the solu- 
 ble matters until the tan was entirely exhausted. 
 
 Seguin placed the skins, after being taken from the 
 acid bath, in a very weak infusion of. tan, and there 
 allowed them to remain only an hour or two for the pur- 
 
IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 245 
 
 pose of giving color to the hair sides. They were then 
 taken out and immersed in a stronger solution, and 
 again and again deposited in infusions, increasing each 
 time in strength until the tanning was entirely com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Oah Tanning. — A patent was taken out in London, in 
 the year 1804, for a tanning process, which is founded 
 upon the principles estabUshed by Seguin. The oak 
 bark is boiled for four hours in a copper boiler, and when 
 the tan is perfectly exhausted, the decoction is allowed 
 to flow off through tubes into the vats, where it is cooled. 
 The skins are deposited in this after being soaked and 
 pressed, and if they exhaust the liquor before the close 
 of the process, a fresh decoction is substituted. If it is 
 desired to have the hair side color whiter than ordinary, 
 tan is mixed with the liquor. By this means a great 
 amount of tannin is concentrated in a small quantity of 
 material, and much less labor is required than in com- 
 mon; ten or twelve days producing as great an effect 
 as eight or nine months of exposure by the old method. 
 It is believed, however, that the skins are not thoroughly 
 tanned by it, and that the leather is of deficient quality. 
 The great quantity of tannin presented to the skins, tans 
 their surfaces rapidly, and prevents the entrance of the 
 liquid into the interior. 
 
 The patentees use, besides the ground oak-bark, the 
 chips and sawdust of the wood, and ordinary furze, and 
 recommend the employment of young shoots, the roots, 
 and superfluous branches of the oak, by the use of which 
 they say that they procure a stronger decoction than that 
 from the bark of the trunk, which contains a thick mat- 
 ter incapable of being separated. 
 
 In 1819, new improvements were introduced. The 
 trunk, roots, branches, and leaves of oak being asserted 
 
246 
 
 IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 to contain enough tannin to warrant their employment 
 in tanning, were reduced to the state of chips or coarse 
 powder, boiled in water, and used in the following man- 
 ner : — 
 
 For the tanning of calf or other light skins, one hun- 
 dred pounds of the middle parts or branches of the oak 
 in chips, is boiled in a copper boiler, with fiftj-two gallons 
 of water until the latter is reduced to thirty-nine gallons. 
 This liquid is decanted, and upon the residue, is poured 
 a second quantity of thirty-nine gallons of water, which 
 is boiled away to twenty-one gallons. This decoction is 
 set aside and serves for the first bath of the calf-skins 
 after they have been cleaned upon the horse, while the 
 first liquor is used for the second bath. 
 
 To tan common skins, a hundred pounds of the middle 
 parts or branches of oak in chips, seventy-five pounds of 
 fresh coarse tan, and twenty-seven and a half pounds of 
 the root, are boiled in sixty-six gallons of water, until 
 the latter is reduced to two-thirds. The decoction is 
 then decanted off from the partially exhausted matter, 
 and fifty-two gallons more of water are poured upon it 
 and boiled until reduced to one-half. This liquid is used 
 as the first bath for the skins, and the one previously 
 obtained as the second ; and when they have been ex- 
 posed long enough to both, enough fresh bark or tan- 
 liquor to complete the tanning, is added. This method 
 seems to be very incomplete throughout, and the in- 
 ventors have failed to make known the proportions of 
 tanning material to the number of skins, and the length 
 of time required for the completion of the processes. 
 
 In these tannings, the skins were not thrown promis- 
 cuously into the vats, but were suspended vertically at 
 intervals of about an inch from each other, so as to pre- 
 vent the surfaces from touching; and to facilitate this 
 
IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 247 
 
 mode of suspension, they directed the heads of the skins 
 to be cut off, and bands on each side having attached 
 to them the legsand parts of the beUies, to be removed. 
 The bodies of the skins were then to be divided into pieces 
 proportioned to the depth of the vats, which pieces were 
 to be suspended in them, while the other parts, being of 
 less value, were thrown together into the bottom. 
 
 In tanning skins for uppers, after washing and fleshing 
 them, Seguin directs that they be freed from hair by 
 soaking in clear lime-water, and then, without being 
 raised, tanned in weak solutions of bark made into a 
 kind of ooze. The strength of these solutions was to be 
 gradually increased, but not to the point of complete 
 saturation, as in the case of strong hides. He succeeded 
 in this way in tanning leather for uppers in three or four 
 days. 
 
 The methods of tanning proposed by Seguin are rapid 
 in the extreme, but they have not been generally adopted, 
 since the leather made by them is inferior to that by the 
 old process, and is less merchantable. It is possible, 
 that if public business had not drawn away the attention 
 of Seguin from his investigations, he might have succeeded 
 in effecting a complete revolution in the art of tanning. 
 As it is, he has had numerous followers, many of whom, 
 in England and elsewhere, have patented and used varia- 
 tions of his process; but the essential objection to this 
 mode of operating still attaches to all of them, namely, 
 that the combination of tannin with the gelatine and 
 fibrine upon the surface of the skins, takes place so 
 rapidly, that the superficial layer of leather thus formed 
 prevents the passage of the liquor into the interior of 
 the hide, and consequently its perfect tanning. 
 
 Desmond has proposed a modification of Seguin's pro- 
 cess, which consists in soaking the skins until the hair 
 
248 
 
 IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 gives, in a liquor saturated with tanning principle, and 
 acidulated with a thousandth part, by measure, of oil of 
 vitriol. When it is desired to raise the skins to any ex- 
 tent, they are immersed from ten to twelve hours in water 
 containing a five hundredth volume of sulphuric acid, 
 then rinsed in fresh water, and worked on the beam. 
 Finally, they are soaked in a weak ooze, and after some 
 hours, transferred to a stronger infusion, and left therein 
 for several days. This last liquor must be replaced by 
 fresh infusion as fast as it loses its tanning power. 
 
 getliffe's process. 
 
 This method, patented in 1812, consists in having a 
 building with two stories, in the lower of which are the 
 vats and boilers, and in the upper, the leech-tubs for 
 preparing the tan-liquor. The loft may be arranged as 
 a drying apartment. 
 
 Boiling water is raised by means of a pump, from a boiler 
 below into the reservoir, and a pipe connecting the two 
 returns the extract of tan to the boiler, from which it is 
 distributed by means of pipes with stop-cocks, into the 
 different vats. These vats are supported upon frame- 
 work, and passing around them are pipes, by means of 
 which their contents are kept at a uniformly elevated 
 temperature. Each vat also has a stop-cock in its lower 
 part, which permits its contents to be emptied, when it is 
 desired. 
 
 The rough skins are thrown into the vats ; and are said 
 to be tanned in them in one quarter of the usual time. 
 
 nossiter's process. 
 
 This new method was patented in England in 1844, 
 and consists in depositing the skins in pits so that they 
 
IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 249 
 
 sliall not be subjected to the pressure of those placed 
 above them, and in pressing out the exhausted infusion 
 contained in them, before immersing them again in 
 fresh ooze. 
 
 1. The skins being superposed, in the old method of 
 tanning in vats, those which are below are so compressed 
 that the tan-liquor penetrates their structure with diffi- 
 culty. To avoid this objection, the inventor proposes to 
 deposit the skins in square vats, and to separate them by 
 the interposition of rectangular frames with ledges. By 
 this means the skins are perfectly free from contact with 
 each other while in the tan-liquor. 
 
 Fig. 67 represents a horizontal section of the vat, and 
 a frame with a skin stretched over it. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 Fig. 68 is a vertical section, showing the frames in 
 stack, and the skins between them. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 17 
 
250 ' IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 Fig. 69 shows the plan of the bottom of the vat. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 70, plan of the frame. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 a, a. Vat, of the ordinary form ; wooden frame, 
 with crosspieces; ledges, for maintaining the pieces in 
 position. 
 
 This method of tanning is much more expeditious 
 than the old way ; for although fewer skins can be tanned 
 by it at one time, it admits the w^orking of a greater 
 number in a given time, and in the same vat. 
 
 The vat is first filled with the skins and frames, and 
 the tan-liquor is then introduced. When this latter is 
 exhausted or weakened, it is pumped out and replaced 
 by fresh ooze. 
 
 The skins are deprived of exhausted liquor, in many 
 establishments, by pressure between rollers ; but as this 
 method does not fully effect the object, Nossiter subjects 
 them to the action of a screw-press, which is seen in 
 vertical section in Fig. 71, and in the plan, Fig. 72. 
 
IMPROVED PROCESSES. 251 
 
 This press consists of a strong rectangular support 
 from the four corners of which arches spring, which 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 meet in the centre in a square nut li^ in which the strong 
 screw i turns. The skins are placed above each other 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 on the table of the frame^ and are pressed by the plate 
 Z-, at the lower end of the screw, which is turned by the 
 lever I. The skins are subjected to this pressure until 
 all their fluid contents are expelled. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
252 
 
 IMPROVED PROCESSES. 
 
 In place of the screw-press, one with an axle, seen in 
 Fig. 73 in vertical section, and in Fig. 74 in plan, may 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 1 I 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 f - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 /I 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 be used. Around the axle the cords n, are rolled, 
 which pass through pulleys in the supports. The cords 
 are passed at their ends through screw-rings on the sides 
 of the under surface of the plate By turning the 
 axle with the lever the upper plate is made to com- 
 press the skins which are placed below it. 
 
 OGEREAU'S PROCESS. 
 
 Ogereau, one of the most eminent tanners in Paris, 
 proposes to lessen the duration and labor of the tanning 
 process, by a methodical arrangement of materials. He 
 places alternate layers of tan, and of the skins which 
 have been properly prepared by the ordinary method of 
 separating the hair and of raising^ in a vat with a per- 
 forated false bottom. This vat being three-quarters filled, 
 is then drenched with water for the first operation, and 
 with weak tan-liquor which has been already used, for 
 the succeeding ones. The liquid penetrates the mass 
 slowly, and having moistened all the contents, passes 
 through the false bottom into a reservoir, from which it 
 
IMPROYED PROCESSES. 
 
 253 
 
 is carried up and again thrown upon the surface of the 
 materials in the vat by means of a pump. 
 
 The arrangement of Ogereau consists, according to 
 Dumas, of six vats, each of which is capable of contain- 
 ing 100 domestic or 120 imported hides. The liquid 
 which percolates through the contents into the reservoir 
 below, is daily distributed over the surface by pumping, a 
 constant circulation of fluid being kept up, which is thus 
 alternately receiving tannin from the bark, and render- 
 ing it to the skins. This operation is continued for a 
 month ; at the end of which time the vat is emptied, the 
 spent tan replaced by fresh, and the same process is re- 
 commenced. A third exposure to fresh tan and repeated 
 filtrations are necessary before the skins are properly 
 prepared. 
 
 All the parts of this process, including the preliminary 
 preparation of the skins, occupy less than four months, 
 and the leather obtained by it is equal in quality to 
 any procured by the old methods. A hundred parts of 
 dry Buenos Ayres hides gives one hundred and fifty 
 parts of leather. 
 
CHAPTEE XYI. 
 
 YAUQUELIN'S PROCESS. 
 
 This process consists in the use of a machine by means 
 of which hides are deprived of hair, and rendered soft 
 and suj)ple without the aid of chemical agents, and by 
 which they are also fleshed, and reduced to a uni- 
 form thickness, thus saving much time and labor; and 
 finally of a particular means of tallow^ing and dressing 
 them. 
 
 The hides are soaked while still raw for a sufficient 
 length of time, usually about forty-eight hours, and are 
 then subjected to the action of the fulling machine, re- 
 presented in Fig. 75, for an hour. They are thus made 
 pliable and ready for being w^orked. 
 
 They are then placed in another apparatus, exhibited 
 in Fig. 76 (a kind of churning-vat), to the joint action 
 of which, and of the steam that is let in to keep up a 
 temperature of from 104° to 113° (Fahrenheit), they x.re 
 exposed for some time. After the completion of this 
 part of the process, they are placed in a suitable vessel 
 and are kept for twenty-four hours under a current of 
 tepid water. 
 
 Great care must be observed in preserving a uniform 
 temperature throughout, and to this end it is necessary 
 to test the heat occasionally with a thermometer or the 
 hand. 
 
vauquelin's process. 
 
 255 
 
 No other process is required for dehairing when a small 
 number of hides are operated upon; but as economy of 
 time is an important consideration when working upon 
 a large scale, Vauquelin uses weak lime-water, the tem- 
 perature of the bath being proportioned to the number 
 of hides. The hair will then come of with great ease, 
 and the skins are carefully and thoroughly fleshed by 
 means of a machine represented by Figs. 77 and 78. 
 
 The hides, after being fleshed, are worked in the full- 
 ing machine for a length of time, varying according to 
 their nature, and are then replaced in the vat (Fig. 76), 
 and impregnated during some hours with a weak tan- 
 liquor. They are then taken out, piled up for two hours, 
 and again deposited in an infusion stronger than the first 
 one, and during the first three days are handled three 
 times daily, and after that time, once a day. Every 
 forty-eight hours they are filled and treated for half an 
 hour in the churning-vat, with the same liquor in which 
 they are left throughout, until thoroughly saturated. 
 The alternate action of the filling stocks and churn-vat 
 softens and opens the texture of the hides, and renders 
 them more pliable and capable of absorbing the tan- 
 liquor, thus promoting economy of time and money. 
 
 Another mode of preparing the skins is to place them 
 in the vat (Fig. 76), and to introduce steam into it, so as 
 to elevate the temperature of the liquid to from 104"^ to 
 113° F. The skins are kept in a state of constant agi- 
 tation and movement from the bottom to the circumfe- 
 rence of the vessel by the arms c, and this churning is 
 continued until they are deprived of the greater portion 
 of their hair. They are then deposited in another appa- 
 ratus (Figs. 79, 80, and 81), which is moved by suitable 
 means. It consists of a barrel or cylinder, lined with pegs, 
 and revolving in a reservoir of water, the level of which 
 
256 
 
 vauquelin's process. 
 
 is about half as high as that of the pegs. The skins are, 
 by this rotatory motion and friction, deprived of their 
 hair, which falls to the bottom and flows off with the 
 water through a metallic grating. After this process, the 
 skins may be shaved and fleshed as before described. 
 
 The method of tallowing the leather, as prescribed by 
 Vauquelin, is as follows : — 
 
 After the skins have been properly tanned, their whole 
 surface is daubed over with a mixture of oil and tallow, 
 and they are placed in a peg-lined cylinder, or drum. 
 This drum being made to revolve rapidly, the pegs im- 
 pinge upon the surfaces of the leather, and at the end of 
 half an hour, the grease will be found to have penetrated 
 it so perfectly and uniformly that the surface will appear 
 quite dry. It is then taken out, stretched, and dried. 
 
 Description of the Figures. — Fig. 75. This represents 
 
 the beating or falling machine. A, b. Cog-wheels, giving 
 motion to the shaft o, and to cams upon it, which alter- 
 nately raise and lower the hammers e, e, e, to which the 
 bar D serves as a guide. A movable trough for the skins 
 is seen below, c, c. Cocks, which allow the liquid mat- 
 ters contained in this trough to escape. H, H. Openings, 
 through which the skins are introduced into the trough. 
 I. Rack and pinion, by means of which the trough is 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
vauquelin's process. 
 
 257 
 
 moved to and fro, so as to bring all parts of the skins 
 successively under the hammers. 
 
 Fig. 76. Churning vat. This may consist of an open 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 vessel, but a closed one will enable the operator to main- 
 tain a more uniform temperature. A. Yat, closed by its 
 lid. B. Shaft, carrying the cams or arms c, c. d, d. 
 Tubes, through which cold and hot water, the tanning 
 liquor, and steam are introduced, e. Ladder, by which 
 the workman descends and regulates the cocks, f, f. 
 Ground level. G, G. Water level in the vat. h. Door, 
 which closes the opening in the vat. a. Toothed wheel, 
 communicating its movement to the wheel 5, and the 
 shaft. The arms of the shaft are straight, but may be 
 made of various shapes. 
 
 Figs. 77 and 78. These figures represent the machine 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
258 
 
 vauquelin's process. 
 
 for fleshing and paring the hides after they have been 
 properly soaked and softened. 
 
 It is composed of two cylinders, A and b, of copper, or 
 other suitable metal, mounted upon a framework c, c, 
 and forming a kind of cylindrical press. The upper one 
 can be elevated or depressed by means of screws d, d, in 
 the upper crosspiece of the frame, which act both upon 
 the fixed supports h, h, and upon the sides of the frame. 
 Upon this crosspiece, a shaft with a small fly-wheel i, 
 works the endless screws f, f, which turn the cog-wheels 
 E, E, by means of which the screws d, d, are turned in 
 either direction. These screws carry, just below the 
 wheel F, two shoulders or collars upon which the bar k 
 is supported, and at the extremities of this bar, two de- 
 scending cushions L are attached, which support the shaft 
 of the cylinder A, and which are elevated or lowered by 
 the bar, in accordance with the movement of the screw 
 D. At the two extremities of the cylinders are cog-wheels 
 of different diameters, M, N, m', n'. Those on the shaft 
 of the lower cylinder b, are so attached to it, that it 
 shares in their movement, while they are movable upon 
 it, and can be slid to the right or left by two forks Q, Q, 
 fastened to the bar p'", which passes across the frame- 
 work. The wheels m, m', are geared with each other 
 when the cylinders are a certain distance apart, and 
 those at n, n', engage in turn, when the cylinders are 
 brought in contact with each other, so that the cylinders 
 turn simultaneously in either of these positions. At the 
 extremities of the cylinders, there is a system of pulleys 
 which communicate the motion to the machine by means 
 of straps. 
 
 Upon the interior and posterior faces of the machine, 
 two knives P, p', are fixed, which turn upon cushions 
 supported by the pieces 2'', seen on the frame. The 
 
VAUQUELIN*S PROCESS. 
 
 259 
 
 knife p, has a cutting-blade, which is retained in place 
 and adjusted by means of screws, but the knife p' is dull. 
 
 The skin, placed upon the upper cylinder, is drawn in, 
 compressed, and stretched out in the direction of its 
 length, between the two rollers. The wheels m, m', are 
 then put in gear, and the knife p' is made to pass over 
 the skin by pressing it against the upper roller by means 
 of a movable piece with two handles. The skin being 
 now pressed between the rollers and gradually advancing 
 through them, the cutting blade which is parallel to the 
 surface of the cylinder is put in action, and, like the 
 ordinary fleshing-knife, it removes all the projections from 
 the flesh side, and equalizes the thickness of the skin. 
 
 Figs. 79, 80, and 81. These figures represent the re- 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 volving cylinder or drum for depriving the skins of hair, 
 which has already been partly described. 
 
 A. Exterior of the drum; B, B, shaft of cylinder; c, 
 cylinder; D, crossbars, forming the framework; e, f, sepa- 
 rate pieces of the set of crossbars; G, G, internal surface 
 of the cylinder; h, wooden projections, fixed upon this 
 surface ; i, metallic plate, closing the surface of the cylin- 
 der ; L, door, closing the aperture ; M, M, tubes, through 
 which water, tanning liquor, and steam are introduced 
 into the cylinder ; o, ladder, for the workman who attends 
 to the stopcocks, to descend; P, level of liquid in the 
 cylinder; Z>, 5, cog-wheels, communicating motion to the 
 cylinder. 
 
260 
 
 vauquelin's process. 
 
 Figs. 82^ 83, and 84. These figures exhibit different 
 
 Fig. 82. ' Fig. 83. Fig. 84. 
 
 i 
 
 means of keeping the skins pressed upon the table when 
 they are subjected to processes of paring by hand. 
 
 a, a. Clamp or press for maintaining the skin in place ; 
 h, the table ; c, c, a vertical bar sliding in a groove ; d, 
 the lever which acts upon the press ; I, a catch which 
 stops the lever d; f, weight at the end of the lever; g, 
 another lever by means of which the press is raised, as 
 has been before explained. 
 
 Fig. 85 represents the press commonly used in this 
 mode of preparing leather. 
 
 The committee on chemical arts of 
 the Societe d' Encouragement^ reported, in 
 the bulletin of the Society, most favor- 
 ably upon the processes of Vauquelin- 
 They believe that the expense of the 
 various methods used by him does not exceed that of 
 those ordinarily employed, while a great gain is secured 
 by tRe rapidity of the process, and the smaller quantity 
 of tan required by it. 
 
 Hides which are difficult to treat in the ordinary 
 mode, are tanned and prepared by this one as easily as 
 any others. They gain instead of losing weight in the 
 various currying operations, and in the opinion of the 
 committee, and of numerous manufacturers and dealers 
 in the article, they exhibit all the evidences of being 
 equal or superior to the very best leather. 
 
vauquelin's process. 
 
 261 
 
 The same committee again reported to the Society, in 
 1844, in the following manner : — 
 
 "At the meeting of your Society, on the 11th day of 
 August, 1841, a gold medal was voted to M. Yauquelin, 
 for his new tanning processes. Since that time he has 
 succeeded in overcoming difficulties which seemed to be 
 insuperable, and in order to convince you of the rapidity 
 and excellence of his methods, we present you with the 
 results of the experience we have had of them. 
 
 "Your committee, on the 9 th of January, 1844, marked, 
 at the establishment of Yauquelin, one hundred calf-skins, 
 the total w^eight of which amounted to 398 pounds ; three 
 cow-hides, weighing together 15 pounds, 7 oz.^ and upon 
 the 15th of January, 1844, two horse-hides. These 
 skins were found by them to be perfectly tanned, the 
 calf-skins upon the 18th of March, the cow-skins upon 
 the 4th of April, and the horse-hides upon the 12th of 
 April of the same year. One of the calf-skins having 
 been reserved by them for special purposes, the ninety- 
 nine remaining ones were found to weigh 375 pounds, 
 and the cow-skins to weigh 19 lbs. 13 oz. The weights 
 of the skins, when tanned and curried, compared with 
 / those found before the tanning, indicated that the former 
 had suffered a slight loss, and that the latter had gained 
 about 27 per cent. 
 
 " Thus the calf-skins were tanned perfectly in sixty- 
 eight days, the cow-skins in eighty days, and the horse- 
 hides in eighty-seven days ; while, if they had been ex- 
 posed to the ordinary processes, from twelve to fifteen 
 months, or even more would have been required. These 
 results show the astonishing rapidity of the process and 
 the skins themselves can be seen at the Exposition of 
 Products of Industry, where all can convince themselves 
 of their thorough tanning and excellent quality." 
 
.262 
 
 vatjquelin's process. 
 
 An officer of the French army, Col. Chompre, gives 
 ihe following notes of his experience in the use of Vau- 
 quelin's leather : — 
 
 ^^1. A piece of calf-skin, forming a patch on a pair of 
 trowsers, which were ridden in by a dragoon every day 
 for eight months, was found at the end of that time in 
 a perfect state, and as pliable as at first. 
 
 Another piece treated in the same way for four 
 months, and exposed to constant friction, was equally 
 uninjured. 
 
 "2. A number of pairs of calf-skin boot-legs w^ore 
 exceedingly well, preserving their firmness and pliability 
 without any unusual care being used for their preserva- 
 tion. 
 
 " A pair of boots with ordinary tops, and with soles 
 made of the tail part of the horse-hides, was worn by a 
 non-commissioned officer, who generally wears out a 
 number of shoes. These are now in a perfect state, and, 
 according to his account, have lasted as long as two 
 pair of ordinary soles. 
 
 Five other pairs of soles of shoes given to lancers, 
 who wear out a great many in service, are in an excel- 
 lent state of preservation. 
 
 " 3. The blackened leather, used for belts, girths, and 
 stirrup straps, has also worn well. 
 
 " The conclusions of the repoxt of the administrative 
 council of the regiment are, that the leather submitted 
 to and tried by them, was superior to any which had 
 before come under their notice." 
 
f 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ACCELERATINa PROCESSES. 
 
 Numerous processes have been devised for shortening 
 the time of tanning. Their relative merits must be de- 
 termined by the experience of the tanner ; and we there- 
 fore present detailed descriptions of those which are 
 seemingly worthy of notice. As a general rule, the gain 
 in time is at the expense of the quality of the leather. 
 
 BERENGER AND STERLINGUE'S PROCESS. 
 
 This process, patented in 1842, obviates the inconve- 
 niences attending the old methods of tanning, particu- 
 larly in the separation of hair from the skins. Its object 
 is to reduce the time occupied in tanning, often amount- 
 ing to sixteen months, within the reasonable limits of 
 from four to five months, thus avoiding the extreme of 
 allowing too short a duration for a process which, to be 
 successful, must be more or less gradual and prolonged. 
 
 When skins are deposited in the vats, with water and 
 layers of tan in the ordinary quantities, the infusion 
 formed is usually found to indicate 25 degrees of the hy- 
 drometer. In proportion as the combination between 
 the gelatine and tannin progresses, the strength of the 
 liquid diminishes, until after four months of contact, the 
 hydrometer stands at about 8 degrees. At the end of 
 this time, the skins are deposited in fresh vats, and this 
 
264 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 change is repeated a third and often a fourth time, at 
 every interval of four months, the hydrometer sinking 
 successively each time, from 25 degrees to about 10, 12, 
 and 15. Thus, the introduction of tannin into the sub- 
 stance of the skins, becomes gradually more and more 
 difficult and slow, owing to the increased obstacles to the 
 penetration into the tanned surfaces. The knowledge 
 of these facts induced the inventors to devise means of 
 tanning which should, unlike those ordinarily used, keep 
 the skins in contact with infusions gradually and con- 
 stantly increasing instead of diminishing in strength. 
 For this purpose they placed a wooden cylinder in the 
 vats, through which the infusion could be removed by 
 pumps and replaced by fresh and stronger liquid when 
 necessary. They succeeded, by these means, in tanning 
 in a comparatively short time, and in avoiding the re- 
 newal of the contents of the vats; but the proceeding 
 was not yet sufficiently perfected to give it the necessary 
 precision and certainty. 
 
 Eighty tubs-full of water are required to moisten a 
 freshly filled pit, the tan absorbing much the largest 
 portion of it, but only about ten tubs of infusion can be 
 pumped out unless the pit is pressed and drained, which 
 injures the hides and alters their relative position, so as 
 to diminish the value of the leather. In fact, the simple 
 withdrawal of the amount of fluid above stated, leaves 
 the surface of the pit sunken and disordered. 
 
 To avoid this difficulty, Berenger and Sterlingue 
 attempted successfully, and with good results, to remove 
 the old infusion from the pits, at the same time that it 
 was exactly replaced by the introduction of fresh and 
 stronger liquid; but the mode adopted by them was 
 deficient in regularity and certainty, and it became 
 necessary to devise better means for the attainment of 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 2G5 
 
 their object. For this purpose, they provided a row of 
 vats with wooden cylinders, which were connected above 
 at a depth of six inches below the surface of the pits, by 
 means of a pipe passing from one to another, and which 
 communicated below, by means of a perforated tube, 
 with the open space of a false bottom in the pit. By 
 means of this arrangement, it was only necessary to 
 open a cock of fresh water into the weakest pit, to enable 
 the fluid, which had no other means of escape when 
 this was filled, to traverse the whole range of pits, filling 
 each one, from the weakest to the strongest, in succession, 
 before it was possible for any of it to enter the next one. 
 
 We will now suppose a series of eight pits to be thus 
 arranged, each one provided with its cylinder, opening by 
 a perforated tube into the false bottom, and connecting 
 with the cylinder of the next pit at a depth of six inches 
 below the surface. Hides are then stratified with tan 
 in the end pit, and water is poured into it in the ordinary 
 manner. After from fifteen to twenty-one days, a second 
 pit next to the first is filled with the dry tan and skins, 
 and since 80 tubs-full of water were required for the 
 saturation of the first one, the same quantity of a stronger 
 infusion, properly graduated, is poured into the first pit, 
 and this liquid descending, drives before it and takes the 
 place of that originally contained in it, which has then 
 no other means of escape than to pass out into the second 
 pit through the communicating pipe, in quantities exactly 
 proportioned to those which enter the first one. Fifteen 
 or twenty days after this operation, it is repeated in the 
 same way, a stronger infusion being introduced into the 
 first pit for the purpose of filling the third one with the 
 liquid contents of the second, and the second with those 
 of the first. The same proceeding is repeated at the same 
 intervals until the eighth and last pit is filled. 
 18 
 
266 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 The communicating pipe is then closed, the infusion 
 is pumped from the first pit, and the leather taken out 
 to dry, a fresh supply of hides and of tan being deposited 
 in this, which has now become the eighth pit of the series. 
 The one which was before second, being now first, is to 
 be supplied with 80 tubs-full of strong infusion. 
 
 Thus, by this process, one application of tan is alone 
 required, the pits are not changed until the leather is 
 finally removed from them, and a great economy of time 
 and labor is secured. Its duration is generally from four 
 to six months. 
 
 Four months' exposure in eight pits is sufiicient, if the 
 strong infusion is added every fifteen days, but if the 
 operation seems to be progressing too rapidly, the inter- 
 val may be lengthened to three weeks or a month, in 
 which case, from six to eight months will be occupied. 
 The number of pits may be increased or diminished at 
 will. One hundred and twenty pits could even, were it 
 desirable, be placed in connection with each other, which 
 would require, after the perfection of the leather in one 
 of them, that one pit should be daily emptied of its con- 
 tents, and refilled with fresh skins and tan, 80 tubs-full 
 of strong infusion being at the same time poured into 
 the oldest one. 
 
 The infusion for watering the pits is prepared, or 
 rather renovated, in the following manner: — 
 
 As the leather is taken out to dry, the infusion from 
 the same pit is transferred to a set of vats which are 
 especially provided for the purpose, and which are like 
 those used to furnish the liquor for tan baths. 
 
 These infusions are lixiviated as above described, and 
 a sufficient quantity of fresh tan is mixed with them 
 to give the requisite strength. Thus, if the liquid be 
 only at 30 degrees of strength, and is required to reach 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 267 
 
 60 degrees, it is placed in a large, raised reservoir, which 
 connects with a trough. This trough communicates by 
 means of a tube with a second, a third, and a fourth 
 trough below each other, all of which have pipes running 
 longitudinally along their bottoms. Steam is now passed 
 along these tubes so as to heat the infusion which passes 
 successively through the troughs, and to concentrate it 
 to any desired point, so as to increase its strength and 
 deprive it of the fatty matter and gallic acid which it 
 may have acquired in its passage through the pits. It 
 is finally let off by a stopcock into a reservoir below, 
 where it cools, and is in a fit condition to be poured into 
 the pits. 
 
 The same system of continuous tanning is applied by 
 the authors to baths of tan-liquor. The skins are not, 
 however, daily transferred from the vat containing the 
 weaker liquor to that of the stronger, as in the ordinary 
 method, but are placed upon horizontal shelves adapted 
 to each vat, and are not taken out until ready for the 
 tanyard; the liquor itself being passed from vat to vat, 
 as in the pits. In the same way it may be made to re- 
 place the old system of tanning the skins by floating 
 them in tan and water. In that process, the skins, in- 
 fusion, and tan, are all thrown together into the vats, 
 and, after a time, the skins are taken out, the infusion is 
 drained off from the tan, and replaced in the same vats 
 with the skins and fresh bark, the operation of change 
 being frequently repeated until complete tanning is 
 efiected. By the present mode, these repeated removals 
 are not necessary, it being sufficient to introduce fresh 
 liquor into the oldest vat of the series, and to keep it 
 constantly full, so that the others will be filled in suc- 
 cession. The tanning will be more complete, regular, 
 
268 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 rapid, and economical; all the labor necessary in the 
 other process being saved. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 a. Skins A, placed from head to tail, Ucross horizontal 
 crosspieces and resting upon them without touching 
 each other. 
 
 h. Exhibits the bottom of the pit, with the false bottom 
 taken out; and c shows the latter in place. 
 
 d. Tubes in the bottoms of the pits, pierced with holes 
 to receive the infusion. Their vertical parts, e, are not 
 pierced, but conduct the fluid upwards from the bottom 
 of one vat to the top of the next one. Their upper ex- 
 tremities turn horizontally into the adjoining pits, so that 
 that they cannot communicate excepting through these 
 tubes. 
 
 g. Horizontal tube, connecting vat No. 7, with No. 1. 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 269 
 
 As all the vats communicate, fluid poured into one, 
 readily passes through all. 
 
 i. Cock, to prevent connection between Nos. 1 and 7, 
 when it is not desired. 
 
 Jc. False bottom. 
 
 L Arrows, indicating the direction of the motion of 
 infusion from 7 to 6, etc. 
 
 Figs. 88 and 89. Series of pits. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, pits, 
 forming a series. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 a. Skins deposited in pit, alternating with beds of 
 tan. 
 
 h. View, or plan of pits, with the false bottoms re- 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 (1) I: 
 
 
 
 
 moved, and showing tubes curved and pierced with 
 holes in this part alone; the vertical portion of the 
 tube passing up and turning over under the surface, into 
 the next pit. 
 
 c. Plan of pits with the false bottoms in place, above 
 the tubes. 
 
270 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 i. Arrow, showing the movement of fluid from one 
 pit to another. 
 
 Jc, Bungs, or stoppers, used when necessary, to pre- 
 vent the passage of fluid. 
 
 L False bottoms, cullendered. 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 Figs. 90 and 91. Apparatus for regenerating old tan- 
 liquor, and concentrating it to the desired strength. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 a, h, c, d. Troughs, placed one above the other, so that 
 the infusion in a runs down into into c, and into 
 through the tubes h' , h", h'", with the stopcocks, o, o', 
 o",o' . 
 
 At the bottom of each trough is a serpentine tube 
 extending over the whole surface, as seen in the plan. 
 The vapor enters each tube upon opening the stopcocks 
 
 s', s'", in the tube Z. 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 271 
 
 e. Reservoir, in which the liquor to be purified is first 
 placed. It escapes from this through the tube into 
 the first trough. When this is full, the fluid still run- 
 ning from the reservoir, the cock o is opened, and the 
 warm and already partly concentrated fluid runs into 
 reservoir h, and so on successively, until the concentrated 
 liquor passes through the cock o"" into a trough in which 
 it is allowed to cool. 
 
 /. Escape-pipe, conducting the condensed water and 
 waste vapor into the open air. 
 
 p. Pipe, for the entrance of steam. 
 
 The drawings represent only six and seven elements 
 of the series of pits and vats, while reference has been 
 had in the text to eight. 
 
 squire's process. 
 
 This process, patented in 1844, consists in depositing 
 the skins in a horizontal wooden cylinder, which is made 
 to revolve slowly, under the surface of hot tan-liquor, so 
 as to insure constant agitation of the hides and skins, 
 and perfect exclusion of air. 
 
 rig. 92 represents a transverse vertical section of the 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
272 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 apparatus, as placed in the vat : a, wooden drum, 12 feet 
 long and 7 feet in diameter, lined with ridges, and divided 
 into four compartments by the partitions 5, h, which are 
 composed of wooden staves, or bars with open spaces 
 between them. Hot ooze, and some of the tanning ma- 
 terial are then introduced with the prepared hides 
 through a water-tight door c. The vat should be deep 
 enough to admit the submersion of the whole cylinder, 
 which is to be kept in uninterrupted motion, at the rate 
 of six or seven revolutions per minute; and for this pur- 
 pose its axle d, resting upon upright supports, is turned. 
 
 This is really an accelerating process, for the use of 
 hot ooze, and the continuous contact of the skins with 
 the tan-liquor, shorten the time for complete tanning to 
 two weeks. Moreover, it permits the use of divi-divi, 
 catechu, and other readily oxidizable tanning materials, 
 which, when used in open vats, color the leather and 
 render it unsalable. The access of air in this process 
 being limited, this disadvantage is avoided. 
 
 The ooze spends its force very rapidly, and must be 
 replaced by fresh hot liquor as fast as it becomes ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 TANNING BY MECHANICAL PRESSURE. 
 
 This ingenious method, proposed by Spilsbury, although 
 attended by good results, has not been as successful as 
 was originally anticipated. 
 
 The inventor proposes to avoid, by his new arrange- 
 ments, the deficiencies of the ordinary processes, in which 
 skins, impregnated with water, are exposed, under very 
 unfavorable circumstances, to weak tan infusions. 
 
 The hides, after being carefully depilated, and pre- 
 pared, and having all the holes sewed up, so as to render 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 273 
 
 them water-tight, are tightly stretched, by means of 
 clamps, upon rectangular wooden frames. 
 
 The frame, on which the hide is stretched, is exactly 
 overlaid by another similar frame, which is to be screwed 
 down so as to confine the edges, and make them water- 
 tight. Another hide is stretched, as before, over the 
 upper ledges of this second frame, and a third frame 
 screwed down upon it, as in the first instance, and the 
 whole three securely bolted together by means of clamps, 
 so as to form, as it were, a water-tight vat. The frames 
 are then set upright, and the ooze allowed to flow into 
 the space intervening between the two skins, through a 
 pipe leading into it from a reservoir above. A hydros- 
 tatic pressure is thus maintained, and the liquid column 
 forces the ooze through the structure of the hides by 
 slow infiltration, and thus brings all parts in direct con- 
 tact with tannin. 
 
 There must be a stopcock in the bottom of the vat 
 to allow the escape of confined air as the ooze enters, and 
 the exit of the spent liquor at the completion of the 
 tanning; but care must be taken to close it when the 
 vats are full of liquid, and in operation. There must 
 also be a stopcock in the pipe leading from the reservoir 
 to the vat, so as to shut off the communication when the 
 process is finished. 
 
 The exhausted liquor is let off through the stopcock, 
 and replaced by fresh, and as soon as the skins are com- 
 pletely tanned, the frames are taken apart, the edges of 
 the hides pared off, and the leather dressed in the usual 
 manner. The process is rapid, but its duration varies in 
 accordance with the amount of pressure, the strength of 
 infusion used, and the kind and quality of the skins. 
 The necessity of clipping and sewing the skins causes 
 more or less loss of material. 
 
274 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 The above process has been improved by two modifica- 
 tions, one of Wm. Drake, and the other of Mr. Chaplin : 
 Drake's process consists in giving the hides, prepared as 
 usual, an incipient tanning by immersion in a weak ooze. 
 After the necessary handling, they are taken out and 
 sewed together at the edges, grain side within, in pairs 
 so as to form water-tight bags, with small holes at the 
 ends, for the admission of the tan-liquor. The bags are 
 then suspended, by means of loops, between two upright 
 wooden racks, to prevent bulging when full. The cold 
 ooze is then introduced through a funnel, and by keeping 
 the bag distended, creates a pressure, which causes the 
 liquid to infiltrate through the skin. 
 
 The fluid, passing through is received in a vessel be- 
 neath, and returned, as it accumulates, to the sack. To- 
 wards the close of the operation, when the skins become 
 firm and hard, the temperature of the room, previously 
 well ventilated, is raised from 68° to 149° F., and this 
 temperature is maintained until they begin to darken in 
 places, and the liquid ceases to lose strength, when they 
 are taken down, are emptied of their contents, and pre- 
 pared in the usual manner. 
 
 The elevation of temperature, by causing the evapora- 
 tion of the liquid on the external surfaces of the skins, 
 promotes the infiltration of the ooze. To prevent indenta- 
 tions, by prolonged contact with the wooden bars, the 
 position of the bags should be occasionally shifted. By 
 this process it is said that a skin can be as well tanned 
 in ten days, as it can be by the old one in ten months ; 
 but as to the quality and durability of the leather, we 
 cannot speak definitely, except as to its appearance, 
 which is very favorable. 
 
 Mr. Chaplin proposes to lay the bags in an inclined 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 275 
 
 position, and to turn them frequently^ so as to equalize 
 the tanning of the hides. 
 
 Another modern improvement, consists in combining 
 the infiltration process with the old Danish method : that 
 is, the bags filled with ooze, are, during the action of the 
 hydrostatic pressure, to ke kept immersed in the tan- vat. 
 
 The chief objection to the infiltration process, is the 
 unequal permeability of the hides, as some portions im- 
 bibe the ooze liquor more readily than others. The pro- 
 longed distension of the hides is also liable to weaken 
 their structure, and consequently depreciate the quality 
 of the leather. The precaution of modifying the inter- 
 nal pressure, by suspending the bags between wooden 
 supports, only partially remedies the defect ; for the por- 
 tions protruding between the spaces are still liable to 
 injury from unequal pressure. The laying of the bags 
 in an inclined position, and turning them frequently, is 
 an improvement upon the old process, but does not in- 
 sure uniformity. 
 
 John Cox, of London [Rep. Pat, Invent. 1845), pro- 
 poses to equalize the distension by suspending the bags 
 in a coarse canvas casing, instead of wooden racks. The 
 porous texture of this material will allow the easy pas- 
 sage of the infiltrating liquor, while, at the same time, 
 by its ready adaptation to the surface of the bags, it 
 sustains them firmly, and with a uniform pressure. 
 
 The advantage of Spilsbury's process, arising from 
 the unequal permeability of the hides, is said to be 
 obviated, by an improvement made by J. F. Knowlis, 
 which is as follows : — 
 
 The hides are suspended in an air-tight vessel, of capa- 
 city somewhat larger than their dimensions, and for this 
 purpose it is lined near the top with hooks. The hides 
 are hung at regular intervals, and kept distended by 
 
276 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 means of weights attached to their lower ends. In the 
 upper portion of the vessel, or vat, is an opening with a 
 movable cover, for the entrance of the workman. In 
 the side and near the top, is a tube with a stopcock and 
 coupling screw, for connecting with an air-pump ; and in 
 a corresponding position on the opposite side, is a similar 
 tube for the admission of air, to create external pressure as 
 may be required. The tanning liquid having been intro- 
 duced until it reaches above the hides, the vessel is her- 
 metically closed, and then exhausted of air by means of 
 the air-pump. As soon as a vacuum is obtained, the con- 
 tents of the vat are left in repose for a day and night, 
 after which the tanning liquor must be drawn off, and 
 the apparatus allowed to remain empty for two or three 
 hours, to permit the entrance of the air. This manipu- 
 lation is repeated several times, or until the hides are 
 sufficiently tanned. The ooze must be renewed after 
 each exhaustion of the vessel, and the first liquid should 
 be weak, but, as the operation proceeds, its strength must 
 be gradually increased. 
 
 This means of promoting hydrostatic pressure, by the 
 aid of a vacuum, really accelerates the impregnation 
 of the hides with tannin ; and the process is said to be 
 eligible, both as regards quality of leather, and economy 
 of time and labor. The air being withdrawn from the 
 pores of the skin, its resisting action, which prevents the 
 rapid penetration of the ooze into the skin, is over- 
 come. 
 
 Poole has announced a vacuum process, very similar 
 to the preceding, except that the preliminary treatment 
 in the lime liquor is also accelerated by atmospheric 
 pressure. The prepared hides are then tanned as by 
 Knowlis's method, and ultimately dried in an exhausted 
 chamber, which is traversed by pipes heated with steam. 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 277 
 
 The apparatus which he employs, is shown by Fig. 
 93, which exhibits the vat from which the air is ex- 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 haunted by means of the air-pump, seen above it. The 
 trap-door is held down, when closed, by the bar, which 
 is fastened by screws and nuts. 
 
 Instead of having an air-pump attached to each vat, 
 a central one, connecting by tubes with all the vats, can 
 be substituted ; or, still better, a movable one may be em- 
 ployed, which can be accurately adjusted to each separate 
 vessel. 
 
 A space of from six to eight inches between the surface 
 of the liquid, and the top of the vessel, will be quite 
 sufficient room for the evolution of air bubbles which oc- 
 curs from the former when the vacuum is being formed. 
 
 The hides are stretched upon wooden frames, and sus- 
 pended vertically in the vat, free from contact with each 
 other, and there left undisturbed until the completion of 
 the process. 
 
 At the end of forty-eight hours, during which the 
 vacant space in the upper part of the vessel has been 
 kept exhausted, the liquid is drawn off through a stop- 
 
278 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 cock in the bottom, and the skins exposed to the air for 
 half an hour in winter, and quarter of an hour in sum- 
 mer, before the vat is refilled with a stronger tan-liquor 
 than that first employed. After a like interval, the ope- 
 ration is repeated a third time with liquor of increased 
 strength ; and so on until the tanning is completed. 
 
 In this improved method, the skins being properly 
 placed in the vats, are first exposed to the action of lime- 
 water under a vacuum, so as to deprive them of hair. 
 The second bath consists of weak tan infusion, soured by 
 sulphuric or muriatic acid, for the purpose raising them, 
 the operation being conducted as before, and as in all the 
 succeeding ones by the aid of the vacuum. The third 
 bath is composed of tan-liquor, also of a strength of one- 
 fourth of a degree. As this will probably be reduced by 
 its loss of tannin, to one-eighteenth of a degree, the next 
 bath may be increased in strength to that of a half de- 
 gree, and so on with the succeeding ones, a larger amount 
 of tanning matter equivalent to a quarter or fifth degree 
 more of the areometer, being applied each time, until, in 
 the final operations, the infusion rises to four, five, or six 
 degrees of strength. 
 
 Plot water is to be used for leeching the tan. 
 
 The exhausted liquors can be kept for future processes 
 less advanced than those for which they were employed, 
 their strength being increased to the proper point by 
 additions of tan. 
 
 The figure, referred to in the text, represents a wooden 
 vat, but one built of masonry may be employed with an 
 air-tight cement in the interior, and covered with a 
 wooden or metallic top, so adjusted as to prevent the 
 admission of air. As the expansion of the pores of the 
 skins would be prevented by atmospheric pressure in the 
 earlier part of the process, it must not be employed until 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. - 
 
 279 
 
 near the completion of the tanning, or the last three 
 liquors. 
 
 The vat may be left open for twenty-four hours ; and 
 this exposure to air may be extended, during the last 
 bath, to forty-eight hours. 
 
 From twenty to twenty-five days are generally suffi- 
 cient for tanning calf-skins by this method, and thirty- 
 five days for the thickest ox or cow hides. 
 
 HANNOYE's PROCESS. 
 
 Another method, analogous in principle to the pre- 
 ceding, consists in producing an equable and active 
 filtration of tan-liquors through the skins, while they 
 are exposed to pressure, the kind, temperature, strength, 
 and mode of employment of which can be varied at will. 
 For this purpose, the filter-press of Real, with some 
 modifications, is made use of, not merely with the inten- 
 tion for which it has before this been employed, of ex- 
 tracting the active principles of bark, but as a direct 
 agent in the tanning process itself; the skins being stra- 
 tified in it with layers of bark, and the extraction of the 
 tannin, and the absorption of it by the skins, being both 
 efiected under pressure, and without contact of air. The 
 apparatus, which has been prepared upon the principle 
 of the filter-press, is provided like it, with a tube having 
 air-tight joints, by means of which a forced and uniform 
 filtration is efiected by the pressure of a column of fluid, 
 and the tube is of such a height that the pressure can 
 be increased or diminished at pleasure by altering the 
 height of the column, while the character of the opera- 
 tion can be varied at will by the employment of different 
 fluids. The pressure of the column of fluid can be 
 directed alternately upon either the upper or lower sur- 
 
280 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 faces of the skins, by means of tubes provided with stop- 
 cocks, and entering the vessel at the top and bottom. 
 
 The inventor claims this new application of the prin- 
 ciple of the filter-press, as being entirely original, and 
 asserts that, by the employment of it, he has been able 
 to arrive at a perfection, rapidity, and exactitude of the 
 method of tanning, which have not been attained by any 
 other process. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 Figs. 94, 95, 96. Vessels of a cylindrical or square 
 form, of a suitable capacity to hold the number of skins 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 281 
 
 intended to be operated upon, and which are capable of 
 resisting a considerable pressure. A tube a, a, Fig. 94. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 is attached to each, and is proportioned in height to the 
 mode of making pressure which is to be adopted, whether 
 it be that of a column of watery fluid, of mercury, or of 
 the hydraulic piston. Branch-pipes, h, 5', connect this 
 tube with the upper and the lower part of the reservoir, 
 and the opening of one or the other of the stopcocks 
 upon them, causes the pressure and consequent infiltra- 
 tion of tan-liquor through the skins to take place either 
 from above downwards, or in the opposite direction. 
 A pipe with a stopcock e, allows the liquid within the 
 vat to escape. 
 
 "The reservoir may be composed of different materials. 
 It may be constructed of solid masonry, covered in its 
 interior with lime cement, over which a coating of tar 
 or of some resinous substance is placed, so as to defend the 
 
 leather from the action of the Hme. It mav be made of 
 
 t/ 
 
 wood, lined with sheet-lead ] zinc or copper, well soldered 
 in all parts; or may be composed of cast-iron, lined 
 19 
 
282 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 throughout with lead or zinc, so as to prevent the injuri- 
 ous effect of oxide of iron upon the leather. In either 
 case, the rim of the neck of the vessel consists of a solid 
 plate or disk of metal, firmly attached to it, and a disk 
 of thick leather is interposed between it and the top or 
 lid, which is tightly fastened down by means of screws 
 and nuts upon the plate. This top may consist of thick 
 wood or of metal plate, also lined on its lower surface 
 with sheet-lead or zinc. The copper or leaden tube d, 
 for the column of fluid, is from one to three inches in 
 diameter, and is connected with the vessel by two tubes, 
 /, f, one entering it below the lid, the other at its 
 base. By opening the stopcock upon the upper tube, 
 the pressure of the fluid is made upon the upper surface 
 of the skins, and in the opposite direction by opening 
 that upon the lower tube. Two other cocks, ^, g'y the 
 one proceeding from the lid, the other from the lower 
 part of the reservoir, conduct the liquid which has tra- 
 versed the skins into a suitable receptacle, the upper one 
 being left open when the pressure is from below, and the 
 lower one when it proceeds from above. The skins are 
 stratified in the vat between beds of tan; water alone is 
 usually employed for the pressure upon its contents, and 
 for the extraction of the tannin, and the cocks for the 
 egress of fluid are only left so much open as to allow it to 
 escape drop by drop. 
 
 "Calf-skins may be tanned in twenty days by this 
 method, and ox-hides in sixty days, but the tanning 
 may be much expedited by the following arrangement. 
 Instead of simply stratifying the skins with layers of 
 bark, a framework of wood, with an open space in 
 its interior, rather smaller than the skins, is placed 
 upon each one. The interior of this frame is filled with 
 tan, another skin is extended above the frame thus 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 283 
 
 filled, and is in turn surmounted by other frames and 
 skins arranged in the same manner. To prevent the 
 fluid from being forced through the spaces between the 
 outsides of the frames and the walls of the vessel, these 
 are filled up with mastic, or some impervious cement like 
 the fatty lute of chemists, or a mixture of tallow and 
 rosin. A similar apphcation of lute is made around the 
 edges of the skins, and the weight of the tan and frames 
 soon makes the cemented parts perfectly tight. 
 
 "After each tanning is completed, the mastic or luting 
 can be taken off and used for a similar purpose again. 
 Skins tanned by this last method are as perfectly pre- 
 pared in a few days, as those which have been exposed 
 in the pits for sixteen months." 
 
 DANISH PROCESS. 
 
 This rapid method of tanning, by which "dressing 
 leather" may be made in two months, is practised in 
 Brittany and elsewhere. 
 
 After the skins have been soaked, fleshed, freed from 
 hair, and rinsed in the ordinary manner, they are colored 
 by being barley and tan dressed like barleyed skins. 
 They are then sewed up into the form of bags, aper- 
 tures of about ten inches in length being left, through 
 which they are filled with tan and water. These open- 
 ings being sewed up, the closed sacks are forcibly beaten 
 in every part, for the purpose of distributing their con- 
 tents equally throughout. They are then deposited in 
 pits which should contain suflicient ooze to cover them 
 completely ; these pits being four and a quarter feet in 
 depth, the same in breadth, and from eight and a half to 
 ten and a half feet long. When submerged in the pits, 
 planks heavily weighted with large stones or weights, are 
 
284 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 placed upon the skins^ so as to press them down forcibly 
 towards the bottom, and to increase the penetrating power 
 of the infusion ; and in order that they may not be un- 
 equally tanned on their different sides, these planks are 
 removed three or four times a week, and the sacks are 
 thoroughly beaten and changed in position. 
 
 Skins prepared in this way are supple and pliable like 
 crop-leather, and have a finer color than strong leather, 
 but they are thinner than those made in the ordinary 
 way, owing to their not swelling up by the slow process 
 of feeding, and to the pressure from wdthin and without 
 to which they have been subjected. 
 
 It is possible that an improvement of this process, which 
 is now the old method combined with that devised by 
 Seguin, may offer many advantages. 
 
 The external and internal pressure mutually assisting, 
 must certainly promote the introduction of tannin and 
 extractive matter into the tissue of the skins. It is, 
 however, doubtful if the durability and other qualities 
 of the product are equal to those of leather prepared by 
 more tedious processes. 
 
 rotch's process. 
 
 This method, patented in France in 1842, consists in 
 causing tannin to penetrate the skins by moistening 
 them with tan-liquor upon one side, while the water 
 which passes through the pores is made to evaporate 
 upon the other, by the application of artificial heat. By 
 this means the greater part of the tannin remains in the 
 leather, and the strength of the liquid which acts on the 
 latter is being continually increased instead of dimin- 
 ished as in the old method. Leather can thus be pre- 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 285 
 
 pared as perfectly in ten days, as it commonly is in ten 
 months. 
 
 The skins, previously limed in the usual manner, are 
 soaked and handled in a weak tan-liquor, for the purpose 
 of raising and coloring them. After being prepared and 
 cleaned, they are then carefully examined, and if an}^ 
 holes are found, they are pieced and sewed. If it is de- 
 sired, the skins may be cut into forms suitable for the 
 purposes to which the leather is to be applied. 
 
 It is more economical to work two skins at a time, and 
 those of equal size are closely stitched together at the 
 edges, grain to grain, with tarred thread, and are sus- 
 pended by cords, as seen in Fig. 97, to the pegs 5, 5, 5, 5, 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 which project from the bar a. This bar is the top of a 
 wooden rack a, c, and there is a similar rack on the 
 other side of the bag of skins, so that the latter can be 
 compressed, not forcibly, but in such a manner as to 
 make it retain its shape when full of fluid, between the 
 
286 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 two ranges of uprights which are made to approach one 
 another by screws e. An opening about an inch in 
 length is left in the upper part of the bag, for the recep- 
 tion of the funnel through which the tan-liquor is poured 
 in. The funnel may be conveniently placed in the neck 
 or collar, seen in the figure along side of the rack. 
 
 Fig. 98 represents a section of a side view of the rack, 
 and s the pegs upon the head of the rack, from which 
 
 the bag of skins is suspended. The inner sides of the 
 central bars composing the rack are hollowed out in the 
 form of arcs of large circles, as seen in Fig. 99. 
 
 The skins being thus suspended, the cold tan-liquor is 
 poured through the funnel until the bag is entirely full. 
 After a time, which varies in length according to the 
 thickness and permeability of the skins, their outside 
 becomes moist, and the water which filters through, 
 slowly drops into the gutter 7i, and flows into a receptacle 
 placed below its spout. This liquid, as soon as it is cold, 
 may be poured back into the bag so as to keep it con- 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 287 
 
 stantly full, and the supply of fluid is kept up from time 
 to time in proportion as it is lost by evaporation and by 
 draining off. 
 
 As soon as the surface of the skins becomes firm to the 
 touch and equally moist throughout, the air of the room 
 in which the operation is conducted, and which should 
 be provided with a ventilator to allow the vapor to escape, 
 must be gradually heated from 70° to 150° F., and kept 
 at this latter temperature until the skins become firm 
 and hard in every part, and assume a brown color, and 
 until the liquor in the sacks ceases to diminish in 
 strength. When all this occurs, the skins are thoroughly 
 tanned. They are then taken from the frame, emptied 
 of their contents, the borders which have been sewed 
 are cut off, and the skins are dried and prepared as 
 usual. During the continuance of the process, care should 
 be taken to change their position frequently, so that the 
 bars of the frame may not impress furrows or marks upon 
 their surfaces, by pressing for too long a time 
 upon the same parts. 
 
 The time required for tanning by this pro- 
 cess, varies with the thickness of the skins, 
 their changes of position, the strength of the 
 liquor, the regulation of the heat of the apart- 
 ment, and other circumstances which an expe- 
 rienced operator can readily appreciate.. 
 
 Fig. 100 shows a section of the rack: 5, 
 lower part of the rack : c, c, bars of the two racks 
 placed so as not to be opposite to each other. 
 
 s. sjstyder's process. 
 
 Mr. Snyder, of Ohio, proposes to expedite the tanning 
 of skins, by making their interior more accessible to tan- 
 
288 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 liquor through numerous fine punctures made in the sur- 
 face. He performs this pricking or acupuncture by means 
 of an instrument with a surface of fine needle points, 
 composed of from 100 to 300 to the square inch, accord- 
 ing to the thickness and quality of the skin. A hand- 
 instrument struck by a mallet is at present used, and 
 with it a workman can prepare thirty or forty skins in a 
 day ; but a cylindrical machine, covered with steel points, 
 could easily be made, which would prick a much larger 
 number. 
 
 Some skins require puncturing on the flesh, some on 
 the grain side. 
 
 It may appear paradoxical to recommend the perforation 
 of an article, the chief desideratum of which should be its 
 imperviousness to moisture ; but the operation is performed 
 while the skins are in the most soft, moist, and relaxed 
 state, after they are worked out of the hate, or grainer; 
 and when in this condition, the fibres separate before the 
 points of the instruments just as other tissues do before 
 a pin or needle. This soft and relaxed substance, full of 
 indentations, after having been tanned and dried, will be 
 found to be dense and contracted, and will not exhibit a 
 trace of defect from the operation to which it has been 
 subjected. These punctured orifices do not close, how- 
 ever, immediately after the withdrawal of the instrument 
 or directly upon being tanned, but remain sufficiently 
 open to admit the liquor into the interior of the skins, 
 throughout the process, and until it is quite completed, 
 becoming only gradually obliterated. 
 
 Better leather can be manufactured where this acu^ 
 puncturation is resorted to than by other means, for the 
 following reasons : — 
 
 1. Because the tanning is so accelerated, and the re- 
 
ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 289 
 
 newal of the tan-liquor necessarily so frequent, that it 
 is not exposed to the air long enough to become acid. 
 It is well known that acid has an injurious effect upon 
 skins, relaxing their pores, expanding their fibres, en- 
 larging the grain, and rendering the leather brittle ; and 
 since eight or ten days often suffice to acidify tan-liquor, 
 it follows that the skins are frequently exposed to these 
 injurious influences in the old processes, often for six or 
 eight weeks at a time. These obstacles to tanning are 
 avoided now, by a method which exposes a much larger 
 surface to the action of the tan-liquor, so that, being 
 rapidly exhausted of tannin, it requires a renewal of the 
 tan-liquor before sufficient time elapses to acidify it. 
 
 2. Because by bringing the tannin at first directly in 
 contact with the interior of the structure, the chemical 
 change takes place there as rapidly as upon the surface; 
 so that there is no occasion, as in the old method, for the 
 surface to be exposed so long as to be rendered hard or 
 brittle, in order to allow the solution to pass through it 
 to the centre. 
 
 Although a very short time is occupied in tanning by 
 this method, the process may be still further expedited 
 by the application of hydrostatic pressure. For this 
 purpose it is necessary to use a strong water-tight box,, 
 made as nearly as possible of the same shape as the skins, 
 and having sides four to five inches in height, with a 
 groove running all around. A layer of tan or other 
 tanning material is deposited in the box, and is moist- 
 ened with a small quantity of strong tan-liquor. The 
 skin is stretched over this, with the grain side up, and 
 another frame, exactly of the size of the first, with a 
 continuous tongue, which presses the edges of the skin 
 into the groove, should be placed on it. The two boxes 
 
290 
 
 ACCELERATING PROCESSES. 
 
 are held together by screws and nuts at the corners. A 
 number of these boxes are then piled upon each other 
 in a vat full of weak tan-liquor, each one being provided 
 with a flexible tube or hose, rising from above the edge 
 of the skin to the surface of the pit, so as to allow the 
 egress of air. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 keasley's process. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Keasley, of England, has patented (Janu- 
 ary llj 1845) a process founded upon his experience 
 that alternate immersion and removal of the hides from 
 the ooze, so as to allow frequent exposure of them to the 
 air, shortens the time of tanning, and improves the 
 quality and weight of the latter. 
 
 The apparatus consists of a square, rectangular, or 
 other conveniently shaped framing, from which the hides 
 or skins are suspended vertically, in any convenient 
 manner. The dimensions of the framing from which 
 the hides or skins are suspended, must, of course, corre- 
 spond with the size of the pit, so that the frame belong- 
 ing to each pit, and with it the hides, may be raised or 
 lowered at the discretion of the attendant. Each of these 
 frames, containing the hides, is distinct and separate, and 
 may be raised and lowered, separately, by manual labor, 
 with the assistance of a windlass, if required ; but it has 
 been found more advantageous to connect two contiguous 
 frames together, so as to make them counterbalance each 
 other, and thus considerably diminish the labor of work- 
 ing them. A variety of means may be devised for carry- 
 ing this idea into effect, but several plans are shown 
 which will be found to answer the purpose. 
 
292 
 
 keasley's process. 
 
 "Fig. 101 represents a side elevation, and Fig. 102 an 
 end elevation of one plan, in which the frames a, a, a, 
 
 filled with hides, or parts of hides 5, 5, are suspended from 
 the extremities of a vibrating beam or lever c, c, by 
 means of chains or cords d. The tan-pits or vats e, 
 are shown in in section, in both these figures. The beam 
 or lever c, c, is mounted at /, in bearings firmly fixed in 
 the framing ^, for that purpose, and is worked up and 
 down by means of chains or cords h, which pass round 
 a windlass or barrel i, ^, below, and are fastened at either 
 end to the extremities of the vibrating beam. On the 
 axle of the windlass, or barrel, is mounted a toothed 
 wheel y, shown by dots in Fig. 101; it is driven by a 
 pinion Jc, which is fixed on the shaft Z, and is actuated 
 by applying power to the said shaft, by means of a winch 
 or otherwise. It will now be understood that as the pin- 
 ion Jc, toothed wheel j, and barrel or windlass i, ^, are 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
keasley's process. 
 
 293 
 
 made to revolve, one end of the beam or lever c, c, will 
 be raised, and the opposite end depressed, by one of the 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 ropes passing over and the other under the barrel or 
 windlass; and by this means one frame of hides will be 
 lifted out of the tan liquor, while the hides on the oppo- 
 site one are totally immersed. This operation may be 
 reversed by turning the winch in the opposite direction. 
 The ascent and descent of the frames is assisted by the 
 forked guides m, m (see Fig. 102), which work against 
 the vertical guide-rods 7i. At night, or at other times, 
 when it is necessary that the hides on both frames should 
 be immersed, this object is easily effected by unhooking 
 from the suspending chains or ropes cZ, d, by means of the 
 hook r,' the frame that is already immersed, and then al- 
 lowing the other frame to descend into the liquor, which 
 it will easily do by its own weight. When one of the 
 frames is raised, it is kept elevated by merely placing a 
 
294 
 
 keasley's process. 
 
 leather or wooden block between the teeth of the toothed 
 wheel y, and pinion and thereby preventing them from 
 revolving. This stop fully answers the purpose, and is 
 more convenient than a pall and ratchet-wheel. 
 
 "Fig. 103 represents a side elevation of another plan 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 of carrying out the counterbalance principle. In this 
 plan the vibrating beam c, is suppressed, and the sus- 
 pending cords or chains and the working cords or 
 chains li, are united together, and form the cords or 
 chains o, o, which pass over pulleys p, ^, at the outer 
 extremities of the standards g, and down between two 
 other pulleys q, q, and round the barrel or windlass i, 
 as in the former instance. If, however, it is thought 
 more desirable, the pulleys p, and q, q^ may be at- 
 tached to a beam, or the ceiling above, instead of the stand- 
 ards g, g. The barrel % is furnished with a toothed 
 wheel j, and is driven by a pinion precisely in the 
 manner explained in reference to Figs. 101 and 102, and, 
 therefore, no further explanation will be necessary. 
 "The patentee has also shown a means of raising the 
 
keaslet's process. 295 
 
 frames containing the hides or skins, one at a time. In 
 this case the pulleys are fastened, as before mentioned, 
 to a beam above ; the windlass or barrel being placed 
 below. 
 
 " Fig. 104 represents another plan of raising the frames. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 In this instance, several frames with the hides or skins 
 suspended vertically, may be raised at one time, but 
 not upon the counterbalance principle. The frames, 
 with the hides or skins, are raised by means of a rope 
 or cord s, s, s, which passes over pulleys t, t, affixed 
 to a strong beam ii, above. One end of the rope 
 s, 5, is firmly fixed to the beam, as seen in the draw- 
 ing, and the other end is passed over the pulleys t, t, 
 and round a windlass at the other extremity of the 
 beam. The suspension cords of the frames are each 
 furnished with a pulley or block constructed in such 
 a manner that it may with facility be hooked on to, or 
 detached from the rope 5, 5, according to whether it 
 be required to raise the frames containing the skins or 
 hides, or parts of skins or hides, out of the tan-liquor, or 
 to allow them to remain immersed. It will be found most 
 convenient to raise only one-half the number of frames 
 at one time, leaving the remainder in the tan-liquor. In 
 order to do this, the rope s, s, is brought down and 
 every other frame hooked on to the rope; then, by turn- 
 ing the windlass or barrel, and causing the rope s, s to 
 coil thereon, the frames, with the hides or skins, will be 
 raised out of the pits, as shown in the drawing; the other 
 
296 
 
 keasley's process. 
 
 frames, which are not attached to the rope, remaining 
 immersed. When the first lot of skins have been ex- 
 posed a sufficient length of time to the atmosphere, the 
 frames are lowered into the liquor again, where they are 
 allowed to remain, by unhooking the pulleys which 
 connect them to the rope s, s; and those which were 
 before immersed, are now to be raised by hooking them 
 in their turn, by means of their pulleys v, v, on to the rope 
 s, 5. If thought advisable, the counterbalance principle 
 may be applied to this arrangement or plan of raising and 
 lowering the frames, by merely employing an additional 
 rope s, s, passed over pulleys exactly similar to the one 
 shown in the drawing. One end of this rope, also, should 
 be firmly attached to the end of the beam u, u, and the 
 opposite end to the windlass or barrel ; or, instead of two 
 ropes, one only may be employed, by having it of suffi- 
 cient length to pass from the end of the beam over the 
 pulleys ty t, round the windlass and back again over simi- 
 lar pulleys t, to the end of the beam, so as to present 
 a double rope, to one part of which the three frames 1, 
 3, 5, would be suspended, while the other frames 2, 4, 
 would be suspended from the other part. Now if a 
 double rope s, is employed, there will be no necessity to 
 detach the frames from the ropes. The pulleys v, are 
 merely made to run freely on the said ropes, and are not 
 required to be constructed so as to hook on, as above- 
 mentioned. It will now be understood, that if the 
 counterbalance principle is carried out in this manner, 
 one set of frames will be elevated, while the others are 
 immersed; and the action of lowering one set will raise 
 the other ; that is, when the windlass is unwinding the 
 rope to lower one set, it is at the same time winding 
 up the other rope, and thereby raising those frames con- 
 nected with it." 
 
KEASLEY'S PROCESS. 
 
 297 
 
 "Fig. 105 represents another plan of raising the frames. 
 In this j)lan a traveUing windlass is employed^ which 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 ■ |- 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ill 1 1 1 , 
 
 
 may be made to traverse a railway, or floor, constructed 
 on the top of the beam u, above the frames. When 
 it is required to raise a frame, with its skins, or hides, 
 the windlass is moved along the railway or floor imme- 
 diately above the frame, and a rope with a hook at the 
 end is let down to the frame, which is then attached 
 thereto. The frame is then raised up by means of the 
 windlass, until the skins are drawn out of the liquid, and 
 are completely exposed to the atmosphere ; in which po- 
 sition it is suspended by a hook w, firmly fastened to the 
 beam u, where it remains until the manufacturer thinks 
 it advisable to immerse the hides or skins again. 
 
 " Having raised one frame up, and suspended it from 
 the hook the attendant releases the rope belonging to 
 the windlass, and proceeds along the floor or railway 
 with the windlass to another frame, which he raises and 
 suspends from its hook iv, in the same way. When it is 
 required to lower the frames, and their hides, or skins, 
 mto the liquor, this must be done by means of the wind- 
 lass, in exactly the same manner." 
 
 20 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 TURNBULL'S PROCESS. 
 
 The immediate and direct combination of tannin with 
 the gehitinous tissue of skins, is retarded, or prevented, 
 during the operation of tanning, by the following cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 1st. The skins, when immersed in lime-water, absorb 
 a considerable quantity of lime, which has the effect of 
 rendering soluble and removing a portion of gelatine, or 
 of so altering the nature of part of the structure as to 
 render it incapable of combining properly with tannin ; 
 and so much of the lime is retained in the skins, that the 
 tanner is prevented from acting upon them with perfect 
 freedom. 
 
 2d. When catechu is employed for tanning, the leather 
 made by it is very permeable to water, is loose and 
 spongy in structure, and of a dark-red color. This con- 
 dition is produced by the catechuic acid and extractive 
 matters. 
 
 3d. When oak-bark and other substances used in tan- 
 ning, particularly divi-divi and sumach, are macerated in 
 water, exposure to the atmosphere causes the conversion 
 of part of their tannin into gallic acid, which is a sol- 
 vent of gelatine, and is consequently injurious in its 
 action upon the skins, interfering with their thorough 
 conversion into leather, and rendering the latter light, 
 spongy, and inferior. 
 
tuenbull's process. 
 
 299 
 
 The chief object of TurnbuH's process (patented in 
 England, Sept. 6, 1844), is to obviate all these diffi- 
 culties either by the complete removal of every trace of 
 lime from the skins, or by obtaining depilation without 
 the aid of lime. 
 
 Saccharine substances and pyroxilic or wood spirit 
 possess the property of combining with and dissolving 
 lime ; and for the purpose of extracting the latter from 
 the skins, he prepares a solution, consisting of fourteen 
 pounds of sawdust, four pounds of coarse sugar or molas- 
 ses, and sixty gallons of water ; or it may be composed 
 of sawdust alone, in the proportion of twenty-eight pounds 
 to the same quantity of water. The skins are soaked 
 for two or three days in this cold solution, which, dur- 
 ing that interval, dissolves out the lime, and renders the 
 skins more capable of readily absorbing the tanning 
 material. 
 
 For the purpose of depriving the skins of hair without 
 liming them, Turnbull immerses them for from five to ten 
 days, first in a solution of sugar, which swells the tissue, 
 loosens the epidermis, and allows the ready removal 
 of the hair. He then soaks them in a solution of sea- 
 salt, by the action of which this same cuticle is made to 
 contract and separate from the true skin, without a 
 corresponding effect being produced upon the gelatine. 
 The hair can then be easily removed without the least 
 injury to the gelatinous structure. The saccharine solu- 
 tion is composed of fourteen pounds of coarse sugar to 
 one hundred gallons of water, and is maintained at a 
 temperature of 50° to 80° F. The other solution is 
 formed by dissolving fourteen pounds of sea-salt in one 
 hundred gallons of water, and is kept at a temperature 
 of from 70° to 100° F. 
 
 Turnbull has also used the following means for sepa- 
 
300 
 
 turnbull's process. 
 
 rating the catechuic acid and other principles injurious 
 to leather, which exist in catechu, and also of prevent- 
 ing the formation of gallic and ellagic acids, when galls, 
 oak-bark, valonia, and divi-divi, are employed. 
 
 For separating tannin from the catechuic acid, the cate- 
 cliu is finely powdered, and exhausted of soluble matter, by 
 repeated treatment with cold or milk-warm water. When 
 the solution has cooled, it is to be strained through 
 cotton : the catechuic acid and other substances injuri- 
 ous to leather being insoluble in cold water, are retained 
 upon the filter. The liquid which passes through, being 
 a solution of tannin nearly free from these principles, is 
 much better adapted for preserving the sails of vessels, 
 and tissues which are exposed to atmospheric influences, 
 than an ordinary decoction of catechu. In order to pre- 
 vent the conversion of the tannin of oak-bark and simi- 
 lar tanning substances into gallic acid, Turnbull reduces 
 the materials to powder, and effects the tanning without 
 exposure to air, as hereafter directed. 
 
 The skins are tanned in Turnbull's process: 1st, by the 
 application of a force difierent from hydrostatic pressure 
 or capillary attraction ; 2d, by the employment of vats 
 communicating with one another in such a way as to 
 maintain a constant circulation of the tanning matter. 
 
 The first means consist in the application to tanning, 
 of a principle similar to that which is exhibited in the 
 phenomena of endosmosis and exosmosis, or the simultane- 
 ous passage in opposite directions through animal mem- 
 branes, of fluids of different densities. For this purpose, 
 
 the hide or skin to be tanned is formed into a bag by 
 sewing, and the oak-bark, which has been ground into 
 powder, is introduced, in the proportion of two pounds 
 to every pound weight of the wet skin, prepared as 
 above; the opening through which the oak-bark has 
 
turnbull's process. 
 
 301 
 
 been introduced is then sewn up, leaving only a small 
 neck or aperture, through which the bag is filled with 
 cold or warm water ; and, when full, the neck or aper- 
 ture is fastened by a flange and screw, so as to exclude 
 the atmospheric air. The bag is then introduced into a 
 box filled with tanning liquor, formed of terra-japonica, 
 which has been freed as above described, from catechuic 
 acid and extractives. The boxes are arranged in the 
 manner shown at Fig. 106, A, being the tanks, or boxes; 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 and B, the waste-pipes for carrying off the liquor, as it 
 exudes from the hides, into the main pipe c, leading to 
 the main tank or reservoir d. The purified terra-japonica 
 is not injuriously acted upon by the atmosphere ; and 
 the tanning liquor, composed of oak-bark, being mixed in- 
 side the hide, or skin, and thus excluded from the action 
 of the atmosphere, does not generate gallic acid. In 
 order to increase the specific gravity of the liquor in the 
 boxes, or tanks, and thus accelerate the action, sugar is 
 added in the proportion of fourteen pounds to one hun- 
 dred gallons of the mixture of terra-japonica. The two 
 liquids, being thus separated, the process of endosmosis 
 and exosmosis is secured, and the tannic acid passes 
 rapidly through the skin, or hide, until it is perfectly 
 tanned ; the bags are turned occasionally, and when they 
 become partially empty, by exudation^ are filled again 
 
302 
 
 turnbull's process. 
 
 with water. During the operation of tanning, it will be 
 necessary to add to the weight of the liquor in the boxes, 
 in order to keep up the action ; this is accomplished by 
 adding a small quantity of sugar to the mixture of 
 terra-japonica. Valonia will rank next to purified tan- 
 nic acid from terra-japonica, and may be used similarly 
 to terra-japonica; ground valonia maybe introduced into 
 the bag, in the proportion of about one-half less than the 
 oak-bark ; divi-divi, sumach, and other substances con- 
 taining tannic acid may be used in the same proportions 
 as valonia. Terra-japonica ought to be introduced into 
 the bag, after the impurities are removed, in the form of 
 tan liquor, in the proportion of fifty pounds to the hide : 
 one pound of terra-japonica is equal to four pounds of 
 oak-bark. 
 
 Fig. 107 represents the pits or tanks for tanning. 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 arranged so as to create and keep up a general and con- 
 stant agitation and circulation of the tanning liquor. 
 Into these pits or tanks is introduced a sufficient quan- 
 tity of tanning liquor, composed either of terra-japonica, 
 or oak-bark, divi-divi, valonia, sumach, &c., so as to leave 
 room only for the hides and skins which are placed 
 therein, one upon another, as in the ordinary mode of 
 tanning ; and the pits are then closed at top, so as to 
 exclude the atmospheric air. The tanning liquor must 
 then be put into, and kept in a state of constant agitation 
 or circulation; this is effected by means of a suction- 
 
turnbull's process. 
 
 303 
 
 pump, connected with the pits at the bottom and top. A is 
 the suction-pump ; b, b, the pits ; C, suction-pipe ; D, 
 pipes leading from the bottom of the pits to the suction- 
 pipe ; E, main forcing-pipe, connected with the top of the 
 pits by the pipes f, f ; and G, G are pipes which connect 
 the pits with each other at top, to prevent them from 
 overflowing. By the action of the suction or forcing- 
 pump, the tanning liquor is speedily extracted from the 
 pits, through the pipes d, d, and C, and, at the same time, 
 is forced again through the pipes e, and f, f, into the dif- 
 ferent pits ; thereby keeping up a general agitation and 
 circulation of the liquor. These pits or tanks may be 
 constructed in sheds, or rooms, and placed one above 
 another, and side by side ; but if it is desired to sink the 
 pits in the earth, they should be constructed and arranged 
 as shown at Fig. 108, in which the same letters are used 
 
 to denote similar parts to those in Fig. 107. The opera- 
 tion of both arrangements is the same, with this excep- 
 tion, that, as in Fig. 108, the pits are sunk in the ground, 
 the pipes, by which the liquor is withdrawn, are obliged 
 to enter at the top, and descend nearly to the bottom of 
 the pits. 
 
 " In treating terra-japonica, for the purpose of sepa- 
 rating the tannic acid from the catechuic acid and other 
 extractive and deleterious matter, the deposit, remain ing 
 in the cylinder or tank is at least fifty per cent, of the 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
304 
 
 warington's peocess. 
 
 quantity of terra-japonic a dissolved ; and it is capable of 
 being purified, and rendered applicable to tanning. For 
 this purpose it is placed in stoves or drying pans, heated 
 to 160° F.J and is exposed to the atmospheric air, and 
 kept continually stirred, until it assumes the color and 
 appearance of the original pulverized terra-japonica; this 
 material being now filtered, will be found to yield nearly 
 as much tannic acid as the terra-japonica did in the first 
 instance. 
 
 Hides and skins from which the lime has been ex- 
 tracted, or from which the hair has been removed without 
 the use of lime, by the above modes described, may be 
 tanned in the ordinary manner, by terra-japonica, puri- 
 fied as above, and by other ordinary tanning matter, 
 with much greater facility than heretofore ; and leather 
 of greater weight, and better quality than usual, will be 
 produced." 
 
 warington's process. 
 
 This is an English method, patented March 16, 1841, 
 by Robert Warington, and is said by the inventor to be 
 applicable to the tanning of all kinds of hides and skins, 
 Avhether dry, salted, or fresh. 
 
 " First, for soaking or preparing the hides or skins for 
 unhairing. This I do by means of the carbonates of 
 potass or soda; the latter, from its cheapness, is to be 
 preferred, and dissolved in water, in the proportion of 
 from one to two pounds of the carbonate to ten gallons 
 of water. 
 
 " Second, for the preparing the hides and skins for un- 
 hairing, and swelling them at the same time, or for 
 swelling them only; and this I do by various agents, 
 which, for simplicity of explanation, I will divide into 
 
warington's process. 
 
 305 
 
 three classes : first, baryta, potassa, soda; second, muriatic 
 acid, nitric acid, and oxalic acid, and all other acids (ex- 
 cept the sulphuric) ; and thirdly, vegetable matters, as 
 the culinary rhubarbs, sorrel, apple marc, vine cuttings, 
 and many others, which, from locality and other circum- 
 stances, may be economically employed. Of the first 
 class, I prefer the use of soda, in the proportion of half a 
 pound to one pound of dry carbonate of soda to ten gal- 
 lons of water, and rendered caustic by about half its 
 weight of fresh-burnt lime. Of the second class, I prefer, 
 from its cheapness, the muriatic acid, which I use in the 
 proportion of from half a pound to two pounds of the 
 acid of commerce, of specific gravity 1.17, mixed with 
 ten gallons of water. Of the third class, I prefer the 
 culinary rhubarbs, bruised and mixed with water, in the 
 proportion of from one to ten pounds of the rhubarb per 
 gallon of water. As the details of the method of un- 
 hairing and fleshing the hides or skins when ready, is 
 the same exactly as that usually followed, and is well 
 known to all practical men, it would be useless to state 
 them here. 
 
 " Third, for the use of the carbonates of ammonia in 
 the operation of graining, and this I employ in the pro- 
 portion of from half a pound to four pounds dissolved in 
 ten gallons of water. 
 
 " Fourth, for the use of green vegetable matter bruised 
 — as culinary rhubarb, bruised potatoes, &c. — or chemi- 
 cal agents, capable of deoxidizing or preventing oxida- 
 tion — as gum, starch, certain compounds of sulphur, &c., 
 which are to be mixed in small proportions with the 
 tanning material — as barks, divi-divi — or extracts — as 
 kino, catechu, &c. The proportion in which these agents 
 may be employed are so various, and dependent on the 
 tanning agent used, that it is impossible to give an accu- 
 
306 
 
 warington's process. 
 
 rate proportion, but from one-hundredth part to one-tenth, 
 supposing oak-bark to be employed. 
 
 " Fifth, for the use of bichromate of potass in solution, 
 or diluted sulphuric acid, for the preservation of animal 
 matter, so as to prevent putrefaction. When the bi- 
 chromate of potass is used, I employ from one-eighth to 
 half a pound to 100 gallons of water; and, in the case of 
 sulphuric acid, from one-fourth to one pound to ten gal- 
 lons of water. Into either of these solutions, the skins, 
 or any other animal substances, in their moist state, are 
 to be immersed and kept from the dust. I do not claim 
 the use of any of the proportions hereinbefore given, as 
 these must be regulated by the nature of the material 
 operated upon, and the temperature of the air and season 
 when it is employed." 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 H. HIBBARD'S PATENT PROCESS. 
 
 This process, patented in October, 1849, is said to 
 possess, in an eminent degree, the advantages of economy 
 of time and material. It is also applicable to the tan- 
 ning of all kinds of skins, and produces leather of great 
 strength and durability. 
 
 The inventor describes his process as consisting : — 
 ^' First. In the use of a composition of lime, wood ashes 
 (or potash), and salt, for the purpose of removing hair 
 or wool; also for the purpose of timing.' so called, instead 
 of using lime alone, as in the old method. Lime and 
 ashes have been used separately for the purpose of re- 
 moving hair, wool, grease, mucus, and other impurities 
 from skins; but lime alone requires several days, and, in 
 cold weather, weeks, to effect these several objects; so 
 that the muscular fibre of the skin is always more or 
 less injured. On the other hand, ash^s alone acts too 
 rapidly, and would destroy the skins altogether; but 
 when lime, ashes, and salt are combined in proper pro- 
 portions, the salt modifies the action of the alkalies, and 
 protects the skins from their caustic properties; so that 
 the processes of unhairing and timing' are both rendered 
 more expeditious and safe than by the old method. The 
 texture of the skin is uninjured, and, consequently, the 
 leather is much stronger. 
 
308 
 
 hibbard's patent process. 
 
 Second. In the use of a composition of salt, sulphuric 
 acid (oil of vitriol), and sumach, oak, hemlock bark, or 
 any other tannin for the process of tanning. The salt, 
 sulphuric acid, and tannin being mixed together in water, 
 in certain proportions hereafter mentioned, a portion of 
 the salt is decomposed by the acid, forming sulphate of 
 soda, and setting muriatic acid free, which [the muriatic 
 acid), being absorbed by the water, acts directly and 
 rapidly on the skins, opening their pores, and preparing 
 them for the tannin, which, being present also in the 
 mixture, immediately and readily unites with the gela- 
 tine of the skins, forming leather more expeditiously and 
 perfectly than by the old method of tanning." * 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SKINS. 
 
 "The skins may be prepared for the tanning process 
 after the usual method. But I prefer and use the fol- 
 lowing composition, which I shall denominate — 
 
 Composition, No. 1. 
 
 Quicklime, fresh slacked . . i bushel 
 Good wood ashes . . . . i " 
 Chloride of sodium (salt) . . 3 pints. 
 " N. B. — For the ashes may be substituted three to 
 five pounds of potash. 
 
 "For removing the hair or wool, the above comjDosi- 
 tion, No. 1, is to be mixed with water sufficient to make 
 a thick paste, and applied to the flesh side of the hides 
 in the usual way; the skins to be folded and kept at a 
 temperature of summer heat. In a few hours they will 
 be ready to pull. 
 
 "For the liming (or ashing) process, I use the same 
 
4 
 
 hibbard's patent process. 309 
 
 composition J No. 1, mixed with a sufficiency of water in 
 . a vat, to immerse the number of skins proposed to be 
 limed (ashed). One bushel of the mixture is about 
 equivalent to one bushel of lime alone. The liming (or 
 ashing) process may be conducted at a temperature of 
 40° to 60° F." 
 
 COMPOSITION FOR TANNING. 
 
 " For six dozen of full-sized sheep, deer, goat, or simi- 
 lar skins of similar size. 
 
 Comjposition, No, 2. 
 
 Chloride of sodium (salt) . . 18 lbs. 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . . . 2 " 
 
 Sicily sumach, or quercitron bark . 36 " 
 
 Muriatic acid . . . . 2 oz. 
 
 Dried clover 18 lbs. 
 
 Soft water 125 galls." 
 
 The sumach or dye-stuffs are first exhausted wdth water, 
 and then the salt is added to the liquor, apportioned so as 
 to insure perfect solution. Subsequently, the acids are 
 added, and the mixture thoroughly incorporated by 
 stirring. 
 
 The details of this process and the modifications ne- 
 cessary to make it applicable to the tanning of morocco, 
 white, glove, and harness leathers, are given in a short 
 treatise upon the subject by Dr. W. W. Reid, of Roches- 
 ter, New York. Being a copy-right publication, we are 
 not at liberty to extract or condense from it, and the 
 reader must apply to the original source, if he should 
 desire further information. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 LEPEIEUR'S PROCESS. 
 
 This process, published in 1833, consists of four 
 operations, which, with some modifications, are those 
 practised by all tanners. 
 
 1. The rinsing, or dressing in water, which compre- 
 hends the softening of dry skins, the washing, the 
 separation of the hair, the fleshing, &c. 
 
 2. The sugar of lead hath. — The skins, having been 
 well washed and drained, are deposited and left during 
 ten or twelve hours in summer, and from twenty-four to 
 thirty hours in winter, in a bath containing one pound 
 one and a half ounces of acetate of lead for every six or 
 eight skins, being in the proportion of one part of the 
 salt to 1000 parts of water. The skins are then taken 
 out and are again placed in a similar bath, in which they 
 are allowed to remain for from twelve to twenty-four 
 hours, care being taken to handle them every three 
 hours during each immersion. They are then carefully 
 rinsed in running water. The author believes that the 
 combination of the lead salt with the albumen of the 
 skins gives them a solidity, and freedom from looseness 
 of texture which they would not otherwise possess. 
 
 3. Tan-liquor haths. — The author, after contending that 
 the raising of skins is not essential, and that, if consi- 
 dered necessary, it can readily be effected by adding acid 
 
leprieur's process. 
 
 311 
 
 to the first infusions, gives the proportions of one part of 
 tan for ten parts of dry hides, with enough sulphuric 
 acid to impart a distinct acid taste, as being all-sufiicient 
 for the purpose. 
 
 First Series of Tan Infusions. First hath, — This is 
 composed of 22 pounds of tan for every 110 pounds of 
 hides, infused for twenty-four hours in enough water to 
 cover but not to completely sink them. To this mix- 
 ture, a quantity of strong sour ooze, or else from 9 i to 91 
 ounces, by weight, of sulphuric acid, at 66° B., are added, 
 and if, after maceration for twenty-four hours, the liquid 
 is not sensibly acid, more is poured in, if it is desired to 
 effect the raising by means of it. 
 
 In summer, the hides should not be kept in this bath 
 more than thirty or forty hours, since, at the end of that 
 time, it is exhausted, and disposed to putrefy, from the 
 quantity of animal matter then contained in it. In 
 winter, this tendency being retarded, they may remain 
 in it a day longer. 
 
 Second hath. — 33 pounds of tan for 110 pounds of dry 
 leather are deposited in this bath, which is to be acidified 
 in the same way as the first. The skins should be kept 
 in it for thirty-six hours, after which time they are taken 
 out to drain, reimmersed for thirty hours more, and again 
 drained. On account of the animal matter contained in 
 the infusion, it is now no longer serviceable except as a 
 putrid ferment for new infusions. 
 
 Third hath. — In this bath, 44 pounds of tan are used 
 for the above-mentioned weight of skins, and not more 
 than 9i ounces of sulphuric acid are added, if the pre- 
 vious raising has been considered sulBicient. The skins 
 should be taken out at intervals, as in the former opera- 
 tions, washed in water, drained, and replaced. The 
 author remarks that if, after a continuance in the bath 
 
312 
 
 leprieur's process. 
 
 of four or five days, it shows 3° or 4° by the acid hydro- 
 meter, the skins may be allowed to remain twenty-four 
 hours longer; or, still better, the liquid may be used, in 
 the same manner as the first bath, for thin skins, like 
 those of the calf, goat, sheep, &c. 
 
 Fourth hath. — 55 pounds of tan, the same mode of pre- 
 paration (excepting the use of less water), the same 
 acidification, and a continuance of the skins in it for six 
 or eight days, are required in this fourth process. The 
 skins, before being placed in the vat, are drained for 
 eight or twelve hours, and afterwards are taken out at 
 least three times, so that it may be ascertained that the 
 liquor has not become too weak. If the degree shown 
 by the acid hydrometer is four or five tenths, a fresh 
 liquid is prepared, and the old one is reserved for skins 
 which are undergoing the second series of baths. The 
 author adds that it is better generally to deposit fresh 
 skins in old baths, which they quickly exhaust, than in 
 those more advanced. 
 
 Second Series of Infusions. First hath. — Accord- 
 ing to Leprieur, a new set of skins begins with the fourth 
 bath of the first series of infusions, and will require 330 
 lbs. of bark, to tan them as completely as the others. 
 
 Second hath. — Since the fifth bath of the first series 
 would not be disposed of in time to answer for the se- 
 cond bath of the second series, and would, moreover, be 
 too strong, a new one should be prepared like that of 
 Number 2. 
 
 Leprieur recommends after the fourth bath, to stratify 
 the leather and tan alternately, interposing peeled willow 
 twigs or strips of white wood, so that the surfaces shall 
 be equally soaked. 
 
 First Series. Fifth hath.—m lbs. of tan for 110 of 
 hides. The latter kept in the vat for from six to eight 
 
leprieur's process. 
 
 313 
 
 days, should be taken out, drained, and replaced three or 
 four times during this period. If strips are placed be- 
 tween them, it will be sufficient to cover the last layer 
 of tan with the infusion, to the height of half an inch. 
 
 Second Series. Third hath. — The fifth bath forms 
 the third of the second series. 
 
 Sixth hath, — Consists of 66 lbs. of tan to 110 lbs. of 
 hides, which remain in it about ten days, and are taken 
 out and drained at intervals of two or three days. It is 
 well to observe that when the infusion marks more than 
 five or six of the acid hydrometer, the skins should be 
 taken out, and the bath reserved for others which are 
 less advanced in preparation. 
 
 Fourth hath, — The sixth bath, like the fifth, not being 
 unoccupied soon enough to answer for the fourth of the 
 second series, it is necessary to prepare it with fresh 
 materials, like No. 4, It will then be the sixth of the 
 first series under the denomination five. 
 
 Fifth hath, — There being no further danger of putre- 
 faction to the hides, they can now remain in this bath 
 until the fifth bath of the first series is fully prepared. 
 
 Seventh hath, — Consists of bark 88 lbs. for 110 lbs. of 
 hides, which should remain in it for twelve or fifteen 
 days, or until the liquid marks no more than from six 
 to seven tenths by the hydrometer. After that time it 
 will serve for the second set of skins. When the hides 
 are taken from this bath and cut, the sections will show 
 a well-tanned surface, but an unchanged interior. 
 
 Nearly fifty days will now have elapsed since the 
 skins were placed in the first bath, and for every 110 
 lbs. of hides, 385 lbs. of bark will have been consumed. 
 Supposing now that 1100 lbs. of tan are used in the 
 ordinary method of tanning that weight of leather, there 
 21 
 
314 
 
 leprieur's process. 
 
 will still remain 717 lbs. to be used in the pits, to make 
 the expenditure of material the same in both processes. 
 
 Sixth hath. — The seventh bath of the first series is 
 the sixth of the second; but the author regards it as a 
 matter of indifference, whether the hides are at once 
 deposited in the vats, or are again exposed to a bath of 
 110 lbs. of tan to an equal weight of leather. 
 
 TANNING IN THE VATS. 
 
 Leprieur uses tan well mixed with water, to which 
 sulphuric acid has been added in the proportions before 
 mentioned, so as to saturate the potassa of the bark. A 
 layer of this mixture is deposited upon the bottom of 
 the vat, a hide is spread out upon it, and the stratifica- 
 tion is continued in this way until the vat is filled. This 
 last hide is covered with a stratum of one inch of the 
 mixture; a sufiicient quantity of water to rise above the 
 surface is then thrown in, and weighted planks are placed 
 over the whole, to prevent the skins from floating. 
 After the commencement of the process, the liquid in 
 the vat should be tested every three or four days with 
 the hydrometer, so as to ascertain if any diminution 
 of strength has taken place. In that event the skins 
 should be taken out and deposited in another vat. For 
 the purpose of being more explicit in regard to the 
 determination of the density of the infusion, Leprieur 
 adds: Taking into consideration the fact that 110 lbs. 
 of good tan, furnish 1320 lbs. of infusion, marking one 
 degree of the strong hydrometers, and ten or twelve 
 tenths of the acid hydrometers after forty-eight hours, 
 it will be easy to ascertain day by day from the diminu- 
 tion in density of the liquid, how much of the tanning 
 principle has been absorbed by the skins. When the 
 
leprieur's process. 
 
 315 
 
 infusion is thus diminished in strength by one-half, it 
 will still serve for other processes, and another supply of 
 tan can be given." 
 
 We abstain from referring to the accessory circum- 
 stances which will more or less affect this absorption, our 
 intention being only, as throughout this account, to make 
 known the details of the author's process, as given by 
 himself. 
 
 First Tanning in Yat. — 100 parts of tan for every 
 100 parts of hides, are used in the first vat, the water 
 being mixed as before, with rather more than nine ounces 
 by weight of sulphuric acid. The skins are to be re- 
 tained in this first vat from twelve to fifteen days; and 
 besides the testing of the liquor by the hydrometer, they 
 should be cut from time to time, so as to ascertain what 
 progress the tanning has made. If considerably ad- 
 vanced, and if the liquid is reduced to five or six tenths, 
 the vat should be changed. 
 
 Second Series. — The contents of the first vat are not 
 exhausted, but furnish a strong infusion for a sixth bath 
 for the second set of skins. 
 
 Second Tanning in the Yat. — Consists of exposure 
 of 100 parts of skins, with 120 of tan, prepared like the 
 preceding, for about fifteen days. 
 
 First Tanning in Vat. — The preceding, or second tan- 
 ning of the first series, forms the first tanning of the se- 
 cond series. The skins taken from the first tanning are 
 then exposed to the second. 
 
 Third Tanning in Vat. — Consists of exposing 100 
 parts of hides, with 130 of bark, for from fifteen to 
 twenty days, the preparation being the same as before. 
 The hides taken from this vat should be carefully exam- 
 ined, as the thinnest ones are probably tanned. 
 
 Fourth Tanning. — This is the second of the second 
 
316 
 
 leprieur's process. 
 
 series. 140 parts of tan, for 100 of hides are used for 
 from fifteen to twenty days, the preparation being the 
 same as before. 
 
 Third Tanning. — The preceding, or the fourth of the 
 first series, serves as the third for the second series. 
 
 Fifth Tanning. — In this 100 parts of hides are ex- 
 posed to 160 parts of tan, for from twenty to thirty days, 
 this quantity of 176 lbs. completing the 1100 lbs. used 
 for the first series. This last tanning is seldom con- 
 sidered necessary for good skins, or where the bark is of 
 good quality. 
 
 Fourth Tanning. — This is the fifth for the first series. 
 
 If at the end of twenty days the tanning is not found 
 to be already completed, from fifteen to twenty days 
 more may be allowed to elapse before the leather is 
 taken out, this being the last tanning of all. 
 
 If it should be necessary to add 220 lbs. more of tan 
 to the amount already used, 220 lbs. of leather would be 
 completely tanned, by means of 1650 lbs. of bark. 
 
 In order not to lose time in the series of complicated 
 operations of this process, the fresh baths and vats should 
 be prepared as soon as the operations of the preceding 
 ones are nearly concluded. 
 
 REVIEW OP THE QUANTITIES OF TAN EMPLOYED IN THE PRECEDING 
 
 PROCESSES FOR TANNING 220 POUNDS OF LEATHER. 
 
 First Series, 
 
 Tan for baths 
 Tan for pits 
 
 385 
 716 
 
 Second Series. 
 
 Tan for baths 
 Tan for pits 
 
 88 
 176 
 
 264 lbs: 
 
 1365 lbs. 
 
leprieur's process. 
 
 317 
 
 According to Leprieur's account, strong and supple 
 hides are tanned by his process, in from 100 to 130 days, 
 middling ones in 150 days, and refractory ones in about 
 180 days. Sometimes a sixth tanning is required, which 
 will not much increase the duration or expense of their 
 preparation. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 TANNING WITH EXTRACT OF OAK-BAEK OR CATECHU. 
 
 Burhridge's Process, — Burbridge regulates the strength 
 of the extract by a hydrometer, especially adapted to 
 the purpose, which he calls a harkometer. He commences 
 the process with a weak solution at 3° of his meter, and 
 gradually increases its force, changing it three times a 
 week, until a strength of 15° or 20° is arrived at. 
 
 In the old method, tanners are usually satisfied if forty 
 parts, by weight, of hides in the raw state are not dimin- 
 ished more than one-half after a year s exposure in the 
 vats. But an equal quantity, tanned by Burbridge's pro- 
 cess, is found to weigh twenty-four parts after three 
 months, which has convinced him that the longer expo- 
 sure is detrimental to the leather. He does not consume 
 more tan than is used in the slower methods, four parts 
 being generally sufficient to tan one of skins. 
 
 Burbridge has also proposed to substitute the terra 
 jajponica^ or catechu^ for oak-bark. Mr. J. Dauks reported, 
 in the year 1812, to the East India Company, that 
 catechu contained ten times as much tanning matter as 
 oak-bark, and the Company, induced by his representa- 
 tions, made every effort to encourage its use; but all 
 attempts, by them and by government, to make it take 
 the place of the substance in common use have failed. 
 It certainly could be procured at a much lower price 
 
burbridge's process. 
 
 319 
 
 than the equivalent amount of oak-bark ; therefore, some 
 practical objection to its use, of which we are ignorant, 
 must have prevented its adoption. 
 
 John Burbridge proposes to reduce the time of tanning 
 sole leather to three or four months, by the use of oak- 
 extract, which he prepares without loss in ten days. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 The hemlock forests of New York and northern Penn- 
 sylvania are very extensive, and the readiness and cheap- 
 ness with which the bark may be obtained have brought 
 it into general use, in those States, as tanning material. 
 It may be employed alone, or in combination with oak- 
 bark. The Hon. Zadock Pratt, who is the most skilful 
 and experienced manufacturer of leather in the United 
 States, has kindly furnished me with the following par- 
 ticulars of his tanneries at Prattsville, N. Y., wherein it 
 is used to the extent of 6000 cords annually. His state- 
 ment is so full and comprehensive, that we give it in 
 the original language. 
 
 "My tannery is an immense wooden building, 530 feet 
 in length, 43 feet in breadth, and two stories and a half 
 high. Adjoining the centre of the tannery, are two bark 
 sheds, 125 feet long by 24 wide; and, near the east end 
 of the tannery, a store-house 40 by 60. On the same 
 level, 100 feet from the tannery, are some dozen houses, 
 built in a line parallel with the tannery, for the con- 
 venience of the workmen. The main road through the 
 village is about twelve rods distant, and parallel with 
 the tannery. Within the area of the tannery are con- 
 tained 300 vats, tanning over 60,000 sides a year, with 
 conductors to draw the liquor to the pump, affording 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 321 
 
 about 46,000 cubic feet of room for tanning purposes^ 
 and 7640 in the beam-house. A large wing, 40 by 80 
 feet, extending over the stream, contains twelve leaches, 
 six of them furnished with copper heaters, containing 
 about 13,000 feet, and also the back loft, through which, 
 in the course of the year, passes more than 6000 cords 
 of bark. The mills through which it is ground are capa- 
 ble of grinding over a cord of bark per hour; and it has 
 connected with it a pump of sufficient capacity to deliver 
 1000 feet of ^ooze,' or water charged with tannin, in 30 
 minutes. The beam-house contains 30 vats, equivalent 
 to 7640 cubic feet. It has connected with it three hide- 
 mills,* for softening the dry Spanish hides, and two roll- 
 
 * Hide-Mills, or Fulling-Stocks. — These macliines are employed 
 for softening the hides, and thus, by bringing them as nearly as possible 
 to the fresh state, to facilitate the after processes of depilation and tanning. 
 
 Monier and Ray^s Mill. — Skins with the hair on are first soaked in 
 cold water for forty-eight hours, and are then subjected to the action of 
 the machine for an hour and a half; exposure for which time is generally 
 sufficient to render them pliable. Eight or ten skins, according to their 
 size and thickness, are generally contained in the apparatus. The water 
 is then allowed to drain off, a sufficient quantity of cream of lime is 
 poured in, and the skins are beaten again for four hours, when they are 
 taken out and piled up. After haying been left to drain for five hours 
 in this position, they are again fulled for a time in the machine, and then 
 are deprived of their hair and fleshed by the workmen. They are then 
 beaten for an hour and a half in the machine, and cleaned and scraped 
 with the slate. In order to remove the lime, some of which still re- 
 mains attached to the skins, they are now soaked in water containing 
 one-hundredth part of sulphuric acid, and, after being constantly stirred 
 about in this liquid for an hour, are washed and rinsed in running water. 
 
 This method of preparing skins for tanning, dispenses with the laborious 
 manipulations to which they are commonly subjected, and preserves their 
 quality, not injured as they are in the old way, by the hands of the 
 workmen. It also presents the additional advantage, that they do not 
 require the long exposure to the action of lime, which is so apt to injure 
 their tissue. 
 
322 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 ing machines, capable of rolling 500 sides of leather per 
 day. Outside of the building, but connected with the 
 
 Description of this machine, as it has been improved^ enlarged, and 
 prepared for the fulling ofhoth small and large skins. 
 Fig. 109. Side elevation. 
 Fig. 110. Front view. 
 Fig. 111. Plan. 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 (a.) Trough in wliich the skins are placed. 
 
 (5.) Upright rising above the trough, and supporting the levers (c) 
 near its upper extremity, where they are attached to a crosspiece (d). 
 
 (e.) Wedge pressing upon the upright (5), and giving it the necessary 
 inclination. 
 
 (/.) Mallets or hammers attached to the lower end of the levers (c), 
 and acting upon the skins in the hollow part of the trough (a), formed 
 by the curved line seen at {g). 
 
 (h.) Wedges arranged so as to keep the mallets inclined in the proper 
 direction to the curve (g) of the trough. 
 
 ({.) Other wedges serving the same purpose. 
 
 Qc). Two curved uprights rising above the trough and preventing the 
 mallets from swaying. 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 beam-house by an underground communication, are eight 
 stone sweat-pits, with pointed arches and flues. The 
 
 (J.) Crosspiece uniting the uprights {k). 
 
 (m.) Vertical wheel, or turnstile, with four arms, the axis (n) of which 
 turns in the uprights (/j), and is the shaft for the cords (o) which keep 
 the mallets suspended. 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 (p.) Wheel turned by a stream or fall of water, its axle (q) carrying 
 cams (r), which, in turning, alternately raise and lower the mallets (/). 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 Ml 
 
324 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 pins are of the most approved size, being in area 10 feet 
 by 14, and in depth 8 feet, with a spring of water at one 
 corner. 
 
 There are some recent improvements^ in Monier and Ray^s process, 
 which refer to pressing the skins, to the liquid in which they are raised^ 
 and to their liming. 
 
 Since pure water is a solvent, and is capable of injuring the quality of 
 the leather, if left for too long a time in contact with the tissues of the 
 skins, it is evident that, if the latter are entirely deprived of it before 
 being placed in the infusion of bark, their complete tanning will be 
 much facilitated and hastened. To secure this desirable result, after 
 having been perfectly cleaned, scraped, and rinsed, they are to be sub- 
 jected to the action of a powerful common press, which deprives them of 
 nearly all their free watery contents. After this compression, they are 
 then deposited in a vat containing weak tan infusion, are left in it for 
 six days, are taken out and again pressed, and then deposited in a vat 
 containing a stronger infusion, which is kept of uniform strength for a 
 period of ten days. At the end of this time they are taken out, pressed 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 325 
 
 " Since I first commenced business, tlie gain of weight 
 in converting hides into leather, has been increased nearly 
 50 per cent. That is, that from a quarter to a third 
 more leather can now be obtained from a given quantity 
 of hides, than at the time when I learned my trade at 
 my father's tannery, conducted in the old-fashioned way, 
 some 40 years ago. 
 
 " The great improvement in weight seems to have been 
 gained by the judicious use of strong liquors, or ^ooze,' 
 obtained from finely-ground bark, and by skilful tanning. 
 
 The loss and wastage upon hides, from hair, flesh, &c., 
 may be estimated at from 12 to 15 per cent. In order 
 to produce heavy weights, the hides should not be re- 
 duced too low in the beam-house, and should be tanned 
 
 for the last time, and tlien placed in pits in the ordinary way, to remain 
 in them for from two to three months, according to their thickness and 
 size. Instead, however, of filling up the pits with pure water, or a weak 
 tan liquor, which may both retard the operation and injure the skins, it 
 is recommended to use a concentrated infusion of bark alone. 
 
 The fulling-mill used in the American tanneries is similar in construc- 
 tion to the preceding. The drawing (Fig. 112), for which we are in- 
 debted to the Messrs. Wiltse, machinists, represents the machine upon 
 the scale of a quarter of an inch to the foot. If driven by an engine or 
 by a belt, the wheels ^and I, with the pulley J", are used. When water- 
 power is employed, they are replaced by a water-wheel K, built upon 
 the same shaft A. The width of the wheel should be four feet, and it 
 should run at the rate of twenty revolutions per minute. 
 
 The hammers C, of the mill are secured in the arms D, which, by 
 coming in contact, at their lower ends, with the tappets B, receive motion. 
 The upper ends of the arms are hung, and work on the nozzle-pin Ly 
 which passes through the back-piece of the stock-frame E F. 
 
 Isaac S. Hershey (^Patent Office Report, 1849, p. 316) has patented a 
 machine for softening hides, which consists of right and left revolving 
 helical breakers or fluted rollers. 
 
 Either of these machines will perform work much more rapidly and 
 satisfactorily than it was formerly done by the tedious and laborious pro- 
 cess of treading the hides under feet. 
 
326 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 quickly with good strong liquors, particularly in the 
 latter stage of the operation. To green hides, particu- 
 larly, nothing can be more injurious than to suffer them 
 to remain too long in weak ' ooze.' They become too 
 much reduced, grow soft, flat, and flabby, lose a portion 
 of their gelatine, and refuse to 'plump up/ 
 
 "On the other hand, however, the eflects of an early 
 application of ' ooze,' that is too strong and too warm, to 
 green hides, is very injurious. It contracts the surface, 
 fibres of the skin, tanning at once the external layers so 
 Mead,' as it is termed, as to shut up the pores, and pre- 
 vent the tannin from penetrating the interior. This 
 renders the leather harsh and brittle. It will from this 
 be seen that, in the question of the proper strength of 
 liquor alone, there is room for the exercise of the greatest 
 judgment and the most extensive experience. In the 
 impossibility of adapting fixed rules to the innumerable 
 variety of cases, nothing can be depended upon but the 
 judgment of the practical tanner. 
 
 " In softening hides, and preparing them for the pro- 
 cess of tanning, a great deal also depends upon the judg- 
 ment of the person superintending the operation, inas- 
 much as the diversities in the qualities and characteristics 
 of hides render it impossible to subject them to anything 
 more than a general mode of treatment. 
 
 In ' sweating,' the character of the hides, and the 
 temperature, are essential, but ever-varing considerations. 
 As a general rule, however, the milder the process of 
 preparing the hides for the bark, the better. Unneces- 
 sarily severe or prolonged treatment is inevitably at- 
 tended with a loss of gelatine, and a consequent loss of 
 weight and strength in the leather. Too high a temper- 
 ature is particularly to be avoided. In almost every lot 
 of hides, particularly Oronocos, however, there are gene- 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 327 
 
 rally some that prove very intractable — resisting all the 
 ordinary modes of softening. For such, a solution of 
 ashes, potash, or even common salt, will be found to be 
 beneficial ; and peculiarly so in hot weather. As I have 
 said, no precise rule can be given as to the length of 
 time required for the preliminary process of soaking and 
 ^ sweating,' so much depending upon the qualities of the 
 hides, and the temperature at which these oj)erations are 
 conducted. 
 
 "The following table may, however, be found useful in 
 conveying an approximation to a definite idea of the 
 practice in my tannery. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 SOAKING. 40° 50° 60° 70° 
 
 Days. Days. Days. Days. 
 
 Buenos Ayres hides . . 10 to 12 8 to 12 6 to 8 3 to 6 
 Carthagena and Laguaira . 8 to 12 7 to 9 5 to 7 2 to 3 
 
 SWEATING. 
 
 Buenos Ayres hides . . 15 to 20 12 to 16 8 to 12 2 to 3 
 Carthagena and Laguaira . 15 to 20 10 to 15 6 to 8 2 to 3 
 
 " I would here remark that I changed the process from 
 liming to sweating, for the sole leather, in 1836 — the 
 only change in tanning I have made for twenty years ; 
 and for heavy sole leather, it has been proved to be quite 
 as good as liming if not better, and somewhat cheaper; 
 besides yielding a greater gain of weight, and when well 
 tanned, making leather more impervious [to water. 
 Liming and ^bating,' however, for upper and light 
 leather, is preferable; and, if the same improvements 
 had been adopted with the lime process, of strong liquor 
 and quick tanning, it is not yet certain that the same 
 results would not have been attained. 
 
 " Salted hides do not require more than two-thirds the 
 time to soak ; but generally rather longer to sweat. After 
 
328 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 the hides are prepared for tanning, the next process is 
 what is commonly called ^handling/ which should be 
 performed two or three times a day in a weak ^ ooze/ until 
 the grain is colored. New liquors, or a mixture of new 
 and old, are preferable for Spanish or dry hides — old 
 liquor for slaughter. They are then, after a fortnight, 
 laid away in bark, and changed once in two or four 
 weeks, until tanned. Much care and judgment are 
 necessary in proportioning the continually increasing 
 strength of the liquors to the requirements of the 
 leather in the different stages of this process. 
 
 " The liquors should also be kept as cool as possible, 
 within certain limits, but ought never to exceed a tem- 
 perature of eighty degrees ; in fact, a much lower tem- 
 perature is the maximum point, if the liquor is very 
 strong; too high a heat, with a liquor too strongly 
 charged with the tanning principle, being invariably 
 injurious to the life and color of the leather. From this 
 it would seem, that time is an essential element in the 
 process of tanning, and that we cannot make up for the 
 want of it by increasing the strength of liquor, or rais- 
 ing the temperature at which the process is conducted, 
 any more than we can fatten an ox or horse by giving ^ 
 him more than he can eat. 
 
 I have mentioned the injurious effects resulting from 
 too strong a solution of the active principle of the bark ; 
 on the other hand, the use. of too weak solutions is to be 
 avoided. Hides that are treated with liquor below the 
 proper strength become much relaxed in their texture, 
 and lose a portion of their gelatine. The leather neces- 
 sarily loses in weight and compactness, and is much 
 more porous and pervious to water. The warmer these 
 weak solutions are applied, the greater is this loss of 
 gelatine. To ascertain whether a portion of weak liquor 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 329 
 
 contains any gelatine in solution, it is only necessary to 
 strain a little of it into a glass, and then add a small 
 quantity of a stronger liquor. The excess of tanning in 
 the strong, seizing upon the dissolved gelatine in the 
 weak liquor, will combine with it, and be precipitated 
 in flakes, of a dark curdled appearance, to the bottom. 
 At the Prattsville Tannery, the greatest strength of 
 liquor used for handling, as indicated by Pike's bark- 
 ometer,'^' is sixteen degrees; of that employed in laying 
 
 * Hydrometer. — A hydrometer is a convenient apparatus for ascer- 
 taining readily the density or strength of liquids. That referred to 
 above has been styled by its maker (W. Pike, of New York) a harh- 
 ometer, because it is specially adapted to testing the strength of bark 
 lyes. Its form and the manner of using it are repre- 
 sented by Fig. 113. It is made whol ly of glass ; a, dy 
 being the stem, inclosing a graduated paper scale ; B, 
 a spherical bulb ; and c, a smaller bulb at its base, con- 
 taining quicksilver or shot, which serves as ballast to 
 retain the instrument in a vertical position in the 
 liquid. The scale on the stem is equally divided 
 into five or ten wide spaces, and each of these again 
 subdivided into ten narrow spaces. The zero point 
 of the scale is made by plunging the instrument in 
 distilled water at 58° F., and adding mercury to the 
 bulb until it sinks to nearly the top of the stem a. 
 A solution of ten parts of bark in ninety parts of 
 distilled water having been made, the hydrometer is 
 then plunged in the liquor, and the point to which it 
 sinks therein, say 5, is carefully and accurately marked 
 upon the scale, and rated as 10 compared with the 
 zero point. Each of the grand divisions, conse- 
 quently, represents ten per cent, of bark, and each of 
 the smaller ones or subdivisions corresponds with one 
 per cent, of bark. It is very easy, therefore, after having determined 
 the length of the stem from zero, which sinks in a normal solution of 
 bark, to apportion the rest of it with the aid of a pair of dividers ; so 
 that every interval thus apportioned shall be equal to that fixed by ex- 
 
 22 
 
330 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 away, the greatest strength varies from thirty to forty- 
 five degrees. 
 
 "After the leather has been thoroughly tanned and 
 rinsed, or scrubbed by a brush machine or broom, it will 
 tend very much to improve its color and pliability to 
 stack it up in piles, and allow it to sweat until it becomes 
 a little slippery from a kind of mucus that collects upon 
 its surface. A little oil added to this stage of the process, 
 or just before rolling, is found to be very useful. 
 
 " Great caution is necessary in the admission of air in 
 drying when first hung up to dry. No more air than is 
 sufficient to keep the sides from moulding, should be 
 allowed. Too much air, or, in other words, if dried too 
 rapidly in a current of air, will injure the color, giving 
 a darker hue, and rendering the leather harsh and brittle. 
 To insure that the thick parts, or butts, shall roll smooth 
 and even with the rest of the piece, it is necessary that 
 the leather should be partially dried before wetting down 
 for rolling, and that, when wet down, it should lay long 
 enough for every side to become equally damp throughout. 
 
 " The following table, condensed from the tanning records 
 of 200,000 hides, exhibits the time required to tan the 
 
 periment. When, therefore, this instrument sinks into a bark liquor to 
 twenty degrees, thirty, or any other degree, the number indicates the 
 percentage of tanning force. It is necessary to observe that this in- 
 strument is applicable only to freshly made liquors ; for otherwise, con- 
 fusion and want of confidence might ensue upon finding that it sinks, 
 sometimes, to a corresponding degree in spent liquor. This is owing to 
 the fact that the alterations which tanning liquors undergo during use 
 and exposure, may not diminish their density, though they impair or 
 destroy their tanning power. 
 
 Baume's hydrometer, which is frequently mentioned throughout this 
 book, is similarly constructed, but with scales, difi"ering in graduation 
 with the kinds of liquid for which it is to be used. For full descriptions 
 of these instruments, see Encyclopedia of Chemistry, p. 717, and 
 Morfit's Applied Chemistry, p. 296. 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 331 
 
 various descriptions of hides at my establishment, during 
 a period of four years — it will be seen that the same 
 descriptions of hides require different times in different 
 years. This is owing mainly to the difference in the 
 temperature and weather of the several seasons, and the 
 quantity of sides and strength of liquor in the vats, and 
 partly to the different conditions and qualities of the 
 different lots of the same description of hides. 
 
 
 No of 
 
 Time of tanning. 
 
 
 sides. 
 
 mo. 
 
 ds. 
 
 1841 — San Juan 
 
 . 7,500 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 Orinoco . 
 
 . 3,500 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 
 . 1,900 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 . 9,000 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Laguaira . 
 
 . 22,000 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 Orinoco . 
 
 . 6,500 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 Matamoras 
 
 . 1,100 
 
 5 
 
 
 u 
 
 . 2,300 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 San Juan 
 
 . 6,500 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 Montevideo 
 
 . 5,800 
 
 4 
 
 
 1842— Honduras 
 
 . 3,600 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Buenos Ayres . 
 
 . 10,500 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Chagres . 
 
 . 1,700 
 
 6 
 
 
 1843— Orinoco . 
 
 . 1,100 
 
 5 
 
 
 Montevideo 
 
 . 2,700 
 
 5 
 
 
 Eio Grande 
 
 . 5,800 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 1844 — Buenos Ayres . 
 
 . 6,500 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Orinoco . 
 
 . 5,400 
 
 7 
 
 
 California 
 
 . 1,200 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Buenos Ayres . 
 
 . 900 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 a 
 
 . 6,500 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1845 — Orinoco . 
 
 . 1,500 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 Rio Grande 
 
 . 2,100 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 . 4,000 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 Orinoco . 
 
 . 2,800 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Laguaira . 
 
 . 5,100 
 
 7 
 
 
 Rio Grande 
 
 . 1,100 
 
 7 
 
 
 Buffalo . 
 
 . 2,000 
 
 5 
 
 
 Buenos Ayres . 
 
 . 2,000 
 
 6 
 
 
 Rio Grande . ^ . 
 
 . 8,500 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
332 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 From the above table, it will be seen the average time 
 of tanning in 1842, was five months and seventeen days; 
 of 1843, five months and twenty-two days ; of 1844, six 
 months; and of 1845, six months and eleven days. 
 Average of the whole time, five months and twenty-seven 
 days. The average weight of the leather was over 
 eighteen and one-half pounds per side. This, according 
 to the best authorities we have at hand, is considerably 
 below the time employed in England. There, it is no 
 uncommon thing for eight and ten months to be em- 
 ployed in tanning a stock of leather, and some of the 
 heaviest leather, it is said, takes even fourteen and eight- 
 een months. Such deliberation undoubtedly insures a 
 fine quality of leather, but it may be questioned whether 
 there is not a great loss of weight — a loss of interest on 
 capital, and in consequence an unnecessary enhancement 
 of price, which does not suit the American market. 
 
 In order to show the amount of business done, I have 
 carefully collected and tabularized, from my books, the 
 following statistics of the ' Prattsville Tannery' for twenty 
 years, in tanniug about 1,000,000 sides of sole leather: — 
 
 Statistics of the Prattsville Tannery for twenty years — various materials 
 used and labor employed. 
 
 3,666 acres of bark land — 10 square miles, 18 cords to tlie 
 
 acre— 120,000; at $3 per cord . . . . $360,000 
 
 No. of days' work peeling and piling do. ... 118,555 
 
 4 trees to the cord 475,200 
 
 120,000 loads, or cords— 264,000,000 lbs. . . . 132,000 
 
 1,444 acres of wood land — 32,000 loads, or cords, worth . 32,000 
 
 35,380 bushels of oats, 2,6 per bushel .... 41,967 
 
 1,200 tons of hay at $8 per ton 9,600 
 
 313,000 days' work in tannery~l,000 years' labor at $14 
 
 per month $162,000 
 
 Board at $1,50 per week .... 78,000 
 
 240,000 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 333 
 
 500,000 hides, weighing 15,000,000 lbs. . . . 1,750,000 
 
 Cartage, 5,700 loads of 2,600 lbs. each (one pair horses). 
 
 1,000,000 sides sole leather, at 18 lbs. per side . . 18,000,000 
 
 Hides and leather, together 33,000,000 
 
 Cost of carting 52,800 
 
 3,000 lbs. per load of leather, one pair of horses $6,000 
 2,600 lbs. per load of hides, one pair of horses 5,700 
 
 11,700 
 
 Freight of hides and leather between New York and Cat- 
 skill 30,000 
 
 Equal to 118,000,000 leather, at 7 cts. per pound . . 3,060,000 
 
 Lost and worn out about 100 horses, at $75 each . . 7,500 
 
 Cost of wagons, at $250 per year .... 5,000 
 
 Insurance on stock ....... 12,000 
 
 Yearly expenses 300,000 
 
 Total expenses, about 6,000,000 
 
 " And^ in justice to my workmen, I ought to say, with- 
 out the use of ardent spirits, or ever having a side of 
 leather stolen. 
 
 "A glance at this table will at once convince any one 
 that the advantages of such an establishment are not 
 confined to the amount of value produced. The labor 
 employed directly or indirectly may be set down at two 
 hundred men daily. The ramified branches of business 
 and trade that it fosters; the comfort, refinement, and 
 intelligence of which it becomes the centre; and its final 
 influence upon the growth and populousness of the sur- 
 rounding district, cannot, I think, be too highly estimated. 
 The following table shows but one single item — the 
 amount of labor employed within the walls, or that which 
 is directly and immediately employed in the process of 
 - tanning ; but, from a comparative inspection of it, and 
 the table above, some idea may be formed of the amount 
 of labor indirectly engaged. 
 
334 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 Average numher of men employed at the PrattsviUe Tannery throughout 
 the year with their respective wages per month. 
 
 Beam-house. 
 
 No. of hands. Pay per month. 
 
 Foreman 1 $32 $32 
 
 Chorsemen ..... 2 12 and board 6, 36 
 
 Beamsmen 12 14 " 180 
 
 In the Yard. 
 
 Foreman ..... 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 Handling and laying away . 
 
 8 
 
 12 and board 6, 144 
 
 Brushing leather 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 72 
 
 Nightman to leeches 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 (( 
 
 18 
 
 Grinding bark by day . 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 u 
 
 18 
 
 Grinding bark by night 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 u 
 
 20 
 
 Wheeling bark .... 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 iC 
 
 72 
 
 Filling and pitching leeches . 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 u 
 
 60 
 
 Drying Loft. 
 
 
 
 
 Foreman ..... 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 a 
 
 26 
 
 Sponger 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 u 
 
 18 
 
 Rollers ..... 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 a 
 
 42 
 
 Hanging up and taking down leather 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 36 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 
 
 
 Foreman out doors 
 
 1 
 
 41 
 
 u 
 
 47 
 
 Carpenter ..... 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 (C 
 
 45 
 
 Teamsters ..... 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 218 
 
 Total 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 $1120 
 
 500 cords of bark at $3 per cord 
 Cartage, repairs, &c. &c. 
 
 Grand total per month 
 
 1500 
 500 
 
 $3120 
 
 "In the following table, I have given a condensed view 
 of the operations at my tannery during five years : — 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 335 
 
 
 No. of hides re- 
 ceived at the 
 tannery. 
 
 Weight of 
 hides. 
 
 Cartage in 
 New York. 
 
 Commissions. 
 
 Total value 
 of hides. 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1643 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 30,984 
 27,194 
 28,433 
 86,839 
 20,556 
 
 724,168 
 601,595 
 630,192 
 812,403 
 460,798 
 
 $291 47 
 
 275 89 
 213 24 
 
 276 28 
 154 17 
 
 $5701 47 
 3938 30 
 4425 64 
 5718 36 
 2920 25 
 
 $108,758 06 
 82,705 01 
 78,198 03 
 100,982 60 
 51,176 60 
 
 Total 
 
 144,006 
 
 3,229,155 
 
 $1211 05 
 
 $22,904 02 
 
 $421,810 52 
 
 Leather returned to New York. 
 
 
 Sides. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Average 
 weight 
 per side. 
 
 Average 
 net 
 price. 
 
 Commissions. 
 
 Net proceeds. 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 Total 
 
 61,729 
 54,323 
 56,742 
 73,590 
 40,891 
 
 l,211,856i 
 995,0571 
 1,061,5231 
 1,310,779 
 737,789 
 
 29.63 
 18.32 
 18.71 
 17.81 
 18.03 
 
 14 44 
 13 93 
 13 69 
 12 55 
 11 16 
 
 $7352 24 
 5827 08 
 6053 42 
 6895 25 
 3420 57 
 
 $175,018 54 
 138,581 05 
 144,331 83 
 164,517 53 
 81,595 26 
 
 287,275 5,316,789 
 
 i 
 
 18.51 
 
 $13 34 
 
 $29,548 66 
 
 $704,044 21 
 
 " The tanning of leather, more than almost any other 
 manufacture, is a chemical process, the success of which 
 depends almost wholly upon the skill and judgment with 
 which its complicated manipulations are conducted. To 
 attain the requisite skill in the laboratory of the chemist, 
 is evidently impossible ; it can only be acquired in the 
 tanning itself, by long and careful attention and ob- 
 servation. 
 
 "The following tables present some facts which may 
 be of general interest. 
 
336 
 
 HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1836 
 
 2151 
 
 48,130 
 
 22 i 
 
 6594 
 
 71 
 
 1837 
 
 2305 
 
 53,172 
 
 23 
 
 5686 
 
 9 
 
 
 3118 
 
 59 283 
 
 19 
 
 4991 
 
 10 
 
 1839 
 
 2984 
 
 59,675 
 
 20 
 
 6276 
 
 9 
 
 1840 
 
 3089 
 
 50,514 
 
 m 
 
 6207 
 
 
 
 13,647 
 
 270,774 
 
 20 
 
 29,752 
 
 9 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1836 
 
 397 
 
 3573 
 
 50,808 
 
 901,296 
 
 1837 
 
 500 
 
 4500 
 
 50,947 
 
 815,152 
 
 1838 
 
 496 
 
 4464 
 
 50,750 
 
 812,000 
 
 1839 
 
 558 
 
 5022 
 
 56,096 
 
 945,221 
 
 1840 
 
 590 
 
 5310 
 
 57,601 
 
 1,009,609 
 
 
 2541 
 
 22,869 
 
 266,202 
 
 4,483,378 
 
 "Note. — Column 1, shows the number of days' work 
 in the beam-house; 2, number of sides worked in; 3, 
 average per man per day; 4, number of days' work grind- 
 ing bark and tanning; 5, average per man per daj^; 6, 
 number of leeches ; 7, cords of bark used, at nine cords 
 per leech ; 8, sides of leather tanned ; 9, pounds of leather 
 tanned out. 
 
 " The labor in the loft and peeling bark during the 
 above five years, was 8820 days. One man will work 
 through the beam-house in one year 6260 sides. One 
 man will tan and finish 2228 sides. One cord of bark 
 tans 196 pounds. 
 
 "The question has been frequently asked me, how 
 long does it take to tan sole leather? I answer, from 
 four to six months, according to the strength of the liquor 
 and number of sides in the vats; and the quicker tanned 
 
HEMLOCK TANNING. 
 
 337 
 
 tlie better. I would here remark, that several considera- 
 tions must be noticed in order to meet the questions 
 understandingly, and — 
 
 "1. I should say that the weight of the hides, every 
 one knows, if heavy, requires more time than if compara- 
 tively light. 
 
 "2. If the hides are fresh, they are capable of being 
 properly softened, and, if so, the process of tanning may 
 be completed much sooner than in the case of old and 
 hard hides, that cannot be softened with the same facility. 
 
 "3. If the hides have sufficient room in the vats, so as 
 not to lay crowded, they will tan much faster. 
 
 "4. As the tanning advances, the liquor should be 
 renewed seasonably, and its strength increased in a ratio 
 proportionate to each stage of tanning. 
 
 "5. The question — is the leather to be tanned so as to 
 barely pass in market, or to be well prepared, so as to 
 make firm and solid leather? involves a consideration of 
 much importance." 
 
CHAPTEE XXIV. 
 
 TANNING WITH MYRTLE. (VACCINIUM MYRTILUS.) 
 
 Eapenius, a tanner of Bern-Castel, upon the Moselle, 
 has discovered that excellent leather can be made by 
 tanning with the myrtle plant. This is collected with 
 the greatest advantage in the spring of the year, because 
 it can be dried and ground the most easily at that time. 
 Three and a half parts by weight of this substance will 
 tan perfectly one part of leather, while six parts of oak- 
 bark are required for the same quantity. The use of 
 this material, it is said, enables tanners to prepare leather 
 in four months less than the usual time. The commis- 
 sion appointed at Treves to examine the leather made 
 by this process, reported that they had never seen a 
 better product, and that each pair of shoes made with it 
 would last two months longer than one made from com- 
 mon leather; also, that the skin from the neck, which is 
 ordinarily so difficult to work up, became as strong and 
 elastic as other parts when thus prepared. The myrtle 
 should not be pulled up, but cut off, so that the roots 
 may reproduce the following year. When cut, it is not 
 injured by water, while oak-bark loses ten per cent, in 
 value by exposure to moisture. 
 
TANNING WITH GRAPE-SKINS. 
 
 339 
 
 TANNING WITH GRAPE-SKINS. 
 
 Nachette, in a letter to the editors of the Joimial of 
 Pharmacy , August, 1829, announced that a chemist near 
 Narbonne had proposed to substitute grape-stalks and 
 skins for oak-bark in tanning. 
 
 To use his own words: "Many chemists have long 
 sought for some economical substitute for oak-bark, but 
 no one has before thought of employing for this purpose 
 the stalks and skins of grapes. 
 
 "Struck with the inconvenience of the old method, in 
 regard to time and expense of material, his attention 
 was directed to this subject; and, having prepared skins 
 for tanning by the ordinary processes, he placed them in 
 vats filled with the stalks and skins of grapes — previously 
 distilled, so as to save the small amount of alcohol re- 
 maining in them — and allowed them to remain thus 
 surrounded, for from thirty-five to forty -five days, which 
 time he found amply sufiicient. The advantages of pre- 
 paring leather in this way are the following: 1. Much 
 less time is required for the completion of the process. 
 2. A refuse material, abundant in some localities, is sub- 
 stituted for the expensive oak-bark. 3. A leather is 
 procured which possesses an agreeable but only slightly- 
 perceptible odor, instead of having the rank, unpleasant 
 smell of that prepared with tan, which impregnates the 
 persons and clothes of all those engaged in its manufac- 
 ture. 4. Experience has proved that it is leather of the 
 best possible quality, shoes made of it lasting twice as 
 long as those prepared with ordinary leather." 
 
340 
 
 TANNING WITH STATICE. 
 
 TANNING WITH STATICE, OR MARSH ROSEMARY. 
 
 Tournel's experiments and process for tanning skins 
 by means of statice-root, which we shall now give in 
 detail, are extracted from a paper written by him on 
 the subject. 
 
 M. Gayraud and I commenced an experiment with 
 an ox-hide, while Messrs. Malaret, tanners and curriers, 
 of the same town, undertook to prepare some goat-skins. 
 
 "Gayraud followed the same course in preparing the 
 hide as with the bark of the root of kermes-oak, except 
 that he divided it into two exactly equal portions, and 
 tanned one with statice and the other with the root of 
 the kermes-oak, in order to determine what difference in 
 weight would be produced by the different materials. 
 
 " Six months had elapsed, when the heat of the wea- 
 ther produced in the statice liquor so active a fermenta- 
 tion as to burst the containing vessel and spill the 
 contents, thus making it impossible to carry out fully 
 this first experiment. The tannin, however, had pene- 
 trated nearly to the centre, and the thinner parts were 
 already perfectly tanned, and probably an additional 
 exposure of only two months would have completed its 
 conversion into leather. This leather was given to M. 
 Camp, master shoemaker of the town, who asserted, 
 after thorough examination, that it was of the very best 
 quality. The Messrs. Malaret also declared their method 
 of tanning the goat-skins to be superior to that with 
 oak-bark. 
 
 "I then succeeded in tanning perfect^, in one year, 
 a piece of a thick Buenos Ayres hide, which would have 
 
TANNING WITH STATICE. 
 
 841 
 
 required exposure for at least eighteen months in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 " These successful results led to experiments on a larger 
 scale, and M. Gayraud commenced the tanning of more 
 than a hundred horse-hides, and of fifty imported cow- 
 hides; while Messrs. Malaret essayed with one hundred 
 and fifty goat-skins, and M. Jacques Galas with eighty 
 horse-hides; the cow-skins being intended for soles, and 
 the horse-hides and goat-skins for upper leather. 
 
 M. Gayraud placed the fifty cow-skins in the lime- 
 pit, to separate the hair and raise them. As is commonly 
 the case with imported hides, the liming revealed many 
 defects and injuries which were before concealed, so that 
 out of the fifty hides, at least one-third were more or less 
 damaged, and some of them had to be trimmed to one- 
 half their size in consequence of being injured. This 
 circumstance prevented the correct estimation of differ- 
 ences in weight from the process, but the satisfaction was 
 left to us of finding that the statice having fermented 
 quickly and considerably, these hides were tanned in a 
 third less than the usual time. Those which were 
 originally sound, were remarkable for weight, beauty, 
 color, and strength. 
 
 "M. Gayraud was so well satisfied with these results, 
 that he purchased a number of perfect skins from the 
 neighboring towns, and, after weighing them exactly, 
 submitted them to the action of the statice in vats, and 
 obtained with it a most satisfactory result. 
 
 In the preparation of the horse-hides, the superiority 
 of the statice over ordinary tan was evident in the finer 
 structure of the product, the shortness of the process, econ- 
 omy of material, beauty of color, and increased weight, and 
 power of absorbing fatty bodies. The same advantages 
 were perceived and appreciated by Messrs. Malaret, in 
 
342 PREPARING SKINS BY MEANS OF TAR AND SOOT. 
 
 the goat-leather tanned by them, and induced them to 
 repeat the processes in other cases. The want of access 
 to proper materials in Narbonne and its neighborhood, 
 alone prevented me from extending these experiments to 
 calf and sheep skins, and those intended for saddlers, 
 harness-makers, and coach-makers, but I had already 
 received sufficient evidence that this method would be 
 equally well adapted for all kinds of leather, and was 
 convinced that it rendered sole leather, particularly, firm 
 and impenetrable, while it increased the pliability and 
 strength of that intended for uppers. Its advantages, 
 then, are economy of time and material, facility of pre- 
 paration, softness and impermeability to water, beauty of 
 color, and durability. 
 
 "All the skins thus prepared have been sold, and the 
 workmen who have used them have unanimously given 
 them the preference over those made in the usual man- 
 ner. They are believed to equal skins tanned with 
 kermes-oak bark for wear in damp weather, while in dry 
 weather they are much superior as to flexibility ; and, 
 moreover, they hold thread better, and are more easily 
 worked. The leather for uppers is remarkable both for 
 suppleness and firmness, and for the brilliancy, intensity, 
 and durability of the black color which can be given 
 to it." 
 
 MODE OF PREPARING SKINS BY MEANS OF TAR AND SOOT. 
 
 Barry's Process. — The tan liquor for this preparation 
 is made by mixing twenty or twenty-two pounds of 
 good tar with 105 gallons of boiling water, and adding 
 enough lime to form a thick paste. A quantity of cold 
 water, sufficient to slack the lime, a bucket-full of lime, 
 and the same quantity of tar are then added, and the 
 
PREPARING SKINS BY MEANS OF TAR AND SOOT. 343 
 
 whole is thoroughly stirred to the consistence of a thick 
 paste. This mixture is distributed in a number of 
 vessels, or vats, and is thinned with boiling water. The 
 vessels are covered, and in twenty-four hours their con- 
 tents are ready for use. 
 
 The soot-liquor is prepared by mixing together 110 
 pounds of soot, 4i pounds of powdered lime, and 485 
 pounds of water, the whole being stirred up during the 
 gradual addition of the water. The vessel is covered, 
 and the liquor filtered at the end of twenty-four hours. 
 
 Skins which are intended for polished leather, are 
 first prepared for tanning by the ordinary processes, and 
 are then placed in cold vats of gallic acid and decoction 
 of bark, in which they are allowed to remain four or 
 five days or a week, being taken out and handled three 
 or four times a day. They are then deposited in the 
 warm tar-liquor, having, at first, only one-half the 
 strength above stated, but which is gradually increased 
 to the original degree of saturation. After fifteen days, 
 the skins are replaced in the vats and treated as before; 
 and then deposited in weak tar-liquor, being taken out 
 and replaced three or four times a day for the first fifteen 
 days. They are then deposited in liquor of the full 
 strength and worked as before, until they are well pene- 
 trated by it, and are finally kept for a week or more in 
 a vat of hot decoction of coppice oak or sumach, and 
 then dried. 
 
 Skins for sole leather are prepared in the usual man- 
 ner, and are then soaked for some days in a cold vat of 
 gallic acid and decoction of bark, being treated as is 
 directed for polished leather. They are then immersed 
 in a warm, weak soot-liquor, of about one-third or one- 
 half the strength above indicated. After having been 
 alternately taken out and handled in this liquor three 
 
344 
 
 TANNING WITH FURZE. 
 
 or four times a day, they are then deposited in a vat con- 
 taining hot soot-liquor of the original strength, and are 
 worked in it three or four times daily, as above directed, 
 until completely saturated. They are then taken out 
 and dried, soaked in hot water for half an hour, cleaned 
 and brushed upon the marble slab three or four times on 
 both sides. Finally, the skins thus prepared are im- 
 mersed four several times daily in a strong hot ooze, 
 until the tanning is completed ; care being observed to 
 dry them after each immersion. 
 
 TANNING WITH FURZE. 
 
 According to Rankin, the furze or heath which is so 
 common in Ireland, contains a tanning principle, and 
 may be used as a substitute for oak-bark. Having suc- 
 ceeded in a number of trials, he published the following 
 process. The furze is boiled with water, for three hours, 
 in a large boiler made of any material except iron, which 
 is suitable for the purpose, and the liquid is decanted 
 into large vats, so placed that it can be drawn off when 
 desired. The skins are then deposited in this liquid as 
 soon as its temperature has fallen to about 95° F. The 
 liquor must be frequently changed, the same precautions 
 being taken each time. Complete success was attained 
 by this method, which " feeds" the skins more rapidly 
 than the cold processes. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 ENGLISH HARNESS LEATHER. 
 
 The fine brown leather made in England for saddlers' 
 use is very highly esteemed, and, notwithstanding its 
 costliness, is much sought after, being superior to any 
 other in suppleness, density, and color. Its excellence 
 is not attributable to any novelty in the processes em- 
 ployed in its manufacture, or to the use of complicated 
 and costly machinery, but solely to the care with which 
 the materials are selected, and to the skilful and accu- 
 rate manipulation of the workmen. 
 
 The finest skins used for this leather come from cattle 
 raised in Wiltshire and Somersetshire, the climate and 
 pasturage of which counties seem to be best adapted to 
 secure the development of tissue in these animals, and 
 particularly of the firm, elastic, and resisting integu- 
 ments which are so necessary for the production of grain 
 leather. 
 
 The preference is given to the skins of cows or of 
 young bulls, which are usually tanned in the neighbor- 
 hood of Bristol, and then sent to London, where the 
 finest of them are selected by the manuficturers. 
 
 According to Jahkel, the processes of tanning to which 
 they are subjected are in general similar to those else- 
 where employed, and comprehend, besides liming and 
 the separation of the hair, the use of grainers of chicken's 
 23 
 
346 
 
 ENGLISH HARNESS LEATHER. 
 
 or pigeons' dung, dipping, immersion in tan-baths of dif- 
 ferent strengths, and two separate tannings in pits, with 
 fresh bark of the finest quality. The currying which 
 the leather undergoes in order to adapt it for the purposes 
 of the saddler, serves to remove its original dryness, 
 stiffness, and depth of color, and to render it supple, 
 elastic, and impervious to moisture, without diminishing 
 the solidity and density of structure given to it by the 
 tanning. 
 
 The leather is first cut in half along the length of the 
 skin, and is then repeatedly soaked, beaten, and washed 
 in pure water, in order to dissolve and remove the gallic 
 acid and extractive matter, which, if allowed to remain, 
 might, by further oxidation, deepen the color, and inter- 
 fere with the proper absorption of the substances which 
 are afterwards applied. All foreign bodies having been 
 removed by these means, the skins, although saturated 
 with the tannin of oak-bark, are yet in a condition 
 which enables them to absorb sumach; and they are 
 accordingly deposited in a bath containing one-quarter 
 of their weight of powdered sumach. The leather is 
 taken out and dipped again in a new position, two or 
 three times every day while in this bath, the powder 
 which has settled to the bottom being stirred about each 
 time ; and at the end of the second day, a quantity of 
 sumach, equal to that originally deposited, is added. 
 The skins are taken out at the end of three days, which 
 time is usually sufficient for their saturation, and are 
 then found to be not only improved in color, but to be 
 much more soft and pliable than before the treatment. 
 
 In order still more completely to develop the peculiar 
 bistre-like yellow tint of these skins, which constitutes 
 their beauty, they are washed in water to remove excess 
 of sumach, &c., and then passed repeatedly through a very 
 
BUTTS, CALLED RED LEATHER. 
 
 347 
 
 weak bath of sulphuric acid, being quickly taken out 
 after each immersion, and immediately afterwards well 
 rinsed in pure water, to dissolve out the acid, which, if 
 allowed to remain, might act injuriously. 
 
 The leather is then, after being dried, oiled upon the 
 flesh with pure cod-liver oil, and, when thoroughly pene- 
 trated by this, with a mixture of the best quality of 
 whale-oil with half its weight of tallow; being in the 
 mean time scraped as usual upon the grain with the 
 fleshing-knife. It is then pared, slicked, and beaten 
 out flat ; all these operations being conducted by hand, 
 and not, as some suppose, by machinery ; the excellence 
 of the product depending entirely upon the skill and 
 attention bestowed upon it by the workman. 
 
 BUTTS, CALLED RED LEATHER. 
 
 Butts from Buenos Ayres, or from the Colonies, are 
 almost exclusively used for the manufacture of this kind 
 of leather. They are first soaked for four or five days, 
 and then deposited in an old lime-vat, and evenly ex- 
 tended, so that they may not wrinkle ; the hides of the 
 very largest size being cut in half along the line from 
 head to tail. After repeated handling in this pit for five 
 days, they are taken out, freed from hair, and deposited 
 in a fresh vat, in which they are allowed to remain two 
 or three months. During this process, they must be 
 handled twice a week, and a little fresh lime should be 
 thrown in during each of the last five handlings. When 
 ready to be fleshed, they are taken out and rinsed four 
 times, only partially, so that the lime, which is the cause 
 of their rigidity, may not be entirely washed out. 
 
 Being thus prepared, the hides are placed in the pit 
 and stratified, not, as in the manufacture of common 
 
348 
 
 BUTTS, CALLED BED LEATHER. 
 
 leather, with the bark of oak branches, but with the 
 bark of the root of the evergreen, or scarlet oak, which 
 has been soaked in water. After being left for three 
 months in the first pit, they are placed in a second one, 
 in which they are exposed to the action of the bark for 
 the same length of time, and then are taken out, dried, 
 and delivered to the currier. About 120 lbs. of this kind 
 of bark are required for each hide. 
 
CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 The tanning of calf-skins is conducted much in the 
 same way as that of small cow-hides. After having been 
 pressed, to expel oleaginous matters, they are passed 
 three times through old, and once through fresh lime- 
 vats; but being too weak to bear the full strength of the 
 lime, this should be done after the passage of cow-skins 
 through the vats has somewhat diminished its activity. 
 If they are dry when they enter the tannery, they should 
 be first trodden out and soaked. They are then freed 
 from their lime by the scraper, carefully fleshed, and 
 rinsed, after which they are ready for a part of the pro- 
 cess, which difiers from that used for cow-skins. 
 
 This consists in placing from fifteen to eighteen skins 
 in a tub, and beating them for eight or ten minutes. 
 This operation, which softens the fibre, should be re- 
 peated after each rinsing, though it is omitted in the 
 establishments where the skins are rinsed as often as six 
 times. The beaters are wedge-shaped, and from 8i to 10 
 inches in height. 
 
 After the skins are entirely free from hair and lime, 
 they are placed in the hot ooze and water, and treated 
 like cow-skins, excepting that they require more frequent 
 and careful handling. Care should also be taken to put 
 fresh tan each time into the vats. They are then sub- 
 
350 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 jected to the action of stronger ooze and tan, in the same 
 manner as other skins, for a month, and are afterwards 
 transferred to the pits. In these, unlike crop-leather 
 and hides, they are folded lengthwise and unequally, and 
 thus spread over with tan, care being taken to cover 
 the heads and tails, as being the thickest portions, with 
 rather more tan than the other parts. The tan used for 
 calf-skins should be of the very finest quality. Expo- 
 sure in the first pit continues about three months. They 
 are then taken out, freed from all particles of tan which 
 adhere to them, and placed in the second pit with tan, 
 which is also in the finest state of division. They must 
 be folded double and unevenly as before, but in such a 
 manner that the part before covered shall now be ex- 
 posed. The pits are then filled up as usual, the w^hole 
 moistened with w^arm water, and left for three months, 
 when the skins may be considered as ready to be placed 
 in the hands of the currier. 
 
 Some manufacturers, in tanning calf and sheep skins, 
 use a warm infusion of bark to moisten their pits with, 
 instead of cold water. This is probably an improve- 
 ment upon the old process. 
 
 As it is all-important to have the skins soft and in a 
 condition to absorb the tanning liquor readily, some 
 tanners accomplish this end by removing all traces of 
 opposing substances, such as lime, grease, and glutinous 
 matter, with the aid of an alkaline lye. This alkaline 
 lye consists of water impregnated with pigeon's or hen's * 
 dung, and is technically termed a grainer, or hate. Ten 
 or twelve gallons of dung suffice for one hundred skins; 
 and during the time they remain in the bate-liquor, 
 which is generally from eight to ten days, they must be 
 frequently handled and scraped on the beam. After the 
 
CALF-SKINS. 
 
 351 
 
 action of the bate, tlie skins assume the form of 'pelts^ 
 in which state they are placed in the ooze-vats. 
 
 The bate acts by means of the muriate of ammonia, 
 which it contains. The lime in the skins decomposes 
 this muriate of ammonia, takes its acid, and becomes 
 muriate of lime, which is soluble, and is carried away 
 by the wash waters, while the ammonia passes off in a 
 gaseous state. If the bate consists of fresh d%ing^ the 
 organic matter contained in it is liable to putrefactive 
 fermentation, which involves a partial decomposition of 
 the gelatinous tissue, and consequent loss, and at the 
 same time imparts a very undesirable color to the 
 leather. 
 
 Kampffmeyer gives the following results of a series of 
 experiments, made by him to determine the compara- 
 tive availability of oak-bark, catechu, divi-divi, and 
 alder, as tanning material for calf-skins. 
 
 Twenty-five calf-skins, as much alike as possible in 
 appearance, quality, and state of dryness, were selected, 
 and seven of the number were tanned with oak-bark, 
 six with alder-bark, six with catechu, and six with divi- 
 divi. All of these skins were made to undergo the pre- 
 paratory processes during the same length of time, and 
 exactly in the same manner, except that a certain num- 
 ber were limed in the ordinary way, and the rest were 
 exposed to sulphuretted lime from the gas-works. After 
 being freed from lime, they were simultaneously deposited 
 in the different pits. The following were the results of 
 the tanning : — 
 
 Oak-bark. — The three skins which had been depilated 
 by "gas-works lime," weighed originally 14 pounds 2 
 ounces. After being tanned and tallowed, they weighed 
 13 pounds 9 ounces, showing a loss of 19 ounces. The 
 quantity of oak-bark used was 95 pounds. 
 
352 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 The four skins treated with quicldime weighed ori- 
 ginally 16 pounds 3 ounces, and lost 15 ounces by the 
 tanning. These skins, which had exhausted 118 pounds 
 12 ounces of tan, were found to be very well tanned 
 and of a finer grain than any of the others. Those 
 prepared with "gas-works lime" were firmer, without 
 having suffered any diminution of their softness and 
 pliability, and working with the flesh-knife brought out 
 a fine surface. 
 
 Divi-divi, — Of the skins tanned with this material, 
 the three which had been treated with "gas-works lime" 
 weighed originally 12 pounds 2 ounces, and were found 
 to have lost after tanning 6 ounces; 14 pounds 7 ounces 
 of divi-divi having been used. 
 
 The others, which were freed from hair by means of 
 quicklime, weighed at first 11 pounds 9 ounces, and lost 
 10 ounces. The same proportionate amount of divi-divi 
 was used as for the others. 
 
 The color and appearance of the leather were, in every 
 instance, most satisfactory. The grain did not look quite 
 as well as that of the leather tanned with oak-bark, but 
 was sufficiently fine. 
 
 CatecJiu^ or Terra Japonica. — The three skins treated 
 with "gas-works lime" weighed at first 10 pounds 13 
 ounces, and gained 10 i ounces during the tanning; 14 
 pounds 7 ounces of catechu having been consumed. 
 
 Those prepared with quicklime weighed originally 13 
 pounds 2 ounces, and gained 6 ounces by being tanned. 
 The same quantity of catechu was exhausted as before. 
 These skins were nearly perfectly tanned. Their color 
 was of an orange hue. The flesh sides were uneven and 
 rough, the texture loose and spongy, and the grain much 
 inferior to that of those treated with the other materials. 
 
 Alder-hark. — The three skins prepared with " gas-works 
 
CALF-SKINS. 353 
 
 lime" weighed 12 pounds 2 ounces, and gained 5 ounces 
 in the tanning, 171 pounds of alder-bark being used. 
 The three which were limed in the ordinary manner 
 weighed at first 11 pounds 1 ounce, and lost 7 ounces in 
 the tanning, and 134 pounds of the bark were used for 
 these skins. 
 
 Notwithstanding the very large quantity of bark em- 
 ployed, all of the skins were imperfectly tanned, particu- 
 larly those which were treated with lime from the 
 gas-works. They w^ere so hard and dense as to be im- 
 pervious to grease. The grain was bad, and brought 
 out with difficulty, and their stiffness and dryness were 
 so great that the hair side cracked when the leather was 
 bent. They were of a deep brown color, inelastic, and 
 inferior in every respect to all the others. 
 
 In comparing the two modes of unhairing skins, the 
 author believes that the use of gas-lime" offers some 
 advantages over the old method of depilating by quick- 
 lime. There is little difference between their cost, and 
 the skins treated with the former are perhaps finer, more 
 pliable and durable, and more impervious to moisture. 
 
 The results of the experiments prove that the use of 
 catechu for tanning in the dry way is almost inadmissi- 
 ble, giving rise as it does to a porous and loose condition 
 of the texture of leather. The experiments with alder- 
 bark were still less satisfactory. The skins tanned with 
 oak-bark and divi-divi were, on the whole, equally good ; 
 while there is not much difference between the actual 
 expense of these materials, since the latter, though much 
 more costly, contains nearly six times as much tannin as 
 the former. One objection to its use arises from the diffi- 
 culty of reducing it to powder between the ordinary 
 grindstones, owing to its coriaceous and glutinous nature. 
 
 Very nearly the same results as those above described 
 
354 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 were obtained by the tanning of raw Buenos Ayres hides, 
 the divi-divi preserving its character for superiority to 
 the catechu and alder, and being equal in most respects 
 to oak-bark. There is more care to be observed in its 
 use, though it effects the tanning in one-third less time 
 than oak-bark. The best mode of employing it is in the 
 form of an extract, and in combination with oak-bark, 
 as is done in England; the skins being covered first with 
 a layer of divi-divi, and then with a thin stratum of tan. 
 
 According to the author, the divi-divi is the only sub- 
 stance that can successfully or profitably replace oak- 
 bark, and a reduction in the price of the article will pro- 
 bably give rise to a very general employment of it. 
 
 CALF-SKINS, IMPROPERLY CALLED "ALUMED SKINS." 
 
 Alumed calf-skins are very little used, and are chiefly 
 employed by bookbinders. The secret of their manu- 
 facture was for a long time unknown; but the following 
 account was given by reliable persons to Delalande, from 
 whose work it is extracted. 
 
 The dried skins of stillborn calves, or others of low 
 price, are selected for the manufacture of this so-called 
 alumed leather; those which have been injured by 
 weevils or worms being rejected. In opening them, they 
 are strongly beaten with a stick to get rid of dust and 
 insects, and are then deposited in a place which must 
 not be either too damp or warm. 
 
 Thirteen dozen dry skins are worked at a time. They 
 are deposited in an oval pit, dug out in the ground, which 
 is from 11 to 13 feet long, by 3i to 4i feet wide, and 6i 
 feet deep. The water is passed into this pit through an 
 oval aperture, a foot and a half in height, and narrow 
 
CALF-SKINS. 
 
 355 
 
 enough to prevent the skins from escaping from it, and 
 drains away through another similar opening. 
 
 The water used at Verneuil, where this kind of lea- 
 ther was originally prepared, is supposed to possess pecu- 
 liar virtues, especially fitting it for the preparation of 
 these skins; and, for a long time, the erroneous opinion 
 was entertained that they could only be properly pre- 
 pared by its use. Hence the precautions adopted to 
 secure the exposure of the skins to a constant stream 
 of it. 
 
 The skins remain in the pit two or three days in sum- 
 mer, and six or eight in winter. When taken out, they 
 are stacked, and the next day are scraped upon the horse 
 with a blunt knife. They are again deposited in the 
 vat, and left during two days, after which they are scraped 
 as before, and, if not sufiiciently softened, are exposed a 
 third time in the pit for a day and again scraped. They 
 are then placed in the lime-pit, which is a hole from 
 41 to 5 feet in depth, and of proportionate length and 
 breadth. From 40 to 50 buckets of water are thrown 
 into this with a cask-full of lime, which is left to slack 
 for 12 or 15 hours. After this, the contents of the pit 
 are thoroughly stirred by means of a long pole, while the 
 skins are deposited singly and dipped with a stick. After 
 remaining in the lime-pit for a day, they are taken out, 
 spread, and stacked, and subsequently passed, in the 
 same way, through new lime-pits, gradually increasing 
 in strength, until the hair is ready to be removed. They 
 are then well washed in running water, deprived of hair, 
 and deposited again in a vat similar to that first described, 
 and allowed to soak over night, being kept in position 
 by a long heavy pole placed longitudinally above them. 
 These operations concluded, they are well fleshed to the 
 quick with a sharp knife, upon the horse, until the flesh 
 
356 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 side can scarcely be distinguished from the grain. The 
 heads and necks are thinned down until they become of 
 equal thickness with the other parts of the skins, and 
 the ears J tails^ and other extremities are cut off, and pre- 
 served for the manufacture of glue. After being exposed 
 to the air for a day, and kept in the pit over night, they 
 are again fleshed, but with a duller knife than that first 
 used. They are next returned to the first pit, and left 
 over night in the water, and the hair side is worked upon 
 the horse so as to expel the last portions of lime. The 
 next process is to empty three or four buckets-full of dog's- 
 dung or chicken's-dung into a large vat, and to mix it 
 thoroughly with a bucket-full of water, which is done by 
 the workman entering the vat and stamping upon the 
 contents with his feet. Cold water is then thrown in 
 until the vat is half full, and hot water from a large 
 boiler is mixed with it. After this, the skins are thrown 
 in, and are stirred about in the vat for some minutes with 
 large sticks, when the greater part of the liquor is drawn 
 off into a boiler to be heated, and the skins, after having 
 been left for an hour, are arranged in a corner of the vat, 
 and kept in place by two sticks crossed over each other. 
 The hot liquor is then poured into the empty part of the 
 vat, a bucket-full at a time, being well stirred all the time, 
 and mixed with the cold liquor, so as to avoid injuring 
 the skins by scalding. When the water is sufiiciently 
 hot, the sticks are removed, and the skins are forcibly 
 stirred around in the vat three or four times. The liquor 
 is then returned to the boiler, and the same process is 
 repeated, great care being taken not to add the hot water 
 too rapidly to the contents of the vat, and to try its tem- 
 perature frequently with the hand. The skins are left 
 in for half an hour. 
 
 The workman then collects them together in a corner 
 
CALF-SKINS. 
 
 357 
 
 of the vat, and examines them carefully, stretching them 
 in every direction, and when he finds them perfectly 
 pliable and soft, they are ready to be taken out. He 
 removes, at first, one or two dozen of those which are 
 the most advanced in preparation, and deposits them in 
 buckets, after which he empties the vat of water as 
 before, and turns the skins three or four times. After 
 a quarter of an hour, the boiler is again filled, he col- 
 lects the skins together and takes out more of them, and 
 so on until they are all removed from the vat. 
 
 The greatest care is necessary on the part of the 
 workman during these operations ; for, if the skins are 
 allowed to remain in the hot mixture after they have 
 reached the proper point, they will be rapidly softened 
 and destroyed ; while others, at the end of the same time, 
 may not have been exposed long enough for their complete 
 preparation. A repetition of the processes described, con- 
 tinued for six or seven hours, is sometimes necessary for 
 imparting the requisite qualities to the stronger skins. 
 Experience and frequent examinations of the skins 
 alone can enable the workman to determine the proper 
 time for removing them from the vat. 
 
 When this part of the process is finished, the skins, 
 as they are taken from the vat, are stretched and 
 scraped upon the beam, in order to soften, distend, and 
 clean them ; and if any are found to be still too firm, they 
 are replaced in the vat while the rest are being washed. 
 The contents of the vat are then allowed to escape 
 through the bunghole, and it is well washed out and 
 half filled with clean river-water, while a basket-full of 
 fresh tan is thrown in. The skins are then washed and 
 stirred about in this water with sticks, and handled by 
 the workmen, and left in the vat until the next day, 
 when they are taken out, drained upon the planks, and 
 
358 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 transferred to the care of the sempstress. Each skin is 
 carefully examined by her, any holes which may exist 
 being closed; the skins, excepting the tail part, are then 
 sewed with the flesh side outwards, into the form of a 
 bottle. For this purpose, she uses a large needle, which is 
 flat at the point, and, with a double thick thread, stitches 
 one part of the skin at a distance of one-fifth of an inch 
 from the edge, and the other that of half an inch, turn- 
 ing over the latter upon the former in a hem, but not 
 pressing it down tightly enough to prevent water from 
 draining through, or to cause the production of dark 
 spots and lines after tanning. A workman then places 
 in each bag of skin a quantity of tan, proportioned to 
 its size, after which, the sempstress sews up the tail part 
 close by the hind legs, so as just to permit the introduc- 
 tion of a copper socket for a wooden funnel. The bags 
 are then brought near to a vat in which the tanning has 
 just been completed. The sacks in this vat are removed 
 to a rack, in order to be unripped. The vat is left half 
 full of the old liquor, and there is then poured into it a 
 quantity of hot fresh liquor sufficient to make the con- 
 tents lukewarm. This fresh liquor is prepared by 
 pouring the contents of the already tanned sacks into a 
 vat provided with an upright door or partition at one 
 end, through which the liquor, which has drained from 
 the tan, passes, and collecting, in the empty space, is 
 transferred to a boiler. The workman then takes a bag 
 of skin, and empties into it, through the funnel, a small 
 bucket-full of water, and closes the moutb by tying it 
 up with a small strip or thong, which had been previ- 
 ously cut from the skin for the purpose, and left hanging 
 from the tail. The bags, having each been filled with 
 the same quantity of water, are then placed in the vat and 
 left for an hour, while another portion of liquor, prepared 
 
CALF-SKINS. 
 
 359 
 
 by percolating through tan, as above described, is being 
 heated in the boiler. The workman, then placing the bags 
 upon a rack at one end of the vat into which the heated 
 water has been poured, fills them again through the funnel 
 from his little bucket, tying them as before, by which 
 they are made to assume a pyramidal shape in the vats. 
 This operation is repeated a third time at the expiration 
 of an hour, the heat of the liquor being increased as 
 before. The liquor should be less heated for those skins 
 which have been a long time in the lime-pits, than for 
 those which have been a shorter time ; but the skill ex- 
 hibited in making this distinction can only be acquired 
 by long experience. 
 
 The next day a similar operation is performed in a 
 third vat, while the bags deposited the day before are 
 left to soak in the vat. The third day the skins of the 
 first vat are taken out and left to drain upon a rack 
 placed over the vat. They are then thrown upon the 
 rack in the vat, upon which they are unripped and 
 emptied of their tan. They are then folded with the 
 flesh side within, and well washed in running water ; 
 they are placed upon a trestle to drain ; are opened at 
 the hind quarters, and hung up in a shed, with their 
 heads down, on nails placed some distance apart. 
 
 When dry, they are piled up and left until ready to 
 be sent to market. They are then moistened, if in 
 summer, by exposure to the dew of night air ; are trod 
 out by workmen with heavy shoes, in order to render 
 them supple, and to efface the marks of the sewing; 
 and are assorted, according to size, into packs of six 
 each, which are tied together by the heads with pack- 
 thread. 
 
 The greatest care is required in all these processes not 
 to allow the skins to remain too long in the dung mix- 
 
360 
 
 CALF-SKINS. 
 
 tures, or to permit the water employed to be too hot, 
 since either of these circumstances will make them so 
 soft as to be easily torn. Those prepared with chicken- 
 dung are so thin as to be almost transparent. Manu- 
 facturers have the idea that lightning and fogs injure 
 these skins, or interfere with their preparation, and 
 usually carry on their manufacture, as much as possible, 
 in spring and autumn. The hog-skins used by book- 
 binders for Bibles and church-books are prepared in the 
 same manner as the calf-skins, but they differ from them 
 in being exceedingly thick and strong. 
 
 The tanned sheep-skins, used by bookbinders, are not 
 alumed like the calf-skins, but are only limed and tanned. 
 Some of these are sewed up and tanned similarly to the 
 calf-skins, while others are tanned by stratifying them 
 with bark. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 TANNING OF GOAT AND SHEEP SKINS. 
 
 Goat and sheep skins are converted by the tanners 
 into true Morocco, imitation Morocco, shiver, and roan. 
 
 True Morocco. — Owing to the comparative scarcity of 
 goatSj the tanners use very few fresh skins, their supplies 
 being drawn from Switzerland, Germany, Africa, East 
 Indies, and Asia Minor. As imported, they are dry, 
 and covered with hair, and require breaking and soften- 
 ing, which is done by soaking them for several days in 
 water, treading them under feet, rinsing and scraping 
 them on the flesh side to produce evenness. They are 
 then made to pass through three old lime-pits, and after 
 the hair is removed, through a fresh pit, the same pre- 
 cautions being observed, throughout, as in the treatment 
 of calf-skins. This process is continued until the hair 
 can be easily detached, which generally requires about a 
 month, and the skins are then scraped on the beam, re- 
 immersed in lime-milk for two days, and again fleshed 
 with the scraping-knife. 
 
 Goat-skins being of a dry nature, require more rinsing 
 than others, and the operation must be frequently re- 
 peated many times in running water. 
 
 The unhaired skins are then "bated" with pigeon's, 
 chicken's, or dog's dung, to remove excess of lime. 
 Fermented bran-water is sometimes used as the bate. 
 24 
 
362 TANNING OF GOAT AND Sfl^EP SKINS. 
 
 After being again scraped^ the skins are sewed into bag 
 form with the grain side outwards, and partly filled 
 through a funnel with a strong decoction of sumach ; they 
 are inflated by the breath, tightly closed, and thrown 
 into a vat (Fig. 114) containing a shallow depth of weak 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 liquor of sumach, and therein made to float about by 
 means of constant agitation, so as to insure the uniform 
 action of the tan-liquor throughout the surface of the 
 skin. After a few hours, the bags are taken out, and 
 piled upon each other so as to promote by pressure a 
 thorough penetration of the liquor through the pores of 
 the skin, and consequent chemical combination. This 
 process is repeated with new liquor, and the bags are 
 then unstitched, rinsed, and scraped on the beam, and 
 suspended in the drying-loft. These "crust" skins, as 
 they are termed when in this latter condition, are moist- 
 ened, rubbed out smooth with a copper tool upon a slop- 
 ing board, and hung up to dry, previous to undergoing 
 the process of coloring. This method tans the goat- 
 skins in one day. 
 
 Another plan is to steep the skins for several days in 
 a fermenting mixture of bran-water, scrape them on the 
 beam, and soak and rinse them in clean water. After 
 
TANNING OF GOAT AND SHEEP SKINS. 
 
 363 
 
 being limed in the usual manner, they are worked or 
 rubbed over with a tool of hard schist, to press out the 
 lime, smooth down unevenness, and soften the grain, and 
 are then fulled by agitation in a revolving cask, lined 
 within with pegs, and containing water. 
 
 The tanning is then effected in the manner before 
 mentioned, two pounds of Sicilian sumach being required 
 for each skin. In France, the tanning is accomplished 
 very much in the same manner as by the fulling above 
 described ; the skins and tan-liquor being placed together 
 in a churn-like cask, and the chemical combination pro- 
 moted by causing it to revolve upon a horizontal axis. 
 
 Imitation Morocco. — This leather is prepared from 
 sheep'SkiiiSy in the same manner as true Morocco; except 
 that, after being stripped of wool, they must be subjected 
 to powerful hydrostatic pressure for the expulsion of olea- 
 ginous matter, which, being contained in large amount, 
 would otherwise seriously interfere with the tanning. 
 
 They are limed in pits containing 33 pounds of lime 
 for every dozen skins, and are allowed to remain from 
 three weeks to a month. They are then deprived of 
 hair, are resteeped in the pits for five or six days, rinsed, 
 beaten in tubs, and, when perfectly clean, deposited in 
 ooze for a month. 
 
 When sheep-skins are tanned for common leather, oak- 
 bark is used instead of sumach. 
 
 Morocco is classified in commerce under the head of 
 fancy leathers, because it always reaches market with a 
 highly finished and colored surface on the grain side. 
 
 The color is imparted in the same manner as cloth is 
 dyed — by means of the chemical combination of a pig- 
 ment with a mordant. 
 
 Some tanners dye the skins when they reach the state 
 preparatory to going into the tan-liquor, by sewing them 
 
364 
 
 TANNING OF GOAT AND SHEEP SKINS. 
 
 together edgewise, with the grain outwards, then mor- 
 danting, and afterwards giving them two immersions, of 
 a half hour each, in the dve-bath. 
 
 The most common method, however, is to take the 
 tanned skins as they come from the drying-loft, place 
 two together, and then rub them over exteriorly with a 
 brush containing the mordant solution, and afterwards 
 to apply the dye liquor in the same manner. When the 
 dyeing is finished, they are to be rinsed, drained, spread 
 out, sponged with oil to preserve their flexibility, and 
 then sent to the curriers' shop to be finished. 
 
 Black. — This color is imparted by the application of 
 a solution of red acetate of iron; crimson^ by a mordant 
 of alum or tin salt, and decoction of cochineal; puce, by 
 mordant of alum and decoction of logwood; hlue, by a 
 solution of sulphate of Indigo; olive, by a weak solution 
 of copperas, as mordant, and decoction of barberry con- 
 taining a little of the blue bath, as coloring liquor; violet, 
 by the consecutive application of decoction of cochineal 
 and weak Indigo bath. 
 
 Shiver. — This kind of leather is made from sheep- 
 skins split in two, while in the state of pelt, by machi- 
 nery. It is tanned by sumach in vats, being spread out, 
 instead of sewn into bag form, as from its lesser thick- 
 ness it is more readily impregnated with the tan material. 
 
 The extreme thinness of a sheep-skin renders neces- 
 sary a peculiar apparatus and nice manipulation for its 
 bisection. The splitting machine used at the Beving- 
 tons, is shown in Fig. 115, which also represents a skin 
 undergoing the process of being split. A double advan- 
 tage is derived from this manipulation, one skin being 
 made into two portions, which are then respectively 
 adapted to uses for which the original skin, on account 
 of its thickness, was not suited. The vibrating knife, 
 
TANNING OF GOAT AND SHEEP SKINS. 
 
 365 
 
 and rollers, may be so arranged as to give an equal thick- 
 ness to both sections of the skin, or a greater thickness 
 to one side than to the other, as may be desired. The 
 knife cuts slowly, but completes the section in about two 
 minutes. 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 This kind of leather is used for hat-linings, pocket- 
 books, box-covers, and like purposes. 
 
 Roan is sheep-skin Morocco tanned with sumach, 
 but wanting the grained appearance of true Morocco, 
 which is imparted by the grooved roller in the finishing. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 TANNING OF HORSE-HIDES. 
 
 Previous to 1790, the manufacture of good leather 
 from horse-hides was considered so problematical, that 
 the duty upon them, in France, did not exceed the half 
 of that levelled upon neat hides. They were seldom 
 seen in tanneries, and it was impossible to pass them off 
 upon shoemakers, as the long necks, the unevenness of 
 the mane portions, and deep creases, made their charac- 
 ter manifest. At the present day, however, they are 
 largely converted into leather; and experience has 
 proved, that they make excellent material for uppers, 
 and the legs of boots. 
 
 Horse-hides are limed in precisely the same way as 
 calf-skins, but, on account of their greater thickness, they 
 require a longer exposure in the tan-pits, eight months 
 being usually necessary for this purpose. 
 
 According to Dumas, "horse-hides are tanned with 
 great ease, and excellent leather can be made from them 
 in fifty days, if prepared in the following manner, which 
 is that adopted by Reulos and Budin, tanners who have 
 devoted their attention to this branch of the business. 
 The skins are soaked for a night, and then passed suc- 
 cessively through three lime-pits, remaining one day in 
 each, the fresh pit being charged in the proportion of 20 
 bushels of lime for 140 skins. Having been taken out 
 
TANNING OF HORSE-HIDES. 
 
 367 
 
 and thoroughly washed in running water, they are 
 worked in the usual way upon the beam, and then 
 passed through the vats, remaining six, eight, and in 
 winter, ten days in the first one. During this part of 
 the proceeding, they are taken out and replaced from 
 time to time ; as often as eight or ten times daily, for the 
 first few days. The liquid of the first vat should indi- 
 cate a density of °0.7, by Baume s areometer. That of 
 the second vat should be at °0.9, and while in this, the 
 skins should be taken out only once a day. After nine 
 or ten days, they are removed to the third liquid, which 
 has a density of °1.2, and are allowed to remain in it about 
 the same length of time, and are finally kept for twelve 
 or fourteen days in the last vat, at 2° Baume. During 
 this last period, two baskets of fresh tan, weighing 55 
 pounds, should be daily thrown into each vat. 
 
 "After removal from the last vat, the skins are 
 thoroughly tanned. They are then rubbed upon marble 
 tables, first on the flesh, then on the hair sides, half- 
 dried upon hooks attached to the ceiling of the drying- 
 room, and sent to the currier in a slightly moist state. 
 
 "A horse-hide weighing 22 pounds loses 6 J pounds in 
 undergoing cleaning, but gains 8^ pounds in the tanning. 
 This method of tanning is very simple, although requir- 
 ing all the attention and care of the workmen, and differs 
 from that of other skins, at least in the establishment 
 referred to, in their not being placed at all in pits, and 
 in being subjected to the action of tannin while floating 
 in liquid." 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 BUCK, WOLF, DOa, AND OTHER SKINS. 
 
 The skins of the buck, the wolf, the elk, the dog, and 
 other animals, are equally susceptible of tanning as those 
 of the goat and sheep. Those of the lamb, the kid, the 
 cat, the rabbit, and hare do not require exposure to as 
 strong infusions, nor for so great a length of time, as 
 sheep-skins, while those of the hog, the wild boar, and 
 bear are prepared exactly like them. When these skins 
 are fresh, and when it is intended to preserve the hair 
 or fur, the time may be considerably abridged. 
 
 HUMAN SKINS. 
 
 Human skins can be tanned like others. They have 
 more body than cow-skins, and, unlike them, are thickest 
 upon the abdomen. Those who have experimented upon 
 this most disagreeable subject, assert that they require a 
 greater number of limings and of exposures to the infu- 
 sions of bark, and that they swell up a great deal under 
 these operations. A tanned human skin is exhibited in 
 the Museum of Natural History at Versailles. The skin 
 of General Morland was exhibited some time since in 
 the Museum of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, and 
 we have seen a wig exhibited by the brothers Norman- 
 din, hairdressers, which consisted of a tanned human 
 scalp with the hair left on. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 BUFFALO, OR "GRECIAN LEATHER/^ 
 
 This leather is made of buffalo-skins, and differs from 
 other kinds in being tanned with myrtle-leaves instead 
 of oak-bark. 
 
 These skins, which are always brought to the tanner 
 in a dry state, are soaked in water for five or six days 
 in order to soften them, and are then deposited in an old 
 lime-pit, and there allowed to remain until the hair comes 
 off with ease, which usually happens at the end of eight 
 or ten days. During the liming, they should be taken 
 out occasionally, stacked for short intervals, and replaced 
 in the vats. When the hair is just ready to come off 
 without difficulty, they are scraped upon the beam. 
 
 They are next soaked in water for two days; then 
 worked upon the beam with a fleshing-knife, and rinsed 
 three or four times, which should be sufficient to make 
 them supple and to remove all the lime. 
 
 The skins are then ready to receive the first coloring. 
 For this purpose, they are placed upon each other in 
 large vats, are covered over with myrtle-leaves, and, to 
 complete their preparation, the vats are then filled with 
 a boiling decoction of powdered myrtle-leaves. 
 
 After the skins have been moved about in this liquid, 
 which should always be in sufficient quantity to cover 
 them perfectly, they are taken out and sewed up as other 
 
370 
 
 BUFFALO^ OR GRECIAN LEATHER. 
 
 skins are in processes already referred to. They are 
 then filled up with the leaves and fluid in which they 
 had been immersed, and again replaced in the vat, which 
 is supplied with a similar but fresh mixture. This mix- 
 ture must be renewed every day if it is desired to impart 
 a fine color to the skins. To complete the process, it 
 must be continued for ten or twenty days, the skins 
 being frequently stirred and moved about in the liquid. 
 Some tanners, however, only stir them about two or 
 three times daily, and once a day throw into the vat a 
 boiler-full of hot myrtle decoction. 
 
 The skins, being ready for the vats, are ripped up 
 and torn through from tail to head. The bottom of 
 the pit being bedded with powder, the skins are placed 
 upon it with the hair side up, and are then covered with 
 a moistened layer of myrtle leaves, over which skins are 
 placed as before, and so on until the pit is full. The 
 skins are left in this state for three months, and, all the 
 precautions usual in common tanning having been taken, 
 are then removed, well cleaned in water, and again 
 stratified in the same way with myrtle-leaves for three 
 months longer. This process is repeated four times 
 more in the same manner, until, at the expiration of a 
 year and a half, they are taken out and dried like other 
 skins. Some tanners keep these skins in the pits for at 
 least three years, but this length of exposure is not re- 
 garded as at all necessary. 
 
 When nearly dry, the weak parts of the bellies are 
 cut out, and all the wrinkles in the skins are flattened 
 by means of a mallet or a smoothing-iron. They are 
 then entirely dried by exposure to the open air, and 
 greased upon both sides. In order that the fatty matter 
 may penetrate them perfectly, they are flamed by being 
 passed over a charcoal fire in every direction, until 
 
BUFFALO, OR GRECIAN LEATHER. 
 
 371 
 
 thoroughly warmed throughout; and, when it is evident 
 that they will absorb no more, are once more warmed 
 and then piled up and covered with planks, which are 
 pressed down with large stones or heavy weights. 
 
 The next day, they are taken down and dried 
 thoroughly by exposure to the open air, when they will 
 be found to have acquired the necessary whiteness and 
 firmness. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 The Russians have long been in possession of a method 
 of making a variety of fancy red-colored leather, called 
 by them juden. This article has a peculiarly agreea- 
 ble- and characteristic odor, is not subject to mould when 
 exposed in damp situations, and is proof against the 
 attacks of insects, even expelling them from the vicinity 
 of its odor. 
 
 A description of this process has been published by 
 Pallas and by Fischerstroem, and a manufactory of 
 Russia leather was established at St. Germain, more 
 than sixty years ago, under the auspices of M. Teybert; 
 but it did not prove as successful as was expected. Since 
 then, the manufacture has been more generally intro- 
 duced into France. The following account of the process 
 is chiefly taken from the prize work on the subject by 
 Grouvelle and Duval-Duval, and from the Technological 
 Dictionary of M. Pay en ; but all the published descriptions 
 are more or less imperfect, and it is probable that, even 
 at the present day, the particulars of the method em- 
 ployed in Russia are not thoroughly known out of that 
 country. 
 
 Russia leather consists of calf, sheep, and goat skins, 
 dyed generally of a red color, cylindered, and impregnated 
 with a purified empyreumatic oil obtained from birch- 
 
RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 373 
 
 bark. For this purpose, the whitest and most perfect 
 skins are selected. These are deprived of hair by steep- 
 ing them in a mixture of ash-lye and quicklime, made 
 too weak to act upon the animal fibres. They are then 
 rinsed, fulled for a longer or shorter time according to 
 their nature, and fermented in a proper steep, after hav- 
 ing been washed in hot water. They are taken out at 
 the end of eight days, fulled again, and steeped a second 
 time, if this be necessary to open their pores, and then 
 cleaned with the flesh-knife on both the flesh and grain 
 sides. 
 
 A paste is then made, consisting of 38 pounds of rye- 
 flour for 200 skins, and fermented with leaven; and 
 the dough is worked up with a sufficient quantity of 
 water to form a bath for the skins, in which they are 
 soaked for forty-eight hours, then transferred to small 
 pits, and, after remaining therein for fifteen days, are 
 well washed in the river. This preliminary operation 
 serves to prepare the skins for their uniform and com- 
 plete combination with tannin and extractive matter. 
 A decoction of willow-bark (salix ci7ierea and salix caprea) 
 is then made, and, when its temperature is sufficiently 
 lowered to prevent it from injuring the animal fibres, 
 the skins are immersed in it, and handled and worked 
 for a half hour. This manipulation is repeated twice 
 daily during a week ; after which, a fresh decoction is 
 prepared, and the skins are subjected to the same treat- 
 ment in it for another week. After this, they are ex- 
 posed to the air to dry, and are then ready to be dyed 
 and dressed with the oil. 
 
 Another method of preparing the skins for the chief 
 operation is given by Dessables. 
 
 The whitest and most perfect skins being selected, are 
 soaked in water, scraped upon the beam, fulled, worked 
 
374 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 with the pommel, and then oiled upon the hair side with 
 pure fish oil, and upon the flesh with a mixture of oil 
 and train oil scourings. When dry, they are again pom- 
 melled, washed over upon the hair side with a solution 
 of alum, and then pressed under the cylinder. This 
 cylinder, by which the diamond-shaped grain is given to 
 Russia leather, is made of steel, about twelve and a half 
 inches long, and three inches in diameter, and is covered 
 with a number of close parallel threads, or grooves, like 
 those of a screw, but cut perpendicular to its axis, and 
 not spirally. The cylinder is filled with stones weighing 
 from 200 to 340 pounds. It is moved in two directions 
 upon a wooden bench, or support, by means of a cord 
 passing around a wooden roller with a handle. This 
 cord passes also over two cylinders attached to the floor, 
 and a fourth one upon the end of the bench. The 
 cylinder having the handle upon its axle, is divided into 
 two different parts, over which the two extremities of 
 the cord pass in different directions, so that two opposite 
 movements can be given to the cylinder by one handle. 
 
 The cylinder is sustained and directed by iron bars 
 placed along the bench upon which it rolls. The skin 
 which is to be grained is placed below it, lengthwise, 
 upon the bench, and longitudinal grooves are impressed 
 upon its surface by the track of the cylinder. The skin 
 is then removed and again placed upon the bench, either 
 crosswise or at an angle, according as it is intended to 
 give it a square or a diamond-shaped grain. 
 
 When properly grained, a second coat of alum-water 
 is applied, and when nearly dry, the Russian oil is 
 spread over the hair side, and the red or the black color 
 is given. The skin is then repeatedly exposed for a 
 short time to the direct rays of a hot sun, until the 
 color has sufficiently penetrated its substance, when it 
 
RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 375 
 
 is fulled, pommelled, sleeked with the round-knife, upon 
 the beam, and finally well rubbed upon the hair side 
 with a hard brush. 
 
 The chief characteristic of the preparation of Russia 
 leather, is its impregnation with the birch-bark oil, the 
 mode of manufacturing which is still, in a measure, kept 
 secret. In order that the oil should penetrate the 
 leather properly, the latter must not be either too moist 
 or too dry, but should contain just sufficient water to 
 enable the oil to be spread equally over the surface, and 
 to be absorbed in proportion as the moisture gradually 
 evaporates. Thus prepared, the leather retains the cha- 
 racteristic odor for a long time. Great care should be 
 taken not to apply too much of the oil, for fear of its 
 passing through and staining the grain side. From 
 twelve ounces to a pound, generally suffice for fully im- 
 pregnating a large cow-skin. In the case of leather not 
 dyed, or of Morocco to which it may be desired to im- 
 part the odor, only a very small portion should be applied 
 to the flesh side. 
 
 The composition of the red color with which Russia 
 leather is commonly stained, has not been accurately 
 ascertained. It usually contains Brazil wood, alum, and 
 some other ingredients. It is not very durable, and does 
 not resist the action of boiling water or of potassa, 
 though it generally remains unaltered in the air. Other 
 dyes of better quality are sometimes used, which enhance 
 the price of the leather. The black Russia leather is 
 prepared in the same way as the other, and is stained 
 by the repeated application of the acetate of iron. 
 
 Much attention has been bestowed upon the manu- 
 facture of the empyreumatic oil of birch-bark, and quite 
 a number of different modes of preparing it have been 
 
376 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 described. The following is that given by Fischerstroem 
 as the one practised in Russia. 
 
 The whitish membraneous epidermis of the birch, 
 carefully separated from all woody matter, is introduced 
 into an iron boiler, which, when entirely full, is covered 
 tightly with a vaulted iron lid, from the centre of which 
 issues an iron pipe. Another boiler, into which this tube 
 enters without touching its bottom, is placed over the 
 other, and the edges are bolted together and tightly 
 luted. They are then inverted, so that the one contain- 
 ing the bark is uppermost. The lower half of this ap- 
 paratus is sunk in the earth, the surface of the upper 
 boiler is covered over with a lute, composed of clay and 
 sand, and then surrounded with a wood fire and exposed 
 to a red heat until the completion of the distillation. 
 As soon as the boilers are cold, they are disconnected. 
 A light powder of charcoal is found in the upper one, 
 and in the under one, which served as a receiver, a brown, 
 oily, odoriferous, empyreumatic liquid, mixed with tar 
 and pyroligneous acid. This oil is separated from the 
 other substances, and preserved in tightly stopped vessels. 
 
 In another method of preparing this oil, the dry birch- 
 bark is introduced into a large earthen pot, having a 
 hole in the bottom. When the pit is full, the bark is 
 set fire to ; another similar earthen pot, with a hole for 
 the escape of smoke, is inverted over the first one, and 
 the latter is placed upon a bucket, into which the tar 
 and oily matters drop as they are formed. When the 
 process is conducted in spring, some manufacturers mix 
 the young branches of the birch, covered with buds, 
 with the bark. This arrangement facilitates the separa- 
 tion of the oil, which, when thus prepared, is also of a 
 lighter color, from the smaller quantity of soot contained 
 in it. 
 
RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 377 
 
 The oil is prepared in France, bj distilling tlie birch- 
 bark in copper stills, and condensing the products by 
 means of a worm kept cold by water. About sixty 
 per cent, of the weight of the bark may thus be ex- 
 tracted. The oil obtained in this way, is highly colored 
 and not very abundant, but may be still rectified by re- 
 distillation, so as to be almost perfectly colorless. When 
 thus purified, it is better adapted than the original pro- 
 duct, for the oiling of very fine or white leather, which 
 it is important not to stain ; but its preparation is costly 
 to the manufacturer, on account of the loss of material, 
 and the small quantity of it obtained. 
 
 Another method of distilling the oil, proposed by 
 Payen, is a very simple one, which yielded to him a 
 large quantity of a light-colored product. A hole is 
 made in the bottom of an earthen furnace A, Fig. 116, 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 large enough to receive the neck of a matrass M, The 
 furnace is supported by two bricks placed upon the 
 plank, which is also perforated so as to admit of the 
 25 
 
378 
 
 EUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 passage of the neck of the matrass, and which rests 
 upon the trestles (7. After having filled the matrass to 
 its utmost capacity with birch-bark epidermis, it is in- 
 verted and passed through the furnace and the board. 
 The neck is then luted and placed in the position seen in 
 the figure, being supported by sand thrown into the bottom 
 of the furnace as high as F\ and in order to expose 
 the body of the matrass to a uniform heat, it is pro- 
 tected by inverting over it an earthen hemispherical 
 cupel, or crucible. Around this burning coals are placed, 
 and the fire is kept up through two lateral openings i), 
 i^, the dome /, Z, being placed upon the furnace-top. 
 Condensed water first trickles from the mouth of the 
 matrass into a vessel placed beneath, and this is suc- 
 ceeded by drops, and then by a constant stream of an 
 amber-colored oil. After a time this ceases, and it is 
 necessary to apply heat lower down to the neck of the 
 matrass, so as to cause the discharge of the last portions 
 of oil and tarry matters which have condensed in it. 
 The products of the distillation of 1000 parts were: — 
 
 1. A fluid, brown, oily matter, very odoriferous, 
 
 and soluble in ether . . . .700 
 
 2. Thick, dark-brown, tarry fluid, containing a 
 
 little oil 50 
 
 3. Water, acidulated by pyroligneous acid . 100 
 
 4. Light spongy charcoal, left in the matrass . 125 
 
 5. Loss by the escape of gaseous substances . 25 
 
 This oil may be more readily prepared by distilling 
 the bark in cylinders of iron, placed horizontally in the 
 furnace similarly to gas retorts. 
 
 Chevreul, and after him Payen and Chevalier, have 
 investigated the chemical nature of the odoriferous sub- 
 stance to which the properties of the oil of birch-bark 
 
RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 379 
 
 are owing, and to which the name of hetuline has been 
 given. The latter chemist found that the epidermis of 
 the bark contains two or three per cent, of this proxi- 
 mate principle, which is a white pulverulent substance, 
 soluble in alcohol, condensing when volatilized into crys- 
 talline needles, and giving off, when thrown upon burn- 
 ing coals, a thick white vapor, similar to that of Eussia 
 leather but more agreeable. 
 
 The leather manufactured in Eussia, and elsewhere in 
 imitation of it, is applied to various useful and orna- 
 mental purposes; portfolios, surgical instrument cases, 
 pocket, blank, and memorandum books, souvenirs, &c., 
 being covered with it. These articles, and books bound 
 with it, retain the characteristic odor for a long time, 
 and are protected by it from the attacks of mould or of 
 insects. 
 
 We conclude this subject by extracts from a memoir 
 by the Count de Kartsoff, on the various methods of 
 tanning employed in Eussia. 
 
 The dried skins are softened by soaking in water for 
 five or six days in summer, and ten or twelve in winter; 
 and, after being well cleaned, are deprived of hair by 
 steeping in milk of lime — 185 pounds of lime being 
 mixed with the water, in a vat eight feet in diameter, and 
 seven feet three inches in height. The skins are fre- 
 quently examined, and, when the epidermis and hairs 
 ^ give' readily, they are removed upon the horse by the 
 use of a dull two-handled knife, after which the skins 
 are carefully fleshed. 
 
 " Strong hides are not freed from hair in lime-vats, but 
 are exposed in a sweating-room, piled up upon each 
 other, and sprinkled over with salt to prevent decompo- 
 sition; and bran-baths are used for the same purpose in 
 the treatment of certain kinds of thin and delicate skins. 
 
380 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 " The skins, after being limed, are well soaked^ washed, 
 beaten out with the feet, and rinsed in warm water until 
 the last portions of lime have been removed from them ; 
 and they are then raised by steeping for forty-eight hours 
 or more in a vat of the dimensions before given, contain- 
 ing a fermented mixture of warm water with 1100 pounds 
 of rye meal, or 450 pounds of oat meal, 6 pounds of salt, 
 and a sufficiency of leaven. Being thus prepared for 
 the tanning, they are steeped for a time in a weak infu- 
 sion of oak or willow bark, the latter being preferred, and 
 are then stratified in a vat with layers of coarse bark ; 
 the vat being filled up with the tanning infusion first 
 used, and its contents being pressed down with planks 
 heavily weighted with stones. The skins are left in this 
 vat for a time varying from fifteen to twenty-eight days, 
 after which they are removed, and again stratified with 
 fresh bark. This operation is repeated from three to 
 six times, according to the nature and quality of the 
 skins — the thinnest kinds only requiring two changes. 
 The stifihess acquired by the leather in tanning is then 
 corrected by soaking them for a day or two in a thin 
 paste, composed, for every 150 skins of ordinary size, of 
 130 pounds of oatmeal and 9 pounds of salt, mixed with 
 warm water. 
 
 The leather is then well washed, rinsed, and drained, 
 and, while in a partially moist state, is placed upon a 
 large table, with the flesh side up, and coated with oil. 
 This is composed of a mixture of the oil obtained from 
 sea-calves (which abound in the Caspian Sea), and of the 
 pure oil or tar of birch-bark, in various proportions, ac- 
 cording to the nature and quality of the leather; one 
 part of the latter to two of the former being generally 
 used. The workman spreads the mixture with his hand 
 evenly and uniformly over the surface, and the perfec- 
 
RUSSIA LEATHER. 
 
 381 
 
 tion of the operation depends upon the skill with which 
 this is done. About nine ounces of oil are applied to 
 each skin of medium size. When oiled, the leather is 
 then stretched out upon cords in an open shed until per- 
 fectly dry, and, in the winter season, is exposed to the 
 cold air, by which its appearance is much improved. 
 
 '^The Baskirs and Kirguises prepare their skins by 
 smoking in lieu of tanning them. They first stretch 
 them out, in their green state, between stakes fixed in 
 the ground, and then remove the hair by scraping them 
 with a broken sickle fixed in a wooden handle. They 
 then dig a pit in the ground, proportioned in size to the 
 number of skins to be operated upon, and suspend across 
 it parallel cords which are attached to its edges. A 
 round hole is then dug, five feet from the edge of the pit, 
 and is connected with it by a subterranean gutter. The 
 skins are hung upon the cords, the pit is covered over, 
 and a fire of dry rotten wood is lighted in the small hole, 
 the top of wdiich is then closed. The smoke passes 
 through the colmecting gutter into the pit, and the skins 
 are kept exposed to its action for two or three weeks, at 
 the end of which time they are found to have acquired 
 properties similar to those of leather, and, above all, a 
 degree of impermeability which does not exist in that 
 which is tanned." 
 
CHAPTEE XXXII. 
 RED SKINS. 
 
 When the skins are fresh, they are soaked for eight 
 hours in vats or in running water, and, when dry, besides 
 this soaking, are taken out every day and softened upon 
 the leg. After being sufficiently soaked, they are de- 
 j)osited in a solution, made by boiling and stirring about 
 in water two parts of wood-ashes and one part of fresh 
 quicklime, by decanting this liquid into a vat, and dilut- 
 ing it with a sufficient quantity of water. A grating is 
 placed above the bottom of the vat, so that the skins 
 may not come in contact with the ashes, which sink 
 below the grating. 
 
 When the hair is ready to be removed, which usually 
 happens in eight days, the skins are taken out and 
 scraped with the round knife. They are then attached 
 together, two and two, hung on pegs, and exposed to a 
 stream of water, in order to wash away the ashes and 
 lime. After three days, they are taken out, worked on 
 the hair side, hung up to drain, fleshed, and trod out 
 with the feet. 
 
 The smaller skins are now soaked during twentj^-four 
 hours in a hole or trough, filled with a mixture of dog's- 
 dung and warm water. They are then taken out, 
 cleansed, and rinsed, and macerated for twenty-four 
 hours in a bath made with oatmeal and malt, after which 
 
RED SKINS. 
 
 383 
 
 they are deposited in a tan-liquor, in which they remain 
 three days. 
 
 They are then severally sprinkled over with finely 
 powdered oak-bark, and are piled up above the grating 
 of the vat, which is filled with a mixture of equal parts 
 of water and of the tan-liquor. The smaller ones remain 
 in this for eight days, those of a larger size being exposed 
 for a longer time. 
 
 After this exposure, they are taken out, rinsed, trod 
 out, fleshed, and replaced in the vats, being each time 
 sprinkled over with powder as before. This series of 
 operations is repeated four times, the skins remaining 
 for three weeks in the vats the fourth time. When 
 properly tanned, they are stretched, dried, and given to 
 the currier to polish and color. 
 
 The red color is commonly applied to goat-skins, or 
 the skins of calves under two years of age, and is made 
 of red sandal-wood, while the black is produced by the 
 use of black sandal-wood, 1 pound 2 ounces of the wood 
 being required for a large skin, and about 9 ounces for a 
 small one. To the mixture used to blacken one hundred 
 skins, 2 pounds 9 ounces of green vitriol, or copperas, are 
 added, and an equal quantity of alum is mixed with the 
 red dye for the same number. The skins are sewed 
 around with small stitches, forming sacks which are 
 completely closed, with the exception of the small aper- 
 ture left for the introduction of the coloring matter. 
 This is pou];ed in hot, the opening is sewed up, and the 
 bag is rolled about in every direction, so that the dye 
 may be brought in contact with all parts of the surface. 
 
 When this is accomplished perfectly, the skins are 
 ripped up, dried, and two more coats of color are applied 
 by converting the skin into a kind of roller, and passing 
 it over the coloring matter. After the color has been 
 
384 
 
 RED SKINS. 
 
 sufficiently imparted to the surface, it is daubed over 
 with birch tar or whale oil, and when nearly dry, 
 the lustre is given with a finely grooved pummel, or 
 grainer, passed over in both directions. The furrows 
 observable on the surface of this leather, are made by 
 this mode of working. When properly grained, it is 
 dried and sprinkled with hemp-seed oil, and the last 
 polish is given upon the horse. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 This kind of leather derives its title from tlie province 
 of that name, and is made by barley dressings, in a single 
 warm vat. After having been softened in water, the 
 hides are trampled under feet, and then worked on the 
 j3^esh side with the scraping-knife, so as to render them 
 supple; after which they are rinsed in water, and hung 
 up to drain. Examination is then made, to ascertain if 
 the hair can be easily detached, for, in summer, and 
 warm climates, this is effected without any other prepa- 
 ration. When fresh skins are employed, fermentation is 
 resorted to for removing the hair; and, after the removal 
 of the tail, horns, and ears by the knife, the skins are 
 salted without being soaked. The salting of each large 
 hide consists in sprinkling it over with from four to six 
 pounds of salt, alum, and saltpetre, doubling it in the 
 centre, so that one-half is exactly folded over the other, 
 stacking it, and covering the pile with straw. All be- 
 ing thus arranged, the hides soon become heated, and 
 it is then necessary to turn them once or twice daily, and 
 at the same time to change the folds, and the sides, so as 
 to insure a uniform fermentation throughout. As soon 
 as the hair can be detached readily, the depilation is to 
 be immediately commenced, for any delays might prove 
 injurious to the grain of the leather. 
 
386 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 If any unexpected occurrence should prevent the im- 
 mediate depilation of the hides, they are then to be 
 soaked in water for one or two days, but not longer, for 
 fear of their undergoing incipient putrefaction. It is 
 unnecessary to say that those hides should be first re- 
 moved, which yield their hair with the greatest ease. 
 
 This 23rocess can be accomplished without the aid of 
 salt, in the manner already described ; as a general rule, 
 the hair should give with a noise, when it is plucked out 
 with the fingers. The more difficult this depilation, the 
 better will be the skin, since it is thus proved that it has 
 suffered no alteration by the heating. The parts denuded 
 during or previous to the operation, should be moistened 
 with a solution of salt, so that they may not be over- 
 heated before the other portions are ready for depilation. 
 
 Depilation can also be effected by means of stable 
 manure. We will, however, mention that the three 
 methods by fermentation are the most objectionable, as 
 the skins nearly always suffer more or less from incipient 
 putrefaction. In following even the method which we 
 are about to describe, it would be much better to employ 
 the exhausted vats, or those which we have already re- 
 ferred to. As soon as the depilation is finished, the 
 raising is effected in the following manner : — 
 
 Take for seven skins, each averaging eighty pounds, 
 twenty pounds of wheat flour, make it into leaven, diffuse 
 in water to a pasty consistence, and, to accelerate the 
 fermentation, add besides a gill and a half of vinegar. 
 After this leaven is made, which requires twenty-four 
 hours, it must be kept covered in a warm place for three 
 or four days. 
 
 The tub for six or seven skins, should be five and a 
 quarter feet in diameter, and three and a quarter feet 
 in height, and well cleansed, or free from everything an- 
 
WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 387 
 
 tagonistic to the development of acid fermentation. 
 Having been filled with water, six or seven buckets-full 
 are then withdrawn, boiled, and a part used for making 
 a uniform paste out of ground barley, which must after- 
 w\ards be thinned out with cold water to the consist- 
 ence of syrup. This paste is then boiled till it froths, 
 during constant stirring with a wooden paddle, and when 
 it has bubbled or foamed three times, it is to be poured 
 in the tub destined for the dressing, and cooled by stir- 
 ring w^ith the paddle kept moving constantly in the same 
 direction. Its temperature should not be insupportable 
 to the hand. Six pounds of salt are then to be stirred 
 in, the tub is to be covered, and the contents left for two 
 weeks to sour. It must, however, be stirred twice daily ; 
 but in order to confine the heat, the cover should not 
 be kept off, for that purpose, longer than is absolutely 
 necessary. 
 
 The skins are then taken from the rinse-water, strung 
 in threes upon a rope thrown into the tub, and there left for 
 four or five days. But on each day they must be with- 
 drawn twice, rinsed, left to drain for a minute, and put 
 back in the tub. Finally, when the skins are well 
 broken, and the hair sides have become sufficiently soft 
 to retain the impression of the finger-nail, they are taken 
 out and fleshed. If portions of the hair should still 
 adhere, the hides are spread upon the beam, or horse, 
 and are scraped with the knife shown by Fig. 117. 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 After being shaved, they are rinsed in clean water, sus- 
 pended, and left to drain for twenty-four hours. In the 
 mean time a second leaven, from sixteen pounds of meal, 
 
388 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 is made and fermented in the same way as the previous 
 one. 
 
 The sour liquor is then transferred from the vat of the 
 first dressing, and tlie clear supernatant portion poured 
 into the second tub wherein is to be given the comple- 
 me7it, or completion, which is, in fact, but a repetition of 
 the preceding operation. Six or seven buckets-full of 
 the clear sour water of the tub are taken from each 
 vat, are boiled, and a portion stirred up with about fifty 
 pounds of ground barley, or about eight pounds for each 
 skin. The residue of the hot w^ater is then gradually 
 added, the whole is gently boiled and distributed in the 
 new dressings, well stirred, and a bucket or two taken 
 out and heated nearly to ebullition. The second leaven 
 (made with eight pounds of meal) is then distributed in 
 the tubs; four or six pounds of salt are added to each, 
 and the whole is ultimately mixed by stirring. Several 
 buckets-full should be taken out and held in reserve, so 
 that it may be ready for supplying any deficiency in the 
 quantity of the liquid, which should not be greater than 
 eight inches in height. If this method is too tedious, 
 it may be simplified by making one step of the two, and 
 using at once 30 pounds of leaven, 120 of barley, and 
 10 of salt, for each dressing of six hides. It must be 
 here observed that, by the ordinary process, the tanners 
 use at one time in their first new dressing, just twice 
 the quantity of barley that would be employed here ; 
 and, moreover, when their first new dressing is not suf- 
 ficient, they are obliged to make a second, w^hich renders 
 the process more tedious and expensive than that of 
 Wallachia. It is also necessary to say that, on the 
 addition of salt, the dressing must always be well stirred, 
 and two or three buckets-full of the liquor drawn out 
 from each, and kept warm to be poured into the vat, in 
 
WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 389 
 
 order to maintain the temperature. Several other 
 buckets-full are also taken out and poured into a re- 
 served tub, so that no more liquor may remain in each 
 dressing than is sufficient to cover the skins subjected 
 to its action. Many tanners believe that it is better to 
 make the whole of the composition at once, for inde- 
 pendently of loss of time and fuel, it may so happen 
 that the complement made with the new quantity of 
 barley may retard the progress of fermentation^ and 
 that the liquor must then be heated to a temperature 
 which would be injurious to the skins. 
 
 There are various modes of making the single composi- 
 tion: 1, from barley or rye meal without leaven, pre- 
 pared over night with boiling water : 2, from equal parts 
 of barley, meal, and leaven, thinned out with water, 
 and heated nearly to ebullition, just previous to putting 
 in the skins : 3, from wheat-bran, in the proportion of 
 a half bushel per hide, thinned out with hot water, 
 and after a day's fermentation mixed with a pound of 
 salt for each skin : 4, from leaven of barley or rye, as 
 substitutes for that from wheat^ in the proportion of 
 from six to eight pounds of flour per hide. When the 
 leaven rises, it must be thinned out with water of 86° F., 
 and the salt added just before the skins are put in. 
 
 Barley-dressings. — When the fermentation is well esta- 
 blished, as may be known by the acidity of the waters, 
 the dressings are ripe and ready to receive the skins, 
 which are then taken from the hangers, and passed in 
 and out of the liquor several times, so as gradually to 
 equalize the temperature. After this, they are left upon 
 the cover of the tub to drain for a few minutes. In the 
 interval, the liquor is stirred, the skins are put back, 
 the tubs covered, and the heat of the dressings is main- 
 
390 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 tained with the liquor kept warm and in reserve. In 
 fifteen minutes, the hides are a second time taken out 
 and left to drain fifteen minutes, and are then again put 
 back. After a half an hour, they are removed for the 
 third time, left to drain for a quarter of an hour, then 
 returned to the tub, and again taken out to drain for 
 twenty minutes. The fifth time of dipping, they are 
 left in the tub for an hour, and allowed to drain for 
 thirty minutes. Finally, they are taken out again after 
 two hours, and the same round is again repeated a seventh 
 and an eighth time, after a similar interval. The next 
 day, they are taken out twice, and even three or four 
 times if the hides are of bad quality, and do not swell 
 readily. It is necessary to stir the liquor each time, so 
 as to raise the barley-meal from the bottom, and to cover 
 the tubs immediately after putting in the skins. The 
 heat of these tubs should be maintained at from 105° to 
 120° F., by occasional additions of reserved liquor kept 
 warm over the fire. 
 
 The hides are placed in the tubs with the assistance 
 of two workmen, who, taking them by the opposite ends, 
 spread them out upon the flesh sides, and then push them 
 down with a pole. 
 
 Experience has proved that the action of the white 
 dressing is completed in about 36 hours; the acetic fer- 
 mentation, which is established, so expands the hides 
 that they become as thick as the leather into which they 
 are about to be converted. Care must be taken not to 
 leave them any longer in the liquor after this point has 
 been attained, for it injures the leather; a result which 
 also takes place if the liquor be too strong. 
 
 After the removal of the skins from the liquor, the clear 
 portion of the latter must be reserved for a new dressing, 
 for which purpose it must be treated with a complement 
 
WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 391 
 
 somewhat stronger than the first. This acid liquor 
 greatly facilitates the fermentation of the new composi- 
 tion, which sours rapidly. In this manner, when the 
 white dressings are once in train, they may be kept at 
 one-half the expense of flour, time, and money. 
 
 After being taken out of the dressings, the hides are 
 left to drain on the cover, and as soon as they have cooled, 
 are soaked in water for a few moments, in order to effect 
 the removal of a viscous coating derived from the bar- 
 ley, and they are then drained anew. They are now 
 subjected to the red dressing which prepares them for 
 the tan-vats. This dressing is made by charging the 
 tub with about 40 pounds of crushed bark, into which, 
 mixed with water, the hides are then to be placed. At 
 noon, they are taken out and allowed to drain for seven 
 or eight minutes, and in the evening again for a quarter 
 of an hour; but before they are put back the last time, 
 the liquor must be treated with 40 pounds more of 
 crushed bark, and thoroughly stirred. On the mornings 
 of the second and third days, 24 pounds of bark are 
 added : the hides are taken out three times daily, and an 
 interval of thirty minutes allowed for each draining. 
 
 On the fourth day they are taken out only twice — 
 morning and evening. There is no addition of bark, and 
 forty-five minutes are allowed for draining. On the fifth 
 day, the hides are taken out in the morning, and while 
 they are draining, the liquor must be thoroughly stirred, 
 and the hides returned to it, hair side uppermost. Some 
 handfuls of bark are then thrown in between each skin, 
 and on the top of the last one, which should have its 
 flesh side uppermost. The skins are to be left in this 
 state from eight to ten days, then removed, rinsed in 
 clear water, and put into the vats. 
 
 This method, though not popular, is still the best in 
 
392 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 use, because the strength of the liquors being greater 
 than that of those generally employed, they are less 
 liable to turn, and consequently the work is less tedious. 
 
 Bran-Dressings. — Some tanners contend that the red- 
 dressings may be omitted, if the white-dressings are 
 made with bran. The unanimous opinion of many tan- 
 ners whom we have consulted on the subject, is in favor 
 of red-dressings. However, to complete the considera- 
 tion of the whole subject, we shall here describe the 
 method employed : — 
 
 The bran-dressings are made either hot or cold. For 
 the first, a leaven is prepared with the yeast, or made 
 with 1 to li pounds of wheat or rye flour for each hide, 
 and kept at a moderate temperature. 
 
 The skins should be freed from all the adhering dirt 
 and dung which ordinarily soil them; they are then 
 fleshed and dipped. A quantity of water, sufficient for 
 a bath for all the skins, is then boiled with bran, in the 
 proportion of from seven to eight pounds for each skin. 
 The cover is then placed upon the boiler, and when the 
 liquid has been sufficiently fermented, which is known by 
 the bran rising to its surface, it is poured into a vat in 
 which the skins, previously rinsed, have been deposited. 
 
 While the skins are getting warmed, another quantity 
 of water is heated over the fire until it simmers, when it 
 is mixed with the ferment made at the beginning of the 
 operation. The skins are then taken out from the bath, 
 the fresh mixture is poured into the vat, and is mixed 
 with salt in the proportion of rather more than a pound 
 for each skin; the whole is well stirred, and the skins 
 are then deposited in it. After six hours, the skins are 
 again taken out and replaced, after a portion of the liquid 
 has been previously taken out, heated, and again well 
 mixed with the contents of the vat; and this operation 
 
WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 is repeated every six hours during the two succeeding 
 days. 
 
 As soon as the hair is ready to come off, it is removed 
 from the surfaces, after which the skins are passed over 
 lightly upon the flesh, are soaked in cold water for a 
 quarter of an hour, and replaced in the vat, in which 
 they are allowed to remain until sufficiently raised ; care 
 being taken to keep the vat perfectly covered so as to 
 retain its heat as much as possible. By reheating a 
 portion of the liquor in the vat from time to time, and 
 keeping it warm, the raising will generally be completed 
 at the end of three days. The skins are then rinsed 
 and left to soak for some hours in fresh water. 
 
 In order to prepare the cold bran-dressings, a ferment 
 is made with 2 pounds, 3 ounces of flour for each skin ; 
 it is allowed to ferment, and is then diluted freely with 
 cold water, and the skins are plunged in it. They are 
 taken out two or three times a week, being allowed to 
 drain each time for a whole night, over the vat. 
 
 When the hair is ready to be detached, it is removed, 
 the skins are rinsed, passed lightly over on the flesh side, 
 allowed to soak for some hours in water, and are de- 
 posited again in the vat, in order to raise them. If this 
 process goes on too slowly, they may be exposed to a 
 second bath like the first. This mode of proceeding is 
 very convenient for those who manufacture upon a small 
 scale, as it is inexpensive, and does not require the use 
 of furnaces or boilers. Skins can be readily deprived of 
 hair and raised by it, but it requires exposure for at least 
 two months. 
 
 Decomposition of tlie White-Dressings. — These dressings 
 may be regarded as soured pastes of barley, rye, or wheat., 
 which, under certain circumstances, undergo a decompo- 
 sition precisely as milk^ paper-hangers' paste, and other 
 26 
 
394 
 
 WALLACHIA LEATHER. 
 
 substances do, and it is believed that lightning produces 
 this effect as it does in the case of milk. Some tanners 
 are in the habit of placing in the vats scraps of old iron 
 enveloped in linen rags, upon the approach of a thunder- 
 storm, while others dissolve from half a pound to a pound 
 of sal-ammoniac in the vats, under the belief that these 
 means will prevent the injurious consequences of the 
 turning of the liquors. When this kind of decomposi- 
 tion takes place in the dressings, they become unfit for 
 further use, and would render the skins so soft, loose and 
 spongy in texture, as to impair the quality of the leather 
 made from them. The long continuance of the summer 
 heats, is also apt to cause this decomposition, and the 
 quality of the dressings is more likely to be injured in 
 the three summer months than in all the rest of the 
 year. Cold has no injurious influence upon them, fur- 
 ther than that it diminishes their efficacy, and the skins 
 may be allowed to remain in them even when the sur- 
 face is frozen, if they are afterwards replaced in fresh 
 dressings. 
 
 Rye-Dressings, as used in Transylvania. — The Transyl- 
 vanian tanners dress their skins almost in the same 
 manner as the Wallachians, except that while the latter 
 employ twenty-two pounds of barley for each skin, the 
 former make use of twenty pounds of rye-flour, divided 
 into two portions of eleven pounds for the first, and nine 
 pounds for the second dressing. This method is less 
 expensive than the other, since the rye grounds preserve 
 their strength much longer than the barley, owing to the 
 greater quantity of gluten contained in them. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIY. 
 MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 By reference to our remarks upon tannin, it will be 
 learned tliat the chemical property possessed by that 
 body, of forming an insoluble compound with gelatine, is 
 not limited solely to gelatine, but extends also to earthy 
 and metallic bases. This behavior has suggested the 
 employment of mineral agents as substitutes, wholly or 
 in part, for bark, in a way somewhat similar to that in 
 which alum is used for tanning; except that the result- 
 ing compound or leather is, chemically considered, a 
 rather more definite combination. 
 
 The advantages said to be derived from this mode of 
 treating skins, are superior excellence of the product as 
 to durability and power of resisting water, economy of 
 time and materials, and simplicity of manipulation. These 
 processes, although not strictly tanning ones, will be 
 referred to as such in the following pages, in order to 
 avoid circumlocution. 
 
 Of the processes which may be properly comprised 
 under the head of this chapter, some refer exclusively 
 to the use of mineral agents as leather-making materials, 
 and others, to their employment in combination with the 
 usual tanning process. 
 
 D'Arcet and Ashton were the pioneers in mineral 
 tanning, and they employed the sesqui-sulphate of iron, 
 
396 
 
 MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 but in such an unsldlful manner, that their resulting 
 product was very objectionable, being only partially con- 
 verted into leather, or else having the greater disadvan- 
 tages of crispness and want of strength. 
 
 Bordier followed these experimenters with better suc- 
 cess, and in 1842, patented a process of which we now 
 proceed to give an abstract. 
 
 bordier's process. 
 
 This method consists in washing, depilating, swelling, 
 and bating or drenching the hides, as is generally done, 
 and then subjecting them to the action of such earthy or 
 metallic salts or bases as the gelatine and albumen may 
 have an affinity for. The tanning agent which the in- 
 ventor prefers is the subs ulph ate of the peroxide of iron, 
 which is a compound of sulphuric acid and peroxide of 
 iron, with the latter or base in excess. The impreg- 
 nating liquor or ^^ooze" is prepared by digesting twenty- 
 two pounds of powdered green copperas {proto-sulpJiate 
 of iron), with a mixture of two and a quarter pounds of 
 nitric acid at 36° Baume (specific gravity 1.333), and 
 three pounds one ounce of sulphuric acid at 66° Baume 
 (specific gravity 1.848). The containing vessel should 
 be a large jar of stone, heated by steam, and the con- 
 tents must be repeatedly stirred during the digestion. 
 When the red fumes of nitrous gas cease to be given ofi", 
 the jar is to be removed from the steam bath, and the 
 stirring continued at short intervals, until the mixture 
 is cold and pasty. After twenty-four hours' repose, it is 
 to be diluted with water in sufficient quantity to reduce 
 it to the requisite degree for use, and mixed with an 
 excess of freshly prepared hydrated peroxide of iron. 
 After standing for several days, and being repeatedly 
 
MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 397 
 
 stirred during the interval, the liquor is ready for tanning 
 purposes. In another process described by the inventor, 
 peroxide of manganese is used instead of nitric acid, to 
 pe? -oxidize the p?^oto-salt of iron. 
 
 By immersion in this liquid, properly diluted, the 
 skins gradually become impregnated with the tanning 
 material. The duration of the soaking should vary 
 with the thickness of the hide. Three days suffice for 
 thin skins, and six to eight for sole leather. In this 
 operation, the subsulphate of iron is absorbed by the 
 gelatinous tissue, while free sulphuric and nitric acids 
 remain in the mother liquor along with any unimbibed 
 iron salt. 
 
 In order to impart tenacity, solidity, and impermea- 
 bility to the leather, it must be subjected to the currier's 
 processes. 
 
 cavalin's processes. 
 
 1. Dutch or Mineral Tanning. — This process requires 
 that the skins shall be macerated first in a liquor of alum 
 and chrome salt, and subsequently in a solution of proto- 
 sulphate of iron. The reaction which ensues produces 
 such an interchange of the elements of the iron, chrome 
 salt, and alum, as to generate a new compound or com- 
 pounds of iron and chrome, which unite indissolubly with 
 the tissue of the hide, and convert it into leather. The 
 preliminary treatment with chrome salt permits the sub- 
 stitution of proto for persalt of iron in the finishing bath, 
 and affords a leather which is impermeable to water, and 
 free from brittleness. 
 
 Leather thus made, is brown, tough, and compact, 
 even after considerable soaking, and does not lump 
 under the hammer. 
 
398 
 
 MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 The hideSj after having been soaked and undergone 
 the usual preliminary process of depilation, swelling by 
 lime, and drenching, are then thoroughly rinsed in clear 
 water, and hung up to drain. The use of acids must be 
 avoided for swelling, as they are chemically incompatible 
 with the mineral salts used for the tanning, and would, 
 by decomposing them, nullify their action upon the gela- 
 tinous tissue of the hide. 
 
 In the mean time, a bath is made by dissolving ten 
 pounds of bi-chromate of potassa, and twenty pounds of 
 alum, in one hundred and eighty pounds of water. As 
 soon as the hides have drained sufficiently, they are 
 immersed in this bath for four days, or until they are 
 thoroughly colored and penetrated by the liquid; but 
 with the precaution of drawing them once every twenty- 
 four hours, allowing them to drain, and rubbing them 
 each time before they are returned to the bath. It is also 
 necessary to maintain the original strength of the liquor, 
 by occasional additions of chrome salt and alum, mixed 
 in the proportion of one part of the first, and two parts 
 of ths last. 
 
 The success of the operation depends upon the com- 
 pleteness of the maceration. Being assured of this, the 
 hides, as above treated, are then subjected to the action 
 of a bath, formed by dissolving ten pounds of green 
 copperas (protosulphate of iron) in sixty pounds of cold 
 water. They must be suspended in the liquor so that 
 they shall not touch each other, and are drawn out at 
 intervals of twelve hours, allowed to drain, and then 
 returned to the liquor, as often as may be necessary for 
 the completion of the tanning. Upper leathers require 
 5 to 6, Swedish sole, 8 or 10, and American butts, 13 to 19 
 days' immersion in the liquor. The strength of the bark 
 must be maintained by occasional additions of copperas 
 
MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 399 
 
 tliroughoiit the treatment. After coming from the bath, 
 the hides are hung up to drain, then freed from slimy 
 matter, and thoroughly soaked in running water, so as 
 • to wash out all uncombined saline matter which would 
 " otherwise impair the suppleness and toughness of the 
 leather. The leather is finished in the usual manner. 
 
 Upper leather, made by this process, is said to be 
 supple and soft. The hlacMng, however, requires to be 
 differently applied from that employed for oak-tanned 
 leather. In the leather there is always sufficient of tan- 
 nin to produce a black coloring (tanno-gallate of iron) 
 upon 'the surface when it is washed over with copperas. 
 In mineral leather, there is no tannin used, nor is there 
 any other material in the tissue of the skin which will, 
 like tannin, in conjunction with iron salt, form the black 
 coloring. The black is imparted by mordanting the 
 leather with a saturated solution of alum, holding in so- 
 lution eight parts of copperas, and rubbing over a strong 
 decoction of logwood. The leather is then oiled, and 
 finished in the usual manner. 
 
 2. Dye-Tanning. — This process comprises two series of 
 manipulations, firstly, the dyeing; and secondly, the tan- 
 ning. It is based upon the fact that gelatine, dissolved 
 in a decoction of Brazil, Heath, Fernambuque, or other 
 dye-wood, is precipitated as an insoluble compound, on 
 the addition of a little chrome salt. 
 
 The hides, after having been softened, depilated, and 
 prepared in the usual manner, but imtliout the use of 
 acids, are then dipped in a cold dj^e-bath, made by ex- 
 hausting the dye-wood in a steam-vat, and adding alum 
 to the solution in the proportion of four ounces to the 
 gallon. 
 
 "Skins and upper-leather hides are first dyed in the 
 grain in a weaker dye-lye, composed of one volume of 
 
400 
 
 MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 the above strong dye-lye and four volumes of water. 
 While this dyeing is going on, the skins and hides must 
 be frequently stirred. After thus lying for twelve hours, 
 they are then hung ujd until they have nearly lost their 
 moisture, when they are laid in the strong lye, stirred 
 there well three or four times a day, till they are dyed 
 all through, a light yellow green in the grain, and green 
 yellow quite through. Sole-leather hides, which need 
 no stirring, are also first laid in the weaker liquor for 
 twelve hours, and then in the strong lye, some dye-wood 
 being placed between every hide, that they may not 
 touch too closely. The hides may then remain undis- 
 turbed until they are sufficiently dyed through, a small 
 bit of the uppermost hide being cut off every now and 
 then to see how the dyeing is progressing. When circum- 
 stances demand it, the strength of the lye can be tested 
 by immersing therein a softened bit of raw skin, and 
 taking it out after some hours to see w^hether it is dyed 
 light yellow green or only yellow ; for in the latter case, 
 the liquor is too weak, and wants either more dye 
 strength or some alum. It must then be drawn off, and 
 a new lye poured on. The lye which has been drawn 
 off is now tried again, and refreshed by the addition of 
 1-48 of alum. 
 
 ^' If a piece of raw-done skin is only dyed yellow in 
 this lye, it must then be boiled again with dye-wood, and 
 some alum added to it in the manner above described. 
 If the bit of skin, on the contrary, is dyed green yellow, 
 the mixture need not be reboiled with dye-wood, but 
 only increased in strength by the addition of 1-48 to 
 1-32 of alum." 
 
 The hides are then hung up to drain previous to being 
 immersed in the chrome bath, which consists of a solu- 
 
MINERAL TANNIK^G. 
 
 401 
 
 tion of 10 pounds of bichromate of potassa in 180 
 pounds of cold water. 
 
 The requisite time for the completion of the soaking, 
 is about twenty-four hours; but it is necessary to handle 
 the hides frequently, and to draw and allow them to 
 drip three or four times during the treatment. The bath 
 must also be refreshed by occasional additions of chrome 
 salt. 
 
 The action of the chrome salt effects the tanning, and, 
 with the assistance of the alum, darkens the color of the 
 hides. After coming from the chrome bath, they are 
 hung up to drain, carefully smoothed, thoroughly soaked 
 three several times in fresh or running waters, for 12 to 
 24 hours, then cleansed on the beam, and suspended in 
 the drying-room. They are then dampened, stretched, 
 worked on the flesh side with train oil ; half dried, again 
 stretched, and blacked on the surface as directed in 
 mineral tanning. 
 
 It is doubtful whether leather made by any of the pre- 
 ceeding processes will preserve its durability for any 
 length of time; as, from its very nature, it would be 
 reasonable to expect it to crack, unless it be kept con- 
 stantly greased. It possesses this advantage, however, 
 that when worn by long service, the debris are still 
 useful as glue pieces, for they may readily be recon- 
 verted into their original condition of raw hide, by the 
 removal of the basic salts which maintain them in the 
 state of leather. 
 
 Newton's process. 
 
 This method, patented in 1849, is an accelerating 
 process, somewhat analogous to the preceding. It con- 
 sists in the employment of certain earthy, alkaline, or 
 
402 
 
 MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 metallic salts for tlie preliminary treatment; and of ca- 
 techu, sumach, oak-bark, or other astringent matter for 
 the tanning. The joint action of the salts and the tan- 
 ning material promotes the combination of the albumi- 
 nous matter of the skins with the bases, and subsequently, 
 of the gelatine tissue with the tannin. When other ma- 
 terial than catechu is used, the latter of good quality, 
 and containing 50 per cent, of tannin, is taken as the 
 standard for regulating the proper proportion of the 
 former. The skins must be unhaired, and free from 
 lime. 
 
 For 100 calf-skins. 
 
 20 pounds Alum, and 
 10 " Common Salt; 
 100 " Catechu; 
 
 4 " Sulphate of Alumina, either alone or 
 mixed with 2 pounds common salt. 
 
 The three mixtures are dissolved in water, and kept 
 apart in separate vessels. 
 
 Of the first solution, one-fifth; of the second, one- 
 tenth; and of the third, one-fourth are placed in a vat. 
 The skins are then immersed in this liquor, and repeat- 
 edly handled or stirred about for a short time, after 
 which they are taken out. The vat is then refreshed by 
 the addition of one-fifth of the first solution, one-tenth 
 of the second, and one-fourth of the third, and the skins 
 replaced in the mixture, and treated as before, but for a 
 longer interval. The skins being removed a second 
 time, the vat is again refreshed with one-fifth of the first 
 solution, and one-tenth of the second ; and the skins re- 
 immersed in it as in the previous instance. After remain- 
 ing for some time, and being handled occasionally, they 
 are again removed, and the residues of the first and third 
 
MINERAL TANNING. 
 
 403 
 
 solutions, and one-fifth of the second are poured into the 
 vat. The skins are then put back, but in a few daj^s 
 are again taken out to allow the addition to the vat of 
 the remaining two-fifths of the second mixture. Four 
 or five weeks suffice to complete the tanning of the skins. 
 
 The author suggests that the process may be modified 
 by laying the skins in a vat, and stratifying them with 
 8 lbs. of moistened tan. The constant contact of the tan- 
 ning liquor would have to be maintained by pumping it 
 from the bottom of the vat to the top of the skins. 
 
 This process is applicable to the tanning of other skins, 
 but the proportions of materials require to be varied, as 
 follows : The proper quantities for 
 
 One hundred goat-skins, are 
 
 Alum . , . 10 to 12 lbs. 
 
 Salt ... 6 lbs. 
 Catechu . . . 50 to 60 lbs. 
 
 For one hundred cow-hides, are 
 
 Sulphate of Alumina . 2 to 300 lbs. 
 
 Salt . . . 100 lbs. 
 
 Catechu . . .500 " 
 
 For one hundred and ninety ox-hides, are 
 
 Sulphate of Alumina . 14 to 16 lbs. 
 
 Salt .... 8 lbs. 
 Catechu . . . 60 to 70 lbs. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia or chloride of zinc may be sub- 
 stituted for sulphate of alumina. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 THE TEXTUEE AND QUALITY OF LEATHER, AND THE 
 MEANS OF DISCOYERINa ITS DEFECTS. 
 
 It is evident from what has already been observed, 
 that well-tanned leather is a homogeneous substance, 
 entirely free from unchanged gelatine or fibrine. But if 
 the bark used in its preparation has been deficient in 
 tanning ingredients, or otherwise wanting in quality ; 
 if the various processes have been imperfectly or care- 
 lessly performed, or if unforeseen accidents have oc- 
 curred, the excellence of the leather is impaired ; and 
 this is generally to be discovered by making a section of 
 it. Well-tanned leather exhibits, when cut, a shining 
 surface and compact body; is of a uniform color, except- 
 ing upon the hair side, and has a nutmeg appearance 
 internally. These signs are commonly looked for in the 
 tail, the back, and the neck, which are the thickest parts 
 of the skin. 
 
 Badly made or inferior leather is commonly detected 
 by its section being of a yellowish or blackish color, 
 alternating with streaks of a black or whitish hue, and 
 by its structure being loose and deficient in density and 
 compactness. 
 
 Too long a continuance in the tan-vats or lime-pits, 
 badly prepared or applied dressings," want of moisture 
 in the pits, and a number of other circumstances, give 
 
TEXTURE AND QUALITY OF LEATHER. 
 
 405 
 
 to leather a spongy and loose texture, and render it de- 
 ficient in the requisite color and durability. These 
 defects are of such a nature that, when once tanned, the 
 leather cannot be improved or restored to a better con- 
 dition. 
 
 It is impossible to thoroughly tan those hides which 
 are thin, poor, and weak, and such, in general, as, either 
 from natural defects or want of correct management, 
 cannot be properly raised. 
 
 Other conditions of skins, unfitting them in a measure 
 for the tanning process, arise from injuries received in 
 the slaughter-house, from soaking in muddy or slimy 
 waters ; from foreign matters imbedded in the hair side, 
 which subjects their surface to bruises when they are 
 being worked on the beam, and from weakness of texture, 
 owing to incipient decomposition, by a too long exposure 
 in the lime-pits. Old moss-covered bark, which is full 
 of cracks, charged with moisture, also injures the quality 
 of leather. The opposite and equally injurious circum- 
 stance of deficient watering of the pits, has already been 
 sufficiently censured. 
 
 Notwithstanding the arguments hazarded by some 
 tanners in favor of the use of the impure waters of cer- 
 tain localities, there can be no doubt of the fact that the 
 freshest and purest water that can be employed, is the 
 best for the preparation of leather. 
 
 Manufacturers differ among themselves in opinion 
 about the effect produced by cold weather upon their 
 leather ; some contending that it softens the tissue, and 
 that it is only necessary to expose poor and thin skins, 
 and those which are otherwise difficult to manage, to 
 cold, in order to make them soft, and put them in a 
 condition to be worked. Others maintain that extreme 
 cold, by congealing and expanding the water contained in 
 
406 TEXTURE AND QUALITY OF LEATHER. 
 
 the tissues, extends and separates the particles, and thus 
 impairs the body and firmness of the leather. 
 
 Some hides are called liorny^ parts of which, from 
 want of proper softening, are dry, and almost as hard as 
 horn; and these are entirely unfit for shoe or boot 
 leather, as the tan has not perfectly penetrated the hard 
 parts. Others contain extremely minute perforations 
 made by worms, which allow water to filter through, 
 and render them useless for either sole leather or car- 
 riage-tops. Many hides are injured by the carelessness 
 of the butchers, who damage the flesh side by a reckless 
 manner of skinning. These imperfections can only be 
 remedied by shaving the surface down to a uniform 
 thickness, with a scraping knife, at the risk of making 
 the hide thin and weak. 
 
 Shoemakers using sole leather, which has been made 
 from hides damaged upon the hair side, either in depi- 
 lating, in paring, or in rinsing them, should be careful 
 to place the flesh side out; otherwise, as soon as the hair 
 surface has become a little worn, the sole will become 
 spongy, and easily absorb moisture. 
 
 A common mode of determining the quality of leather, 
 is to allow a drop of water to fall from the end of the 
 finger upon the hair side, or upon a cut surface; if the 
 drop preserves its circular form, and does not extend, 
 the leather is supposed to be well tanned, while if the 
 water is soon absorbed, it is regarded as an evidence of 
 its substance being spongy and badly prepared. A better 
 test is to allow a piece of the leather, the weight of 
 which has been accurately ascertained, to soak for some 
 days in water. If, after being taken out, it is found con- 
 siderably increased in weight, no better proof of its 
 being spongy and loose in texture, and consequently 
 imperfectly prepared, could be desired. 
 
TEXTURE AND QUALITY OF LEATHER. 
 
 407 
 
 It is believed, by some, that leather is improved in 
 quality, by age, and it is a common reproach against 
 shoemakers, that they make use of too fresh materials. 
 Exposure for a certain length of time is doubtless ad- 
 vantageous, but leather is not improved by being kept 
 longer than two years, and is apt after this time to dry 
 and to diminish in weight, making it necessary to store 
 it in damp cellars. The resistance and durability of the 
 leather made into soles of boots and shoes, are much 
 increased by their being laid aside for some time before 
 being worn. 
 
 The coloring of leather during the process of tanning, 
 arises from a dark brown substance, existing more or 
 less in the infusions of tanning materials, and called by 
 Berzelius, apotlieme. This sparingly soluble substance 
 is generated by the oxidation of extractive matter, and 
 is gradually formed when infusions of tanning materials 
 are exposed to the air, all the varieties of tannin being, 
 to a certain extent, liable to this transformation. 
 Hence it is, that the uppermost hide of the vat, being 
 the most exposed, is the most highly colored. 
 
 This color, or "bloom," as it is technically termed, 
 varies somewhat with the kind of tannin employed. 
 For example, leather tanned with material containing the 
 gall variety of tannin is bloomed with ellagic acid, and 
 that made from catechu tannin is bloomed with catechuic 
 acid, both of which coloring matters are derivatives or 
 products of the decomposition of the tannins respectively 
 employed. 
 
 Spent liquors or weak Jiandlers, yield less "bloom" 
 than the strong "bloomers," which are richer in tannin. 
 
 " Bloom" attaches itself, permanently, to the animal 
 tissue, and even penetrates beneath the surface, to a 
 limited depth, imparting both color and weight to the 
 
408 
 
 TEXTURE AND QUALITY OF LEATHER. 
 
 leather. The fawn color is the favorite bloom, but a 
 darker shade does not necessarily indicate an inferior 
 leather. 
 
 In the modern or quick processes, the tan-liquor being 
 exposed for a much shorter time, yields less bloom than 
 by the old and lengthy methods of tanning. Conse- 
 quently, as time is an important element in the form- 
 ation of this substance, its absence is considered an 
 evidence of the inferiority of the leather, and that it 
 has been tanned too rapidly to be good. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 The tawing process is applicable to the manufacture 
 of soft leathers for gloves and furriers' use, as skins may 
 be subjected to its action even in their hair state. The 
 prepared product sometimes takes the name of "alumed 
 leather/' because a salt of alumina is the basis of the 
 process. Sheep, lamb, kid, and other light skins are 
 those usually subjected to this treatment. 
 
 Kid Leather. — The first step in the aluming of kid 
 skins is to soak them well in running water, and then 
 to " break" them upon the beam by working on the flesh 
 side with the back of the fleshing-knife. After this 
 treatment, drying must immediately ensue, to prevent 
 putrefaction, which would render them spotted and ten- 
 der. Dry skins require soaking for at least one or two 
 days. 
 
 The next step is to rub the flesh sides with cold milk 
 of lime, place them back to back in pairs with the hair 
 outwards, stack these pairs in piles, and thus leave them 
 for several days until the hair "gives" readily. They 
 are then rinsed in running water to remove lime, and 
 subjected, at once, to the fleecing operation, which con- 
 sists in "plucking" out the hair with spring tweezers^ 
 and smoothing by rubbing with a whetstone or rolling- 
 pin. A further cleansing and soaking is then given by 
 27 
 
410 TAWING. 
 
 an immersion, as before, in the lime-vat, whence, after 
 being removed, they are transferred to an old or weaker 
 vat, and there remain for a fortnight or more, care being 
 observed to take them out, and drain them frequently. 
 
 They are now ready for the hranning ; and for this 
 purpose undergo a steeping, for ten or fifteen days, in a 
 fermenting mixture, or "drench," of forty pounds of bran 
 and twenty gallons of water. As soon as the skins sink in 
 water, they are sufficiently raised; and this requires two 
 days in summer, and double that number in winter ; and 
 great care is necessary to observe when they reach that 
 stage, which may be attained much earlier by frequently 
 turning the skins during the steeping. 
 
 When taken from this liquor, they are to be put into 
 the " white-bath," composed, for one hundred skins, of a 
 boiUng solution of twelve to eighteen pounds of alum in 
 twelve gallons of water, to which must be added of com- 
 mon salt, two and one-half pounds in summer, and three 
 pounds in winter. 
 
 The mode of working this bath is to divide the skins 
 into four equal parcels, and to pass each parcel, sepa- 
 ratel}^ but successively, through the bath, and then to 
 immerse the whole together for ten minutes. 
 
 A paste is then made by gradually adding, during 
 careful and constant stirring, firstly, fifteen pounds of 
 wheat flour to the above alum-bath gently heated, and sub- 
 sequently, the yolks of fifty eggs, and then incorporating 
 the whole thoroughly. The skins, after being passed 
 through this paste singly, are then transferred to it in 
 bulk, and left for a day. 
 
 The paste has an emulsive action, softens and whitens 
 the skins, counteracts the hardening influence of after 
 exposure to the air, and tendency to brittleness. 
 
 After the action of the paste, the skins are stretched 
 
TAWING. 
 
 411 
 
 upon poles in a drying loft, and there left for a week or 
 morej as may be necessary. They are then ready to be 
 worked upon the softenmg iron, in order to stretch them, 
 reduce unevennesses, and develop whiteness. To this 
 end, they are soaked in water for five or six minutes, 
 and then spread and softened by the process of stale- 
 ing. 
 
 They are next stretched on hooks, dried, and worked 
 on the stretching iron; but some French tanners, previous 
 to these operations, and just after the skins come from 
 the smoothing iron, spread them upon the beam with a 
 clean, undressed skin beneath, and work them with the 
 fleshing-knife. 
 
 Occasionally, the prepared skins are polished by being 
 rubbed with pumice. The lustre and finishing stroke 
 are given with a smooth flat-iron, carefully heated, and 
 managed in the same way as that used by a laundress. 
 
 In some places, the tanning process is slightly modi- 
 fied. For example, by the use of a large barrel-churn, 
 or roundabout, which receives both the skins and alum- 
 bath. Kapid rotation of the apparatus promotes con- 
 stant contact of the skins and tanning material, and 
 thus accelerates the operation. 
 
 The tanned skins, after coming from the egg paste, 
 and being washed and dried, are subjected to what is 
 technically termed stahing. This consists in the use 
 of a semicircular iron plate, fixed perpendicularly, with 
 its round edge uppermost, to the top of a wooden stake 
 about thirty inches in height. The workman, holding 
 the skin distended by both hands, draws it forcibly (Fig. 
 118), and in every direction, over the blunt edge of this 
 tool, and thus imparts softness and smoothness to it. 
 
 Color can be imparted with dye-stuffs, as may be 
 desired. 
 
412 
 
 TAWING. 
 
 The tawed leather is the raw skm combined with 
 subchloride of aluminum. This latter salt is formed by 
 mutual decomposition of the ingredients of the alum- 
 bath. For example, the common salt, which, chemi- 
 cally speaking, is a compound of chlorine and sodium, 
 when mixed with alum, which is composed of sulphuric 
 acid and oxides of aluminum and potassium, gives up 
 its chlorine to the aluminum. This latter base having 
 deserted its oxygen and sulphuric acid, they in turn take 
 up with the potassium and sodium, and form sulphate of 
 potassa and sulphate of soda. These remain in solution 
 in the water along with a perchloride of aluminum, the 
 neutral chloride first generated being converted, in its 
 reaction upon the animal tissue, into a subchloride which 
 combines with it, and a perchloride which is soluble. 
 The salt also aids in whitening the skins. 
 
 Imitation Kid, — Imitation kid leather is made from 
 lamb-skins. In order to remove the wool without in- 
 juring it, lime is not used for depilation. After the 
 skins have been steeped in water, and " broken" on the 
 
TAWING. 413 
 
 flesh side, they are suspended in a subterranean vault 
 about twelve feet square, protected as much as possible 
 from the influence of external atmospheric changes, so 
 that the temperature within may continue uniform 
 throughout the year. An incipient putrefaction being 
 thus promoted, loosens the roots of the wool, which may 
 then be readily plucked from the pelt; and as soon as 
 this state is reached, which is generally in from five 
 to seven days, the skins must be immediately removed, 
 for a continuance of the fermentation would injure their 
 texture. 
 
 The skins are then sllined, as it is termed, or scraped on 
 the fleshed side ; stripped of wool, and steeped for a week, 
 more or less, in lime-water, fleshed on the beam, drenclied 
 for some days in a fermenting bran-bath, and then treated 
 with alum and salt in the same manner as for true kid 
 leather. Dyeing, softening, and polishing complete the 
 preparation of the leather. 
 
 Housings and Mats, — Skins are frequently tanned with 
 the hair on, for housings and mats, and for furriers' use. 
 Sheep, lamb, calf, and goat skins, may each be treated 
 by this process, in which, consequently, lime and liming 
 must be dispensed with, as it would prove injurious to 
 the hair. The skins are soaked in water until clean and 
 soft, are then thinned on the flesh side with the fleshing- 
 knife, and steeped for several days in an old bran-bath, 
 and washed. They are then folded with the hair sides 
 in contact, immersed in the alum-bath, as before directed, 
 and spread over, upon the flesh side, with the egg paste. 
 After remaining in this state for eighteen to twenty 
 hours, and becoming stiff, they are hung up to dry. 
 They are next sprinkled with cold water, folded, and 
 stacked, and put under a pressure of heavy boards for 
 two days. After being opened with a round iron, upon 
 
414 
 
 TAWING. 
 
 the beam, and worked breadthwise on the stretching 
 iron, they are dried by exposure of the fleece side to the 
 sun, and finished upon the stretcher. 
 
 Eighteen pounds of ahim suffice for 100 sheep-skins; 
 but as the thickness of the skins increases, the quantity 
 of tanning material must be augmented. A calf-skin, 
 for example, requires one pound of salt and one pound 
 of alum. 
 
 « 
 
CHAPTER XXXYII. 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 The Hungarian method of preparing skins, which is 
 analogous to tanning, is said to have been originally in- 
 troduced into Hungary from Senegal. It was carried 
 into France in 1573, by Boucher, a tanner. In the next 
 century, Colbert, the great patron of the industrial arts, 
 gave particular encouragement to this process, and esta- 
 blished a manufactory at St. Cloud, in which it was 
 adopted. This establishment was removed, in 1702, to 
 la Roquette, Faubourg St. Antoine, where it was for a 
 long time in successful operation. 
 
 Hungary leather is manufactured by a. rapid process, 
 which consists in impregnating strong hides with alum, 
 common salt, and suet, and which is almost the same at 
 the present day as that originally employed when first 
 introduced from Hungary; only one improvement upon 
 the method having been since proposed, that of Curan- 
 deau, which will be described in the proper place. The 
 leather is manufactured at all seasons of the year, any 
 injurious influences which temperature might exert upon 
 it, being counteracted by measures which the experience 
 of the workmen leads them to adopt. 
 
 The workshop in which skins are prepared by this 
 method, consists of two parts. One of these is a shed 
 on the banks of a stream, in which are placed the beams. 
 
416 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 the fleshing and paring knives, and the scraping stones. 
 In one corner is a furnace with a boiler for preparing the 
 solution of alum, and near it are placed two tubs for 
 immersing the skins. Besides these, a number of ordi- 
 nary tubs are required. 
 
 The other part of the factory consists of a room 6i 
 feet high, and 161 feet square, made perfectly tight, so 
 as to retain the heated air. In one corner of this apart- 
 ment is a furnace, which is fed with fuel through a door 
 opening externally, and upon which is placed a copper 
 boiler, capable of containing about 180 pounds of tallow. 
 
 In the middle of the room is a square stone, upon 
 which an iron grating, 3i feet square, is placed for the 
 reception of coals (Fig. 119). On either side of the 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 
 
 J I I I I 
 I I I I I I I 
 I I I I i I I 
 —liiiii 
 I I I I I I i 
 I I I I I I I 
 I I I I I I I 
 I I I I I n 
 I ri I I I i 
 I M I M ! 
 
 room, and occupying its whole length, are large tables, 
 upon which the skins are greased. The upper part below 
 the ceiling is filled with poles, upon which the leather 
 is hung in order to be heated and dried. The door of 
 the apartment fits closely to its jambs, so as to prevent 
 the entrance of cold air. 
 
 The chief operations to which hides prepared after the 
 method of Hungary are subjected, are the following: — 
 
 1. The cleaning, dipping, and rinsing. 
 
 2. Aluming. 
 
 3. Second aluming. 
 
 4. Drying. 
 
HIINGART LEATHER. 
 
 417 
 
 5. Stretching. 
 
 6. Treading out. 
 
 7. Tallowing. 
 
 8. Flaming. 
 
 9. Airing. 
 
 10. Weighing, marking, and piling. 
 
 These operations will be successively described under 
 their appropriate headings. 
 
 Strong ox-hides are the most suitable for the leather 
 of Hungary, but bull and cow skins may be prepared 
 for particular uses. The process is a rapid one, and may 
 be completed in two months or less time. Hungarian 
 hides can scarcely be compared with those tanned and 
 curried in the ordinary way, since they consist of the 
 original tissue of the skins, condensed^ and slightly 
 altered in character, by the processes to which they are 
 subjected, but not converted into true leather by combi- 
 nation with tannin. Moreover, they are usually employed 
 for different purposes. 
 
 1. Preparation of the Hides, — The first operations are 
 analogous to those of tanning and tawing. The hides 
 are washed, cut in half, scraped upon the horse with a 
 round or curved knife, and are then carefully and slightly 
 fleshed, the fat and flesh alone being removed, this and 
 the succeeding operation being confided to the most 
 skilful workmen. 
 
 The hair is then scraped off from the hides, by j)lacing 
 them upon a bed of other skins, folded double, and so 
 disposed upon the horse (Fig. 120) as to present a 
 smooth, and perfectly uniform surface. This operation 
 must be conducted with the utmost care, to avoid injur- 
 ing the surfaces, and a whole day will be occupied by a 
 single workman in separating the hair from eight or ten 
 
418 HUNGARY LEATHJR. 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 hides. The skins are then put to soak in the river for 
 twenty-four hours^ or, if in vats, for three days; the 
 water, in that case, being changed twice a day in summer, 
 and once daily in winter. If soaked in running water, a 
 stake is driven into the ground and the hides are fastened 
 to it by cords passing through the eye-holes, or those 
 left by the removal of the horns. 
 
 2. Aluming the Hides. — The preparation with alum is 
 the most important one to which Hungary leather is sub- 
 jected. It not only prevents the putrefaction of the 
 hides, but effects a chemical change in them by which 
 they are rendered stronger and more substantial. The 
 exact nature of this chemical influence is not known, 
 but the supposed reaction is as explained under kid 
 leather. 
 
 The hides are first treated with a mixture of alum 
 and common salt, by which a portion of the sulphate is 
 converted into chloride of aluminum. The salt softens 
 the effect of the alum, attracts the moisture of the atmo- 
 sphere, and preserves the suppleness of the leather. 
 
 When the hides are ready for the operation, the aque- 
 ous solution of alum and salt is made in a boiler fitted 
 into the furnace. This boiler (Fig. 121), should be pro- 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 419 
 
 portioned in size to the number of pieces of hide which 
 are to be alumed in a single operation. 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 Six pounds of alum, three and a half pounds of salt, 
 and nearly eight gallons of water are used for a piece of 
 hide weighing from seventy to eighty pounds. 
 
 The water is first heated to about 122° F. The alum 
 and salt are then thrown in, and the whole thoroughly 
 stirred until they are dissolved. The vats (Fig. 122) 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 are two in number, placed side by side, and each about 
 five and a half feet long, a yard wide, and two feet eight 
 inches deep. When nine hides or eighteen strips are 
 worked together, they are divided into three lots of six 
 strips each. Three strips are placed in each vat, being 
 prepared upon each other with the hair side up, and so 
 arranged that the head of the second one is above the 
 tail of the first, and so on. Two or three buckets-full of 
 
420 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 the alum liquor, tepid but not hot, are now thrown into 
 each of the vats, and the skins are tramped upon by 
 the workmen, walking in bare feet with a stamping mo- 
 tion repeatedly from one end of each vat to the other ; 
 the uppermost hide when well tramped, being pushed 
 backwards and forwards from one end of the vat to the 
 other. The upper hide, after having been stamped, is 
 folded up and removed, so that the second, and after it 
 in due course the lower hide, may have the benefit of 
 the same treatment, to which end the stamping must be 
 repeated as many times as there are hides. The alum 
 liquor is then dipped up from the vats, and thrown into 
 the boiler, which has been kept heated. When the tem- 
 perature has risen rather higher than that of the liquor 
 first used, two or three buckets-full are again poured 
 into the vats, and the same process of tramping is re- 
 peated. The hides are trod out in a similar manner, a 
 third and a fourth time, in liquor reheated and replaced 
 in the vats as before, its temperature being more and 
 more elevated each time. 
 
 After the fourth tramping, the hides are folded double, 
 and deposited in tubs two feet eight inches in diameter 
 and the same in height (Fig. 123), and the alum 
 liquor which has already been used is poured 
 over them. The hides remain immersed in the 
 alum water for eight days ; their position being 
 changed every day or two. They are steeped 
 for a much longer time in winter by some manufactu- 
 rers. But no difference need be made in this respect 
 between the seasons. 
 
 3. The Second Aluming. — After being removed from 
 the tubs, and well shaken to remove the folds, the hides 
 are subjected to the same round of operations as in the 
 first aluming. They are steeped for twenty-four hours 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 421 
 
 in the same alum water, and are taken out, and left to 
 drain on planks which are arranged in a slanting posi- 
 tion, so that the fluids escaping from the hides run back 
 into the vats. 
 
 4 and 5. Drying and Stretching. — When the alum 
 water has ceased to drop from the hides, four holes are 
 made in each strip, and a stick is thrust through them, 
 which is supported by its two ends upon poles near the 
 ceiling of the drying-room. The hides are left suspend- 
 ed in this way until three-quarters dry. They are then 
 taken down, and laid out upon the floor, being folded 
 double, with the hair sides within. A workman stretches 
 all its parts, and takes out the wrinkles which have 
 formed in it by forcibly drawing a stick two feet long 
 and about two-thirds of an inch in diameter in every 
 direction over the surfaces. The hides are then piled, 
 and after remaining in that state for a day or two, are 
 again suspended upon the poles, and thoroughly dried. 
 
 If the weather be cold during the drying process, the 
 hides should be hung for a time on the poles in the stove- 
 room before described, and should be warmed by light- 
 ing a charcoal fire on the grate. After becoming suffi- 
 ciently warm, they may be stretched and piled upon one 
 another, and should in that case be covered with cloths 
 to protect them from the effects of the cold. Thus 
 alumed and dried, Hungary leather will keep as well as 
 that which has been tanned, and it is only necessary to 
 avoid exposure to a hot sun or to warm, dry winds, in 
 order that it may not become so dry as to be worked 
 afterwards with difficulty. 
 
 6. Treading out the Hides. — The leather when quite 
 dry is softened, and prepared for receiving the tallow by 
 a peculiar method of stamping. A platform (Fig. 124) 
 is erected, consisting of planks, slanting in one direction, 
 
422 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 and supported upon crosspieces or rafters twelve to thir- 
 teen inches apart from each other. The strip of hide to 
 be worked is folded doublCj with the hair side in contact; 
 and a smooth stick of hard wood (Fig. 125), twenty-six 
 inches long and three-quarters of an inch 
 in diameter is passed through it. The 
 workman, having his feet covered with 
 thick-soled shoes without heels, then stands upon the 
 folded strip, which is laid upon the upper part of the 
 platform, and holding on to a railing or post, proceeds 
 to roll the stick by repeated stamping and shufEing 
 movements of his feet from its first position to the edge 
 of the strip. This is repeated again and again, the 
 position of the stick being changed, and the strip of hide 
 being turned until every part of the latter is well tramped. 
 The leather is then folded in the opposite direction, so 
 that the flesh side shall be in contact, and is exposed 
 again to the same stamping process. The operations 
 should be continued until the piece becomes as soft and 
 supple as it is possible to make it. The strips of hide 
 are then piled upon each other for a time, and if not 
 sufficiently dry when taken down, are exposed to a hot 
 sun or to the heat of the drying-room ; after which they 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 423 
 
 are trodden out a second time, precisely in the same 
 manner as before. 
 
 7. Tallowing the Hides. — The strips of hide are im- 
 pregnated with suet in the stove-room, which has already 
 been described, and the tallow is melted in a boiler 
 capable of containing about one hundred and seventy 
 pounds. This is one foot eight inches deep, and two feet 
 three inches in diameter, and is imbedded in the ma- 
 sonry of the furnace (Fig. 126) . 
 
 When the hides are ready to be greased, the boiler is 
 three-quarters filled with tallow, and is heated until the 
 latter melts. When it has attained a degree of heat a 
 little above the melting point, it is ready for use. In 
 the event of the heat being too great, and of the boiling 
 over of the tallow, the draught must be lessened, and 
 lumps of cold tallow must be thrown in. While the 
 tallow is being melted, a fire is kindled upon the grate, 
 with a basket-full of charcoal. The basket used to con- 
 tain the fuel is twenty-one inches in height, and the 
 same in diameter. 
 
 As soon as the charcoal is kindled, from twenty-four 
 to thirty-eight strips of hide, according to their size, are 
 folded double, and then stretched across the poles below 
 the ceiling of the room, the largest and thickest being 
 placed nearest to the fire. The workmen then leave the 
 stove-room, closing the door tightly behind them, in order 
 to escape from the stifling vapors proceeding from the 
 hides, and the noxious carbonic acid from the charcoal, 
 and do not return until they are assured, by experience, 
 that the heating has been carried far enough. They then, 
 after airing the room a little by opening the door, enter 
 it with no clothing but short aprons, and proceed to exam- 
 ine the leather. When sufficiently warmed, a white ap- 
 pearance, beginning at the extremities, and extending 
 
424 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 over the whole surface of the hides, is observed. As soon 
 as this is the case, the strips are removed from the poles, 
 and stretched out upon each other, with the flesh side 
 uppermost, on the table (Fig. 126) near the boiler. The 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 tail or thickest parts of the hides are placed nearest to 
 the boiler, and the smallest and thinnest strips, or those 
 which were the most removed from the fire in heating, 
 are made to occupy the lowest position in the pile. 
 
 Two workmen are employed in tallowing the hides. 
 The one who is nearest to the boiler, takes off the upper- 
 most strip of the pile, and folding it double, with the 
 flesh side out, and the head placed upon the tail, assures 
 himself that the tallow is heated to the proper point. 
 He then takes a tallowing cloth or mop (Fig. 127), 
 made with pieces of woollen rag or blanket- 
 stuff, a foot long, and tightly tied around a 
 wooden handle six inches in length, and hav- 
 ing immersed it in the boiler long enough for it 
 to become saturated with the melted fat, rubs it 
 over the head part of the flesh side until that half of 
 the surface is sufficiently fed. 
 
 He is assisted by the other workmen with a similar 
 mop, and when one-half of the leather is properly 
 
 Fiff. 127. 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 425 
 
 greased^ it is extended out at full length by the two 
 workmen, and the whole of the flesh side is saturated 
 with the grease. The strip is then turned over, and the 
 hair side is greased with the tallow still adhering to the 
 mops, which are not dipped again in the boiler, for this 
 purpose, for fear of injuring the surface by the heat of 
 the melted tallow. When well greased throughout, the 
 strip is laid out upon the table upon the opposite side of 
 the room, with the flesh side up. The skins are in like 
 manner successively greased and piled upon each other 
 on the table, until the end of the operation. 
 
 One hour is usually occupied in preparing thirty strips. 
 Grease of an inferior quality, such as the residuum of 
 melted tallow and kitchen stuff" may be employed, and 
 about three pounds of it-are required for each piece of 
 leather. 
 
 It is probable that workmen are exposed in no one of 
 the arts, to more fatigue and danger than they are com- 
 pelled to encounter while conducting the operations of 
 the stove-room. Constantly inhaling the suffocating 
 vapors from the skins and the melted tallow, and the 
 dangerous carbonic acid given off* from the charcoal fire, 
 they are exposed to the risk of suffocation, or at least to 
 that of great irritation of the lungs ; while the profuse 
 flow of perspiration from the whole surface of the body 
 debilitates and predisposes to taking cold. Precautions 
 should be taken by them to leave the room as soon as 
 the charcoal fire is lighted, and not to re-enter it until 
 the skins are sufficiently warm, and until the atmosphere 
 has become somewhat changed by a current of fresh air 
 entering through the open door. The workmen should 
 not go into the heated apartment with full stomachs, but 
 should commence the operation two or three hours after 
 a meal, and in quitting work, should immediately leave 
 28 
 
426 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 the place, and rub themselves down with a coarse towel 
 before resuming their dress. 
 
 Buzzing or tinkling noises in the ear, giddiness, and 
 headache, are regarded as premonitors of the dangerous 
 effects of the inhalation of carbonic acid, and upon the 
 occurrence of these, the men should immediately leave 
 their w^ork, and go out into the fresh air. The most 
 dangerous part of this process might be entirely avoided 
 by heating the stove-room by means of hot air. A heat- 
 ing apparatus for this purpose has been proposed by M. 
 Curandeau. It consists of an oval-shaped stove, two 
 feet high, not including the supports, and three feet 
 in diameter. The interior consists of a cast-iron hearth 
 paved at the bottom with bricks, and adapted for burning 
 wood. The smoke and heat ascend through a pipe two 
 feet long and five inches in diameter, and are conducted 
 into a vertical pipe or column, three feet high and eleven 
 inches in diameter. From the top of this, two smaller 
 pipes diverge, and are connected with two other vertical 
 columns, each two feet ten inches in height, and nine 
 inches in diameter, wdiich are placed at the side of the 
 main column; and with the lower ends of these two 
 pipes, a fourth horizontal one, placed two inches above the 
 top of the stove is connected, and into this the smoke and 
 heat finally enter, the former to escape through a chim- 
 ney, and the latter to be given off to the air of the room. 
 
 8. Flaming the Hides. — The hides are left for a time 
 to imbibe the tallow with which they have been impreg- 
 nated, and are covered with cloths in order to prevent 
 the unequal action of the fire upon them. A fire is then 
 kindled upon the grating, with a basket-full of charcoal ; 
 the workmen leave the room, and after about a half an 
 hour, open the door to allow the escape of gas, and en- 
 trance of fresh air. The charcoal being in full combus- 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 427 
 
 tion, two workmen then enter, and taking the uppermost 
 strip off the pile, one by the head and the other by the 
 tail, stretch it in every direction over the fire, with the 
 flesh side down, and continue this for at least a minute. 
 The strip is then extended upon the empty table with 
 the flesh side up, and the same process is repeated with 
 the other strips of the pile. When the flaming (Fig. 
 128) is finished, the newly made pile of hides is 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 covered over with cloth, and left for a half hour in sum^ 
 mer, and three hours in winter. The heat to which the 
 hides are exposed in this flaming, is necessary for their 
 complete penetration by the tallow ; but it may be ap- 
 plied in a diflerent way. Thus, some manufacturers 
 light a large fire in the room, and keep the skins exposed 
 to its heat with the door closed for a half hour or more. 
 
 9. Exposure to the Air. — After the hides have remained 
 in pile, for about three-quarters of an hour, they are 
 wiped upon both sides with a dry rag or mop, in order 
 to remove the excess of tallow, and are then hung 
 upon poles in the air, with the flesh sides up,, and the 
 heads and tails depending. They acquire firmness and 
 consistency by this exposure, if they are not under the 
 direct influence of the sun's rays. If prepared in sum- 
 mer, they should be tallowed shortly before sundown, so 
 
428 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 that when ready to be aired they need not be exposed 
 to the heat, but may be cooled by the night air. In 
 winter this precaution is, of course, unnecessary. Airing 
 during the night in summer, and for thirty hours in 
 winter, is sufficient to prepare the hides for the last 
 operation. 
 
 10. Weigliing, Marhing^ and Piling, — The hides are 
 weighed after the airing last described, and most of them 
 are found to have lost nearly one-half of their original 
 weight in the operations to which they have been sub- 
 jected, and some of them to have experienced more than 
 that amount of loss. The weight of each strip is 
 marked in Roman characters upon the tail, and the 
 hides are piled up in a place which is neither too dry nor 
 too moist; and after remaining thus for some days they 
 are in a proper condition to be delivered to the harness- 
 makers or other consumers. 
 
 Hungary leather can be prepared for the market in 
 fifteen days in summer, and in three weeks or a month 
 in winter. A fine strip of hide weighs, usually, about 
 thirty pounds, and is valued at about forty cents the- 
 230und. 
 
 Hungary Leather made of Cow and Calf Shins. — Cow- 
 skins are occasionally prepared in the Hungarian manner, 
 but they are deprived of hair by liming instead of scrap- 
 ing. They are left in the lime-pits for eight or ten days 
 until the hair is ready to come off. It is then removed, 
 and the skins, after being washed and scraped until 
 the last portions of lime have been separated, are pre- 
 pared exactly in the same manner as thick hides, ex- 
 cepting that they are not exposed for so long a time to 
 heat in the stove-room, before being tallowed. Thej 
 are rendered spongy by the liming, and are disposed to 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 429 
 
 absorb a larger quantity of alum and salt in proportion 
 to their weight, than ox-hides. 
 
 Calf-skins are prepared in the same way, but absorb 
 much less proportionate quantities of the materials used. 
 A large calf-skin will require about eighteen ounces of 
 alum, nine ounces of salt, and a pound of tallow. 
 
 Hungary Leather made of Horse-Hides. — These hides 
 are not worked when dry, but are taken in the green 
 state ; and in order to prevent the inequalities of surface 
 which would otherwise be found upon them, they are 
 not thoroughly fleshed, but a part of the membranous 
 substances is left upon their flesh sides. 
 
 They are first cut in half and put to soak for twelve 
 hours, after which they are fleshed with a sickle-shaped 
 knife, and deprived of hair by liming, first in an old pit 
 for one day, and after intervals of two or three days, 
 during which they are kept piled up, in a second and 
 third weak lime-pit for three days. After being deprived 
 of hair, they are soaked for twelve hours in summer, 
 and twenty-four in winter, with occasional stirring, in 
 order to remove the lime. When perfectly clean, they 
 are scraped with the stone, and dressed upon the hair 
 side with the round-knife. They are then rolled up from 
 head to tail and put aside to drain for six hours. 
 
 They are trodden out in the vats, like other hides, 
 with three alum-waters only, the tails and manes being 
 beaten more forcibly than the other parts. About five 
 and a half pounds of alum, and two and three-quarter 
 pounds of salt are required to impregnate each large 
 horse-hide. After being stamped, they are placed in 
 the tubs with alum-water, and remain in them from two 
 to eight days, and are then tramped upon again in the 
 same liquors. They are then drained, partially dried, 
 stretched out with the hands, dried entirely, and worked 
 
430 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 upon the platform like ox-hides ; after which, they are 
 heated upon the poles of the stove-room, for from a 
 quarter to a half hour, according to their degree of dry- 
 ness, and when thus heated, they give off vapors so 
 offensive, as to be scarcely endurable. They are then 
 tallowed and finished in the ordinary manner; but re- 
 quire only half the quantity of grease which is used for 
 ox-hides. 
 
 Hungary leather made of horse-hides, is often mis- 
 taken for, and sold with that prepared from ox-hides; 
 but it is much inferior to the latter, being apt to harden 
 and shrink, and being much less firm and strong. 
 
 Hungary Leather jprepared in Imitation of Blachened 
 Leather. — A patent was taken out in the year 1836, by 
 Kresse, for the following method of preparing black 
 Hungary leather: — 
 
 The hides or skins intended to be blackened, are taken 
 when fresh, and a mixture of orpiment and lime, with 
 water, is spread over the flesh side and left in contact 
 with it for two hours. At the end of this time, the hair 
 is taken off, and the skins are passed during some days 
 through baths of tan, alum, and salt. They are then 
 half dried, softened, suppled, and dried. After being 
 greased with boiling tallow, and again soaked in water, 
 they are stretched upon the table, and the color is ap- 
 plied upon the hair side. 
 
 The surfaces are first rubbed over twice with stale 
 urine. The third and fourth applications consist of a 
 color made with decoctions of three parts of logwood and 
 one part of fustic, and the fifth and sixth of alder bark, 
 iron rust, and nutgalls, mixed with lemon-juice. After 
 receiving these different coatings, the skins are dried, 
 and smoothed by stretching upon the table. For making 
 the color of the last two applications, 100 spoiled lemons 
 
HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 431 
 
 are squeezed into a bucket-full of broken pieces of aider 
 bark, mixed with ten pounds of scraps of rusty iron, and 
 one pound of bruised nutgalls. The contents of the 
 bucket are stirred up, and left for fifteen days, at the 
 end of which time the liquid is poured out, and is ready 
 for use. 
 
 The skins are apt to become mouldy before being 
 colored, if piled up in a moist place, and in order to pre- 
 vent this occurrence are prepared in the following man- 
 ner : — 
 
 After being washed in the river, and before being 
 alumed, they are placed in a vat, and covered with 
 warm water, with which a bushel of bran and four 
 ounces of ferment for each skin, have been previously 
 mixed. They are steeped for three days in this bath, 
 and are afterwards alumed, and trod out three times in 
 warm water, to remove the salt, before being dried. 
 
 In order to give the skins a brown color similar to 
 that of tanned leather, after being tallowed, they are 
 steeped for some days in tan-liquor. If it is desired to 
 blacken them, they may then, after receiving the four 
 first dressings mentioned above, be brushed over twice 
 on the hair side with a solution of copperas, instead of 
 the mixture prepared with lemon-juice. 
 
 CURANDEAU'S PROCESS. 
 
 Curandeau, believing that the change experienced by 
 the skins in the saline bath is due chiefly to the sulphu- 
 ric acid of the alum, proposed the substitution of oil of 
 vitriol for that salt. The skins, after passing through 
 the preliminary processes, are, when treated in this way, 
 macerated for twenty-four hours in a bath consisting of 
 twenty pounds of salt dissolved in twenty-five gallons of 
 
432 
 
 HUNGARY LEATHER. 
 
 water, and mixed with four pounds of sulphuric acid at 
 66°. They are then taken out, dried, and finished in 
 the ordinary manner. Curandeau believes that as much 
 progress is made by the skins in this bath in twenty-four 
 hours as by those which are exposed for a much longer 
 time to alum baths, and that they possess all the best 
 qualities of Hungary leather. The advantages of the 
 process are, that the same bath answers for numerous 
 sets of hides, the loss of salt and acid being replaced 
 each time ; the superior cheapness of the acid, and the 
 fact that the necessity of heating the liquor, and of work- 
 ing the skins in the laborious way required when alum 
 is used, is avoided. 
 
 Uses of Hungary Leather and the Causes of its De- 
 fects. — Hungary leather is chiefly employed by harness- 
 makers and carriage-makers for different parts of harness 
 and for main-braces of coaches. 
 
 Hides of the best quality, as recognized by the signs 
 which have already been described in treating of the 
 tanner's art, should alone be converted into Hungary 
 leather. Horse-hides, intended for this manufacture, 
 should be taken fresh from the slaughter-house, since 
 even the commencement of putrefaction will diminish or 
 destroy the fineness of the hair side to which this leather 
 owes much of its beauty and usefulness. 
 
 Leather which has been imperfectly tramped during 
 the aluming process, or which has only been treated with 
 two or three waters, cannot be properly worked upon 
 the platforms. It will not absorb as much tallow as is 
 necessary for it, and is apt to contain hard and horny 
 portions which are calculated to diminish its strength 
 and flexibility. Those hides wjiich have spots of extra- 
 vasated blood upon their surfaces, should be rejected as 
 being weak and of bad quality. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 OILED LEATHER. 
 
 Under this head that kind of leather is classed, which 
 is distinguished from all others by being prepared with- 
 out tannin or alumina, and by having the grain surface 
 of the skin removed. Fish oil is the preservative sub- 
 stance employed, but it exerts no chemical action upon 
 the animal tissue. The skins are made to imbibe the 
 oil by mechanical force, which expels and volatilizes the 
 moisture and with it such putrescent matters as are 
 soluble in cold water. All tendency to decomposition is 
 thus entirely prevented. 
 
 Oiled leather is commonly known as chamois , or wash- 
 leather. It derives its first name from that of the wild 
 goat of the Alps, from the skins of which it was origi- 
 nally made; and the last from its property of bearing 
 wetting and washing without suffering injury. It is 
 also called losh leather. In former times, when it was 
 generally employed as material for the clothing of the 
 troops and peasantry in European countries, the manu- 
 facture was very extensive. The facility with which it 
 becomes damp, and the difiiculty and slowness with 
 which it dries, together with the chilling effect upon the 
 body, and consequent injurious influence upon the health, 
 have, of late j^ears, caused its disuse for that purpose, 
 and materially reduced the trade in the article. Its use 
 
43^ 
 
 OILED LEATHER. 
 
 is now almost exclusively limited to domestic purposes, 
 being employed chiefly for washing and polishing furni- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 The preliminary preparations of this leather are the 
 same as for tanning, and the process is equally appli- 
 cable to goat, sheep, lamb, deer, and the thin sides of 
 split skins ; care being necessary, however, to select the 
 finest and most perfect. 
 
 The skins, after having been brought to the state of 
 pelt by washing, liming, fleecing, beaming, and branning, 
 in the same manner as for kid leather, are subjected 
 to what is technically termed frizing, which is a rubbing 
 with a pumice stone, or working under the round edge 
 of a blunt knife. This manipulation removes the " grain 
 surface," equalizes the thickness of the skin, renders it 
 pliable, and exposes a softer surface. 
 
 The skins are then wrung out, transferred to the 
 trough of a fulling mill (Fig. 129), and subjected to the 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
OILED LEATHER. 
 
 435 
 
 continuous action of the wooden hammers until nearly 
 dry, when they must be removed, spread upon the table, 
 and severally sprinkled on the grain side, with cod or 
 any kind of fish oil. Being now folded in bundles of 
 four, they are returned to the trough, and beaten as be- 
 fore, for from two to four hours, as may be necessary to 
 produce perfect impregnation with the oil, after which 
 they are again taken out, opened, exposed to air for a 
 short time, and then besmeared with grease, and fulled 
 as before. These manipulations must be repeated eight 
 or nine times, or until the skins become thoroughly 
 imbued with the oil. From three to five gallons suffice 
 for one gross of skins, which is the number generally 
 placed in the trough at one time. 
 
 After the oil has been well beaten into the pores and 
 there is no appearance of greasiness, the skins are taken 
 out, and suspended by hooks, to wooden hangers run- 
 ning across a drying chamber about six feet high and 
 twelve feet square, kept warm by steam-pipes, or the 
 carefully managed heat of a stove. This treatment 
 causes a slight fermentation which dilates the pores, and 
 promotes the intimate incorporation of the oil with the 
 animal fibre. Moreover, it has a beneficial influence in 
 destroying any remaining decomposable constituents of 
 the skin. 
 
 The excess of oil is removed by immersing and hand- 
 ling the skins for an hour in slightly heated potassa lye, 
 of 2° Baume, which converts it into soluble soap. They 
 are then wrung at the peg, dried, finished first on the 
 stretcher, and then on the horsey and lastly smoothed 
 with rollers. 
 
 When it is desired to impart a buff color, they are 
 merely dipped in an infusion of oak-bark, which in this 
 case serves as a dye, and not as a tanning stuff. 
 
436 
 
 OILED LEATHER. 
 
 The fulling mill used in this manufacture consists of 
 two stocks, the head covered with copper, being attached 
 to a long beam or handle lying in an inclined position. 
 Near the lower end of each, a wheel revolves, by which 
 each hammer is raised and dropped through a space of 
 about a foot into the trough beneath. The upper or 
 handle end of each stock is adjusted so as to work on a 
 pivot or axis; and the stocks being set in action, the two 
 descend and rise alternately at regular intervals, and 
 beat the skins uniformly until they are perfectly dry. 
 
 nisbet's process. 
 
 Mr. John Nisbet, of England, recommends the substi- 
 tution of machinery for the hand in the laborious pro- 
 cess of grounding, or frizing, and has invented for that 
 purpose a very ingeniously constructed apparatus. He 
 employs knives and pumice stones, or other sufficiently 
 rough materials, set into revolving cylinders which are 
 made to turn in contact with the surfaces of leather. 
 Fig. 130 represents a side view; and Fig. 131 a longitu- 
 
 Fig. 130. Fig. 13L 
 
 dinal section of one of these machines ; a a, framework ; 
 Z), axle turning in the supports c c, and made to revolve 
 by means of a strap around the pulley d; e e, series of 
 crosspieces, or arms, each of which is provided with a 
 paring-knife /, which, by the revolution of the shaft, is 
 
OILED LEATHER. 
 
 437 
 
 brought ill contact with and made to pare the surface of 
 the skin or portion of skin placed on the mattress g. 
 This mattress is stuffed with hay or other suitable mate- 
 rialj and is covered with oiled leather. It is placed upon 
 the top or table of a car mounted on four grooved wheels 
 Ti h, which run on the railroad i i. 
 
 The arms which carry the knives are made to revolve 
 at least 360 times in a minute^ and the rapidity of mo- 
 tion can be increased if it is desirable to do so. 
 
 The workman places the skin, or portion of skin, upon 
 the mattress, and pushes the car forwards, so that the 
 end of the piece shall be under one of the series of blades. 
 These latter, by their revolution, then draw the leather 
 away from the workman, and pare its surface while he 
 retains the extremity in his hands and retards its pro- 
 gress more or less, according to the amount of action to 
 which it is desired to expose it. When one side is thus 
 pared throughout, the band is slipped off from the pul- 
 ley, so as to stop the revolution of the axle, the car is 
 ' drawn back, the leather turned, and the strap being re- 
 placed, the other side is made to undergo the same treat- 
 ment. Besides great rapidity, this operation secures a 
 uniform paring of the leather. 
 
 When light and thin skins are treated in this manner, 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
438 
 
 OILED LEATHER. 
 
 the intervals between the knives are filled up with 
 wooden blocks, or wedges, so that the axle is surrounded 
 by a compact cylinder of wood, beyond which the knives 
 project only to a slight extent. Fig. 132 shows the 
 plan, and Fig. 133 the side view of the machine so modi- 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 fied; and Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137, exhibit a front 
 view of the arms and knives from between which the 
 wooden wedges have been removed; a section; a side 
 view; and front view of the series of knives /, and of 
 the wedges/. 
 
 Figs. 134. 135. 136. 137. 
 
 Figs. 132 and 133 also represent the apparatus for 
 pumici7ig leather. The pumice stones ^, or other suita- 
 ble rough substances, are attached to the shafts which 
 are made to revolve by the ordinary means. In other 
 respects, the machine resembles the preceding one, the 
 same letters indicating corresponding parts of both. 
 
 The leather submitted to the action of this machine, 
 is first pared by means of two sets of knives /, which 
 are represented in the figure as turning upon two shafts, 
 and it then passes under the pumicing cylinders, which 
 act progressively upon every part of the surface. Figs. 
 
OILED. LEATHER. 
 
 138, 139, and 140 exhibit, the first a section, the second 
 
 Figs. 138. 139. 140. 
 
 1 
 
 a side view, and the third, a front view of these cylin- 
 ders and stones. Figures 141 and 142 show, the one a 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 cross section, and the other a longitudinal section of the 
 pumicing machine while in action. 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 □ 
 
CHAPTEE XXXIX. 
 
 TANNING AS PRACTISED BY THE CALMUCKS, OR 
 MONGOL TARTARS. 
 
 The Calmiick women prepare the skins of young 
 lambs by rinsing them in warm water, stretching and 
 exposing them to the air until half dry, scraping them 
 upon the flesh side, and again partly drying them, upon 
 the grass. 
 
 They then rub them over three times a day, for three 
 days, with sour milk, in which a little salt has been 
 dissolved, and dry them upon the fourth day, working 
 them constantly with the hands and over the knees, 
 until they become supple. When thicker skins are pre- 
 pared in this way, they are softened by means of a kind 
 of brake with grooved edges. 
 
 The skins are then smoked, in order to make them 
 impervious to water. For this purpose, a fire is lighted 
 in the bottom of a small pit, and rotten wood, dried 
 dung, pine cones, and any substances which produce a 
 thick smoke are thrown in as fuel. Sticks are erected 
 in a pyramidal form around the pit, and the skins are 
 hung thereon, one above the other, their position being 
 occasionally changed, so that those which are under- 
 neath at first are placed outside in their turn. This 
 smoking is kept up for an hour or more ; those skins 
 which become stiff are worked to render them pliable ; 
 
SKINS PREPARED BY THE TARTARS. 
 
 441 
 
 and when the operation is concluded, they are rubbed 
 on the hair side with chalk or powdered gypsum, scraped, 
 whitened again with chalk, freed from hair, and beaten. 
 
 Goat or sheep skins, intended for garments, are rolled 
 up when fresh, and laid aside until the wool detaches 
 itself, and then rubbed with sour milk, and treated in 
 the same manner as lamb-skins. They are finally 
 rubbed over with a strong decoction of statice root, with 
 which a little of alum and mutton-suet has been mixed ; 
 dried, and rubbed again and again with the same mix- 
 ture, until its brownish-yellow color has penetrated the 
 whole skin. These skins resist moisture exceedingly 
 well. 
 
 Those of the Calmucks who are engaged in the Rus- 
 sian fisheries, make the skins of the large sea-carp into 
 garments to protect them from the rain. They dry the 
 skins, remove the scales, and prepare them with sour- 
 milk, or a decoction of statice root. 
 
 Their hollow utensils, for domestic purposes, are all 
 made of ox-hides and horse-hides. These are boiled in 
 water until the hair can be readily detached, or else 
 are deprived of it by means of ashes, and then scraped 
 and rinsed in running water and dried in the sun. Be- 
 fore they are quite dry, they are cut into pieces, sewed 
 by women into the desired form, stretched into shape, 
 and smoke-dried. These vessels retain an unpleasant 
 odor, and easily soften, but by exposing them for a 
 number of days to a thick smoke, they acquire almost 
 the transparency of horn, and become so firm and solid 
 that they last a great length of time. 
 
 29 
 
442 SKINS PREPAKED BY THE INDIANS. 
 
 TANNING AS PRACTISED BY THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 The following method was communicated to the Royal 
 Society of London, by Sir Robert Southwell. 
 
 As soon as the skin is removed from the animal by 
 these aboriginal leather-dressers, it is stretched and 
 dried. The brains are at the same time taken out and 
 also dried upon the grass, by exposure to the sun's rays. 
 When the season of the chase is over, the squaws soak 
 these skins in water, remove the hair from them with an 
 old knife, and place them along with the brains, in a 
 large earthen pot; the contents are then heated to about 
 95°, which converts the moistened brains into a kind of 
 lather, and makes the skins exceedingly clean and 
 pliable. They are then taken from the pot, wrung out, 
 and stretched in every direction, by means of thongs, over 
 a frame composed of upright stakes and crosspieces; 
 and while drying they are constantly rubbed with a 
 smooth stone, or hard rounded piece of w^ood, so as to 
 expel the water and fat. One squaw can prepare eight 
 or ten skins in a day. 
 
CHAPTER XL. 
 
 SHAGREEN. 
 
 Genuine shcagreen of the best quality is manufactured 
 almost entirely in Astracan and other parts of Asiatic 
 Russia, where it is" prepared by the Tartars and Rus- 
 sians. Fine gray shagreen, as well as that of other 
 colors, is imported from Constantinople, and the white 
 of a good quality is obtained from Algiers and Tunis. 
 A very inferior article is also manufactured in Poland. 
 The genuine oriental shagreen is not a true leather, but 
 a skin prepared by drying, and without the chemical 
 action of any tanning material. 
 
 The particulars of the manufacture of shagreen have 
 not been ascertained with certainty, but the following 
 process is that which is said to be pursued in Astracan. 
 
 The skins of horses, asses, and camels are the exclu- 
 sive raw material ; and only the small strip from the 
 crupper along the chine to the neck, can be employed. 
 This is cut off just above the tail, in a semicircular form, 
 about thirty-four inches upon the crupper, and twenty- 
 eight along the back. These strips are soaked in water, 
 until the hair is ready to come off, when it is separated 
 by scraping; and the pieces, after being again steeped, 
 are dressed with the fleshing-knife until all the extraneous 
 matter is removed, and they have been reduced to the 
 thinness of a hog's-bladder. They are then stretched 
 tightly across frames, and occasionally dampened to pre- 
 
444 
 
 SHAGREEN. 
 
 vent them from shrinking unequally ; after which, they 
 are laid on the floor, with the flesh sides undermost, and 
 the grain sides are then thickly strewed over with the 
 smooth, hard seeds of the alabuta, or goose-foot {cJienopo- 
 dium album). Instead of these, mustard seeds are used 
 in some places. A felt is then laid over the whole, and 
 the seeds are forced deeply into the soft moist skins by 
 treading upon them, or by the action of a press. The 
 characteristic mottled or granular appearance of the hair 
 side of shagreen is given to it by this operation. 
 
 The frames, with the seeds sticking in the skins, are 
 then dried slowly in the shade, until the seeds are ready 
 to drop off upon shaking; and the skins, which are thus 
 converted into hard, horny membranes with the surfaces 
 deeply indented, are laid upon a block or beam, padded 
 with wool, and are shaved down until the depressions 
 caused by the seeds become very slight and uniform. 
 The skins are steeped first in water, and afterwards in 
 a warm alkaline lye, and are piled upon each other while 
 still warm and moist. By this means, the parts indented 
 by the pressure of the seeds regain their natural elas- 
 ticity, and, not having lost substance by the shaving of 
 the rest of the skins, they rise to or above the surround- 
 ing level, and form the peculiar grain of the shagreen. 
 After this, the skins are cleansed by salt brine, and dyed. 
 
 The beautiful green dye is given to shagreen by pass- 
 ing a concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac over the flesh 
 side, strewing it over with copper filings, rolling it up 
 with the same side inwards, and pressing each skin for 
 twenty-four hours with a heavy weight. The sal-am- 
 moniac dissolves enough of the copper to give the skin 
 a beautiful sea-green color. 
 
 Blue shagreen is dyed with indigo dissolved in a solu- 
 tion of soda, with lime and honey ; the black, with nutgalls 
 
SHAGREEN. 
 
 445 
 
 and copperas; and the red, with decoction of cochineal. 
 Pure white shagreen is made by dressing the strips first 
 with alum solution, and then with wheat dough, and 
 washing away the latter with alum water. Greasing, 
 careful working in hot water, currying with a blunt 
 knife, and drying, complete the preparation. 
 
 Shagreen is rendered very hard by drying, but, like 
 parchment, it softens in water, and in that state will 
 take any shape given to it, and is used by sheath-makers 
 for the cases of spectacles, lancets, mathematical instru- 
 ments, &c. 
 
 There is an imitation shagreen which is so much like 
 the genuine article that it is almost impossible to distin- 
 guish the difference. For the purpose of manufacturing 
 this article, sheep or goatskins, after being deprived of 
 hair in the lime-pits, are steeped in water, fleshed, soaked 
 again, and well rubbed down upon the horse with a hard, 
 polished piece of wood, after which they are steeped a 
 third time, and beaten out and trimmed on both sides. 
 They are then steeped for two hours in a bath made of 
 a bucket-full of tan for every fifty skins, mixed with 
 water enough to cover them; a bucket half full of the 
 same being thrown in at the end of an hour, and another 
 at the end of an hour and a half. After this, they are 
 kept in tan-pits for eight days, and, when removed from 
 them, are wrung out, and reduced in thickness by the 
 use of the round-knife applied upon the horse. They 
 are then half-dried, well stretched in the direction of 
 their length, cut in half, blackened in the ordinary man- 
 ner and dried. 
 
 The grain is given to this false shagreen by means of 
 copper plates which have been engraved in imitation of 
 the roughened surface of the real article. These plates, 
 previously warmed, are placed upon the skins, and then 
 subjected to the action of a press. 
 
CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 PARCHMENT. 
 
 Parchment is the invention of Eumenes, king of 
 Pergamus, in Asiatic Turkey, about 200 years before 
 Christ. It was known in early times, as Pergamena^ and 
 was used, on account of its great durability, for records 
 and valuable manuscripts, and as a substitute for the 
 fapjrus^ or writing-paper of the ancient Egyptians. The 
 finest quality, made from thin and perfect skins, and 
 prepared by very careful manipulation, is called vellum. 
 
 Fine parchment, for writings, is made from the skins 
 of calves, kids, stillborn lambs, sheep, and she-goats; 
 but an inferior quality, for drum-heads and battledores, 
 is prepared from the skins of he-goats, calves, wolves, 
 and asses. Pig-skin is also sometimes converted into 
 parchment for bookbinders' use. The operations are 
 nearly the same, throughout, for all the varieties, but 
 are more delicate for the finer quality. 
 
 The skins above mentioned are those generally em- 
 ployed for this branch of manufacture, but all other thin 
 skins are applicable; and sometimes the thinner halves 
 of thick hides, split by machinery, are dressed by this 
 process. 
 
 "The skins, after having been soaked, limed, shaved, 
 and well washed, must be set to dry in such a way as to 
 prevent their puckering, and to render them easily 
 
PARCHMENT. 
 
 447 
 
 worked. The small manufacturers make use of hoops 
 for this purpose, but the greater employ a horse, or stout 
 wooden frame. This is formed of two uprights and two 
 crossbars, solidly joined together by tenons and mortises, 
 so as to form a strong piece of carpentry, which is to be 
 fixed against a wall. These four bars are perforated 
 throughout with a series of holes, which are fitted with 
 very smooth and slightly tapered box-wood pins. Each 
 of these pins is transpierced with a hole like a violin 
 screw, by means of which the strings used in stretching 
 the skin may be tightened. Above the horse, there is a 
 shelf for such tools as the workman may need at hand. 
 In order to stretch the skin upon the frame, large or 
 small skewers are employed, according to the size of 
 the piece which is to be attached to it. Six holes are 
 made in a straight line to receive the larger, and four to 
 receive the smaller skewers, or pins. These small slits are 
 made with a tool like a carpenter's chisel, and of the 
 exact size to admit the skewers. The string round the 
 skewer is affixed to one of the bolts in the frame, which 
 is turned round by means of a key, like that by which 
 harps and pianos are tuned. The skewer is threaded 
 through the skin when in a state of tension. 
 
 "Everything being thus prepared, and the skin being 
 well softened, the workman stretches it powerfully, by 
 means of the skewers; he attaches the cords to the 
 skewers, and fixes their ends to the iron pegs, or pins. 
 He then stretches the skin, first with his hand applied 
 to the pins, and afterwards with the key. Great care 
 must be taken that no wrinkles are formed. The skin 
 is usually stretched more in length than in breadth, from 
 the custom of the trade; though extension in breadth 
 would be preferable, in order to reduce the thickness of 
 the part opposite the back bone. 
 
448 
 
 PARCHMENT. 
 
 "The workman now takes the fleshing-toolj which is 
 a semi-circular double-edged knife, made fast into a 
 double wooden handle, seizes it in his two hands so as to 
 place the edge perpendicularly to the skin, and pressing 
 it carefully from above downwards, removes the fleshy 
 excrescences, and lays them aside for making glue. He 
 now turns round the horse upon the wall, in order to get 
 access to the outside of the skin, and to scrape it with 
 the tool inverted, so as to run no risk of cutting the 
 epidermis. He thus removes any adhering filth, and 
 squeezes out some water. The skin must next be ground. 
 For this purpose, it is sprinkled upon the fleshy side 
 with sifted chalk or slaked lime, and then rubbed in all 
 directions with a piece of pumice-stone, four or five 
 inches in area, previously flattened upon a sandstone. 
 The lime soon becomes moist from the water contained in 
 the skin. The pumice-stone is then rubbed over the 
 other side of the skin, but without chalk or lime. This 
 operation is necessary only for the best parchment or 
 vellum. The skin is now allowed to dry upon the frame, 
 being carefully protected from sunshine and from frost. 
 In the warm weather of summer, a moist cloth needs to 
 be applied to it from time to time, to prevent its drying 
 too suddenly; immediately after which, the skewers 
 require to be tightened. 
 
 " When it is perfectly dry, the white color is to be re- 
 moved by rubbing it with the woolly side of a lamb-skin. 
 But great care must be taken not to fray the surface ; a 
 circumstance of which some manufacturers are so much 
 afraid as not to use either chalk or lime in the polishing. 
 Should any grease be detected upon it, it must be re- 
 moved by immersion in a lime-pit for ten days, and by 
 then stretching it anew upon the liorse^ after which it is 
 transferred to the scrapper. 
 
PARCHMENT. 
 
 449 
 
 " This workman employs here an edge tool of the same 
 shape as the fleshing-knife, but larger and sharper. He 
 mounts the skins upon a frame like the horse above de- 
 scribed; but he extends it merely with cords, without 
 skewers, or pins, and supports it generally upon a piece 
 of raw calf-skin, strongly stretched. The tail of the skin 
 being placed towards the bottom of the frame, the work- 
 man first pares off, with a sharp knife, any considerable 
 roughnesses, and then scrapes the outside surface oblique- 
 ly downwards with the proper tools, till it becomes per- 
 fectly smooth. The fleshy side needs no such operation, 
 and, indeed, were both sides scraped, the skin would be 
 apt to become too thin, the only object of the scraper 
 being to equalize its thickness. Whatever irregularities 
 remain, may be removed with a piece of the finest pum- 
 ice-stone, well flattened previously, upon a piece of close- 
 grained sandstone. This process is performed by laying 
 the rough parchment upon an oblong plank of wood, in 
 the form of a stool; the plank being covered with a 
 piece of soft parchment stufied with wool, to form an 
 elastic cushion for the grinding operation. It is merely 
 the outside surface that requires to be pumiced. The 
 celebrated Strasburg vellum is prepared with remarka- 
 bly fine pumice-stones. 
 
 " If any small holes happen to be made in the parch- 
 ment, they must be neatly patched, by cutting their 
 edges thin and pasting on small pieces with gum-water. 
 
 Parchment is colored only green. Boil 8 parts of 
 cream of tartar and 30 parts of crystallized verdigris in 
 500 parts of rain-water ; and, when this solution is cold, 
 pour into it 4 parts of nitric acid. Moisten the parch- 
 ment with a brush, and then apply the above liquid even- 
 ly over its surface. Lastly, the necessary lustre may 
 be given with white of eggs, or mucilage of gum Arabic." 
 
CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 LEATHER BOTTLES. 
 
 In some of the southern districts of France, leather 
 bottles are very important objects of manufacture, as 
 they are in general use for carrying oil and wine. Cow- 
 skins are used for the purpose, and those from Mezin, 
 and the mountains near Puy, are said to be the only 
 ones fit for the manufacture. They are carefully dried 
 upon pegs by the butchers, and are then softened in lime 
 which has already been used, and in which they remain 
 for eight days. They are then thrown into a fresh lime- 
 pit, until the hair readily comes off, are cleaned, rinsed 
 and fleshed, after having been cut into pieces of the 
 proper shape. They are now exposed to dry upon a 
 smooth, clean, and dry spot of ground, great care being 
 observed that this drying takes place uniformly and very 
 gradually, the rays of the sun and any excess of heat 
 being prevented from affecting them. Having thus been 
 deprived of moisture, at the same time that they preserve 
 all their suppleness, they are hung up for a month and 
 exposed to the direct rays of the sun, being taken down 
 and stored at night, so that no moisture shall have access 
 to them. 
 
 Before being sewed, they are placed in water to allow 
 the stitches to be made. These bottles last a long time. 
 
LEATHER BOTTLES. 
 
 451 
 
 but liquids kept in them, nearly always acquire an un- 
 pleasant taste. 
 
 TANNING OF THE SKINS OF*SHEEP'S LEGS, FOR MAKING TUBES 
 WITHOUT SUTURE, FOR COVERING THE CYLINDERS USED IN 
 COTTON AND WOOL SPINNING. 
 
 Delvau, a Parisian tanner, took out a patent of inven- 
 tion for this purpose, which is described in Vol. lY. p. 
 296, of Expired Patent Reports. His process consists 
 in cutting the skin of the sheep's-foot circularly above 
 the spur, and stripping it off in a manner similar to that 
 after which rabbits are uncased. This tube, thus made, 
 is then limed until the wool falls off, is daubed with 
 oil, and curried so as to make it of an equal thickness 
 throughout. 
 
 To apply the leather tubes upon the cylinders without 
 suture, two burnishing tools are used for spreading them 
 out. Each tube, which is made of such a size as to ex- 
 ceed the cylinder a little in diameter, is then drawn over 
 it, and stretched upon it by means of pincers, and the 
 parts which pass beyond the ends of the cylinder are 
 folded down, smoothed out, and glued over them. These 
 extremities are then rubbed with the burnishers, in order 
 to make the glue enter the substance of the leather, and 
 they are left to dry for five or six hours. The shreds of 
 leather are then removed, and those parts which project 
 from the middle and ends are cut away on a turning 
 lathe. To finish the surface, and give it lustre, it is 
 then well rubbed with a hard linen cloth. 
 
CHAPTEE XLIII. 
 
 ENGLISH PROCESS FOR TANNING NETS, SAILS, AND 
 CORDAGE. 
 
 A SHIP-BUILDER of Bridgeport has proposed the follow- 
 ing method of preserving and increasing the strength of 
 nets, sails, and cordage. A hundred pounds of oak 
 branches and the same quantity of tan are boiled in 
 89 gallons of water, until it is reduced to seventy-one 
 gallons. The solid materials are then taken out, and 
 the articles to be tanned are deposited in the liquid, care 
 being taken that they are entirely covered by it, and do 
 not rest upon the bottom of the vessel. They are boiled 
 for three hours, and are then taken out and dried. 
 
 This, though a true tanning process, can scarcely be 
 likened to the ordinary ones for preparing leather, since its 
 object is a combination of tannin and extractive matter 
 with vegetable substances, which are very different from 
 the gelatine of skin. According to Millet, linen which 
 had been steeped in an oak-bark liquor at 150° F. for 
 two or three days, remained unaltered in a damp cellar 
 for ten years, while an untanned piece entirely rotted 
 under similar circumstances. 
 
CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 GLAZED, OR VARNISHED LEATHER. 
 
 This leather, known in commerce as patent leather, is 
 very largely used for dress boots and shoes, and for fancy 
 mountings. There are various methods of manufactur- 
 ing it, but the following are those most generally em- 
 ployed : — 
 
 Two distinct operations are resorted to in the manu- 
 facture of polished leather, one of which is the prepara- 
 tion of the surface for receiving the varnish, and which 
 is effected by closing the pores of the leather, and mak- 
 ing a proper ground by repeatedly rubbing the surface 
 with pulverulent substances, and incorporating them 
 with it; and the other is the varnishing of the leather 
 thus dressed with suitable brilliant and transparent 
 materials. 
 
 The basis or medium of the substances used for both 
 these purposes is linseed oil, made drying by boiling with 
 metallic oxides or salts, and reduced to a syrupy con- 
 sistence by the prolonged action of heat. 
 
 Five gallons of linseed oil are boiled with four pounds 
 four and a half ounces of white lead, and the same quan- 
 tity of litharge, each in a state of fine division, until it 
 becomes of the consistence of thick syrup. This mix- 
 ture is then intimately united wdth one of the ochres, or 
 with powdered chalk, according to the fineness of the 
 
454 GLAZEDj OR VARNISHED LEATHER. 
 
 skins which are to be prepared, and is uniformly spread 
 upon either side of the leather, and well worked into the 
 pores with appropriate tools. Three very thin coats of 
 it are applied in the same manner, at sufficiently long 
 intervals to enable them to dry between the different 
 applications, and the surface is then forcibly and uni- 
 formly rubbed with pumice-stone. A number of thin 
 coatings of the preparation are then applied in a similar 
 manner, and rubbed down as before until perfectly uni- 
 form, and of a sufficient thickness to prevent the varnish 
 from penetrating the leather, by which its quality would 
 be injured, and its structure rendered hard and brittle. 
 The oily substance of the preparation and of the varnish 
 should merely penetrate deeply enough into the leather 
 to make the compositions of which it is the basis adhere 
 closely to it. 
 
 The foundation for the varnished surface being thus 
 laid, a mixture of the preparation before used, without, 
 however, the addition of ochreous or other earthy mat- 
 ters, and well rubbed up with fine ivory-black and enough 
 spirits of turpentine to make it flow smoothly and easily, 
 is laid on by means of a fine brush ; three or four succes- 
 sive coatings being applied. By this means, a black and 
 shining pliable surface is obtained, over which, as soon 
 as it is perfectly dry, the varnish may be applied. 
 
 The leather is dried after the application of each coat, 
 by hanging it up, or, what is better, laying it out upon 
 frames or racks in the drying-room. It is customary 
 before the varnishing, to give a polish to the surface by 
 rubbing it over with a piece of woollen stuff and the 
 finest kind of pumice powder or tripoli. 
 
 The varnish is composed of one pound either of as- 
 phalte, Prussian blue, or fine ivory-black, ten pounds of 
 thick copal varnish, twenty pounds of the linseed oil 
 
GLAZED, OR TARNISHED LEATHER. 
 
 455 
 
 prepared as before described by boiling with litharge 
 and lead, and of twenty pounds of spirits of turpentine. 
 The asphalte, Prussian blue, or ivory-black, in the finest 
 possible state of division, is first thoroughly mixed with 
 the oil, and they are then heated together. The varnish 
 first and then the turpentine are each gradually added 
 with constant stirring, until a homogeneous mixture is ob- 
 tained. This is not ready for immediate use, but must 
 be kept covered in a warm place during two or three 
 weeks, at the end of which tipie the proper number of 
 coatings are applied to the leather with a fine brush. 
 
 The drying-room is maintained at a temperature of 
 from 132° to 167° Fahrenheit; and the greatest care 
 must be taken that it, as well as the apartments in which 
 the skins are covered with the preparation and the var- 
 nish, be perfectly tight, clean, and free from particles of 
 floating dust. 
 
 The tint of color of polished leather varies with the 
 coloring material which has been added to the varnish ; 
 asphalte giving the surface a reddish hue, Prussian blue 
 a greenish-blue metallic tint, and the ivory-black, which 
 is most commonly employed, a pure, brilliant black 
 lustre. 
 
 Some manufacturers add to the litharge employed for 
 thickening the oil, red-lead, ceruse, powdered cuttlefish 
 bone, oxides of manganese, and various other metallic 
 oxides and salts. 
 
 The success of the whole process depends very much 
 upon the care with which the skins prepared with it have 
 been selected, tanned, and curried. It is particularly 
 necessary that the dubbing should have been applied to 
 them with great uniformity, and only in small quanti- 
 ties, for otherwise the surfaces will soon became tar- 
 nished and blotted. 
 
456 
 
 GLAZED, OR TARNISHED LEATHER. 
 
 didier's process. 
 
 In this process, lampblack is heated in a closed vessel, 
 and is mixed with linseed-oil varnish until the mass be- 
 comes sufficiently liquid to flow. Two coatings of this 
 mixture are applied to the leather, which is then dried, 
 and coated with a mixture of equal parts of the first 
 liquid and of copal varnish. As soon as this is dry, it 
 is polished with a piece of felt charged with finely pow- 
 dered pumice-stone, and is then rubbed with a waxed 
 sponge, and wiped with a cloth. 
 
 The polish consists of five or six coatings of lamp- 
 black and varnish, mixed and brought to the proper con- 
 sistence by means of a slab and muller, and laid on with 
 a brush. When dry, the surface is again smoothed as 
 before, with the addition of friction with finely pulve- 
 rized bone-dust, after which two more coatings of the 
 varnish are applied. 
 
 White Polished Leather, — White lead is brought to the 
 proper consistence with white oil varnish, and two coats 
 of this are applied to the leather. A quantity of Krem's 
 white is then intimately mixed with water; the water is 
 evaporated, and the powder is incorporated with white 
 copal varnish. Three or four coats of this mixture are 
 then applied, and when dry, the surface is polished in the 
 manner already described. 
 
 Red Polished Leather. — The first coating consists of 
 shell-lac ground in oil of turpentine ; the second of shell- 
 lac mixed with copal varnish ; the last is prepared by dis- 
 solving one part of gum copal in two parts of oil of tur- 
 pentine, and adding to this solution an equal quantity of 
 linseed-oil varnish. 
 
 Blue Polished Leather, — A coat of white lead incorpo- 
 
GLAZED, OR VARNISHED LEATHER. 
 
 457 
 
 rated with oil varnish is first applied, and then one of 
 Prussian blue and copal varnish. If a lighter blue color 
 is desired, a little Krem's white is added to the mixture. 
 
 Yellow Polished Leather. — A mixture of fustic wood, 
 cochineal, alum, and of an alkaline lye is boiled in a cop- 
 per vessel. This solution is applied by means of a cloth 
 to the leather, and when the latter is dry, a coat of copal 
 varnish is laid on it. 
 
 A mixture of yellow-ochre, white lead, and ordinary 
 varnish is then applied, and a second coat of the same 
 mixed with copal varnish is laid on. When the surface 
 is dry, it is polished, and then receives three coats of 
 Turner's yellow in copal varnish. 
 
 Polished Leather of the Original Color of Leather. — 
 
 A coat of a mixture of yellow-ochre, white lead, and 
 oil varnish is applied, and polished when dry. The 
 second coat consists of Turner's yellow mixed with copal 
 varnish. 
 
 nossiter's process. 
 
 Mr. Charles Nossiter's patented process consists in 
 removing the grain surface by splitting or buffing, and 
 then making a finish on the surface thus obtained, by 
 means of a glass or other roller, after which the enamel- 
 ling is proceeded with in the usual manner. This pro- 
 cess is particularly applicable to sheep and lamb skins, 
 and produces softer, more flexible, and better-colored 
 leather than that made by enamelling the grain surface 
 of such descriptions of skins. 
 
 30 
 
CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 HALYOESON'S PROCESS FOR RENDERING HIDES HARD 
 AND TRANSPARENT. 
 
 Halyor Halvorson's process for hardening hides {Pa- 
 tent Office Report^ 1847, p. 33), consists in subjecting 
 them, in consecutive operations, to the action of alkaline 
 and astringent solutions, and ultimately to that of boiling 
 oil. A horn-like material, applicable to useful purposes 
 in the arts, is the product. The patentee describes his 
 method as follows : — 
 
 " I commence my process by taking the raw hide, and 
 submitting it to what the tanners usually term ^sweat- 
 ing,' or putrefaction, sufficient to remove the hair, or in- 
 stead thereof, I immerse the hide in a solution of lime 
 or alkali proper to remove the hair. I next place it in 
 and submit it to the action of a boiling or hot bath of any 
 powerful astringent and alkaline, or other suitable sub- 
 stance sufficient to remove the animal oil or fatty matter, 
 and to full or mill it up or make it thicker. 
 
 " So far as my experience goes, I find sulphuric acid, 
 salts of tartar, and alum, dissolved in water, to answer 
 a good purpose. I keep the hide in the solution (in a 
 state of ebullition), and frequently agitate or stir the 
 liquid, and bend and unbend, or compress and open, or 
 handle or w^ork the hide by tongs, while it is under the 
 influence of the bath, or I remove it from the hot bath, 
 
PROCESS FOR RENDERING HIDES TRANSPARENT. 459 
 
 and, having smeared my hands with oil or grease, in 
 order to protect them from injury from the caustic or 
 other properties of the solution, I lay hold of the hide 
 and squeeze and work it in various ways in order to 
 cause the liquid to penetrate it, and properly act upon 
 it, so as to full or thicken it, and remove the animal fat 
 or oleaginous matter; or, instead of the above mode of 
 proceeding, I make use of any suitable mechanical means, 
 by which the operation of the alkaline and astringent 
 liquid may be facilitated, whether to remove the animal 
 oil, or to full or thicken the hide. 
 
 "After thus having fulled it to the desired thickness, 
 or completed the process of removing the extraneous 
 animal oil, I rinse it in warm and clear water, and dry 
 it. At this stage of the process, the hide retains its 
 opacity, and will be found to be very easily affected by 
 atmospheric changes. In damp weather it will absorb 
 moisture, and become more or less soft. In cold or dry 
 weather it will resume its hardness. Consequently, while 
 in this state it is unfit for many purposes. In order to 
 render it semi-transparent, and capable of resisting the 
 influence of ordinary atmospheric changes, or that of a 
 considerable degree of heat, I next immerse it in a 
 cauldron of boiling or hot linseed or drying oil, or any 
 other suitable vegetable or other oil, possessing drying 
 qualities, and keep it therein (while the oil is boiling), 
 until a white or yellowish scale or crisp begins to form 
 on its surface. As soon as this is discoverable, the hide 
 should be removed from the oil. While hot it will be 
 found soft and pliable, and capable of being made, 
 pressed, or moulded into various shapes. When cold, it 
 will be found to have been changed or converted into a 
 substance, resembling, in many respects, horn or tortoise- 
 
460 PROCESS FOR RENDERING HIDES TRANSPARENT. 
 
 shell, and may be bored, turned, or filed, or otherwise 
 wrought like them or ivory. 
 
 I would here remark that, should the hide thus pre- 
 pared be designed for embossed work, such as figured 
 buttons, combs, or other articles of such nature, it is 
 advisable to remove it from the boiling oil, as soon as it 
 acquires the desired transparency, and softness, and before 
 the white scale, herein before alluded to, makes its ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 After being thus prepared, it may be submitted to 
 pressure in the mould. During the last portion of the 
 process, viz., the boiling in oil, the material may be 
 stained by incorporating with the oil any drying material 
 or materials, that will be proper to produce any desired 
 color. It may be colored also in a manner to resemble 
 tortoise-shell, by such modes as are usually adopted to 
 give to horn such an appearance. 
 
 "The oil in ebullition communicates a greater heat to 
 the material, than the astringent alkaline liquid does, in 
 consequence of which it becomes indurated when cold, 
 and susceptible of a high polish. 
 
 " The drying oil penetrates the pores of the hide and 
 takes the place of the animal oil, previously extracted, 
 and by so doing, not only renders the skin hard like 
 horn, but guards it from the effects of ordinary atmo- 
 spheric changes, whether of temperature or moisture. 
 
 " Where it may not be required to full up or thicken 
 a hide to its greatest extent of capacity, the use of an 
 astringent solution may be dispensed with, it being only 
 necessary, in such cases, to employ the alkaline solution, 
 or some equivalent capable of removing the animal oil 
 and extraneous matters, and afterwards expose the skin 
 or hide to the action of hot or boiling oil, all in the 
 manner above set forth." 
 
CHAPTER XLYI. 
 
 CURRYINa OF LEATHER. 
 
 The derivation of the word Currier" is from the Latin 
 Coriarius, which means a workman in leather; the term 
 for skin being corium; and both the ancients and the 
 moderns have understood currying as the preparation of 
 tanned skins for the purpose of imparting to them the 
 necessary smoothness, color, lustre, and suppleness. 
 
 Curried leather receives different designations, accord- 
 ing to the modes of dressing it which are employed, as 
 tallowed leather, loaxed and oiled leather, &c.; and it is 
 subjected, in order to receive the required qualities, to 
 the operation of soaldng or dipping, of treading or heating, 
 of stretching, of oiling, of tallowing, of dyeing, and of po- 
 lishing. Before any of these processes are commenced, 
 the tails, foreheads, teats, and parts of the extremities 
 are cut off, and these remnants serve for upper soles, 
 heels, &c. &c. 
 
 Dipping. — The first operation of the currier is that of 
 dipping the leather, or softening it. For this purpose, 
 the skins are deposited in a tub, or trough, along with 
 water, in which they are allowed to remain until they 
 become sufficiently moist ; or else they are sprinkled with 
 water from a brush or broom, which is a much less ef- 
 fectual method. They are then softened by being trod 
 or beaten out upon a strong hurdle (Fig. 143), about a 
 
462 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 yard square, which is either composed of basket-twigs, or 
 of wooden pegs fixed rectangularly in holes at intervals 
 of about five inches. The leather may either be beaten 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 out with the feet, or with an instrument called the mace. 
 If the former are employed, the workman should wear 
 large shoes (Fig. 144) made for the purpose, with three 
 thicknesses of sole. Provided with these, he 
 Fig. 144. beats and treads out the leather in every di- 
 ^^^^3 rection, by repeated shuffling and stamping 
 movements of his heels, retaining it in place 
 by the left heel, while the right is made to follow the 
 movements of the other in every direction. This is done 
 for a quarter of an hour or longer, until the leather is 
 completely softened and impregnated with moisture. 
 The mace (Fig. 145), which is sometimes used, instead 
 of the feet, is made of wood, having a handle 
 Fig. 145. eleven and a half feet long (Ure says thirty 
 ^ inches), with a head or mallet four and se- 
 ven-tenth inches long, and five and a half 
 inches square; upon the two faces of which, 
 parallel to the line of the handle, are four 
 egg-shaped pegs of wood one and a half inches 
 in length, which are finely polished, so as not 
 to tear the moistened leather when it is beaten 
 by them. All skins intended to be tallowed, 
 should not only be beaten by the feet, but with the mace; 
 but, while the use of the latter is very important, care 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 463 
 
 should be taken that it be not employed with such force 
 as to be injurious to the leather. 
 
 The leather, after having been properly softened b}^ 
 these means, is subjected, upon the liorsey to the action 
 of the cleaners. The horse (Fig. 146) consists of a 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 strong, firm, flat plank, supported upon a frame by two 
 uprights and a crosspiece, so that it can be made to slope 
 at a greater or less angle. If not sufficiently heavy to 
 be immovable, it may be loaded with stones, or weights, 
 placed upon the frame. 
 
 A more convenient beam is that patented in this coun- 
 ty, by N. Sargent, and shown by Fig. 147. The up- 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 right is fitted with adjusting screws, by which it may be 
 elevated or lowered to any desired height, as may suit 
 the comfort and convenience of the workman. 
 
 Formerly, and in some places at the present day, three 
 
464 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 instruments have been and are used for the cleaning and 
 paring of leather; the sharp-edged cleaner^ the blunt 
 cleaner, and the head-knife; but the latter alone is used 
 now in Paris for this first working. 
 
 This knife (Fig. 148), which is called in French cou- 
 teau a revers, on account of the form of its 
 Fig. 148. edge, which is very much turned over, is from 
 
 CIEilll^^ 
 
 twelve to fourteen inches long, and from four 
 and a half to five and a half inches broad; 
 and has two handles, one in the direction of the blade, 
 and the other perpendicular to it, for the purpose of 
 guiding the edge more correctly over the surface of the 
 skin. 
 
 The round-knife (lunette)^ is a circular knife from ten 
 to twelve inches in diameter, with a round, four or five 
 inch hole in the centre, for introducing the hands. It is 
 concave, of the form of a spherical zone; the concave 
 part being that which is applied to the skin, and having 
 an edge a little turned over on the side opposite to the 
 skin, so as to prevent it from entering too far into the 
 leather. Besides these, the sharp-edged and blunt-edged 
 cleaners^ Fig. 149, are sometimes used. The latter is 
 usually made of an old knife, and is pro- 
 
 HMiiiiiiiiMiK. vided with two handles ; the former may 
 be made of an old sabre. 
 
 Curriers are recommended to dispense with these 
 cleaners, to use the head and round knife for shaving 
 and paring the skins upon the horse, and to confine 
 themselves to the. employment of the stretching-iron for 
 smoothing and scraping the leather, for filling up its 
 weak parts, removing the creases, and the filamentous 
 particles which project from its surface. 
 
 Shaving, — The second operation of the currier after 
 dipping and softening the skins, is to pare or shave them 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 465 
 
 with the head-knife, for the purpose of securing uniform- 
 ity of thickness and regularity of surfaces. When, 
 however, the leather presents many weak and thin 
 parts, this operation may sometimes be dispensed with or 
 postponed, until these have been filled up by the action 
 of the stretching-iron. While preferences are given in 
 difierent places to other modes of working some kinds 
 of leather, all kinds indifferently are shaved, by Parisian 
 curriers, with the head-knife and round-knife : they use 
 the French horse, however, for paring off the borders of 
 the skins, with the latter instrument, and the English 
 horse, for the other parts of the operation, which are 
 conducted with the head-knife. 
 
 For rendering the surface of leather smooth and 
 compact with the stretching-knife, the table has been 
 generally substituted for the horse. 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 Pommelling. — All leather should be submitted to the 
 action of the pommel, so called, because it clothes the hand 
 and performs its functions. This instrument is of rec- 
 tangular shape and of different sizes, but is usually about 
 thirteen inches long, and five inches broad, and is made 
 of dogwood. The upper surface is flat, and is provided 
 with a wide leather strap nailed to the sides, which is 
 intended for confining the hand of the workman. The 
 lower surface is rounded and furrowed over with trans- 
 verse straight ridges and grooves. These grooves are 
 
466 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 sharp-edged isosceles triangles in section, and vary in 
 fineness according to the size of the pommel^ the largest 
 being from seven hundredths to two-tenths of an inch 
 deep, and two or three-tenths of an inch wide. (Figs. 
 151 and 152.) 
 
 Figs. 151. 152. 158. 
 
 A large kind of pommel, called in French the mar- 
 guerite (Fig. 153), is now employed for nearly all the 
 operations in which the ordinary one was formerly used. 
 It is from fifteen to nineteen inches long, five inches 
 broad, and of a thickness in the middle of from three and 
 a half to four and a half inches, and at the end, of from 
 one and nine-tenths to two and two-tenths inches. As 
 it is much more heavy and difficult to manage than the 
 pommel, a peg or handle is placed at one end for the 
 workman to grasp, while his arm is passed under a large 
 strap, and his elbow rests upon a cushion at the other 
 end. The grooves are larger and further apart than 
 those of pommels, and differ in size with that of the 
 marguerite, which may be made for particular purposes, 
 larger or smaller than the one which has been described. 
 
 These instruments are the ones which are the best 
 adapted for the purpose of giving flexibility and a granular 
 appearance to the leather. The skin is first folded with 
 its grain side in contact, then stretched out upon a table, 
 and rubbed strongly with the pommel, or 7narguerite, 
 each quarter successively being made to slide under the 
 instrument, over the leather below it, first towards the 
 centre, and then back to its original position. This 
 mode of working leather, makes it extremely flexible. 
 To give the proper grain, the skin is then stretched out 
 
CURKYING OF LEATHER. 467 
 
 upon the flesh side, and pommelled from head to tail and 
 crosswise. 
 
 Stretcliing, — This operation is performed with the 
 stretching-iron (Figs. 154 and 155), which is a flat piece 
 
 Fig. 154. Fig. 155. 
 
 of iron or copper, a fourth of an inch thick at top, and 
 thinning ofi* at the bottom into a blunt edge, shaped like 
 an arc of a very large circle. It is about six inches long 
 and four inches high, and is provided with a handle ten 
 inches in length and five in height. An iron or steel 
 instrument is generally employed, as being less likely to 
 wear out than a copper one ; but the latter is preferred 
 by many, since the leather is sometimes blackened and 
 spotted by the iron. One made of steel is less objection- 
 able on this account. Stretchers of other forms and 
 dimensions than the one described above are sometimes 
 used, but they vary very little from each other in con- 
 struction. Those formerly used were without handles, 
 and had a copper rim to protect the hands of the work- 
 man. 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 The skin being placed upon the table, the workman 
 grasps the stretching iron in both hands (central figure, 
 
468 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 Fig. 156), and holding it nearly perpendicular upon the 
 leather, forcibly scrapes the thick places so as to render 
 them of uniform thickness with the rest, to remove par- 
 ticles of flesh or projecting filaments, and to fill up the 
 thin and weak spots. The leather is rendered smoother, 
 softer, more compact, and equal throughout by this opera- 
 tion, to which all kinds of skins should be subjected; 
 and when thus treated, there is no absolute need of the 
 application to them of oil or tallow. 
 
 Woi'hiyig with the Round-Knife, — Leather is subjected 
 to the action of the round-lmife (Fig. 157), an 
 instrument which has already been described, 
 after its edges have been sloped off with the 
 head-knife, an operation which is performed 
 upon the horse by shaving off a layer of two inches in 
 breadth all around the borders of the skin. They are 
 then worked with the round-knife upon the dresser, which 
 is a cylindrical wooden bar fastened at a height of five 
 feet, three inches from the ground, by its two ends, to 
 two buttresses projecting from the wall. 
 
 A thick cord is stretched along the upper surface of 
 this bar. The end being separated from the dresser, the 
 breadth of the skin is folded over it, the grain being 
 within, and the skin is turned over and stretched around 
 the beam, its end being firmly held between the bar and 
 the cord, which is still more tightly pressed down by the 
 leather which envelops it. (Fig. 158, a skin stretched 
 upon the dresser.) 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
CUKETING OF LEATHER. 
 
 469 
 
 The skin being thus stretched, the workman seizes 
 the lower part of it, and confines it in place by a pair 
 of pincers (Fig. 159), attached to his girdle, and grasp- 
 ing the round-knife in both hands, works the leather 
 with it from above downwards, removing the fleshy, 
 thick, or projecting parts. This paring (Fig. 160), which 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 is an operation requiring the utmost care, is generally 
 done from tail to head, and sometimes across the grain. 
 
 The round-knife must be occasionally sharpened upon 
 an oiled stone (Fig. 161) to keep it in 
 good condition, and the edge must be kept 
 turned over by a steel, so as to prevent it 
 from entering too far into the leather. 
 
 According to Dessables, this operation is at the present 
 day used only or chiefly for goat-skins, all the other 
 kinds being pared with the head-knife. A workman can 
 pare an ordinary skin in an hour upon the dresser, and 
 six or eight dozen goat-skins in a day. 
 
 Before being subjected to the operations of the cur- 
 rier, hides are frequently cut in half, and are still more 
 often made into an almost square form by cutting off the 
 head and belly parts, leaving the tail still attached to 
 them. These square hides contain all the best and 
 strongest parts of the leather; the head and belly por- 
 
470 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 tions being the weakest, and being only used by shoe- 
 makers for the finest or upper soles. 
 
 STRETCHED LEATHER. 
 
 The skins of cows and of young oxen made into crop- 
 leather are the only ones which are fit for stretchers^ and 
 when thus prepared do not require the application of oil 
 or tallow. All curriers do not pursue the same method, 
 some preparing crop-leather, or that which has been 
 tanned in bags by the Danish plan. 
 
 After the leather has been dried, it is moistened, 
 fleshed on the horse, moistened a second time, scraped 
 with the stretcher, and, when thoroughly dry, is well- 
 slicked with the glass-polisher, so as to smooth the grain. 
 
 Before stretching a cow-skin, the head was formerly 
 removed, as being too thick to be properly smoothed ; but 
 it is at the present day usually left on, as it forms a con- 
 siderable addition to the weight of the leather. The 
 skins are first cut in half from head to tail, the whole 
 skin being too large to be properly worked, and are then 
 deposited in tubs full of water, in which they are allowed 
 to remain for twelve hours. When thoroughly wet, they 
 are taken out, are spread on the table and worked from 
 tail to head with the stretching-iron, or, if it is preferred, 
 they can be lightly pared on the horse. Either of these 
 operations being completed, the skins are well pum- 
 melled and worked with the marguerite from tail to head 
 and cross-wise, and then dried. When they have been 
 stretched, and deprived of the greater part of their moist- 
 ure, they are dampened slightly with a wet cloth upon 
 the hair side, and are again scraped with the stretching- 
 iron. The hair side is again well moistened with the 
 wet cloth; the skins are then dried, placed under the 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 471 
 
 press, and, after three or four hours' exposure to it, hung 
 up to dry. When nearly dry, they are piled up in a dry 
 and clean place, and covered with weighted planks, when 
 the operation is completed. 
 
 Leather, prepared in this way, is not blackened, and 
 does not require, as has been before stated, the applica- 
 tion of oil or grease. It is used by saddlers and harness- 
 makers, and by shoemakers for the soles of pumps, and 
 the upper soles of large shoes. 
 
 SLEEKED LEATHER. 
 
 Sleeked leather, which is intended chiefly for saddlers 
 and harness-makers' use, should be made of strong hides; 
 thick cow-skins and ox-hides being generally preferred 
 for the purpose. 
 
 The hides, as they come from the tan-yards, are cut in 
 two, are deprived of the head parts, soaked in the tub 
 and trod out, care being taken not to allow them to be- 
 come too thoroughly saturated with water. They are 
 then lightly fleshed with the head-knife, pommelled, and 
 half dried by exposure to the air. In this state, they 
 are again trodden out, hung up to dry, and trodden out 
 for the third time; pommelled on both sides, and at last 
 hung up until thoroughly dried. In order to make 
 known tiie weight of each skin, they are marked with 
 Koman characters designating it. 
 
 Before being tallowed, the flesh sides are rapidly flamed 
 by being drawn over a blaze of fire from lighted straw, 
 so as to make them more penetrable by the grease. The 
 kind of fatty matter is left to the choice of the operator, 
 but mutton-suet is undoubtedly the best, and gives a 
 finer lustre to the leather than any other, but is more 
 expensive. The Parisian curriers chiefly make use of 
 
472 
 
 CUERYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 suet rendered from kitchen drippings. Six and a half 
 pounds of suet are required for a hide of ordinary size. 
 
 When the grease is melted and heated to the proper 
 point, which the workman himself must decide upon, the 
 skin is stretched upon the table, and the operation com- 
 menced by spreading the tallow over the surface with a 
 tallowing cloth or mop (Fig. 162), which is made of the 
 Fig u'> f^^^^^^J fleecy parts of blanket-stuff. It is 
 from fifteen to nineteen inches long; a handle 
 ^■i being made for it by binding, or tying up from 
 eleven to thirteen inches of its length, leaving a 
 tuft long enough to answer the purposes of a mop. 
 
 The grease is first applied upon the flesh side, as being 
 the most absorbing surface, and then upon the grain ; 
 and more of it is rubbed over the groins, edges, and thin 
 parts, than over the rest, so as to increase their strength 
 and body. A good workman can tallow a hide in about 
 five minutes. 
 
 When greased, the skins are folded square, the hair side 
 in, and are then soaked in a tub during eight or ten hours ; 
 after which they are trod out in water and beaten with 
 the mace until deprived of most of their watery contents. 
 They are then again moistened with a wet broom (Fig. 
 163), or soaked for a time, and once more beaten in 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
 every direction. The leather is then pommelled with 
 the margiterite upon the flesh; and the hair side is pom- 
 melled from tail to head, and crosswise, until the grain 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 473 
 
 is well smoothed, when the skin is placed upon the table 
 with the hair side up, and the surface is smoothed by the 
 forcible use of the stretching-iron. 
 
 The leather is now blackened wdiile still upon the 
 table, being moistened before this " operation, if it has 
 become too dry, since a certain degree of humidity is 
 necessary to enable it to receive the color. For this 
 purpose, a mop of wool, or brush of horse-hair, is dipped 
 in the composition prepared for the purpose, and the 
 hair side is thoroughly rubbed with it in every direction 
 
 After the first black, the leather is three-quarters dried 
 by exposure to the air, and the stretching-iron is again 
 passed over the surface, great care being taken to avoid 
 scratching it; uniformity and smoothness of surface 
 being secured by moving the instrument constantly and 
 regularly in one direction, away from the position of the 
 workman. The leather is made to appear thicker and 
 uniform by paring off the edges with a hooked knife 
 
 leather, and when any parts of 
 
 the surface remain of a red color, even a third may be 
 requisite. The second coat is applied in the same man- 
 
 (Fig. 164). 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 (Fig. 165). 
 
 Two applications of black are 
 generally required for sleeked 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 31 
 
474 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 ner as the first; the leather is again partially dried, and 
 the surface slicked, until the marks of the stretching- 
 iron have been entirely removed. 
 
 When' the leather is of a fine black color and perfectly 
 dry, it is exposed to the action of a press for a time not 
 longer than two weeks, during which it is increased in 
 density and firmness, the excess of tallow being forced 
 out from it. If perfectly dry when placed in the press, 
 it retains the original appearance of its surface, but if 
 still somewhat moist, it is usually found covered with 
 mould when taken out. 
 
 In order to give the last dressing to these skins, the 
 hair side is well wiped, so as to remove any portions of 
 grease remaining upon it, or the mould which has formed 
 on the surface. A polish is given with sour 
 ' beer or barberry juice, and the surface is slicked 
 with a very smooth stretching-iron or a lump 
 of smooth glass (Fig. 166). 
 
 If any spots of grease or defects of surface 
 remain, the parts which are thus deficient are gently 
 rubbed with a cloth dipped in the polishing liquid, until 
 they become perfectly bright. The leather is finally 
 hung up to dry in a place not exposed to the direct rays 
 of the sun. 
 
 For blacking leather, the Parisia^j carriers usually em- 
 ploy hatters' black, which is composed of logwood, nut- 
 galls, gum, and copperas. 
 
 The best dye is made in the following manner : Scraps 
 of old rusted iron are deposited in a deep vessel and 
 covered with sour beer, which is allowed to act upon 
 them for three months. A red liquid is thus formed, 
 which is a solution of acetate of iron, and which blackens 
 the leather better, and with more rapidity, than the solu- 
 tion of copperas. 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 475 
 
 Another liquid may be made use of, which is less ex- 
 pensive and requires less time in the preparation. Sour 
 beer is mixed with yeast from barley, and, after twenty- 
 four hours, is added to a solution made by boiling cop- 
 peras in vinegar, care being taken first to remove all the 
 yeast from the surface. A mixture of solutions of sul- 
 phate and of acetate of iron is thus formed. 
 
 TALLOWED SKINS, OR GRAINED LEATHER. 
 
 Tallowed or grained cow-skins are those the grain of 
 which has been brought out, instead of being smoothed 
 down and polished, as in sleeked leather. These skins 
 are softer and more flexible than the latter, and are less 
 liable to be penetrated by moisture ; trunk-makers, sad- 
 dlers, and harness-makers make use of them for applica- 
 tions of leather which require these qualities, and the 
 largest of them for carriage-tops. 
 
 For the preparation of this kind of leather, the finest 
 cow-skins are selected, and these are not cut in half, but 
 are dressed entire. The skins are first trodden out with 
 the feet until the irregularities of surface are made to 
 disappear, and are then pared with the head-knife, in 
 order to secure perfect uniformity of surface. The edge 
 of this knife should be perfectly straight and even, so 
 that the leather may not be streaked or scratched by its 
 use. After this operation, the skin is half dried, and 
 then worked again with the feet while in that state, and 
 trodden out so as to be even and free from all depressions 
 of surface. 
 
 The leather is now again exposed to dry, but not to 
 complete dessication; it is beaten once more, and then 
 rolled up first upon the flesh, and afterwards upon the 
 hair side, by which the creases are made to disappear. 
 
476 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 If it has become too hard for this operation, it is moist- 
 ened by sprinkling with water from a brush. Finally, it 
 is pommelled with the cork from tail to head. 
 
 The leather is now dried, not thoroughly, but suffi- 
 ciently to allow merely an insensible amount of moisture 
 to remain in it, and is then tallowed in the manner 
 already described, after having been flamed on both sides. 
 Before this process, some tanners are in the habit of 
 sprinkling water from a brush over both surfaces, so as 
 to increase the pliability of the leather; but the practice 
 is improper, inasmuch as the excess of water must pre- 
 vent the grease from thoroughly penetrating the sub- 
 stance. From 3i to 4i lbs. of tallow are usually re- 
 quired for a cow-skin, and rather more than 1 lb. for a 
 thick calf-skin. 
 
 After the skins have been tallowed, they are rolled, 
 and left folded, up with the hair side within, for some 
 hours or even days. They are then folded square, and 
 placed to soak in a tubfull of water during eight or ten 
 hours, and are worked while in the water, until the ex- 
 cess of grease which has remained upon their surfaces, 
 is washed or floated off. The soaking has been sufficient 
 when these latter assume a uniformly white appearance. 
 
 In order to bring out the grain, the leather is now well 
 worked with the marguerite^ and the hair side is pom- 
 melled, after which both sides are cleaned with a horse- 
 hair brush, and the creases are taken out from the parts 
 which have been folded, by the use of a smooth stretch- 
 ing-iron (Fig. 167), the operation being conducted upon a 
 Fig. 167. clean table. The skins are then sprinkled with 
 < ^ ^ water, cleaned again, doubled up and hung 
 out to dry, retouched with the stretching- 
 iron, and finally moistened slightly before the application 
 of the black. 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 477 
 
 ThQ blacking composition is prepared and applied in 
 the same manner as in the case of sleeked leather. The 
 skins are then half dried, blacked a second time, smoothed 
 with the stretching-iron, wiped, folded up with the hair 
 side wdthin, and piled upon each other in that condi- 
 tion. They are then taken down, blacked a third time, 
 smoothed and wiped as before, and then perfectly dried. 
 They then receive a coat of sour beer, and the four 
 quarters are worked with the margueodte ; the hair side is 
 pommelled across, and rubbed with a piece of old blanket 
 or flannel, and a second coating of sour beer is applied. 
 
 When smoothed and cleaned by these means, the 
 lustre is brought out by the use of the stretching-iron, by 
 wiping with the old flannel, and by rubbing the surface 
 lightly with a smooth, compact piece of woollen stuff 
 dipped in the barberry juice. The surface is then pom- 
 melled, first obliquely, afterwards across the breadth of 
 the skin, and finally from tail to head, so as to round off 
 the grain as much as possible. 
 
 Finally, to give the last dressing to the leather, it is 
 heated again with sour beer, exposed anew to the air 
 until dry, and once more rubbed with a cloth dipped in 
 barberry-bush juice. 
 
 A workman is usually occupied eleven or twelve 
 days in preparing thus completely a dozen black skins. 
 
 Tallowed hides are made use of by trunk-makers, 
 harness-makers, and saddlers, and serve for saddle-flaps 
 and carriage-covers; the largest and finest of them being 
 reserved for carriage-tops. One of these skins, without 
 natural defect, and perfectly prepared in every part, is 
 always looked upon by the currier as the triumph of his 
 art. 
 
 Different materials may be used for the purpose of 
 giving a lustre to skins of this kind, as sumach, hot 
 
478 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 ooze and water, sour wine, or weak brandy. By dissolv- 
 ing gum Arabic and sugar in sour beer, an admirable 
 liquid for the purpose may be obtained. Many other 
 means are employed for giving a gloss to the surface, 
 some consisting of sugar or molasses dissolved in beer, 
 others of infusions of cassia in beer and vinegar, sepa- 
 rately prepared, and then mixed together; cherries, goose- 
 berries, or common gum can be equally well used for the 
 purpose. All of these substances are less expensive than 
 the barberry, and quite as efl&cacious. 
 
 WATER-LEATHER. 
 
 This name applies to the larger and finer neat-skins, 
 which are sent direct from the tannery to the currier, 
 who does nothing but pare and expose them to the air 
 before sending them, still in the wet state, to the carriage- 
 maker. The latter does not receive these skins until 
 about to make use of them. He then places them upon 
 the carriage, fixes them in position, and without making 
 other changes, blackens and varnishes them. The car- 
 riage-tops made in this way are called imperials, or 
 capotes. 
 
 OIL-LEATHER. 
 
 Two kinds of oil-leather are manufactured, the one 
 black, intended for the harness-maker; and the other 
 uncolored, for the use of shoemakers. This kind of 
 leather is exceedingly durable, and curriers always select, 
 for the preparation of it, the most entire and well-tanned 
 skins they can find. 
 
 Whether skins are intended to be hlachened or not, 
 they should in either case be dipped, but after this part 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 479 
 
 of the operation has been gone through with, they should 
 be kept separate, as the future processes are essentially 
 different for the two kinds. 
 
 Those skins intended to be blackened on the hair-side, 
 should alone be beaten. The operation is then finished 
 with the round or head knife. At first, they are treated 
 like tallowed hides ; that is, they are dipped, and then 
 beaten, if the intention be to trim them with the round- 
 knife, and they are fleshed if this is not the case. They 
 are then worked with water in a cask (Fig. 168), with a 
 
 Fig. 168. Fig. 169. 
 
 long pestle (Fig. 169). A number can be operated upon 
 at a time; and as the object is to make them pliable and 
 soft, they are often treated in this way seven or eight 
 times, being each time re-dipped, and worked in the same 
 manner. 
 
 After the skins have thus been well worked, the flesh 
 side is stretched upon mai'ble tables, and the hair side 
 worked with the stone, and to extend them thoroughly, 
 the stretching-iron is well laid on, by which process all 
 the water is pressed out. The stone used for the pur- 
 pose is a piece of good grit stone, set in a handle in the 
 same manner as the stretching-iron. The skins having 
 in this way been freed from the greater portion of their 
 
480 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 watery contents, are then exposed, for the purpose of 
 drying, either in the open air or within the building; 
 one hour's exposure usually sufficing in summer, while 
 in winter many more are required. After being suffi- 
 ciently dried, they may at once be held in readiness for 
 the application of the oil. 
 
 Fish-oil alone is sometimes used for this purpose, but 
 the experience of nearly a century has proved that train- 
 oil scouring is of all fatty substances the best for the 
 purpose. It is a mixture of fish-oil and of potash, which 
 has already served to clean skins converted into chamois 
 leather; and many advantages are obtained by using it. 
 It has more density than ordinary fish-oil, and is more 
 completely absorbed by the leather. Its saponaceous 
 quality contributes to give softness and tenacity, and less 
 of it is required than of oil. Its quality should, however, 
 be well ascertained before using it, as if it has not been 
 well boiled, and still contains water, it will not possess 
 the proper penetrating power. Train-oil scouring can be 
 procured in all places where chamois leather is manu- 
 factured, but that used by French and Parisian curriers 
 is almost entirely supplied by Grenoble, Strasburg, and 
 Niort. 
 
 According to Delalande, neat's-foot oil adds to the 
 good qualities of leather. It is only necessary to boil 
 the feet, &c., thoroughly in water, to draw off the liquor, 
 and place it in a kettle with water heated to the boiling 
 point. This is boiled for nearly twenty-four hours. The 
 pure oil which rises to the top is drawn off, and placed 
 in another kettle containing water at about 125° F. 
 After allowing it to remain at this temperature for 
 twenty-four hours more, it is cooled, and three different 
 layers of oil which rise to the surface, are drawn off sepa- 
 rately by as many spigots in the side of the vessel. The 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 481 
 
 heaviest of these is said by Delalande to render leather 
 perfectly impervious to water. 
 
 Whatever be the quality of the scouring, it is impos- 
 sible to employ it alone, but it must invariably be mixed 
 with fish oil. The proportions of this mixture it is im- 
 possible to give accurately, as they depend upon differ- • 
 ent circumstances, some of which have reference to the 
 temperature of the air, the kind of leather employed, 
 and the dressing intended to be given to it, and others 
 to the consistence of the scouring itself, and finally to 
 the peculiar mode of operating pursued by the currier. 
 Thus in summer, but a small quantity of oil is added to 
 make the mixture, while in winter a much larger pro- 
 portion is required. Poor and thin hides, which have 
 been left too long a time in the lime-pits, require but 
 little oil and a good deal of oil scouring, because they 
 cannot retain much of the oleaginous matter, and would 
 absorb too quickly that which has the greatest pene- 
 trating power. When the skins are exposed to the 
 action of the mixture, they imbibe upon the first appli- 
 cation much more than upon the second. The denser 
 the oil scouring, the more oil is required ; but the quan- 
 tity of the latter, which is often made to amount to 
 one-fourth of the mixture, should never exceed one-half 
 of it. 
 
 Experience has shown that for a neat-skin weighing 
 16 lbs., 4 lbs. of the oily material are required, and that 
 10 lbs. are expended upon a dozen calf-skins weighing 
 30 lbs., thus giving the proportions of about one-fourth 
 of their weight of oil for the former, and one-third for 
 the latter. 
 
 The skins which are intended to undergo the oiling 
 process should contain just enough water to enable them 
 to yield a small quantity upon being wrung out. If 
 
482 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 they be dry or only slightly moistj they will absorb the 
 oil too rapidly, while it is essential for the perfection of 
 the process that their substance be gradually penetrated 
 by it. When, on the contrary, they are still quite wet, 
 they take it up slowly, in proportion as they lose their 
 » water. The operator should, therefore, before oiling 
 them, carefully ascertain that they are just wet enough 
 for the purpose, and should moisten again those parts of 
 them which have become too dry. The other extreme 
 should, however, be as carefully guarded against; as, 
 when the hides are very wet, too much of the oil scouring 
 is consumed in forming a soapy compound with the 
 water. 
 
 After the skins have received their coating of oil upon 
 both sides, and the workman has uniformly distributed 
 it over the surfaces with the hand or the t alio wing-cloth, 
 he hangs them up by the hind quartei^s, and allows them 
 to remain in the air long enough to absorb their contents 
 of oil, taking care not to let them be exposed to the ex- 
 treme heat of the sun or to a great draught of air, as if 
 they be dried too rapidly, the oil will not penetrate them 
 in the gradual manner necessary for the perfection of 
 the process. Ten or twelve hours of exposure are usu- 
 all}^ sufficient in summer, while in winter, two or three 
 days are often required. 
 
 The bellies of neat sides require less oil than the other 
 parts, while, on the contrary, those of calf-skins absorb 
 more. 
 
 The oil scouring should never be warmed in winter, as 
 is often done. 
 
 No uniform method of oiling skins is pursued. In some 
 establishments, the oil alone is applied to the hair side, 
 while a mixture of oil and scouring is placed upon the 
 flesh side ; and in others, again, the mixture is applied to 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 483 
 
 both surfaces. Some curriers again, make use of no oil 
 whatever ; but apply the oil scouring to both sides, tak- 
 ing care only to stuff the flesh side most plentifully with 
 it. These different modes of proceeding seem to succeed 
 almost equally well, and we refrain from condemning 
 any one of them ; but will observe that in every instance 
 care must be taken not to give the hair side too large a 
 quantity of scouring, or it will be very difficult to give 
 the requisite gloss to that surface. It is also necessary 
 to add, that those skins intended for saddlers' use, do 
 not require one-third as much oil stuffing as is needed 
 for shoemakers' leather. 
 
 After the skins have become sufficiently dry, they are 
 to be fulled, and recharged with some of the fish-oil and 
 a lesser quantity of oil scouring, again fulled, and finally, 
 the hair side is to be thoroughly scoured by a brush 
 dipped in a solution of potash. The skins are imme- 
 diately after this blackened, care being taken to keep 
 the borders clean. The blacking, which has already 
 been described, is used and always applied in the same 
 manner. 
 
 After the first blacking, the skins are pommelled cross- 
 wise, a second coating of black is applied, and they are 
 exposed to the air until completely dry. When dry, they 
 are beaten, pommelled, and trimmed, passed over with 
 the head or the round knife, then rubbed with the cork, 
 and the process is completed by lightly oiling the hair 
 side. (See a cork pommel, at Fig 170.) 
 
 These last operations, again, are differently 
 performed by different curriers. Some, after ^^^^A 
 the first coating of black, do not full the skins, ' 
 but pass the stretching-iron over them upon the table. 
 They then moisten the hair side, pass over it the solu- 
 tion of potassa, and give the second coat of black. To 
 
484 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 smooth them and to impart grain, they pommel them 
 from tail to head, and also across the grain. Either of 
 these methods may be pursued, but the last is preferable. 
 As harness-makers need for their purposes very strong 
 skins, square oiled hides or croupous are prepared espe- 
 cially for them, or skins, the heads and belly pieces 
 {tetes et ventres) of which have been cut off, by which 
 each skin is reduced to one metre forty-six in length, 
 and one metre and some centimetres in breadth. (See a 
 croupon, Fig. 171.) 
 
 Uncolored leather, which remains to be noticed, will 
 be considered in a separate article. 
 
 Waxed skins are those which have been rubbed over 
 with wax, melted and maintained at a heat sufficiently 
 great to allow it to penetrate the leather. As this mode 
 of treating them is costly, very few of them are now 
 prepared, particularly as the saddlers and harness-makers, 
 for whose use they have generally been furnished, no 
 longer buy them. Nowadays the name is applied almost 
 entirely to the tallow hides, which originally had great 
 consistency, as they were prepared with great care. 
 Some manufacturers, to give great firmness to certain 
 skins, add to the tallow from one-eighth to one-fourth 
 of wax. In general, smooth sleeked skins, with this 
 
 Fig. 171. 
 
 WAXED LEATHER. 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 485 
 
 property of great firmness, are used and sold by carriage- 
 makers as waxed skins, and are held in great esteem for 
 their beauty and durability. 
 
 ENGLISH HIDES. 
 
 Those smooth and well-grained skins are so called, 
 which are made pliable by means of tallow, and retain 
 their reddish or yellowish color. For this purpose well- 
 tanned skins of the best quality, which are white on the 
 hair side, perfectly clean, and free from greenness are 
 selected. Those from Louviers and Nemours are pre- 
 ferred. These skins are dipped in the same manner as 
 the sleeked leather, and the workman should handle 
 them with the utmost care, as the least spot renders them 
 unfit for use. They are then worked and pared, after 
 having been dipped and exposed to the air, and are well 
 pommelled on both sides to efiace the wrinkles, and dried 
 thoroughly before being tallowed. 
 
 When this is done, the hair side is wet with a clean 
 cloth dipped in pure water, to prevent the tallow from 
 entering the weak parts. The tallow applied to the flesh 
 side should not be as warm as that used for the tallow 
 hides and sleeked leather; and as one of the principal 
 objects of the process is to make them retain their 
 natural color, only a small quantity should be applied, 
 so that it shall not penetrate fully to the hair side. 
 After being tallowed, the hides should be soaked for a 
 half hour in clean water. Dessables thus describes the 
 process. 
 
 "When the skins have been soaked, they should be 
 worked in water, stretched, and a light and uniform 
 coating of fish-oil, or what is better, linseed-oil, spread 
 over the hair side with a piece of wool or cloth. They 
 
486 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 should then be allowed to dry, and the process finished 
 in the same way as with sleeked leather, except that a 
 stretching-tool of copper is used instead of one of iron, 
 which might spot or soil the surface. After the skin is 
 thoroughly dry, a color made with French berries is 
 applied on the hair side. Six hides may be colored with 
 two grammes of berries, which quantity is to be placed 
 in a litre of beer. The color should be laid on with the 
 utmost care, so as to secure a uniform coating, and also 
 as briskly as possible, otherwise, the skin will be spotted 
 or discolored. 
 
 "After coloring the skins, they are to be exposed to dry 
 in the open air, avoiding the direct heat of the sun, 
 which would cause the oily matter to penetrate through 
 to the hair side, and to discolor its surface. The bar- 
 berry is not required, but it is sufficient to rub the skin 
 until it becomes dry with a small cloth or piece of linen, 
 by which the surface is rendered sufficiently smooth and 
 polished. Some curriers do not even color skins of this 
 kind, but content themselves with smoothing them. 
 
 " A method still different from this is sometimes fol- 
 lowed. When the skins meant to be yellowed have been 
 properly prepared, they are pommelled to make the in- 
 equalities of the surface disappear, and fulled in a cask 
 containing clean water (Fig. 172). They are then placed 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 
CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 487 
 
 upon a marble table with the flesh side uppermost, 
 again replaced upon the stone with the hair side up for 
 stoning, and drawn out with the stretching-iron. This 
 should be pressed down very firmly, for the purpose of 
 stretching the leather, and of making it compact and firm. 
 They are then dried a little, and again and again treated 
 with the stretcher of copper, care being taken to dry 
 them well after each dressing, with a clean woollen cloth. 
 After this linseed-oil is applied to the hair side, and a 
 composition of equal parts of fish-oil, oil scouring, and 
 fine white tallow, melted together and passed through a 
 hair-cloth sieve, is used for the flesh side. 
 
 In order that the shoulders and legs should have a 
 uniform color with the body, it is proper to apply a less 
 amount of the liquid to them. After this oiling, the 
 skins are dried by hanging them upon a rod, with its 
 ends passed through the tail and one of the legs. When 
 dry, they are placed anew upon a table of marble; the 
 flesh side is forcibly stretched out with a warm stretching- 
 iron, for the purpose of cleaning them and making them 
 compact. The hair side is then placed upwards, moist- 
 ened with a little clean water, treated with the copper 
 stretcher, dried carefully with a clean rag, and passed over 
 wdth the stretcher once more before the final drying. 
 Sometimes a color made with a little Brazil wood, yellow 
 berries, and glue, heated together, is used. This color is 
 passed rapidly and lightly over the hair side, and the 
 leather is then stretched and exposed to the air until 
 perfectly dry, and is finally sliclced with a piece of glass, 
 attached to a handle like that of a stretching-iron. Skins 
 prepared is this way are higher priced than tallowed 
 leather, and are chiefly used by harness-makers. 
 
488 
 
 CURRYING OF LEATHER. 
 
 WHITE LEATHER. 
 
 This kind of leather is used chiefly by shoemakers for the 
 uppers of large shoes, the hair side being placed within. 
 The skins are not worked up whole, but are made into 
 square hides by cutting off the head and bellj'-pieces, 
 which J being too thin for the purposes for which the 
 leather is employed, are used for the first or upper soles. 
 
 The skins are first well dipped, and then scraped care- 
 fully with the head-knife without being shaved. They 
 are then treated on both sides with the oil and train-oil 
 scourings, dried, beaten out with the feet, trimmed on 
 the borders, pressed and pommelled to efface the creases. 
 The preparation is completed by pommelling with the 
 cork, so as to smooth the flesh, and grain the hair side. 
 
 This leather should be well stuffed, each skin absorb- 
 ing usually three and a quarter pounds of oil and train- 
 oil scourings. Some curriers confine themselves to pom- 
 melling these skins on both sides, and then drying them, 
 asserting that they are finer for not being beaten. 
 
 COMMON RUSSET. 
 
 Leather of this quality is prepared in the same manner 
 as blackened leather, except that it is allowed to absorb 
 grease to saturation, so as to increase, as much as possible, 
 its strength and pliability. For this purpose, after the 
 skins have been tallowed and half dried in the air, they 
 are imbued with train-oil scourings on both sides, about 
 one pound ten ounces being used for each skin. This 
 leather preserves nearly its original color, and is used 
 chiefly for pump-valves, mail-bags, bellows, and for other 
 purposes not requiring much beauty of surface. 
 
CHAPTER XLYII. 
 
 CURRYINa OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 Sometimes calf-skins are prepared almost in the same 
 manner as neats-leather, the thickest and largest of them 
 being occasionally used for the same purposes as square 
 hides; but the latter being commonly employed in the 
 manufacture of soles, the calf-skin leather being only 
 used for uppers, and being consequently required to pos- 
 sess more pliability and softness, must be treated by 
 processes differing from those to which thick leather is 
 subjected. 
 
 OILED CALF-SKINS. 
 
 As soon as the skins are taken from the pits, they are 
 dried immediately, scraped and trodden out under the 
 feet, and then oiled on both sides. Some curriers make 
 use of warm oil in winter. The mixture of equal parts 
 of oil and train-oil scouring is generally used as in the 
 oiling of cow-skins; but if the train-oil scouring be 
 very clear, it can be employed alone. From eleven to 
 thirteen pounds of the oil are commonly required for a 
 dozen calf-skins weighing from thirty-three to forty 
 pounds, though experience alone will enable the work- 
 man to judge of the amount which the skins are capable 
 of absorbing without injury. The application of an 
 32 
 
490 
 
 CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 excess of fatty matter should generally be avoided, as it 
 tends to make the leather too soft and flabby. Skins, 
 which have been exposed too long in the lime-vats, do 
 not take up, or retain as much oil as those which have 
 not been thus injured. After having been oiled, the 
 skins are dried and generally are dressed and softened 
 V by beating with the feet, and bringing out the grain in 
 the usual manner. The mode of preparation, however, 
 varies with the uses for which the skins are intended ; 
 those which are to be waxed, or converted into grained 
 or stamped leather, not being worked with the feet. 
 
 In order to cleanse and soften the leather, and to pre- 
 pare the hair side for the reception of the black, a brush 
 is dipped in a solution of potash made by dissolving 
 rather more than a pound of potash in a bucket-fall of 
 water, and is passed over the surface. A stronger solu- 
 tion might injure the leather, but one of the strength 
 indicated is sufficient to combine with the excess of oil 
 upon the surface, converting it into soap, and enabling 
 the coating of black to adhere more readily to the sur- 
 face. This operation completed, the blacking liquid, 
 which has already been spoken of, is applied at once, 
 care being taken not to lay on a large enough quantity 
 to penetrate below the surface of the leather. The skins 
 are then pommelled from head to tail with a medium- 
 sized pommel, used with four parts of oil and one of 
 train-oil scouring, in order to smooth down the long 
 ridges which traverse the leather in different directions. 
 A second coat of black is then applied, and, if necessary, 
 the leather is again charged with the same oily mixture, 
 after which it is thoroughly dried by exposure to air. 
 It is then trodden out, pommelled on both sides, pared 
 down on the borders with the head-knife, and scraped 
 with the round-knife. To complete the preparation, it 
 
V 
 
 CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 491 
 
 is pommelled with the cork, and lightly rubbed over upon 
 the grain with fish-oil, in order to deepen the color, the 
 appearance of which the previous working may have 
 injured. 
 
 Another method is sometimes followed. The skins, 
 wdien dry, after oiling, are soaked in a tub until suf- 
 ficiently damp, without being thoroughly penetrated by 
 moisture, and are then pommelled lengthwise and blacked. 
 After this, they are pommelled crosswise, blacked a se- 
 cond time, charged with the oily mixture mentioned 
 above, dried thoroughly, and finally worked with the 
 pommel from head to tail, and oiled as before. 
 
 TALLOWED CALF-SKINS. 
 
 A large proportion of the calf-skins used are oiled;: 
 but those which are tallowed are much less liable to be 
 penetrated by moisture. To prepare them, the dry skins- 
 are sprinkled with water from a brush and are scraped 
 with a dull knife, or with the stretching-iron, unless it 
 is desirable to diminish their thickness by paring. The 
 head is then pared down with the head-knife as far as 
 the junction of the neck, and the body is lightly fleshed 
 with the same instrument, the surface being well moist- 
 ened to prevent the knife from entering too deeply. The 
 skins are then dried and pommelled upon the flesh with 
 a large pommel, and upon the grain with the cork, in- 
 stead of using pumice-stone, which was formerly em- 
 ployed. They are then tallowed in the same manner as 
 cow-skins, dried, worked und^r water, pommelled, and 
 blackened twice; after which, they are pommelled again, 
 and polished or rubbed upon the grain side with clear oil. 
 From thirteen to sixteen and a half pounds of tallow are 
 
492 
 
 CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 required for a dozen calf-skins weighing from forty-two 
 to forty-four pounds. 
 
 These skins are used by harness-makers and saddlers 
 for the covers of horse-collars and other purposes. Thej 
 are also employed in the manufacture of thick shoes^ and 
 to cover trunks, chairs, and tables. 
 
 ENGLISH CALF-SKINS. 
 
 The best kinds of skins are selected for the prepara- 
 tion of this kind of leather, and the processes employed 
 in its manufacture are similar to those by which the cow- 
 skins, intended for corresponding purposes, are prepared. 
 The skins are tallowed upon the flesh side, but only a 
 small quantity of grease is used, so that the leather may 
 not be penetrated by it, and this and the succeeding 
 manipulations must be conducted with the greatest skill 
 and care, in order to avoid injuring or soiling the sur- 
 faces. 
 
 The thicker skins are curried white for the uppers of 
 thick shoes, while the thinner ones are used for thin soles. 
 Formerly, the white leather of this sort was used for 
 heel-rands. The skins are slightly moistened, pommelled 
 in every direction, and after being oiled and thoroughly 
 cleaned, should be shaved down on the borders, pared 
 from tail to head, worked two together, with their flesh 
 sides in contact, until soft, and then pommelled, scraped 
 with the round-knife, and passed over with the cork. 
 The greatest care should be taken in all these operations, 
 to avoid scraping or scratching the surfaces, which are 
 much more liable to receive injury than those of neats- 
 leather. If any of the skins are found to have been 
 taken from stillborn calves, injury to them is avoided 
 
CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 493 
 
 by passing them through tan-liquor and exposing them 
 again for a time in the pits, 
 
 WAXED SKINS. 
 
 This kind of leather has only been prepared during 
 the last forty years, yet so great a degree of perfection 
 has been attained in its manufacture that it is now very 
 generally used for the legs of boots, and for men's and 
 women's shoes. 
 
 The heads and ends of the extremities of skins about 
 to be converted into it, are first cut off, and the leather 
 is then moistened, fleshed, and pared so as to be perfectly 
 uniform throughout ; being reduced to the thickness 
 suitable for the purposes for which it is required. It is 
 then deposited in a tub-full of water, and is beaten with 
 a rammer or pestle, and then scraped upon a marble or 
 wooden table with the slate, first upon the flesh, and af- 
 terwards upon the hair side. After this proceeding, it is 
 washed, scraped with the stretching-iron, and partially 
 dried. When the proper degree of desiccation has been 
 arrived at, it is worked again with the slate and stretch- 
 ing-iron, only upon the hair side, and is then oiled on 
 both sides ; a mixture of oil and of train-oil scouring being 
 applied to the flesh, and clear oil, or a combination of 
 oil and tallow, made thick enough not to spread beyond 
 the place upon which it is deposited, upon the hair side. 
 This latter mixture is a very suitable application in sum- 
 mer, when oil alone is almost too fluid. As soon as the 
 leather has imbibed a suflicient quantity of oily matter, 
 it is dried and thoroughly cleaned and smoothed upon 
 marble, or a smooth table, by the use of a hot stretching- 
 iron. It is then pommelled from head to tail, and from 
 
494 
 
 CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 the quarters; is placed on the horse (Fig. 173), and 
 cleaned with the head-knife^ and rubbed across with the 
 cork. 
 
 Fiff. 173. 
 
 After these preliminary operations^ the leather is 
 ready to receive the composition, which must be applied 
 with the greatest care and exactness, so as to secure per- 
 fect uniformity of surface and of color, either extreme of 
 applying too much or too little being avoided, so that on 
 the one hand the leather may not be entirely penetrated 
 by the fatty substances, and on the other that the color- 
 ing material may be just sufficient in quantity to blacken 
 the whole surface. 
 
 The composition is applied cold upon the flesh side with 
 a brush, and is prepared by melting tallow, and mixing it 
 thoroughly with enough oil and lampblack to give it the 
 proper color and such a degree of consistence that it shall 
 neither be too thick nor too thin to be applied in the cold 
 state. For this purpose, the ingredients may be mixed 
 together in the proportion of one pound of lampblack to 
 twelve of oil and six of tallow. When this mixture has 
 been smoothly and uniformly applied, the leather is 
 placed upon the table, and any inequalities which may 
 exist upon its surface, are smoothed down or removed by 
 passing the flat of the hand over it, after which it is 
 cleaned with a brush. 
 
 A second coating is now applied above the first, but 
 
CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 495 
 
 of a different mixture, made by thoroughly incorporating 
 together (by grinding and not by melting) two parts of 
 glue and one part of tallow. This is put on with a brush 
 in the same manner, and with the same precautions as 
 the first one, being smoothed with the hand, and at last 
 slicked over with the lump of glass. Still another ap- 
 plication is made to finish the preparation of the leather, 
 and this consists in sponging lightly^ the whole blackened 
 surface so as barely to moisten it with glue. 
 
 After this the skins are dried without exposure to 
 the sun. 
 
 Calf-skins prepared in this manner acquire a degree of 
 softness and suppleness which is not equalled by that of 
 any other kind of leather, and they have been much em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of the legs of boots and of 
 men's and women's shoes. 
 
 GRAINED CALF-SKINS. 
 
 The skins selected for the manufacture of this kind of 
 leather are first moistened ; and after the heads are pared 
 down in order to equalize the thickness, they are pom- 
 melled from tail to head, placed on the table, and scraped 
 with the stretching-iron. They are next beaten with the 
 pestle in a tub of water ; then smoothed out upon the 
 marble slab on both sides, in order to reduce tlie natural 
 grain of the leather, and dried until they have lost the 
 greater part of their moisture. The blacking, of which 
 we have already given the composition, is then applied 
 upon the hair side, the skins are again smoothed out, and 
 oiled upon both sides. They are dried, and deprived in 
 the usual manner by means of potash or lye of the ex- 
 cess of oil upon the surfaces, and are then smoothed 
 upon the grain with the stretching-iron. In order to 
 
496 
 
 CURRYING OF CALF-SKINS. 
 
 furrow the surface with the grain, the leather is then 
 placed upon the table with the hair side up, and is pom- 
 melled first crosswise, and then from tail to head, taking 
 care that the lines or grooves which correspond in di- 
 rection shall be perfectly parallel. For this purpose a 
 pommel is used with from forty-five to fifty teeth to the 
 inch. 
 
 Another coating of. black is now applied, and when 
 this has been absorbed b}^ the surface, oil and train oil 
 scouring are brushed over in suflRcient quantity for the 
 requirements of the leather, which is then dried. The 
 hair side is then pommelled in the same manner, and in 
 the same directions as before. The borders are pared 
 upon the horse with the round-knife, any injury to the 
 form of the grained surface being avoided, and finally a 
 light coating of pure and clear oil is spread over it. 
 
 CALF-SKIN LEATHER FOR BELTS. 
 
 For preparing this leather, the head and extremities 
 are cut off, the skins are soaked in a tub until sufficiently 
 wet, and then shaved upon the horse with the head- 
 knife until they are of equal thickness throughout. They 
 are then beaten in a trough with the pestle or rammer, 
 dried, and lightly greased upon the flesh side with a mix- 
 ture of equal parts of tallow and of oil, and upon the 
 hair side with linseed oil alone. After this operation, 
 they are dried, and worked upon the flesh with the 
 stretching-knife, and sliclced upon the grain with the 
 glass. Sometimes a grain is given them as described in 
 the last section. 
 
CHAPTER XLYIII. 
 
 CURRYINO OF GOAT-SKINS. 
 
 The preparation of these skins requires quite as much 
 labor as that of calf-skins, and much more care and at- 
 tention, on account of their greater thinness. The currier 
 receives them dried after having been oiled. They are 
 first softened by soaking for twenty-four hours in a vessel 
 * full of water ; then are trodden out under feet three at a 
 time, and scraped on the horse upon the flesh side only, 
 with a blunt knife. When nearly dry, they are oiled 
 with a mixture of train-oil scouring and oil, each dozen 
 of skins weighing from twenty to twenty-two pounds, 
 requiring from six and a half to nine pounds of oil. The 
 oiling having been completed, they are again trodden out, 
 scraped clean, and pommelled with instruments smaller 
 than those used for calf-skins. In order to free their 
 surfaces from the excess of oil, and to soften and brighten 
 them, four ounces of potash are dissolved in two buckets- 
 full of water, and the solution is passed lightly over the 
 grain side, the saponaceous compound formed by it with 
 the oil being wiped off. The quantity of potash solu- 
 tion prepared will be sufficient for six dozen skins. After 
 this, the leather is grained with the pommel, and is 
 rubbed with a bunch of straw in order to soften the 
 grain. It is then well wiped with a woollen rag, and 
 
498 
 
 CURRYING OF GOAT-SKINS. 
 
 blacked with a mixture made of one ounce of powdered 
 nutgalls, one pound one and a half ounces of copperas, 
 and a small portion of Brazil-wood boiled for a short 
 time in a little water, and then stirred about in a bucket- 
 full of the same. Six skins are blacked at a time, and 
 are then piled upon each other on the table or floor. 
 The pile is then turned, so that those which were blacked 
 first become uppermost, and each one, commencing with 
 the one on top, is thoroughly wiped with a woollen rag, 
 and is then stretched to dry. 
 
 When about three-quarters dry, they are blacked a 
 second time with a hard brush, the color being rapidly 
 and uniformly distributed over the surface, and they are 
 then wiped with a pad or roller made of blanket-stuff, 
 after which they are dried in the air. They are now 
 pommelled across the grain, wiped, moistened with sour 
 beer applied upon a piece of listing, and rubbed, to reduce 
 the grain, with a bunch of rushes or of straw. When 
 this operation is concluded, the borders are trimmed 
 upon the horse, the skins pared with the round-knife, 
 pommelled, and brightened wdth barberry-juice. This 
 last operation requires care, and is performed by passing 
 the listing, dipped in the polish, rapidly and lightly over 
 the surface from head to tail end across, and continuing 
 to rub while the rag remains moist, and until a polish is 
 given. The roller is then applied equally and forcibly 
 to the whole surface from head to tail ; the skin is pom- 
 melled lengthwise and across, and is then dressed upon 
 the grain with pure linseed-oil. 
 
 It was formerly the custom to form a diamond-grain 
 surf ice upon goat-skins, but at the present day they are 
 usually grained in straight parallel ridges, formed by 
 pommelling from head to tail alone. 
 
CURRYING OF GOAT-SKINS. 
 
 499 
 
 Another method of preparing goat-skins, which we 
 proceed to describe, has been proposed by Larue, a 
 Parisian currier. 
 
 Two skins are sprinkled at a time, upon the hair side, 
 with water from a brush, and are then placed upon each 
 other with their hair sides in contact, and after being 
 folded up into a cap-like form, are beaten with the feet 
 or with the mace. They are then pommelled from head 
 to tail and crosswise, being at the same time partially 
 and slightly moistened with water from the brush. A 
 dozen or more skins having been prepared in this way, 
 they are placed in a tub with a sufficient quantity of 
 water to cover them, and are beaten out with the mace 
 or rammer, after which they are stretched out smooth 
 upon the marble with a stretching-iron, and dried par- 
 tially. The hair sides are then washed over with a weak 
 solution of potash, the skins are scraped upon the flesh 
 with the stretcher, rubbed over with a bunch of straw, 
 stretched again, and wiped with a piece of woollen cloth 
 before being blacked. To make the color, one ounce 
 one and a half drachms of powdered nutgalls, and one 
 pound one ounce ten drachms of copperas, are boiled in a 
 sufficient quantity of water until nearly dissolved, when 
 the mixture is thrown into a bucket-full of water; a little 
 Brazil wood is added, and the whole is well stirred. 
 This is lightly spread with a brush over the hair sides, 
 and the skins are then dried. 
 
 In a variation from this method, sometimes adopted, 
 the skins are moistened with a solution of potash instead 
 of simple water. 
 
 When dry, a second coat of color is applied to the 
 skins with a hard brush made of hog's bristles, rapidly 
 passed over the surfaces, and pressed upon them with 
 
500 
 
 CURRYING OF GOAT-SKINS. 
 
 considerable force. After this, the hair sides are wiped 
 with a woollen cloth made into a pad or roller, and are 
 pommelled lengthwise. The edges are then pared upon 
 the horse with the head-knife, the leather is scraped and 
 wiped again, and finally pommelled either so as to pro- 
 duce parallel grooves or quadrilateral figures, the former 
 being generally preferred in goat-skins. The blackened 
 surfaces are finally polished by rubbing them with a 
 piece of cloth or list dipped in barberry -juice, and after 
 being smoothed by the roller, are oiled upon the hair 
 side with pure linseed-oil, which completes the opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Morocco and fancy-colored goat-skins, after being dyed, 
 require to be curried in order to bring them to their 
 original suppleness. Those which are intended for shoe- 
 makers' use, require the utmost amount of pliability, 
 and after being thinned on the flesh side, are rubbed 
 over with the polisher, and then grained on the flesh side 
 with a leaden or wooden pommel, channelled on the sur- 
 face with fine parallel grooves. Finally, they are reglazed 
 with the polisher, and then rubbed over with a cork- 
 pommel. 
 
 Pocket-book and case leather, in general, require to be 
 thinned evenly like the above, then slightly moistened, 
 smoothed on the table by stretching, and dried again. 
 The grain is imparted by passing them, w^hen in a moist 
 state, several times, in opposite directions, between cy- 
 linders which revolve nearly in contact. • 
 
 Bookhout and Cochen, of New York, have invented a 
 machine for smoothing, graining, and polishing, simulta- 
 neously, which does its work effectively and with dis- 
 patch. Below are two figures which represent the 
 machine itself, in perspective, and the sliding head in 
 
CURRYING OF GOAT-SKINS. 
 
 501 
 
 side elevation. In Fig. Hi, A A A, is the framework, 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 and a skin of leather passing over the 
 rollers C which are made to revolve 
 by means of a ratchet-wheel fastened 
 to the back end of the roller. H H is 
 the upper section of sliding head attached 
 to the connecting rod /, whence it derives its backward 
 and forward motion; and II, are the ways on which it 
 runs. These ways, as well as the clasps 0 G, and the 
 feeding rollers, are parallel with the motion of the finish- 
 ing tools a a, which are made of wood, metal, glass, 
 stone, or horn. 
 
 This rolling-mill w^ill finish about three dozen skins per 
 Jioiir, whereas the same number would be a full day's 
 work for an expert hand-worker. It also answers for 
 rolling heavy leather, and will smooth from forty to 
 sixty sides per hour. 
 
CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 RED LEATHER. 
 
 This kind of leather was very largely prepared in 
 former times, but is replaced, in a great measure, at the 
 present day, by Morocco sheep leather ; some of it, how- 
 ever, is still manufactured of a finer, but less permanent 
 color than Russia leather, and without its odor. These 
 skins have an average weight of twelve pounds, and are 
 used by harness, coach, and trunk-makers. 
 
 Fine clean skins, with a uniform smooth surface, and 
 which have not been tallowed, but have only received a 
 light coat of pure oil, are selected for this purpose. They 
 are dipped, pared, beaten under water, and dried in the 
 ordinary way, and coated with pure oil on the hair, and 
 a mixture of oil and oil-scouring upon the flesh sides, 
 about half a pound of each being used for the purpose. 
 A solution of alum in water, which probably acts as a 
 mordant for fixing the color, is then rubbed over the 
 hair side from head to tail with a brush, and, while still 
 wet with it, the skins are softened by beating and rub- 
 bing them, after which they are pommelled, dried, and 
 rubbed with a cork. 
 
 In order to prepare the color, about ten pounds of 
 quicklime are slaked and dissolved in four buckets-full 
 of water. On the third day, the clear liquor is decanted 
 off, and the half of it is emptied into a copper boiler. 
 
RED LEATHER. 
 
 503 
 
 In order to make two buckets-fall of color, eight and 
 three-quarter pounds of Brazil wood are then thrown 
 into this lime-water, and the mixture is rapidly boiled 
 with constant stirring, until reduced to half the original 
 quantity. It is then removed, and the remainder of the 
 lime-water is emptied into the boiler and evaporated to 
 one-half, when the first liquid is again thrown in the 
 boiler; and, after adding nine drachms of powdered coch- 
 ineal, the whole is boiled for a short time. While still 
 boiling, a lump of lime, of the size of an egg, is thrown in, 
 and the boiler is then removed from the fire and allowed 
 to cool. 
 
 This quantity of color is sufficient for reddening eigh- 
 teen or twenty skins. It is applied thoroughlj^ upon the 
 surfaces, being rubbed over in the direction from head 
 to tail. The skins are then partially dried, coated a 
 second time, entirely dried, and finally pommelled from 
 head to tail. After this, they are brushed over a third 
 time with the color, to which the white of an egg has 
 been added, are dried, greased with an oiled woollen rag, 
 and slicked smoothly with the glass, which is generally 
 made like a muller. They are finally rubbed over in 
 the usual way with barberry-juice, dried, and again 
 strongly slicked. 
 
 Another process for reddening leather has been given 
 by Dessables. In this, one pound one and a half ounces 
 of alum is dissolved by boiling in a pint and a half of 
 water, and the solution is poured into a large earthen 
 pan, and mixed with six and a quarter pints of clean 
 water. This quantity is sufficient to alum three dozen 
 calf-skins. 
 
 Three and one-quarter pounds of Brazil wood, and a 
 lump of fresh lime, of the size of an egg, are then boiled 
 for five or six hours in four gallons of water. 
 
504 
 
 RED LEATHER. 
 
 The skins, being in the same condition as before being 
 blacked, are rubbed over with a piece of wool dipped in 
 the alum liquor, and after being well dried, receive 
 three coats of the color in the same manner as before 
 described. 
 
CHAPTER L. 
 
 FAIR LEATHER. 
 
 This leather, used for the soles of ladies' shoes, is made, 
 preferably, from hides tanned with Spanish oak. After 
 having been soaked and scoured, they are separately 
 spread upon a clean table and sponged on the grain side 
 with the following mixture, reduced by dilution with 
 water : — 
 
 The proportions for nine and a half pints, which is 
 the quantity required for twenty-five sides, are — 
 
 Crystallized chloride of tin . 
 Muriatic acid, free from iron 
 Sulphuric ether . 
 Alcohol .... 
 Water . , . , 
 
 The tin salt is placed in a blue stone jar with the 
 acid, and the whole is stirred until perfect solution is 
 effected. The ether, alcohol, and water are then added 
 and stirred in successively. 
 
 This process, patented by Prof. J. C, Booth, of Phila- 
 delphia, is founded strictly upon scientific principles. 
 The tin-salt and acid are the bleaching agents, while 
 the alcohol, ether, and water are diluents as well as pro- 
 tectives against any destructive tendency of the former. 
 Its whitening effect extends throughout the hide, and is 
 33 
 
 8 ounces 
 
 4 fluidounces 
 
 8 
 
 32 " 
 40 " 
 
506 
 
 FAIR LEATHER. 
 
 not limited merely to the surface. After the application 
 of the liquor, the leather is oiled, dressed, and rolled, as 
 in the usual currying process. 
 
 This mixture is not appUcable to leather tanned with 
 black oak-bark, as it colors it yellow. 
 
CHAPTER LI. 
 
 WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 This chapter contains an account of certain processes 
 by which leather is said to be rendered water-proof; but, 
 however efficient they may be, it is doubtful whether 
 any such quality can be permanently imparted by the 
 proposed treatment. 
 
 1. PATENTED PROCESS OF MESSRS. SMITH AND THOMAS. 
 
 The leather, which it is intended to render impervious, 
 is first soaked for twenty-four hours in water, is then 
 pressed between iron cylinders in order to remove the 
 greater part of the moisture, and after being thoroughly 
 dried by exposure to the air during some days, is steeped 
 in the following mixture : — 
 
 Linseed oil .... 4 pints 
 
 Olive oil . . • . . . 2 " 
 
 Oil of turpentine ... 1 pint 
 
 Castor-oil 2 pints 
 
 Yellow wax . . . . 8 ounces 
 
 Pitch i " 
 
 The ingredients are mixed and boiled together in a 
 large earthen pan, and, while in a state of ebullition, 
 the leather is soaked in the mixture for a longer or 
 
508 
 
 WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 shorter time, according to its nature ; sole leather being 
 allowed to soak in it for twenty minutes, and cow and 
 calf skins, the legs of boots, &c., for ten minutes or more. 
 After being removed, they are drained and then pressed 
 between cylinders covered with copper. They are then 
 partially dried in a room in which a temperature of from 
 88° to 100° Fahrenheit is maintained; are pressed out 
 again, and, finally, entirely dried at the same tempera- 
 ture as before. 
 
 2. PATENTED PROCESS OF M. NENORY FOR PREPARING ELASTIC 
 AND IMPERVIOUS LEATHER. 
 
 Seventy-five pounds of linseed oil, and nine pounds 
 twelve ounces of litharge, are first boiled with moderate 
 heat, until the whole is reduced to two-thirds of its ori- 
 ginal quantity, and the oil thus prepared is set aside for 
 use. 
 
 3 pounds 12 ounces of old linseed oil, 
 
 8 ounces of white wax, 
 
 2 pounds 12 ounces of glue, 
 
 2 ounces of verdigris, and 
 
 2 pounds of water are then mixed together and 
 moderately heated in an iron pot, with frequent stirring, 
 over a slow fire, until the ingredients are united in a 
 uniform mixture. 
 
 50 pounds of the oil, prepared as above directed, 
 1 pound 8 ounces of the second mixture, above de- 
 scribed, 
 
 5 pounds of yellow wax, 
 
 6 pounds 8 ounces of oil of turpentine, 
 1 pound of balsam of Peru, 
 
 1 pound of oil of thyme, and 
 
 3 pounds of white rosin, are then melted together 
 
WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 509 
 
 over a slow fire, without being boiled, and when the 
 mixture of the ingredients is complete, the composition 
 is poured into jars or bottles, to be preserved for use. 
 
 When required for use, one of the jars containing the 
 mixture is placed near a fire, in order to render it suffi- 
 ciently fluid for application to the leather. The boots or 
 shoes which are to be made water-proof, are then well 
 cleaned and brushed, and are rubbed over with a sponge 
 or brush dipped in the composition ; the operation being 
 conducted either in the hot sunshine, or near a fire. 
 This is repeated as soon as the articles are dry, until 
 they are saturated with the mixture, and if any excess 
 of it remains upon the surface, it is to be rubbed off with 
 a thick cloth. By this operation, boots or shoes are said 
 to be rendered completely water-proof, and to acquire an 
 increase of suppleness, elasticity, and durability. 
 
 3. PROCESS OF M. J. DEANE, PATENTED IN 1844. 
 
 First Preparation, — 1. Take of linseed oil, neats-foot oil, 
 and rape-seed oil, 265 gallons, and reduce by boiling to 
 23 gallons. 
 
 2. A quantity of beef or mutton suet, rendered by 
 melting, straining, boiling with clear water, straining 
 again, and separating from the last particles of water by 
 pressing between the folds of bibulous material. 
 
 3. 37 pounds 8 ounces of the suet thus prepared, and 
 the same quantity of fresh wax are melted and stirred 
 together with the oil No. 1, until mixed, at a temperature 
 of about 150° Fahrenheit. 
 
 4. 2 pounds 3 ounces and 9 drachms of caoutchouc 
 in shreds, are dissolved in 16 pints and 12 ounces of 
 rectified oil of turpentine, at a temperature of 248° 
 
510 
 
 WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 Fahrenheit, the operation being conducted over a sand- 
 bath. 
 
 5. 11 pounds half an ounce of Burgundy pitch are 
 melted on a sand-bath, at a temperature of 194° F., in 
 22 pints 6 ounces of rectified oil of turpentine. The 
 solution of caoutchouc, No. 4, is then mixed with it, and 
 the whole is allowed to cool until it attains the tempera- 
 ture of 158° F., when it is mixed by stirring until the 
 whole is cold, with the melted fat, wax, and oil No. 3. 
 
 Second Preparation, — 11 pounds 9 drachms of yellow 
 rosin are dissolved in 33 pints 12 ounces of rectified oil 
 of turpentine, by heating over a sand-bath, at a tempera- 
 ture of 200° F., and when cooled down to 150°, the so- 
 lution is added to a mixture of oil, wax, and suet, in the 
 proportions directed for No. 3, of the first preparation. 
 
 Third Preparation. — 22 i gallons of pure whale oil, 
 and 16 i pounds of caoutchouc in shreds, are heated at a 
 temperature of from 190° to 240° F., until the latter is 
 perfectly dissolved. 
 
 Fourth Composition. — 16 i pounds of shreds of caout- 
 chouc are gently boiled over a sand-bath, in a quantity 
 of oil of turpentine, sufficient to cover them, until they 
 are dissolved. 22 J gallons of pure cod-liver oil, or whale 
 oil, at a temperature of 194° F., are then added. When 
 thoroughly mixed, the heat is allowed to fall to 150°, 
 when 8 pounds 14 ounces of wax are added to the mix- 
 ture, and the whole is stirred until cold. 
 
 The first two of these compositions are intended for 
 the preparation of skins for uppers, and the last two for 
 that of sole leather, and both kinds of leather are ren- 
 dered by them more flexible and durable, and perfectly 
 water-proof 
 
 The portions of leather intended for uppers, are placed 
 side by side, and upright, in a suitable vessel communi- 
 
WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 511 
 
 eating with a boiler. Either the first or the second com- 
 position is then placed in the boiler and heated to a tem- 
 perature of from 122° to 212° F., when it is drawn off 
 into the vessel containing the leather, until the latter is 
 entirely covered with it. After being steeped in the 
 mixture for two or three hours, the leather is exposed 
 to a partial vacuum in an air-tight reservoir, by which 
 the composition is made to penetrate its substance, and 
 it is then dried in a current of warm air. The first com- 
 position is suitable for skins properly tanned with oak 
 bark, and the second to those which have been tanned 
 imperfectly, or by other materials than bark. 
 
 Thin sole leather is impregnated with the third com- 
 position, and the thicker kind with the fourth. The 
 hides, or portions of them, are placed upon metal plates, 
 heated to 104° F., and are repeatedly covered with the 
 mixture by means of brushes saturated with it. They 
 are then made to absorb the composition, and to dry at the 
 same time, by exposure to a partial vacuum and currents 
 of rarefied air in an air-tight chamber, constructed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Manufactured articles of leather are prepared by warm- 
 ing them, smearing them with any one of the above- 
 described compositions, and drying at a moderately ele- 
 vated temperature. 
 
 4. CHEAP AND SIMPLE METHOD OF MAKING LEATHER 
 WATER-PROOF. 
 
 Two pounds of tallow, a pound of hogs' lard, a half 
 pound of turpentine, and the same quantity of beeswax 
 are melted together in an earthen pipkin. The boots 
 and shoes are dried and warmed, and the composition is 
 well rubbed into them, with a piece of tow dipped into 
 
512 
 
 WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 it; the articles being held near a hot fire until they have 
 imbibed as much as they can take up. This mixture 
 is used with very good effect by sportsmen. Another 
 mixture for the same purpose, which is much used by 
 iishermen, is applied in the same way. It consists of a 
 pound of beeswax, a half pound of rosin, and the same 
 quantity of beef-suet. 
 
 Jennings's process 
 
 Is founded upon the double decomposition of metallic 
 salts, by soluble soaps. The patentee dissolves any me- 
 tallic soap in an equal quantity of raw linseed oil, and 
 immerses the leather in the solution at 225°. When the 
 latter has become cold, the leather is taken out and dried 
 by exposure to air. Forty-eight hours suffice for the 
 whole process. 
 
 This invention is also applicable to canvas and simi- 
 lar fabrics. One hundred and twelve pounds of soft 
 soap being dissolved in 30 gallon-s of boiling water, the 
 solution is then heated at 212° F., with 56 to 66 pounds 
 of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc). An exchange of 
 bases takes place, insoluble oleate of zinc and soluble 
 alkaline sulphates being formed. The first rises to the 
 surface of the liquor, and must be reboiled in fresh 
 water to purify it of all soluble matters. 
 
 Five pounds of pearlash are next boiled with 50 gallons 
 of raw linseed oil, until the mixture assumes a soapy ap- 
 pearance; and to it, while still hot, are added, and well 
 stirred in, 2i pounds sugar of lead, 2 pounds litharge, 4 
 pounds red lead, and 21 pounds black rosin. The whole 
 is boiled for^n hour during constant stirring, and at the 
 end of that time, 30 pounds of the metallic soap are 
 added. The mixture is subsequently treated with 2 
 
 V 
 
WATER-PROOF DRESSINGS. 
 
 513 
 
 gallons of a liquor made by dissolving caoutchouc, in the 
 proportion of 24 ounces to one gallon of spirits of tur- 
 pentine. The mixture must be allowed to cool to 160° 
 F., and it may then be applied with a brush. Two, or 
 at most, three coats suffice ; but there must be a sufficient 
 interval between each to insure perfect drying. 
 
 The salts employed give their own characteristic 
 color to the mixture : for example, those of iron impart 
 a brown, and those of zinc and lead, a white. 
 
 • 
 
CHAPTEE LII. 
 
 JACOB PERKINS'S MACHINE FOR POMMELLING AND 
 GRAINING LEATHER. 
 
 Fig. 176, side view. 
 Fig. 177, front view. 
 Fig. 178, plan. 
 
 a. Framework held together by bolts with nuts. 
 
 h. Large horizontal wooden shaft, its iron pivot c turn- 
 ing in the copper collars d, 
 
 e. Four wooden arms radiating from the middle of the 
 shaft h, and curved at their bases. 
 
POMMELLING AND GRAINING LEATHER. 
 
 515 
 
 /. Four fluted or grooved cylinders of lignum vitas wood, 
 in the ends of the wooden arms. The grooves are near 
 or far from each other, according to the grain intended 
 to be given to the leather. 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 J" 
 
516 
 
 POMMELLING AND GRAINING LEATHER. 
 
 g. Two iron grooves attached to each of the arms, and 
 receiving the pivots of the cylinders / in their extremi- 
 ties; these grooves are kept in place by the guides and 
 slide against the blocks It, Fig. 176. 
 
 Fig. 176. Springs resting against the lower part of 
 the base of the grooves and by their elasticity tending 
 to push these grooves away from the shaft h, 
 
 L Screw and nut, the end of which presses to th^ 
 required extent upon the lower end of the groove g. 
 When this screw is tightened, the groove presses down 
 the spring, and approaches the shaft ; when loosened the 
 opposite movement takes place. 
 
 m. Pieces forming a support or frame, and curved in 
 the form of arcs of the circle of which the shaft is the 
 centre, so as to allow the arms to revolve freely. This 
 frame should be very firm, and supplied with a surface 
 of hard wood for the cylinders to rotate upon. 
 
 n. Circle attached by bolts to the arms, and serving to 
 strengthen them. 
 
 o. Pulley upon the shaft h, intended to receive the mo- 
 tive power by means of a band. 
 
 The leather, when prepared in the ordinary way, and 
 ready to be grained and polished, is placed upon the 
 wooden table or frame m, and the shaft h is turned. 
 The grooved cylinders /, stamp furrowed surfaces upon 
 the leather, and, owing to the resiliency of the springs, 
 adapt themselves to its variations of surface and thick- 
 ness. The skin is moved about by the workman so that 
 the different portions shall all be grained in the required 
 directions, and during the process, the surface of hard 
 wood m is from time to time moistened with water or oil, 
 to prevent it from becoming heated. 
 
 The cylinders /, in the course of their revolution, press 
 against brushes which keep them clean. Upon each of 
 
POMMELLING AND GKAINING LEATHER. 517 
 
 their axles is a ratchet-wheel with a catch Fig. 176, 
 the object of which is to prevent them from revolving. 
 When the grooves of the cylinder are worn out at one 
 point, they can be renewed by turning the cylinder round, 
 so as to present a new part of its circumference. 
 
 The shaft, the pulley, the arms, and the circular sup- 
 port can all be made of cast-iron in one piece. 
 
CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 MACHINES FOR SPLITTINa AND SHAVINa LEATHER. 
 
 Leather sides and skins are subjected to the action 
 of these machines, either to render them smooth and of 
 uniform thickness by the shaving off of all irregularities 
 or unevenness, or for the economical purpose of convert- 
 ing one side of thick leather into two, and rendering the 
 latter serviceable for uses to which in their original thick- 
 ness they would be inapplicable. 
 
 There are several machines for splitting leather, the 
 most favorably known of which are the following : — 
 
 Degrand's Machine. — A transverse section of this ma- 
 chine is shown in Fig. 179. A horizontal knife a, longer 
 
 than the greatest width of a skin, is fixed upon a wooden 
 table B. A cast-iron plate h is set in the table in front 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 519 
 
 of the knife-blade, and is intended to support the lea- 
 ther c at the desired elevation, its position being regu- 
 lated by screws and nuts. It is movable in every direc- 
 tion, being supported upon four springs. Above it, a 
 little wooden shelf cZ, which is pressed upon by a roller 
 maintains the leather in close contact with the plate, so 
 as to flatten and stretch it thoroughly before it is exposed 
 to the blade. One of the separated surfaces of the lea- 
 ther, as it rises over the knife, is attached to a wedge- 
 shaped tongue, which projects from the whole length of 
 the wooden roller c, and is wound up upon the latter as 
 it advances. 
 
 The leather is seen in the figure as split by the blade 
 of the knife, the upper portion of it being already rolled 
 upon the cylinder c. The lower half passes down under 
 the knife through a slit in the table, and the uncut por- 
 tion, which is about to be exposed to the action of the 
 blade, is seen resting upon the table, and pressed down 
 by the upper plate d. The movement of revolution is 
 given to the cylinder by a winch which turns a pinion 
 gearing with a toothed wheel at one of its ends. Two 
 operations are required to split the leather, one-half of 
 it being first separated, the skin being then unrolled from 
 the cylinder, turned, and the spht part attached to it, so 
 that the other half may be in like manner divided.* 
 
 Giraudon's Machine. — This interesting invention has 
 been described by M. Armengaud, in the Puhlication In- 
 
 * The author has omitted to explain the mode of forcing the edge of 
 the leather upon the knife-blade, by which the first part of the incision 
 is effected. The process can only be rationally understood by supposing 
 that a longitudinal incision is first made down the centre of the skin 
 extending half through its thickness, and that, while one edge of the 
 skin is attached to the roller, the knife is accurately engaged in the bot- 
 tom of the cut previously made. 
 
 \ 
 
520 SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 dustrielle des MacJdnes, outils et appareils, t. vi. liv. 9. 
 The machine is simple in construction^ operating rapidly 
 and continuously upon the skins exposed to its action, 
 and can be employed either for the purpose of dividing 
 the leather into thin sheets or leaves, or for that of 
 diminishing and equalizing its thickness. 
 
 The hide or skin which is to be cut is placed upon the 
 circumference of a large drum or cylinder A (Figs. 180, 
 
 Fio;. 180. 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 
SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 521 
 
 181, and 182), carefully turned and attached to three 
 crosspieces with six branches or spokes b, which are con- 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 nected with the cast-iron horizontal shaft c. This cylin- 
 der is hollowed out, as seen in the section shown in Fig. 
 183, for the reception of a kind of pincers d (Fig. 189), 
 which serve to support the extremity of one of the de- 
 
 rig. 183. 
 
 34 
 
522 
 
 SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 t ached portions of skin against the edge of the cylinder. 
 For this purpose, these pincers are all mounted upon the 
 same iron axle a, which rests upon small supports 
 fastened to the cylinder, and they are kept in place by 
 a flat, angular regulator. 
 
 The horizontal shaft c, which extends on each side 
 beyond the cast framework e, carries at one end the 
 larger cog-wheel f, which is geared with the endless 
 screw e (Figs. 184 and 185), situated at the lower part 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 of the machine, and revolving upon the axle /, the slow 
 movement of which is produced by means of the wheel 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 2^1 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 i> 
 
 G, the endless chain and the pinion h. This pinion 
 turns upon the cast-iron shaft h, which 
 is made to revolve by means of a strap 
 passed over one of the pulleys i; a fly- 
 wheel J giving the necessary uniformity 
 to the motion. A roller i, at the end of 
 a counterpoised lever/, presses against the 
 endless chain, and gives it the proper 
 
 amount of tension. 
 
SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 523 
 
 The shaft h is elbowed in the middle, so as to form a 
 crank for the head of the cast-iron rod k, which is 
 articulated at its other end with the middle of the mov- 
 able rabbit or carriage L (Figs. 183 and 186). At the 
 base of this is attached the long cutting steel blade which 
 is inclined a little in direction to the horizon, and 
 touches the exterior of the cylinder when made to ap- 
 proach it. It is very thin and of an undulating form, as 
 shown in the plan (Fig. 187), so as to act upon the leather 
 like a saw, the teeth of which are rounded off ; by which 
 arrangement it cuts more easily and with less wear of 
 edge. This knife-blade is attached to the base of the 
 rabbit by means of an iron plate m, the position of 
 which can be accurately adjusted with a screw. 
 
 The movable rabbit or carriage, is dove-tailed into 
 the tops of two cast-iron supports e, which compose the 
 framework. The grooved plates n above it, prevent any 
 deviation from the reciprocating rectilinear movement 
 produced by its connection with the crank. Thus the 
 same shaft h which moves the crank, causes the revolu- 
 tion of the lower axle /, and of the endless screw, by 
 means of which the drum upon which the skin is wound, 
 is also turned; but with a motion exceedingly slow, when 
 compared with that of the crank above, and the knife 
 connected with it. The ratio of size between the 
 pinion 7i, and the wheel G being as one to eight, and the 
 large wheel f having 244 teeth, it follows that the 
 cylinder only turns once while the axle / and the end- 
 less screw are making 244 revolutions, and the main 
 shaft H is making 1952. By causing the main shaft to 
 revolve 75 times in a minute, the knife is made to cut 
 the leather 150 times, so that a skin 78.74 inches in 
 length will be split in 15 J minutes. 
 
 The leather is maintained in close contact with the 
 
524 SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 cylinder in front of the knife-blade, by the pressure of a 
 series of flexible spring-keys which adapt themselves to 
 its irregularities of surface, and keep its uncut edge 
 firmly pressed down, by means of a crosspiece extending 
 along its whole breadth, and supported by projections 
 upon the inside of the framework. A strong bar g 
 serves to support the other ends of the springs, and also 
 assists in keeping the leather applied to the surface of 
 the cylinder. Two grooved uprights are adjusted in 
 rectangular vertical mortises of the framework, and the 
 screws x, in their lower parts, regulate the height of the 
 bar. 
 
 The lower separated portion of the split leather re- 
 mains in contact with the cylinder while it revolves, 
 and the upper part may be rolled off, if desired, upon a 
 roller placed above the machine. 
 
 When a skin is divided throughout, in order to replace 
 it by a fresh one, it is necessary to lower the cylinder 
 from its position, in order to disengage the knife from 
 the surfaces. For this purpose, the cushions r of its 
 axle are adjusted in movable collars supported upon 
 uprights s and s', which can be elevated or lowered by 
 means of iron swipes which are supported upon the 
 base of the framework e, and are connected by a cross- 
 bar, or treadle, which the workman can lower by a pres- 
 sure of his foot, the collars and uprights being only mov- 
 able in a vertical direction. In order that the cog-wheel 
 and the screw may continue in gear during this change 
 of position, the cushions wdiich support the axle of the 
 latter are connected with the crossbar between the 
 two uprights. 
 
 The revolution of the cylinder can be stopped at plea- 
 sure by ungearing the wheel E, which can be moved 
 upon its axle by the handle u and fork v. 
 
SPLITTING AND SHAYING LEATHER. 
 
 525 
 
 Thirty-six raw hides can be readily divided by this 
 machine in a day of twelve hours. 
 
 Richardson's Machine. — This machine, the invention 
 of Alpha Richardson, of Massachusetts, is that generallj- 
 used throughout the United States. It serves for split- 
 ting either green or tanned hides. There are two modi- 
 ficationS; that shown in perspective, by Fig. 190, is 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 
 intended for splitting upper leather, which is drawn be- 
 tween the knife and roller, by means of a crank and wind- 
 lass. This is styled the Tanner and Curriers' Machine. 
 A is the cast-iron piece connected with the gauge-roller 
 B, which revolves on the centres e e, and is turned up by 
 the lever o to allow the placing of the leather upon the 
 top of the knife and back-spring A A. The skin being 
 in right position, the gauge is then turned back, and forms 
 the gauge for the thickness of the skins which may be 
 regulated at will, by means of the screws h h. B is the 
 roller with the sectional tubes g g g, which are arranged 
 to turn on its end, and to serve as friction-rollers when 
 the shanks and loose part of the skin are being drawn 
 through. The knife D is bolted, firmly, to the bed by 
 the screws Hi i. The leather is placed upon the cylin- 
 
526 SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 der Cy and drawn through against the knife D by the aid 
 of the crank at the end of the machine. 
 
 The leather is prepared for splitting by being only 
 partially dried. In New England and in the middle 
 States it is generally split before it is wholly tanned, as 
 the quality of the leather is thought to be improved by 
 finishing the tanning after it has been thinned or divided 
 by the machine. 
 
 The other modification of the machine is constructed 
 for splitting and skinning sole leather, welt leather, and 
 stifFenings for boot and shoemaker's use. It is repre- 
 sented by Fig. 191, and works by means of rollers which 
 
 force the leather against the edge of the knife. A is the 
 gauge-roller, which is regulated by screws according to 
 the thickness it is desired to split the skin. B is the 
 lower roller, which forces the leather, or hide, against 
 the knife, and the two are put in motion by the crank, 
 &c., at the end. The leather must be damped through 
 before being placed in the machine. 
 
 Seguin's Shaving and Smoothing Machine. — This 
 machine consists of two metallic rollers, each six feet six 
 inches long; one of them five and nine-tenth inches in dia- 
 meter, having a cutting-blade set spirally into its surface, 
 and intended to pare the skin wrapped around the other 
 roller, which is two feet five inches in diameter. A lon- 
 gitudinal groove in the surface of the lower roller re- 
 
 Fig. 19L 
 
SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 527 
 
 ceives the end of the hide, which is kept in place by 
 means of wedges. The cutting-blade begins to form a 
 spiral at the middle of the upper roller, and makes the 
 entire circuit on both sides before reaching the ends. 
 The pivots of the lower roller turn in two fixed supports, 
 and those of the upper one in two levers, by means of 
 which it can be lowered upon, or raised from the surface 
 of the first one. These rollers turn in opposite direc- 
 tions, and their motion is so adjusted that the lower one 
 turns completely around once, while the upper is making 
 twelve revolutions. 
 
 The end of the leather having been engaged in the 
 groove, it is gradually wound upon the roller, while the 
 levers upon which the upper roller turns being charged 
 with smaller or greater weights, as the case requires, the 
 skin, with its grain side up, is shaved from the centre to 
 the sides, throughout its whole extent. Fig. 192 is a 
 front view, and Fig. 193 a side view of this machine. 
 
 Fig. 192. Fig. 193. 
 
 H, the lower roller, with the horizontal groove a for the 
 end of the leather; i, upper roller, with the blade Z), 
 curving spirally from the centre; K, lever carrying the 
 roller, and supported by the crosspiece l. 
 
 NOSSITER S PROCESSES. 
 
 These improvements, patented, in England, October 
 10, 1845, are:— 
 
528 SPLITTING AND SHAYING LEATHER. 
 
 1. For a mode of shaving tanned or dressed hides and 
 skinSj by applying knives set tangentially to a rotatory 
 axis, in pLice of performing such operation by hand. 
 
 2. A mode of causing the grease, or oil of sheep, lamb, 
 and other skins, requiring such process, to be expressed 
 out by means of rollers. 
 
 3. A mode of unhairing, fleshing, and removing grease 
 and filth from hides and skins, by the employment of a 
 rotatory axis with knives or blades. 
 
 Fig. 194 " shows a section of so much of a machine as 
 will enable me to describe this part of my invention : a 
 is a roller, on which is fixed a series of knives, fixed 
 tangentially; and although they will act very well when 
 in a line with the axis, yet I prefer them to incline across 
 the axis to a small extent, so that each blade may come 
 into action progressively, and not all parts at the same 
 moment; c is a bed, or surface, covered with copper, to 
 prevent the iron staining the leather ; or other suitable 
 
 Fig. 194. Fig. 195. 
 
 m — 9- 
 
 bed may be used : d cZ, are two rollers, which draw for- 
 ward the skins, or hides, so that the skins, or hides, may 
 be held tightly over the bed, c, and, in introducing the 
 hides, or skins, the revolving cutter is raised off the bed. 
 The speed at which the parts move are written thereon, 
 but the same may be varied. By this arrangement of 
 machinery, the knives w^ill shave or cut the hides and 
 
SPLITTING AND SHAVING LEATHER. 
 
 529 
 
 skins submitted to its operation, so as to reduce the 
 thickness to the degree desired, and this in a more uni- 
 form manner than when performing the same process by 
 hand-Labor, with suitable knives, as heretofore generally 
 practised." 
 
 The second part of the invention is illustrated by Fig. 
 195: "/^ are two smooth rollers, between which the 
 skins are passed ; the surface of the upper roller being 
 pressed closely down, so as to offer a sufficient pressure 
 to remove the grease and oil from the skins when in the 
 ' pelt' state ; and this means of performing this process 
 will be found more useful than the means of pressure 
 now resorted to." 
 
 The third part of the invention is shown in Fig. 196 : 
 It is a roller, having a series of blades of steel, or other 
 suitable material, set radially from the axis; each blade 
 should be as long as the roller on which it is fixed, so 
 that each blade may be as wide as the skin submitted to 
 its action. This mode of working is to be substituted 
 
 for the hand-working with knives now resorted to for 
 unhairing and fleshing, and also paring or graining hides 
 and skins ; and I use a cylindrical rotatory brush (Fig. 
 197), for removing the surface-grease and filth from the 
 hides and skins." 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 1 Revolution. 
 
CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 This is a method of manufacturing ornamental 
 leather intended for furniture, hangings, bookbinding, 
 and other uses. 
 
 BERNHEIM AND LABOURIAu'S PROCESS. 
 
 The plates, by means of which the figures in relief 
 are stamped upon the leather, in this process, are made 
 of type-metal, or fusible alloy, cast in plaster moulds, 
 on which the reverse of the figures has been designed. 
 The type-metal plates are used for stamping leather 
 without the assistance of a press, by which they would 
 be broken to pieces, and those of fusible alloy are em- 
 ployed for large single designs in panel upon hangings, 
 or for the repetition of the same figures, by associating 
 a number of plates together. For this latter purpose, 
 as many plates as are necessary for the whole design are 
 placed together upon a level surface, in their proper 
 places, and their edges are then joined together, first by 
 running a hot iron along them, and then by filling up 
 the interstices with melted fusible metal. The project- 
 ing veins of metal are then cut and scraped ofi*, and the 
 whole presents the appearance of a single plate. 
 
EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 531 
 
 The large plates thus prepared, will not bear the force 
 of a press, but are used with the assistance of heat. The 
 ingredients of which- the alloy is composed, are not in 
 the proportion to make the most fusible metal, the quan- 
 tity of lead being somewhat greater than in the ordinary 
 alloy. Those plates which are intended to be subjected 
 to the action of the press, also, have a smaller quantity 
 of tin in their composition than is usual, so as not to be 
 rendered brittle by an excess of it. These latter should 
 be perfectly smooth below, and should be of considerable 
 thickness. They are prepared of the proper thickness 
 in the following manner : A fine thin sheet of tin-foil is 
 first pressed into all the cavities of the original plaster 
 mould, so as to give a reversed copy of it, and a plate of 
 softened wax of the desired thickness of the metal plate, 
 is forced into it so as to take its form. A plaster mould 
 is then taken of this wax impression, covered with tin- 
 foil, and the model and the mould, placed parallel to each 
 other, are separated by little leaden tubes, which are equal 
 in height to the thickness of the wax-plate before used. 
 
 In order that the casting should be successful, the 
 plaster models and moulds must be perfectly dry, and 
 heated to the temperature of the fused alloy, and when 
 filled must be placed in a position to cool rapidly. 
 
 The large compound plates are exposed, in stamping, 
 to the action of heat by means of pipes conveying steam, 
 placed below them. 
 
 Two means of stamping leather with figures in relief 
 are resorted to, that by the use of the press, and that in 
 which the stamping is effected by hand or the chisel, 
 with the assistance of heat. The leather is first fulled 
 in tepid water, until it becomes as soft as it is possi- 
 ble to make it. In this condition it is placed upon 
 the plate without being stretched, and is made to enter 
 
532 
 
 EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 all the depressions of the figures by pressing and squeez- 
 ing it in every direction with the fingers, while the pro- 
 jections and folds upon the edges of the design, are 
 smoothed down by a wooden instrument like the chisel 
 used by sculptors. When the leather is in contact with 
 all parts of the mould or plate, if the character of the 
 figures is such as to admit of perpendicular pressure, the 
 frame is filled up with warm sawdust, and the gentle 
 force of a press is applied above, so as to keep the leather 
 and metal surfaces in contact. After a time, the screw 
 is loosened, the moistened sawdust is removed, and re- 
 placed with fresh, the press is again brought to bear, and 
 this process is repeated once more. At the end of the 
 third operation, the leather will generally have acquired 
 enough consistency to retain the form impressed upon it, 
 and it may then be removed from the plate and dried in 
 the stove-room. 
 
 If the plate be too large for the press, or if there are 
 many projections on its surface, having slight or nar- 
 row bases, the pressure must be conducted entirely by 
 hand. For this purpose the plate is warmed by placing 
 it upon the tubes conveying hot air or steam, and the 
 moistened leather is laid upon it, and forced down into 
 all the depressions and grooves of the plate by means of 
 paper-hangers' paste, which is thrust and pressed down 
 into them with the end of the wooden instrument or 
 chisel, and when the chief cavities are filled in this way, 
 the rest of the surface is worked so as to bring the 
 leather in contact with the plate in every part. The 
 folds which form at the borders and corners, are then 
 smoothed out with the chisel, first longitudinally, and 
 then across, until they are made to disappear. The whole 
 surface of the leather is then rubbed with a dry sponge 
 so as to remove the excess of moisture, and the workman 
 
V 
 
 EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 533 
 
 then continues forcing it clown into the depressions with 
 a chisel, until it is perfectly dry, w^hen the rest of the 
 paste is removed from the hollows. The elasticity of the 
 leather, when dry, allows of its removal from the plates 
 even when the elevations on the latter are larger at top 
 than at bottom. 
 
 If it is intended to stamp a design, or series of designs, 
 the dimensions of which require the use of a number of 
 skins, the latter are first cut into parallelograms, and their 
 edges are pared and thinned down. One of them in the 
 softened state is then placed at an angle or edge of the 
 plate, and is impressed with the figures in the manner 
 before described. A second skin is then placed alongside 
 of the first, with one edge projecting about an inch over 
 its border, and is printed in the same way ; a third is 
 placed next to and partly over the second, and so on, 
 even if a number of rows of skins are required, until the 
 whole extent of the plate is occupied. After the skins 
 have all been pressed, sponged, worked with the chisel, 
 and dried, their overlying edges are gently raised, cov- 
 ered with strong glue, carefully replaced, and retained in 
 their original position, by covering the whole with saw- 
 dust and weighted planks, until it dries and forms a 
 continuous sheet. 
 
 By these two processes, leather beautifully ornamented 
 in relief, and suitable for many purposes of luxury, ma}^ 
 be manufactured. These ornaments may be allowed to 
 retain, in a slight degree, the suppleness and elasticity of 
 the leather, or may be rendered perfectly firm and hard, 
 by pouring into them, v/hile still warm upon the castings, 
 a solution of gum-lac in alcohol, or a watery solution of 
 glue, and filling up all the depressions with paste, saw- 
 dust, or, what is still better, the raspings of cork mixed 
 with glue. Their surfaces may be made impervious to 
 
534 
 
 EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 moisture, by the penetration of the gum-lac or of other 
 resinous material, and may be painted, gilded, and var- 
 nished. 
 
 F. w. east's process. 
 
 This invention, patented in 1851, differs from the 
 usual method in being exclusively applicable to the flesh 
 side of leather, and thus producing an effect superior to 
 that obtained by embossing the grain side. It is adapted 
 to all tanned skins except those which are oil-tanned. 
 
 The skins, just sufficiently shaved to remove flaws and 
 give them uniform thickness, are to be immersed in water 
 of 120° F., and brushed on the flesh side to remove dirt 
 and open the fibre. They are then to be folded grain- 
 side inwards and the edges sewed together in bag form, 
 so as to prevent the intrusion of the dye. The dyeing 
 succeeds '^scouring," and sweetening," and is effected 
 with much weaker liquors than are used for dyeing the 
 grain side of skins; but requires a longer time, as the 
 process must be several times repeated in order that the 
 color may penetrate the fibres, and appear uniform. They 
 are then rinsed, opened, and dried. 
 
 When dry, they are to be "perched" on the flesh side 
 with a moderately sharp knife, so as to soften the fibres, 
 and nap the surface without cutting the flesh off. Each 
 skin is to be again folded as before, and passed through 
 a glutinous solution of one part, by measure, of size in 
 three parts of water; then stretched on boards to dry, 
 trimmed around the edges, and bruised on the surfaces 
 with cork, to render them soft, the flesh side being kept 
 outwards. 
 
 The skins, just previous to being embossed, are moist- 
 ened on the grain sides with clean water, and then laid 
 
EMBOSSING OF LEATHER. 
 
 535 
 
 together^ with the grain sides in contact, and under cover 
 in order to prevent access of air, and thus to promote the 
 thorough penetration of the water through the hide, 
 thereby making the gelatinous matter auxiliary to the 
 production of a gloss upon the embossed parts. The 
 embossing is done with engraved rollers, previously 
 heated to 250°, and exactly in the same manner as is 
 employed for embossing velvet, cloth, &c. 
 
CHAPTER LV. 
 
 GUT-DEESSING. 
 
 The art of the gut-dresser consists in separating the 
 middle or muscular coat of the intestines of certain 
 animals from its external or peritoneal covering, and 
 from its internal lining or mucous membrane, and may 
 be divided into two distinct branches; the preparation 
 of the intestines of oxen and cows, for the preservation 
 of alimentary substances, and that of the intestines of 
 sheep, for the manufacture of cords for various purposes. 
 These subjects will be treated of under their appropriate 
 headings. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE INTESTINES OF CATTLE. 
 
 The workshop of the gut-dresser generally consists of 
 a room about 20 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 12 feet high, 
 with four windows which are kept closed in winter, and 
 are opened in summer. Casks or tubs, each capable of 
 containing about 60 gallons, are ranged around its sides; 
 and wooden stakes are fixed in the ground in the middle 
 of the room, for attaching hooks. The feculent matters, 
 and the remnants from the intestines, are usually allowed 
 to lie about the floor, and exhale an odor, which, with 
 that from the putrefying intestines in the tubs, is the 
 most disgusting that can be conceived, and is so perm a- 
 
GUT-DEESSING. 
 
 537 
 
 nent, that the bodies as well as the clothes of the work- 
 men remain for a long time impregnated with it. 
 
 A well is usually sunk in a yard attached to the build- 
 ing, for receiving the excrementitious and waste matters 
 of the manufactory. 
 
 The intestines are subjected to various operations, 
 which will be described in order. 
 
 The small intestines of oxen and cows, as soon as they 
 are brought to the workshop from the slaughter-house, 
 are steeped in water contained in the casks, in order to 
 moisten and smooth the surfaces, so that the knife may 
 glide easily over them. When this is accomplished, an 
 end of one of the intestines is attached, by tying it in a 
 kind of knot around a hook, to one of the stakes in the 
 centre of the room, at a height of six or seven feet above 
 the floor. The workman, then grasping the depending 
 portion between the thumb and first finger of the left 
 hand, and gradually sliding the hand down along the 
 whole length of the intestine, follows its motion by pass- 
 ing a knife held in the right hand, over the surface, so 
 as to separate the fat, and as much as possible of the 
 outer or peritoneal coat. Another portion of gut is then 
 treated in the same way, and the operation is continued 
 until all the contents of the casks have been cleaned. 
 
 If any parts of the intestine have been scratched or 
 divided by the butchers in separating the fat, these are 
 cut ofi" and thrown aside. The fat falling to the ground' 
 is separated from the feculent and other matters, and 
 after being washed a number of times, is dried, melted, 
 and rendered. 
 
 The intestines are next washed in a large cask half 
 full of pure water, and the workman then proceeds to 
 turn them inside out, by introducing a thumb into the 
 interior of each, and working the gut upon it with the 
 
 35 
 
538 
 
 GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 fingers until the whole is inverted. A number of the 
 pieces are then tied together at their ends with a cord 
 which is attached to the edge of the cask, and when a 
 sufficient number of inverted intestines are thus fastened, 
 they are left with only their original contents of water, 
 to undergo the next process, that of putrefaction. 
 
 The experience of the workman alone can guide him in 
 determining when putrefaction is sufficiently established. 
 It should be carried only far enough to disorganize the 
 mucous membrane and other parts which are to be sepa- 
 rated from the middle coat of the intestines; and if al- 
 lowed to advance too far, the whole tissue will be soft- 
 ened and rendered useless. 
 
 Two or three days' exposure in summer, and from five 
 to eight in winter are usually sufficient, and putrefaction 
 is known to have reached the proper stage, when bubbles 
 of gas begin to escape from the surface of the intestines. 
 This operation is the most disgusting one to which the 
 workmen are exposed, from the fetid effluvia generated 
 by the decomposing animal matters; but it does not seem 
 to be as injurious to the health of those working in the 
 room as might be supposed. 
 
 When sufficiently rotted, the pieces are untied, soaked 
 in a cask half full of fresh water, and the next operation 
 consists in separating the disorganized mucous lining, 
 which is now upon the outside. This the workman pro- 
 ceeds to effect by scraping it off with his thumb-nails, 
 until it is entirely detached. The operation is facilitated 
 by dipping the pieces frequently in water. The intes- 
 tines are then repeatedly soaked and washed in clean 
 water until it comes from them unclouded and free from 
 taint. 
 
 When perfectly clean, one end of each piece of intes- 
 tine is tied with a string, and the workman introduces 
 
GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 539 
 
 into the other orifice a hollow cylinder of cane angle or 
 reed about five inches long, and after making the joint 
 air-tight by pressing the rim of the gut tightly around 'it, 
 applies his mouth to the end, and expands the gut by 
 blowing into it, and then closes the orifice, tying it 
 tightly with a cord. If holes are found, the intestine is 
 cut otF at the place where they occur, and tied again with 
 a cord. When all the pieces are thus filled with air, 
 they are carried in baskets to the drying place, and are 
 laid out so as not to be in contact with each other, upon 
 horizontal poles placed about five feet from the ground. 
 
 When perfectly dry, the pieces of gut are taken down, 
 and cut across with scissors as near the ligatures as pos- 
 sible, after which they are pressed and flattened with 
 the hand, so as to expel all the air contained in them. 
 
 They are then assorted into different sizes according 
 to the purposes for which they are intended, are col- 
 lected in bundles, and hung in a damp place, preparatory 
 to being subjected to the action of sulphurous fumes. 
 
 After being kept in a damp situation for some time, 
 the intestines are exposed to the vapor of sulphur in 
 a stove or chamber, five and one-third feet square, and 
 six and a half feet high. For this purpose, they are 
 strung on sticks, and if not sufficiently moist when intro- 
 duced into it, they are sprinkled over with water from a 
 brush, and are then suspended across the upper part of 
 the chamber to the number of a hundred bundles. A 
 pound or more of flowers of sulphur is then put in an 
 earthen dish in the bottom of the chamber, and ignited 
 by burning coals thrown upon it; the door of the cham- 
 ber being immediately closed, and the further precaution 
 to prevent the escape of vapors being taken of luting it 
 around the edges, and of gluing stout pieces of paper 
 upon any apertures which exist in the stove. 
 
540 
 
 GUT-DEESSING. 
 
 At the expiration of some hours^ the door is opened 
 and the vapors are allowed to escape. The intestines, 
 by*being thus exposed to the action of sulphurous acid, 
 are bleached, deprived of their unpleasant odor, and 
 are protected against the attacks of insects. While 
 still damp, they are twisted into hanks, packed with 
 camphor, and sent to market. 
 
 DISINFECTION OF THE WORKSHOP, AND MODE OF SUPPRESSING 
 
 PUTREFACTION. 
 
 In order to prevent the offensive effluvia arising from 
 the putrefaction of intestines, the following process of 
 separating the mucous membrane has been devised by 
 Labarraque, who received, as a reward for it, the pre- 
 mium of the French Society for the Encouragement of 
 National Industry. 
 
 The small intestines of fifty cattle, which have been 
 cleaned and turned inside out, are mixed in a cask with 
 two buckets-full of water containing three and a half 
 pounds of chlorinated liquor of potassa, at 12° or 13° ; and 
 if there be not then enough liquid to cover them, another 
 bucket-full of fresh water is added. The whole is then 
 stirred about, well mixed, and left over night. The 
 membrane can be detached as easily the next day, as after 
 many days of putrefaction in the ordinary method, and 
 the noxious and unpleasant odor is entirely avoided. 
 The succeeding operations are performed in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 goldbeater's-skin. 
 
 Goldbeater's-skin is prepared from the external or 
 peritoneal coat of the coecum, or bhnd gut of neat 
 
GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 541 
 
 cattle. The workman separates and turns over the 
 portion which encircles the junction of this pouch with 
 the rest of the intestines, and draws it off inverted, from 
 the other coats, to the length of twenty-five or thirty 
 inches. It is then immersed for a short time in a weak 
 solution of potash, and is cleaned by scraping upon a 
 board with a knife. When well cleaned in this way, 
 and by soaking in water, the piece is stretched upon a 
 kind of frame from forty to fifty inches in length, and 
 eleven inches in width, and made of two uprights held 
 together by two crosspieces, having longitudinal grooves 
 two and half lines in width. The surface of the mem- 
 brane which was outside in the animal, is placed in con- 
 tact with the upper part of the frame, and one end being 
 placed upon the top of the frame, it is stretched in every 
 direction, and is glued to its rim. Another membrane 
 is then stretched above the first, with its external sur- 
 face placed upwards, and is attached to it by gluing 
 around the edges. When perfectly dry, the membranes 
 are separated by running a sharp knife along the grooves. 
 Each strip is then glued upon a frame similar to the first 
 one, but without a groove, and is washed over with a solu- 
 tion composed of an ounce of alum dissolved in four pints 
 of pure water. When the surface is dry, a sponge dipped 
 in a concentrated solution of fish-glue in white wine, with 
 enough cloves, nutmegs, or camphor, to make it aromatic, 
 is passed over it. When this coating is dry, it is covered 
 with a coat of white of eggs, and the strip is cut into 
 pieces five and a half inches square, which are then 
 smoothed out under a press, and made up into leaves for 
 the purpose of the goldbeater. 
 
542 
 
 GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 LATHE-CORDS. 
 
 These cords are made of the intestines of horses, 
 cleaned and prepared by the separation of the mucous 
 membrane, in the manner before described. A wooden 
 ballj armed in its lower part with four cutting blades, 
 at equal distances from each other, is fixed by an up- 
 right piece of wood to a bench. The end of an intestine 
 is then drawn over this ball, and as the gut is pulled 
 downwards, it is divided into four equal bands or strips. 
 
 Four or eight of these strips, according to the thick- 
 ness which it is intended to give to the cord, are tied 
 with a peculiar knot to one end of a thick piece of cord. 
 The end is passed around a peg introduced into a hole 
 in a solid post, to the side of which a number of pegs 
 are attached. At a distance of ten or eleven yards from 
 the first one, another post is fixed, similarly provided with 
 pegs, and over one of these latter, the middle of the assem- 
 blage of strips is passed, the other end being brought 
 back and attached to the first peg, by means of another 
 knotted cord. The tied ends of the strips are then 
 attached to the wheel by a hook connected with the 
 loJiirl, which is made to revolve until the strips are suf- 
 ficiently twisted. The twisted end is then kept stretched 
 by attaching it to the peg, and any projecting filaments 
 are cut ofil After being stretched for some time, the cords 
 are then twisted again, and a third and a fourth time 
 are twisted by hand, being each time rubbed with and 
 drawn through a bunch of moistened horse-hair after the 
 twisting, and again stretched out between the two posts. 
 If the cord is not smooth and even after the twisting is 
 completed, it is made so by rubbing with a piece of dog- 
 skin. It is then dried, and, by some manufacturers, is 
 
GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 543 
 
 exposed to the vapors of sulphur. Finally, the ends are 
 cut off, and the cord is rolled in a coil. 
 
 In order to avoid the emanations from the putrefying 
 intestines, which are generally brought to the workshop 
 in a state of incipient decomposition, Labarraque recom- 
 mends that they be at once cleaned, turned inside out, 
 and put to soak over night in a cask, containing, for fif- 
 teen or twenty intestines, one pound one and a half 
 ounces of chlorinated potash liquor at from 13° to 18°, 
 mixed with two buckets-full of pure water. The mucous 
 membrane is ready to be detached the next day, and 
 after its removal and thorough washing, the intestines 
 can at once be prepared, as has been already described. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CORDS, IMPROPERLY CALLED CAT-GUT, FROM 
 THE INTESTINES OF SHEEP. 
 
 The intestines are removed from the body of the ani- 
 mal when warm, are cleaned and freed from fecal matter, 
 and are at once sent to the workshop. If not perfectly 
 clean at first, and if decomposition has been allowed to 
 commence, they are indelibly stained, so as to be unfit 
 for most of the purposes for which they are intended. 
 
 After being unravelled and deprived of adhering fat, 
 while soaking in a tub of water, they are placed in fresh 
 water, and the small ends of all the intestines are tied 
 together, and laid on the edge of the tub, while their 
 bodies are left to steep for two or three days in water, 
 which is frequently changed, particularly in summer. 
 By this means, the removal of the mucous and perito- 
 neal coats is facilitated. After this, the bunch of intes- 
 tines is placed upon a bench which slopes down towards 
 the edge of the tub, and the surface is scraped with the 
 back of a knife-blade, in order to separate and remove 
 
544 
 
 GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 the external membrane in breadth of about half the cir- 
 cumference. This coat, which is called filandre by the 
 French manuflicturers, can only be freely removed in 
 pieces of the proper size and length by pulling it off in 
 the direction from the small to the large end of the in- 
 testine. It is employed as thread to sew intestines, and 
 to make the cords of rackets and battledores. In the 
 event of its breaking, the separated pieces must be tied 
 together, and they and the others are laid aside for use. 
 
 The guts are then soaked in fresh water for twenty- 
 four hours more, and are taken out and scraped clean 
 upon the bench with the back of a round-bladed knife. 
 About eight feet of the larger ends are now cut off and 
 sold to the sausage-makers. The rest are then cut of a 
 proper length, and are imbedded, as it were, between 
 layers of salt. Alternating heaps of intestines and lay- 
 ers of salt are packed in until all the intestines have 
 been ^Ited. After some days, they are removed and 
 packed with a small quantity of salt, so as to be ready 
 fit any time for the succeeding processes. 
 
 After this curing is completed, the intestines are taken 
 out and soaked over night in fresh water, and the follow- 
 ing day are deposited in a lye made by adding four 
 ounces of potash and the same quantity of pearlash, to 
 a pail of water, containing about three or four gallons. 
 The exact strength of the lye is determined by the ex- 
 perience of the workmen, and the effect which it has 
 upon their hands. The lye is poured in successive 
 quantities upon the intestines, and is poured ofl' again 
 every two or three hours, until they have been sufficiently 
 acted upon. They are then drawn two or three times 
 through an open brass thimble, and pressed against it 
 with the nail, in order to scrape off unnecessary and pro- 
 
GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 545 
 
 jecting parts from the surfaces, after which they are se- 
 lected for different purposes, according to their sizes. 
 
 Cord for Rachets. — This is generally made of intes- 
 tines of inferior quality or which have been stained by 
 commencing putrefaction. The pieces while still moist, 
 are sewed together Avith strips of the outer membrane or 
 filandre, each junction being cut aslant, so as to make it 
 smooth and strong. Three or four of these intestines are 
 then attached by strings to the whirl, and are twisted 
 in the usual way, after w4iich the cord is smoothed and 
 deprived of moisture by the hand of the workman, and 
 is left stretched for a time. It is again twisted, and 
 rubbed with a bunch of horse-hair. The inferior kinds 
 of cords are made by twisting one gut along with two or 
 three pieces of the filandre. 
 
 Whip-cord is made of intestines of good quality, pre- 
 pared, cut slanting, and sewed as above described. Each 
 end is then twisted separately, as whip-cord is seldom 
 made of two intestines twisted together. The cord is 
 sulphured once or twice, and may then be dyed black 
 with common ink, or of a rose-color with red ink, which 
 the sulphurous acid turns to a pink color, or with a green 
 dye sold for the purpose by the color dealers. The cord 
 is then dried, smoothed, and coiled up into suitable sizes 
 for sale. 
 
 Hatters Cords for Boiostrings. — These cords are usu- 
 ally from sixteen to twenty-eight feet long, and are made 
 by twisting the longest and largest intestines of sheep, 
 four, six, eight, ten, or twelve being put together, accord- 
 ing to their intended size. The preparation of this kind 
 of cord demands more care than that of those which have 
 already been described, and it must be perfectly free 
 from seams and knots. It is twisted with the wheel in 
 the ordinary manner, and must be well stretched and 
 
546 
 
 GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 smoothed after each operation. When half dry, it is 
 exposed at two different times to the fames of burning 
 sulphur, after which it is well rubbed with a bunch of 
 horse-hair rope dipped in potash lye, and is finally dried 
 in a state of tension, cut off, and coiled. 
 
 Cloch-malcers Cord. — This kind of cord differs from 
 the others in being extremely thin, and is made of intes- 
 tines of the smallest size, or of strips made by dividing 
 each gut into two pieces by drawing it down over a kind 
 of lancet mounted upon a leaden or wooden ball, which 
 guides the blade, the two sections of the gut falling into 
 a vessel placed beneath. Clock-makers, however, some- 
 times employ cords of larger diameter, made of two or 
 more intestines. 
 
 Coi'ds for Musical-instrument Strings. — The strings of 
 musical instruments should be of uniform diameter, 
 perfectly smooth, round, and free from shreds or fila- 
 ments. They should be as little liable as possible to 
 stretch or break, and should preserve their polish and 
 transparency^ during all changes of weather. Their 
 manufacture requires great experience and dexterity on 
 the part of the wwkmen. The best violin and harp 
 strings have been made from time immemorial in Italy, 
 and although those of a superior quality are manufac- 
 tured in France, the preparation of treble strings, which 
 are peculiarly difficult to make, is confined to Naples. 
 The membranes of lean animals are well known to be 
 much more tough than those of animals in high condi- 
 tion, and the superior quality of the strings made at 
 Naples is attributed in a measure to the smallness and 
 leanness of the sheep in its vicinit3^ 
 
 The guts intended for fiddle and harp strings are first 
 scraped with the greatest possible care. Three and a 
 quarter pounds of potash are then dissolved in six pails- 
 
GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 547 
 
 full of water, and five and a half pounds of pearlash are 
 mixed with the same quantity of water, and the solu- 
 tion is clarified by the addition of a little alum. The 
 two solutions are kept in stone-ware vessels. Stone- 
 ware pans are then half filled with the intestines, and 
 the potash liquor, mixed with an equal quantity of water, 
 is poured in until the vessels are full. The intestines 
 are steeped for three or four days or even a longer time, 
 the solution being changed twice daily, and made pro- 
 gressively stronger by adding each time some of the ash- 
 lye, and by diminishing the quantity of water mixed 
 with it. Each time that the solution is changed, the 
 intestines are removed from the vessels, and are re- 
 jDlaced after draining upon a sloping table, and after 
 being passed through a thimble in the manner before 
 described. The effect of the alkaline solution upon the 
 intestines is to bleach and swell them, and they must be 
 removed from it upon the first appearance of little bub- 
 bles of gas escaping from them, or they will be softened 
 and rendered unfit for use. This is more apt to occur in 
 summer than in winter, and strings of the best quality 
 are made in the latter season. 
 
 After being again passed through the thimble so as to 
 smooth and equalize their surfaces, and washed in fresh 
 water, the intestines are attached to the frame in order 
 to be twisted. This frame is five feet three inches in 
 length, and twenty-five inches in breadth. A number 
 of pegs are fixed in one of its sides, and a double num- 
 ber of holes are bored through the other side, so that the 
 cords passed through them are kept in place when pegs 
 are introduced. The ends of the intestines are first 
 placed together upon the edge of the tub in which they 
 have been soaked, and two or three or more of the same 
 diameter and length are selected, and fixed to one of the 
 
548 
 
 GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 double holes by means of a peg, and tlie bodies of the 
 intestines are then drawn out exactly of the same length, 
 and brought over the corresponding large pegs on the 
 opposite sides of the frame, the ends being carried back 
 and fixed in the other one of the two holes. If some of 
 the intestines are not sufficiently long to stretch across, 
 they are sewed to other pieces as near as possible to 
 the end of the cord, so that the points may be near the 
 extremity of the string, and may not interfere with the 
 uniformity of surface of its main part. The intestines 
 are then twisted on the hooked wheel in the ordinary 
 manner, and are exposed for two or three hours in the 
 sulphuring room, after which they are forcibly rubbed 
 with the horse-hair rope, and twisted and rubbed again. 
 They are again exposed to the vapors of burning sul- 
 phur, are twisted once more and sulphured for a third 
 time, after wdiich they are left to dry in a state of ten- 
 sion. 
 
 The strings are known to be sufficiently dry, when 
 one of the strands upon being removed from its peg, 
 shows no tendency to turn, but remains in the straight 
 position in which it is held. When the strings have 
 arrived at this degree of dryness, they are rubbed over 
 with olive oil, are cut off at the ends, and coiled up for 
 sale. 
 
 The fourth strings of violins, which are wrapped in 
 wire, or other strings w^rapped in the same way, are 
 neither sulphured nor oiled. The string intended to be 
 wrapped is cut of the length of a yard and a quarter, 
 and one of its ends is attached to the hook of the wheel, 
 and the other to the ring of a whirl, which keeps the 
 string stretched, by means of a weight at the end of a 
 cord fistened to it and passing over a pulley. The wire 
 is then fastened around the string close to the whirl, and, 
 
GUT-DRESSING. 
 
 549 
 
 as the wheel is made to revolve, the string and the whirl 
 turn with it. The workman supports the string with 
 his left hand, and the w^ire passing through his right hand 
 is made to revolve around it in close spiral turns until 
 it is entirely and equally covered. 
 
 As has been before observed, the utmost care and skill, 
 on the part of the workmen, are required for the manu- 
 facture of harp or violin strings of good quality. Too 
 much or too little scraping of the surfaces, the use of too 
 strong lye, the exposure to the vapors of sulphur for too 
 short or too long a time, or defective twisting, will any, 
 or all of them, impair the quality of the product. Long 
 experience alone will enable the workmen to conduct 
 the different operations with the requisite dexterity. 
 
1 » ( t o 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 Abies Canadensis used for tanning, 88 
 Accelerating tanning processes, 263 
 Acid, ellagic, 62 
 
 gallic, 58 
 
 melanogallic, 63 
 
 melanotannic, 63 
 
 osytannic, 62 
 
 paraellagic, 63 
 
 pyrogallic, 63 
 Acids, raising or swelling by, 169 
 Albumen, a constituent of skins, 45 
 Aleppo galls, 72 
 
 Alder-bark, tanning power of, 351 
 Alumed skins, improperly so called, 354 
 Apotheme, 65, 407 
 Arecha catechu, 68 
 Artificial tannin, 51 
 
 B 
 
 Bagnall's bark-chopping machine, 114 
 Bark, beech, used for tanning, 89 
 cinnamon, tannin in, 86 
 chopping-machine of Bagnall, 114 
 " " Farcot, 122 
 
 cork-tree, tanning power of, 91 
 different layers of, 84 
 Lombardy poplar, used for tanning, 
 89 
 
 mill of Bourgeois, 126 
 " Lespinasse, 129 
 Wiltse, 131 
 tanning power of sassafras, 87 
 Weldon's mill for grinding, 119 
 willow, used for tanning, 92 
 Barks, 84 
 
 oak, 95 
 Barking of trees, 104 
 Barkometer, 329 
 Barley-dressings, raising by, 180 
 Bate, or grainer of dung, 350, 356 
 Braconnot's mode of making gallic acid, 
 59 
 
 Beam, working on the, 202 
 
 Beating and rolling of leather, 221 
 
 leather, Debergue's machine for, 
 223 
 
 Flotard and Delbut's machine 
 for, 227 
 
 Beech-bark used for tanning, 89 
 
 Belts, leather for, 496 
 
 Bell Stephens's process for estimating 
 
 tanning power, 109 
 Bengal catechu, 68 
 
 Berendorf's machine for pressing hides, 
 232 
 
 Berenger and Sterlingue's tanning pro- 
 cess, 263 
 
 Beruheim's and Labouriau'smode of em- 
 bossing leather, 531 
 
 Black oak, 100 
 
 Bloom on leather, 407 
 
 Birch bark, tannin in, 86 
 
 " oil, preparation of, 376 
 
 Bombay catechu, 68 
 
 Bordier's mineral tanning process, 396 
 
 Bottles of leather, 450 
 
 Bookhout's and Cochen's smoothing ma- 
 chine, 500 
 
 Booth's process for fair leather, 505 
 
 Bourgeois's bark-mill, 126 
 
 Bouillon-Lagrange's mode of preparing 
 tannin, 42 
 
 Brown's tan- vats, 204 
 
 Buffalo, or Grecian leather, 369 
 
 Buffalo hides, 151 
 
 Bulbs containing tannin, 80 
 
 Burbridge's tanning process, 318 
 
 Butts, or red leather, 347 
 
 C 
 
 Calf-skins, 150 
 
 currying of, 489 
 English, 492 
 grained, 495 
 leather for belts, 496 
 oiled, 489 
 tallowed, 491 
 
552 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Calf-sldns, 
 
 tanning of, 349 
 
 waxed, 403 
 Calmuck, method of treating skins, 440 
 Catechu, 67 
 
 arecha, 68 
 
 Bombay, 68 
 
 Bengal, 68 
 
 cake, 67 
 
 gambir, 68 
 
 Pegu, 68 
 
 tannin from, 50 
 
 tanning with, 319 
 Catgut, 543 
 Catskill bark-mill, 131 
 Cavalin's mineral tanning process, 397 
 Chamois leather, 433 
 Chaplin's tanning process, 274 
 Cinnamon-bark, tannin in, 85 
 Clock-makers' cord, 546 
 Comparative tanning power of oak-bark, 
 divi-divi, alder, and catechu, 351 
 Composition of skin, 140 
 Constitution of the skin, 137 
 Cordage, tanning of, 452 
 Cords for clock-makers, 546 
 
 <' hatters' bowstrings, 545 
 
 " lathes, 542 
 
 " rackets, 545 
 
 " musical-instrument strings, 
 646 
 
 " whips, 545 
 Corium, 138 
 
 Cork-tree bark, tanning power of, 91 
 Covers, leather for cjdinders, 451 
 Cox's machine for rolling leather, 238 
 
 tanning process, 275 
 Crop leather, 215 
 
 Curandeau's process for Hungary lea- 
 ther, 431 
 Cutch, 67 
 Cuticle, 139 
 Cutis vera, 138 
 Currying of calf-skins, 489 
 
 " goat-skins, 497 
 
 " leather, 461 
 Cylinders, leather covers of, 451 
 
 D 
 
 Danish tanning process, 283 
 
 Davy's mode of estimating tanning 
 
 power, 108 
 Deane's water-proof dressing, 509 
 Debergue's machine for beating leather, 
 
 223 
 
 Degrand's machine for splitting and 
 
 shaving leather, 518 
 Depilation of skins by barley-dressings, 
 
 180 
 
 cool sweating, 176 
 
 Depilation of skins by caustic soda, 171 
 steam, 170 
 
 Warington's process for the, 176 
 Dessable's tanning process, 212 
 Desmond's tanning process, 247 
 Deyeux's mode of preparing tannin, 42 
 Didier's process for patent leather, 456 
 Dignity of labor, 25 
 
 Disinfection of gut-dressing workshops, 
 540 
 
 Divi-divi, tanning power of, 351 
 Dize's mode of preparing tannin, 42 
 Domestic, or slaughter hides, 150 
 Domine's mode of preparing tannin, 45 
 Drake's tanning process, 274 
 Drying of leather, 219 
 Dung of chickens or pigeons, use of, 350 
 Dutch or mineral tanning, 397 
 Dye-tanning process, 399 
 
 E 
 
 East's mode of embossing leather, 534 
 Ellagic acid, 62 
 Embossing of leather, 530 
 
 Bernheim and Labouriau's process, 
 531 
 
 East's process, 534 
 English calf-skins, 492 
 
 Harness-leather, 349 
 
 hides, 485 
 Extract of oak-bark, tanning with, 318 
 Extractive, 65 
 
 F 
 
 Fair leather, 505 
 
 Farcot's bark-chopping machine, 122 
 Fibrine, a constituent of skins, 140 
 Fibrinous tissue, 140 
 Fiedler's mode of preparing gallic acid, 
 58 
 
 Fleshing of skins, 155 
 
 Vauquelin's machine for the, 257 
 Flotard and Debut's machine for beat- 
 ing leather, 227 
 Flowers and flower tops, tannin in, 78 
 French bark-mill, 113 
 Fruits, tannin in, 80 
 Fulling machines, 256, 321 
 
 Wiltse's, 325 
 Fungi, vegetable, containing tannin, 70 
 Furze, tanning with, 344 
 
 G 
 
 Gallic acid, 58 
 
 modes of preparing, 59 
 
 properties of, 60 
 Galls, 70 
 Gambir, 68 
 
 Gas-works lime, used for depilation, 851 
 
INDEX. 
 
 553 
 
 Gelatine, a constituent of skins, 142 
 GetlitFe's tanning process, 248 
 Girauclon's machine for splitting and 
 
 sliaviug leather, 519 
 Glazed leather, 453 
 Grained calf-skins, 495 
 
 leather, 475 
 Grainer, or bate of dung, 350, 356 
 Grape-skins, tanning with, 839 
 Goat-skins, 151 
 
 currying of, 497 
 
 tanning of, 361 
 Goldbeater' s-skin, 540 
 Gray oak, 102 
 Gut-dressing, 536 
 
 H 
 
 Halvorson's process for making hides 
 
 hard and transparent, 458 
 Hannoye's tanning process, 279 
 Harness leather, English, 345 
 Hatters' cords for bowstrings, 545 
 Hematine, a variety of tannin, 49 
 Hemlock spruce, used for tanning, 88 
 
 tanning, 320 
 Herapath & Cox's tanning process, 213 
 Hershey's machine for softening hides, 
 325 
 
 Hibbard's tanning process, 307 
 Hides, Buffalo, 151 
 
 definition of, 146 
 
 domestic, 150 
 
 English, 485 
 
 horse, 151 
 
 Spanish, or South American, 150 
 mills, 321 
 
 mode of salting, 152 
 
 " making hard and transpa- 
 rent, 458 
 Horse-hides, 151 
 
 Hungary, leather made of, 429 
 
 tanning of, 366 
 Housings and mats, 413 
 Human skins, tanning of, 368 
 Hungary leather, 415 
 
 Curandeau's process for, 431 
 
 of cow and calf skins, 428 
 
 of horse-hides, 429 
 
 made like blackened leather, 430 
 Hydrometers, 329 
 
 I 
 
 Imitation kid, 412 
 Morocco, 363 
 Improved processes for making leather, 
 243 
 
 Impure tannin, 47 
 
 Indian mode of treating skins, 441 
 
 Intestines of cattle, preparation of, 536 
 
 36 
 
 J 
 
 Jennings's mode of making leather wa- 
 terproof, 512 
 Jucten, or Russia leather, 372 
 Juices, tanning, 66 
 
 K 
 
 Kartsolf's account of Russia leather, 
 379 
 
 Keasley's tanning process, 291 
 Kermes oak, 97 
 
 Kent's mode of preparing gallic acid, 
 59 
 
 Kid leather, 409 
 
 imitation, 412 
 Kinds of skins suitable for tanning, 146 
 Kino, 69 
 
 Kips, definition of, 146 
 Knowlis's tanning process, 275 
 
 L 
 
 Labor, dignity of, 25 
 Lake-water, 160 
 Lathe-cords, 542 
 
 Laubert's mode of preparing tannin, 44 
 Leather, beating and rolling of, 221 
 
 bottles, 450 
 
 composition of, ] 43 
 
 covers for cylinders, 451 
 
 crop, 215 
 
 currying of, 461 
 
 different names of, 152 
 
 drying of, 219 
 
 embossing of, 513 
 
 English harness, 345 
 
 fair, 505 
 
 glazed, or varnished, 453 
 grained, 475 
 
 its texture and quality, 404 
 kid, 409 
 losh, 438 
 
 made water-proof, 507 
 of Hungary, 415 
 Russia, 372 
 Wallachia, 885 
 oiled, 433, 478 
 patent, 453 
 press, 260 
 red, or Butts, 347 
 
 " " currying of, 502 
 
 water, 478 
 waxed, 484 
 white, 488 
 Leaves containing tannin, 73 
 Leprieur's tanning process, 310 
 Lespinasse's bark-mill, 129 
 Lime used for raising hides, 152 
 
 from gasworks used for unhairing^ 
 351 
 
 Live-oak, 103 - 
 
554 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lombardy poplar bark used for tanning, 
 89 
 
 M 
 
 Machine for chopping bark, 114 
 
 " Farcot's, 122 
 
 for grounding, or frizing, Nisbet's, 
 436 
 
 fleshing hides, 114 
 
 " " Vauquelin's, 257 
 
 fulling skins, 256, 821, 325 
 hammering leather, Debergue's, 
 
 223 
 
 <' Flotard and 
 
 Delbut's, 227 
 
 pommelling and graining leather, 
 Perkins's, 514 
 
 pressing hides, Berendorf 's, 232 
 
 rolling leather, Cox's, 238 
 
 " Wiltse's, 240 
 
 shaving and cleaning leather, 
 Nossiter's, 527 
 
 softening hides, Hershey's, 325 
 
 smoothing and graining leather, 
 Bookhout's and Cochen's, 500 
 
 splitting and shaving leather, De- 
 grand's, 518 
 
 " " Giraudon's, 519 
 " " Richardson's, 525 
 
 Marsh- water, 160 
 
 rosemary, tanning with, 340 
 
 Materials for tanning, 66 
 
 Mats and housings, 413 
 
 Melanogallic acid, 63 
 
 Melanotannic acid, 63 
 
 Merat-Guillot's mode of preparing tan- 
 nin, 42 
 
 Mills for fulling hides, 256, 321, 325 
 grinding bark, Bourgeois's, 126 
 " French, 113 
 " " Lespinasse's, 129 
 
 Wiltse's, 131 
 Mineral tanning, 395 
 
 Bordier's process for, 396 
 Cavalin's " 397 
 Dutch 401 
 Mode of estimating tanning power, 107 
 preparing skins with tar and soot, 
 342 
 
 Mohr's mode of preparing tannin, 46 
 Monier and Ray's hide-mill, 321 
 Morocco, true, 361 
 imitation, 363 
 Myrtle, tanning with, 338 
 
 N 
 
 Nenory's water-proof dressings, 508 
 Nets, process for tanning, 452 
 Newton's mineral-tanning process, 401 
 
 Nisbet's grounding and pumicing ma- 
 chine, 436 
 Nossiter's machine for shaving and 
 cleaning leather, 527 
 process for enamelling leather, 457 
 tanning process, 248 
 Nutgalls, 70 
 
 0 
 
 Oak, black or quercitron, 100 
 gray, 102 
 Kermes, 97 
 live, 103 
 red, 98 
 
 rock-chestnut, 99 
 scarlet, 102 
 Spanish, 98 
 tanning, 245 
 white, 101 
 Oak-bark, 95 
 
 tanning with extract of, 318 
 mills for grinding, 113, 126, 129, 
 131 
 
 Oaks, American, 98 
 
 European, 96 
 Ogereau's tanning process, 252 
 oil of Birch-bark, 376 
 Oiled leather, 433, 478 
 
 calf-skins, 489 
 Oxytannic acid, 62 
 
 Paraellagic acid, 63 
 Parchment, 446 
 Patent leather, 453 
 
 Pelouze's mode of preparing tannin, 44 
 Pegu catechu, 68 
 
 Perkins's pommelling machine, 514 
 Pommelling of leather, 465 
 
 and graining machine, 514 
 Pratt, Zadock, the tanner, 25 
 Prattsville tannery, account of, 320 
 Preliminary treatment of skins, 155 
 Process, Berenger and Sterlingue's tan- 
 ning, 263 
 
 Burbridge's tanning, 318 
 
 Chaplin's tanning, 274 
 
 Cox's tanning, 275 
 
 Danish tanning, 283 
 
 Dessables's tanning, 212 
 
 Desmond's tanning, 247 
 
 Drake's tanning, 274 
 
 Getlilfe's tanning, 248 
 
 Hannoye's tanning, 279 
 
 Herapath and Cox's tanning, 213 
 
 Ilibbard's tanning, 307 
 
 Keasley's tanning, 291 
 
 Knowlis's tanning, 275 
 
 Leprieur's tanning, 310 
 
 Nossiter's tanning, 248 
 
INDES. 
 
 555 
 
 Process, Ogereau's tanning, 252 
 
 Rotcli's tanning, 284 
 
 Seguin's tanning, 243 
 
 Snyder's tanning, 287 
 
 Squire's tanning, 271 
 
 Turnbull's tanning, 298 
 
 Vauquelin's tanning, 254 
 
 Warington's tanning, 304 
 Processes, accelerating tanning, 263 
 
 improved tanning, 243 
 Press for leather, 260 
 Pressing hides, machine for, 232 
 Pyrogallic acid, 63 
 
 Q 
 
 Quercitron, 101 
 Quercus alba, 101 
 
 ambigua, 102 
 
 coccifera, 97 
 
 coccinea, 102 
 
 falcata, 98 
 
 primus monticola, 99 
 
 robur, 96 
 
 rubra, 98 
 
 tinctoria, 100 
 
 virens, 103 
 
 K 
 
 Rain-water, 159 
 
 Raising, or swelling skins, 162 
 series of vats, 162 
 by acids, 169 
 lime, 162 
 
 barley dressings, 180 
 sour tan-liquor, 191 
 Red oak, 98 
 Rete mucosum, 139 
 Red leather, or butts, 347 
 currying of, 502 
 skins, 382 
 Rhatany, composition of, 83 
 Richardson's machine for splitting and 
 
 shaving leather, 525 
 Paver- -water, 159 
 Roan, 365 
 
 Rock-chestnut oak, 99 
 Rolling leather. Cox's machine for, 238 
 " Bookhout's and Cochen's 
 machine for, 500 
 
 table, Wiltse's, 240 
 Roots suitable for tanning, 82 
 Rotch's tanning process, 284 
 Russia leather, 372 
 
 KartsoflF's account of, 379 
 Russet leather, 488 
 
 S 
 
 Saps containing tannin, 66 
 Sails, tanning of, 452 
 Salting hides, mode of, 152 
 
 Sassafras bark, 87 
 Scarlet oak, 102 
 
 Scheele's mode of preparing gallic acid, 
 58 
 
 Seal- skins, 152 
 Seeds containing tannin, SO 
 Seguin's improved tanning process, 243 
 Serturner's mode of preparing tannin, 
 43 
 
 Shagreen, 443 
 Shaving of leather, 464 
 Sheep-skins, 151 
 
 tanning of, 361 
 Skins, structure and constitution of, 137 
 
 as prepared by the Calmucks, 440 
 " " Indians, 442 
 
 classification of, 147 
 
 improperly called alumod, 354 
 
 of asses and mules, 152 
 
 beavers and bucks, 152 
 
 calves, 150 
 
 dogs, 151 
 
 hogs, 151 
 
 porpoises, 152 
 
 sheep, 151 
 
 fleshing of, 155 
 
 goldbeater's, 540 
 
 preliminary treatment of, 154 
 
 red, 382 
 
 smoking of, 381 
 
 suitable for tanning, 146 
 
 tallowed, 475 
 
 washing and working of, 154 
 Skiver, 364 
 Sleeked leather, 471 
 Smith and Thomas's water-proof dress- 
 ings, 507 
 Smoked skins, 381 
 Snow-water, 159 
 Snyder's tanning process, 287 
 Soaking and washing of skins, 154 
 
 water, influence of on leather, 158 
 Soda, caustic, used for depilation, 171 
 Soot and tar, preparing skins by means 
 of, 342 
 
 Sour tan-liquor, raising by, 191 
 Spanish oak, 98 
 
 or South American hides, 150 
 Spilsbury's tanning process, 272 
 Spring and fountain water, 159 
 Squire's tanning process, 271 
 Statice, 84, 
 
 tanning with, 340 
 Steam, depilation by, 170 
 Stretched leather, 470 
 Stretching of leather, 467 
 Strings, musical-instrument, 546 
 Structui-e of skins, 137 
 Sumach, tannin from, 50 
 
 used in tanning, 92 
 
556 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sulplmrets of calcium and sodium for 
 
 unh airing, 171 
 Sweating process, cool, 176 
 Swelling, or raising hides, 62 
 
 by lime, 162 
 acids, 169 
 
 barley-dressings, 180 
 sour tan-liquor, 191 
 
 T 
 
 Table of quantity of tannin in different 
 substances. 111 
 
 Tan and tanning, 89 
 
 or powdered oak-bark, 113 
 liquor for raising, bow prepared, 
 200 
 
 raising by, 191 
 mill, French, 113 
 Weldon's, 119 
 Tannin, artificial, 5 
 
 coloring salts of iron, blue, 51 
 
 " " green, 51 
 
 different modes of preparing, 41, 
 
 42, 43, 44, 45, 46 
 from catechu, 50 
 
 " sumach, kino, &c., 50 
 impure, 47 
 in barks, 84 
 
 flowers, 78 
 
 fruits, 80 
 
 roots, 82 
 
 seeds and bulbs, 80 
 tea, 76 
 
 tree-leaves, 73 
 woods, 82 
 pure, 55 
 
 table of the quantity of in differ- 
 ent substances. 111 
 varieties of, 49 
 Tanning by mechanical pressure, 272 
 in a vacuum, 275 
 juices, 60 
 materials, 66 
 mineral, 395 
 
 " Bordier's process for, 396 
 
 " Cavalin's, 397 
 
 " Newton's, 401 
 of buck, wolf, and other skins, 368 
 
 buffalo or Grecian leather, 369 
 
 calf-skins, 349 
 
 horse-hides, 366 
 
 human skins, 368 
 
 nets, sails, and cordage, 452 
 
 sheep-skins, 361 
 power, mode of estimating, 107 
 
 of oak-bark, divi-divi, alder, and 
 catechu, 351 
 
 Davy's mode of estimating, 108 
 
 Bell Stephens's " 109 
 
 Tanning, Warington's mode of estimat- 
 ing, 109 
 process, 204 
 Danish, 283 
 of Burbridge, 318 
 Chaplin, 274 
 Cox, 275 
 Desmond, 247 
 Dessables, 212 
 Drake, 274 
 Getliffe, 248 
 Hannoye, 279 
 Herapath and Cox, 213 
 Hibbard, 307 
 Keasley, 291 
 Kuowlis, 275 
 Leprieur, 310 
 Nossiter, 248 
 Ogereau, 252 
 Rotch, 284 
 Seguin, 243 
 Snyder, 287 
 Spilsbury, 272 
 Squire, 271 
 Turnbull, 298 
 Vauquelin, 254 
 Warington, 304 
 what skins are suitable for, 146 
 with extract of oak-bark or cate- 
 chu, 318 
 furze, 344 
 grape-skins, 339 
 hemlock, 320 
 myrtle, 338 
 statice, 340 
 Tallowed skins, 475 
 calf-skins, 491 
 Tan vats and pits, 204 
 
 Brown's, 204 
 Tar and soot, preparation of skins by, 
 
 342 , 
 Tartar's method of treating skins, 440 
 Tawing, 409 
 
 Tea-leaves, tannin in, 76 
 Terra Japonica, 67 
 Texture and quality of leather, 404 
 Tromsdorff's mode of preparing tannin, 
 43 
 
 True morocco, 361 
 
 Turnbull's tanning process, 298 
 
 U 
 
 Unhairing by caustic soda, 171 
 by steam, 170 
 
 sulphurets of calcium and sodium, 
 171 
 
 the cool-sweating process, 176 
 Warington's method, 176 
 lire's mode of preparing gallic acid, 59 
 
INDEX. 
 
 557 
 
 V 
 
 Vacuum, tanning in a, 275 
 Varieties of tannin, 49 
 Varnished leather, 453 
 Vats for tanning, 204 
 
 Brown's, 204 
 
 of a raising series, 1G3 
 Vattiug, method of, 207 
 Vauquelin's fleshing machine, 257 
 
 tanning process, 254 
 Vegetable fungi, tannin in, 70 
 
 saps, tannin in, 06 
 
 W 
 
 Wallachia leather, 385 
 Warington's process for estimating tan- 
 ning power, 109 
 
 unhairing, 176 
 
 tanning, 304 
 V/ash-ieather, 433 
 Washing and soaking skins, 154 
 Water, influence of on the quality of 
 leather, 158 
 
 leather, 478 
 
 proof-dressings, 507 
 
 Water-proof dressings, cheap process, 
 511 
 
 Deane's process, 509 
 
 Jennings's, 512 
 
 Nenory's process, 508 
 Waxed-leather, 484 
 
 calf-skins, 493 
 Weldon's mill for grinding bark, 119 
 
 improved mill, 121 
 Well-water, 160 
 
 Wetherill's mode of preparing gallic 
 acid, 59 
 
 Whip-cord, manufacture of, 546 
 White leather, 488 
 oak, 101 
 
 porpoise-skins, 152 
 Willow, bark used in tanning, 92 
 Wiltse's bark-mill, 131 
 
 rolling-table, 240 
 
 fulling-mill, 325 
 Working skins on the beam, 202 
 Workshop for gut-dressing, disinfection 
 of, 540 
 
PUBLICATIONS 
 
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 No. 7 Hart's Building, Sixth Street, above Chestnut, Philadelphia. 
 
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 great importance to all connected with the iron interest; one which, while it is sufiiciently technological 
 fully to explain cliemieal analysis, and the various phenomena of iron under different circumstances, to the 
 ^atisfaction of the most fastidious, is written in that clear and comprehensive style as to be available to the 
 capacity of the humblest mind, and consequently will be of much advantage to those works where the pro- 
 prietors may see the desirability of placing it in the hands of their operatives. — London Morning Journal 
 
PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 3 
 
 PRACTICAL SERIES. 
 
 THE AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. $1. 
 THE TURNER'S COMPANION. 75 cts. 
 
 THE PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 75 cts. 
 
 THE DYER AND COLOUR-MAKER'S COMPANION. 75 cts. 
 
 THE BUILDER'S COMPANION. $1. 
 
 THE CABINET-MAKER'S COMPANION. 75 cts. 
 
 A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS. By Thomas Kentish. |1. 
 
 THE PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION. By J. Arrowsmith. 75 cts. 
 
 THE ASSAYER'S GUIDE. By Oscar M. Lieber. 75 cts. 
 
 THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER. By M. L. Byrn. |1. 
 
 THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER. By M. L. Byrn. $1. 
 
 THE BOOKBINDER'S MANUAL. 
 
 THE PYROTECHNIST'S COMPANION. By G. W. Mortimer. 75 cts. 
 WALKER'S ELECTROTYPE MANIPULATION. 75 cts. 
 
 THE AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT: 
 
 By William Carter Hughes, Editor of " The American 
 
 Miller," (newspaper), Buffalo, N. Y. Illustrated by Drawings of the most approved 
 
 Machinery. In One Volume, 12mo $1 
 
 The author offers it as a substantial reference, Instead of speculative theories, which belong only to those 
 not immediately attached to the business. Special notice is also given of most of the essential improvements 
 which have of late been introduced for the benefit of the Miller. — Savannah Republican. 
 The whole business of making flour is most thoroughly treated by him. — Bulletin, 
 A very comprehensive view of the Millwright's business. — Southern Literary Messenger. 
 
 THE TURNER'S COMPANION: 
 
 Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric 
 
 Turning. Also, various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments, and Directions 
 for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with 
 Patterns and Instructions for working them. Illustrated by numerous Engrav- 
 ings. In One Volume, 12mo 75 cts. 
 
 The object of the Turner's Companion is to explain in a clear, concise, and intelligible manner, the rudi 
 ments of this beautiful art. — Savannah Republican. 
 
 There is no description of turning or lathe-work that this elegant little treatise does not describe and 
 illustrate.— Western Lit. Messenger. 
 
 THE PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION: 
 
 In which the Practical Operations of the Trade are system- 
 atically laid down; with copious Directions Preparatory to Papering ; Preventiontj 
 against the effect of Damp in Walls ; the various Cements and Pastes adapted to 
 the several purposes of the Trade ; Observations and Directions for the Panelling 
 and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c., &c. By James Arrowsmith. In One Volum-f^ 
 12mo 75 cts. 
 
4 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 THE PAINTEH, GILDEK, AND VAENISEER'S COMPANION: 
 Containing Rules and Regulations for every thing relating to 
 
 the arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining ; numerous useful 
 and valuable Receipts ; Tests for the detection of adulterations in Oils, Colours, 
 &c., and a Statement of the Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, 
 and Varnishers are particularly liable ; with the simplest methods of Prevention 
 and Remedy. Third Edition. In One Volume, 12mo, cloth 75 cts. 
 
 Rejecting all that appeared foreign to the subject, the compiler has omitted nothing of real practical 
 worth. — Hunt^s Merchants' ilagazine. 
 
 An excellent practical work, and one which the practical man cannot afford to be without. — Farmer and 
 Mechanic. 
 
 It contains every thing that is of interest to persons engaged in this trade. — Bulletin. 
 This book will prove valuable to all whose business is in any way connected with painting. — ScoWs 
 Weekly. 
 
 Cannot fail to be useful. — JSF. Y. Commercial. 
 
 THE DYER AND COLOUR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 
 
 Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making 
 
 Colours, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
 in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, 
 Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. Second Edition. In One Volume, 12mo, 
 cloth 75 cts. 
 
 This is another of that most excellent class of practical books, which the publisher is giving to the 
 public. Indeed, we believe there is not, for manufacturers, a more valuable work, having been prepared 
 for, and expressly adapted to their business. — Farmer and Mechanic. 
 
 It is a valuable book. — Otsego Republican. 
 
 We have shown it to some practical men, who all pronounced it the completest thing of the kind they 
 had seen.— iV. Y. Nation. 
 
 THE BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION: 
 
 Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Archi- 
 tecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By 
 
 A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, &c. Second Edition. In One Volume, 12mo $1 
 
 Contents. — The Builder, Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Plasterer, Plumber, Painter, 
 
 Smith, Practical Geometry, Surveyor, Cohesive Strength of Bodies, Architect. 
 
 THE ASSAYER'S GUIDE; 
 Or, Practical Directions to Assay ers, Miners, and Smelters, for 
 
 the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, of the Ores of all the prin- 
 cipal Metals, and of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys. By Oscar M. Lieber, late 
 Geologist to the State of Mississippi. 12mo. With Illustrations 75 cts. 
 
 A TREATISE ON A BOX OE INSTRUMENTS, 
 And the Slide Rule, with the Theory of Trigonometry and 
 
 Logarithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Timber, Cask 
 and Malt Gauging, Heights and Distances. By Thomas Kentish. In One 
 Volume, 12mo $1 
 
PTTBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 5 
 
 THE CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPANION: 
 
 Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making 
 
 and Upholstery, with familiar Instructions, illustrated by Examples, for attaining 
 a proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet-Work ; the processes 
 of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl Work ; the art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, 
 Bone, Tortoise-shell, &c. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing ; 
 to make French Polish ; to prepare the best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, 
 and a number of Receipts particularly useful for Workmen generally, with Ex- 
 planatory and Illustrative Engravings. By J. Stokes. In One Volume, 12mo, 
 with Illustrations 75 ctg_ 
 
 A large amount of practical iuformation, of great service to all concerned in those branches of business 
 — Ohio State Journal. 
 
 HISTORY OF PROPELLERS AND STEAM NAVIGATION: 
 
 With Biographical Sketches of Early Inventors. By Egbert 
 
 Macfarlane, C. E., Editor of the *' Scientific American." In One Volume, 12mc. 
 
 Illustrated by over Eighty Wood Engravings 75 cts. 
 
 The object of this " History of Propellers and Steam Navigation" is twofold. One is the arrangement 
 and description of many devices which have been invented to propel vessels, in order to prevent many in- 
 genious men from wasting their time, talents, and money on such projects. The immense amount of time, 
 study, and money thrown away on such contrivances is beyond calculation. In this respect, it is hoped 
 that it will be the means of doing some good.— Pre/ace. 
 
 A TREATISE ON SCREW-PROPELLERS AND THEIR STEAM- 
 ENGINES, 
 
 With Practical Rules and Examples by which to Calculate 
 
 and Construct the same for any description of Vessels. By J. W. Nystrom. Illus- 
 trated by over thirty large working Drawings. In one Volume, octavo $3.50 
 
 THE ANALYTICAL CHEMIST'S ASSISTANT : 
 
 A Manual of Chemical Analysis, both Qualitative and Quan- 
 titative, of Natural and Artificial Inorganic Compounds ; to which are appended 
 the Rules for Detecting Arsenic in a Case of Poisoning. By Frederik Wcehler, 
 Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottingen. Translated from the Ger- 
 man, with an Introduction, Illustrations, and copious Additions, by Oscar M. 
 LiEBER, Author of " The Assayer's Guide." In one Volume, 12mo $1.25 
 
 THE FRUIT, FLOWER, AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 By Patrick Neill, L. L. D., F. R. S. E., Secretary to the 
 
 Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States, from the 
 
 Fourth Edition, revised and improved by the Author. Illustrated by fifty Wood 
 
 Engravings of Hothouses, &c. &c. In One Volume, 12mo $1.25 
 
 This volume supplies a desideratum much felt, and gives within a moderate compass all the horticultural 
 information necessary for practical use. — Newark Mercury. 
 A valuable addition to the horticulturist's \ibv&Ty .—Baltimore Patriot. 
 
6 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY, PHACTICAL AND 
 THEORETICAL : 
 
 Embracing its Application to the Arts, Metallurgy^ Mineralogy, 
 
 Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner in 
 the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, 
 &c. ; assisted by Campbell Morfit, Author of " Chemical Manipulations," &c. 
 Complete in One Volume, royal octavo, 978 pages, with numerous Woodcuts and 
 other Illustrations. Second Edition. Full bound $5 
 
 It covers the whole field of Chemistry as applied to Arts and Sciences. * * * As no library is complete 
 without a common dictionary, it is also our opinion that none can he without this Encyclopedia of Chemis- 
 try. — ScieMtific American. 
 
 A work of time and labour, and a treasury of chemical information.-^iVoriA American. 
 
 By far the best manual of the kind which has been presented to the American public. — Boston Courier. 
 
 An invaluable work for the dissemination of sound practical knowledge. — Ledger. 
 
 A treasury of chemical information, including all the latest and most important discoveries. — Baltimore 
 American. 
 
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 By Thomas Tredgold. In One Volume, quarto, with nume- 
 rous Illustrations $2.50 
 
 RURAL CHEMISTRY: 
 
 An Elementary Introduction to the Study of the Science, in 
 
 its relation to Agriculture and the Arts of Life. By Edward Solley, Professor 
 of Chemistry in the Horticultural Society of London. From the Third Improved 
 London Edition, 12mo $1.25 
 
 SYLLABUS OF A COMPLETE COURSE OF LECTURES ON 
 CHEMISTRY: 
 
 Including its Application to the Arts, Agriculture, and Mining, 
 
 prepared for the use of the Gentlemen Cadets at the Hon. E. 1. Co.'s Military 
 Seminary, Addiscombe. By Professor E. Solly, Lecturer on Chemistry in the 
 Hon. E. 1. Co.'s Military Seminary. Revised by the Author of " Chemical Manipu- 
 lations." In One Volume, octavo, cloth $1.25 
 
 THE BOOKBINDER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Complete in one volume, 12mo. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY COURSE OF INSTRUCTION ON ORDNAIJCE AND 
 GUNNERY, AND STEAM. 
 
 Prepared for the use of the Midshipmen at the Naval School. 
 
 By James H. Ward, U. S. N. In one Volume, octavo $2.50 
 
 STEAM FOR THE MILLION. 
 
 An Elementary Outline Treatise on the Nature and Manage- 
 ment of Steam, and the Principles and Arrangement of the Engine. Adapted for 
 Popular Instruction, for Apprentices, and for the use of the Navigator. With an 
 Appendix containing Notes on Expansive Steam, &c. In One Volume, 8vo...372 eta 
 
PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 7 
 
 HOUSEHOLD SURGEEY ; OR, HINTS OJiT EMERGENCIES. 
 
 By J. F. South, one of the Surgeons of St. Thomas's Hospi- 
 tal. In One Volume, 12mo. Illustrated by nearly fifty Engravings $1.2.''' 
 
 TEE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER; 
 
 Or, Plain, Concise, and Accurate Instructions in the Art of 
 
 Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, &c. &c., and the Process of Making all the Small Beers. 
 By M. Lafayette Byrn, M. D. With Illustrations. 12mo $1.00 
 
 THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER; 
 
 By M. Lafayette Byrn, M. D. With Illustrations. 
 
 12mo $1.00 
 
 THE PYROTECHNIST'S COMPANION; 
 
 Or, A Familiar System of Recreative Fire- Works. By G. W. 
 
 Mortimer. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 12mo 75 cts. 
 
 ELECTROTYPE MANIPULATION: 
 
 Being the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of Work- 
 ing in Metals, by Precipitating them from their Solutions, through the agency of 
 Galvanic or Voltaic Electricity. By Charles V. Walker, Hon. Secretary to the 
 London Electrical Society, &c. Illustrated by Woodcuts. A new Edition, from 
 the Twenty-fifth London Edition. 12mo 75 cts. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MEDICINE. 
 
 By D. Francis Condie, M. D. In One Volume, 12mo. Uni- 
 form with, and a companion to, the above. (In immediate preparation.) 
 
 ELWOOD'S GRAIN TABLES: 
 
 Showing the value of Bushels and Pounds of different kinds 
 
 of Grain, calculated in Federal Money, so arranged as to exhibit upon a single 
 
 page the value at a given price from ten cents to two dollars per bushel, of any 
 
 quantity from one pound to ten thousand bushels. By J. L. Elwood. A new Edition. 
 
 In One Volume, 12mo $1 
 
 To Millers and Produce Dealers this work is pronounced by all who have it in nse, to be superior in ar- 
 rangement to any work of the kind published — and unerring accuracy in every calculation may he relied 
 upon in every instance. 
 
 £p= A reward of Twenty-five Dollars is offered for an error of one cent found in the work. 
 
 PERFUMERY; ITS MANUFACTURE AND USE: 
 
 With Instructions in every branch of the Art, and Receipts 
 
 for all the Fashionable Preparations ; the whole forming a valuable aid to the 
 Perfumer, Druggist, and Soap Manufacturer. Illustrated by numerous Woodcuts, 
 From the French of Celnart, and other late authorities. With Additions and Im- 
 provements, by Campbell Morfit, one of the Editors of the " Encyclopedia of 
 Chemistry." In One Volume, 12mo, cloth. A new Edition (in press.) 
 
4k . 
 
 8 PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 PHOTOGENIC MANIPULATION: 
 
 Containing the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of 
 
 Photography, or the Production of Pictures through the Agency of Light ; in- 
 cluding Calotype, Chrysotype, Cyanotype, Chromatype, Energiatype, Anthotype, 
 Amphitype, Daguerreotype, Thermography, Electrical and Galvanic Impressions. 
 By George Thomas Fisher, Jr., Assistant in the Laboratory of the London In- 
 stitution. Illustrated by Wood-cuts. In One Volume, 24mo, cloth 62 cts. 
 
 MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: 
 
 Being a Common-Place Book of Principles, Theorems, Kules, 
 
 and Tables, in various Departments of Pure and Mixed Mathematics, with their 
 
 Applications, especially to the pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
 
 Civil Engineers. With numerous Engravings. By Olinthus Gregory, L. L. D., 
 
 F. R. A. S $1.50 
 
 Only let men awake, and fix their eye, one while on the nature of things, another while on the application 
 of them to the use and service of mankind. — Lord Bacon. 
 
 SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH: 
 
 Comprising a Treatise on the Acclimation of Sheep in the 
 
 Southern States, and an Account of the different Breeds. Also, a Complete Ma- 
 nual of Breeding, Summer and Winter Management, and of the Treatment of 
 Diseases. With Portraits and other Illustratious. By Henry S. Randall. In 
 One Volume, octavo $1.25 
 
 MISS LESLIE'S COMPLETE COOKERY. 
 
 Directions for Cookery, in its Various Branches. By Miss 
 
 Leslie. Forty-fifth Edition. Thoroughly Revised, with the Addition of New 
 
 Receipts. In One Volume, 12mo, half bound, or in sheep $1 
 
 In preparing a new and carefully revised edition of this my first work on cookery, I have introduced 
 improvements, corrected errors, and added new receipts, that I trust will on trial be found satisfactory. The 
 fiuccess of the book (proved by its immense and increasing circulation) affords conclusive evidence that it 
 has obtained the approbation of a large number of my countrywomen ; many of whom have informed me 
 that it has made practical housewives of young ladies who have entered into married life with no other ac- 
 quirements than a few showy accompHshments. Gentlemen, also, have told me of great improvements in 
 the family table, after presenting their wives with this manual of domestic cookery, and that, after a morn- 
 ing devoted to the fatigues of business, they no longer find themselves subjected to the annoyance of an 
 ill-dressed dinner. — Preface. 
 
 MISS LESLIE'S TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH COOKERY. 
 
 A new Edition, in cloth 25 cts. 
 
 TWO HUNDRED DESIGNS FOR COTTAGES AND VILLAS, &c. &c., 
 
 Original and Selected. By Thomas U. Walter, Architect of 
 
 Girard College, and John Jay Smith, Librarian of the Philadelphia Library. In 
 Four Parts, quarto $10 
 
PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 9 
 
 STANDARD ILLUSTRATED POETRY. 
 
 THE TALES AND POEMS OF LORD BYRON: 
 
 Illustrated by Henry Warren. In One Volume, royal 8vo, 
 
 with 10 Plates, scarlet cloth, gilt edges $5 
 
 Morocco extra $7 
 
 It is illustrated by several elegant engravings, from original designs by Warren, and is a most splendid 
 work for the parlour or study. — Boston Evening Gazette. 
 
 CHILDE HAROLD; A ROMAUNT BY LORD BYRON: 
 
 Illustrated by 12 Splendid Plates, by Warren and others. In 
 
 One Volume, royal 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges $5 
 
 Morocco extra $7 
 
 Printed in elegant style, with splendid pictures, far superior to any thing of the sort usually found in 
 books of this kind. — N. Y. Courier. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF THE BRITISH POETS. 
 
 From the time of Chaucer to the end of the Eighteenth Cen- 
 tury. By Thomas Campbell. In One Volume, royal 8vo. (In press.) 
 
 THE FEMALE POETS OF AMERICA. 
 
 By RuFUS W. Griswold. A new Edition. In One Volume, 
 
 royal 8vo. Cloth, gilt $2.50 
 
 Cloth extra, gilt edges $3 
 
 Morocco super extra $4.50 
 
 The best production which has yet come from the pen of Dr. Griswold, and the most valuable contribu- 
 tion which he has ever made to the literary celebrity of the country.— iV. Y. Tribune. 
 
 THE LADY OF THE LAKE : 
 
 By Sir Walter Scott. Illustrated with 10 Plates, by Cor- 
 
 BOULD and Meadows. In One Volume, royal Bvo. Bound in cloth extra, gilt 
 
 edges $5 
 
 Turkey morocco super extra $7 
 
 This is one of the most truly beautiful books which has ever issued from the American press. 
 
 LALLA ROOKH; A ROMANCE BY THOMAS MOORE: 
 
 Illustrated by 13 Plates, from Designs by Corbould, Meadows, 
 
 and Stephanoff. In One Volume, royal Bvo. Bound in cloth extra, gilt edges... $5 
 
 Turkey morocco super extra $7 
 
 This is published in a style uniform with the Lady of the Lake." 
 
10 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 THE POETICAL WORKS OF THOMAS GRAY: 
 
 With Illustrations by C. W. Kadcliffe. Edited with a Me- 
 moir, by Henry Reed, Professor of English Literature in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania. In One Volume, 8vo. Bound in cloth extra, gilt edges $3.50 
 
 Turkey morocco super extra ..$5.50 
 
 It is many a day since we have seen issued from the press of our country a volume so complete and truly 
 ele2;ant in every respect. The typography is faultless, the illustrations superior, and the binding superb. — 
 Troy Whig. 
 
 We have not seen a specimen of typographical luxury from the American press which can surpass this 
 volume in choice elegance. — Boston Courier. 
 
 It is eminently calculated to consecrate among American readers (if they have not been consecrated 
 already in their hearts) the pure, the elegant, the refined, and, in many respects, the sublime imaginings 
 of Thcmas Gray. — Richmond Whig. 
 
 THE POETICAL WORKS OF HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW: 
 
 Illustrated by 10 Plates, after Designs by D. Huntingdon, 
 
 Ivith a Portrait. Ninth Edition. In One Volume, royal 8vo. Bound in cloth extra, 
 
 gilt edges $5 
 
 Morocco super extra $7 
 
 This is the very luxury of literature — Longfellow's charming poems presented in a form of unsurpassed 
 beauty.— iS^eoZ's Gazette. 
 
 POETS AND POETRY OF ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH 
 
 CENTURY: 
 
 By EuFUS W. Griswold. Illustrated. In One Volume, royal 
 
 8vo. Bound in cloth $3 
 
 Cloth extra, gilt edges $3.50 
 
 Morocco super extra $5 
 
 Such is the critical acumen discovered in these selections, that scarcely a page is to be found but is redo- 
 lent with beauties, and the volume itself may be regarded as a galaxy of literary pearls. — Democratic 
 Meview. 
 
 THE POETS AND POETRY OF THE ANCIENTS : 
 
 By William Peter, A. M. Comprising Translations and Spe- 
 cimens of the Poets of Greece and Rome, with an elegant engraved View of the 
 
 Coliseum at Rome. Bound in cloth $3 
 
 Cloth extra, gilt edges $3.50 
 
 Turkey morocco super extra $5 
 
 THE FEMALE POETS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 With Copious Selections and Critical Remarks. By Frederic 
 
 RowTON. With Additions by an American Editor, and finely engraved Illustra- 
 tions by celebrated Artists. In One Volume, royal 8vo. Bound in cloth extra, 
 
 gilt edges $5 
 
 Turkey morocco $7 
 
 Mr. RovTTON has presented us -with admirably selected specimens of nearly one hundred of the most 
 celebrated female poets of Great Britain, from the time of Lady Juliana Bernes. the first of whom there is 
 any record, to the Jlitfords, the Hewitts, the Cooks, the Barretts, and others of the present day. — Hunt's 
 JUcrchants' Magazine. 
 
PUBLICATIONS OF HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 1 1 
 
 THE TASK, AND OTHER POEMS. 
 
 By William Cowper. Illustrated by 10 Steel Engravings. In 
 
 One Volume, 12mo. Cloth extra, gilt edges $2 
 
 Morocco extra $3 
 
 THE POETICAL WORKS OF NATHANIEL P. WILLIS. 
 
 Illustrated by 16 Plates, after Designs byE. Leutze. In One 
 
 Volume, royal 8vo. A new Edition. Bound in cloth extra, gilt edges $5 
 
 Turkey morocco super extra $7 
 
 This is one of the most beautiful works ever published in this country. — Courier and Inquirer. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN SIMON STJGGS; 
 
 And other Sketches. By JohnsojST J. Hooper. With Illus- 
 
 trations. 12mo, paper 50cts. 
 
 Cloth 75 cts. 
 
 AUNT PATTY'S SCRAP-BAG. 
 By Mrs. Caroline Lee Hentz, Author of " Linda." 12mo. 
 
 Paper covers 50 cts. 
 
 Cloth 75 cts. 
 
 BIG BEAR OF ARKANSAS ; 
 
 And other Western Sketches. Edited by W. T. Porter. In 
 
 One Volume, 12mo, paper 50 cts. 
 
 Cloth , 75 cts 
 
 COMIC BLACKSTONE. 
 
 By Gilbert Abbot a' Becket. Illustrated. Complete in One 
 
 Volume. Cloth 75 cts 
 
 GHOST STORIES. 
 
 Illustrated by Designs by Darley. In One Volume, 12mo, 
 
 paper covers 50 cts. 
 
 MODERN CHIVALRY; OR, THE ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN 
 FARRAGO AND TEAGUE O'REGAN. 
 
 By H. H. Brackenridge. Second Edition since the Author's 
 
 death. With a Biographical Notice, a Critical Disquisition on the Work, and Ex- 
 planatory Notes. With Illustrations, from Original Designs, by Darley. Two 
 
 Volumes, paper covers 75 cts. 
 
 Cloth or sheep $1.00 
 
12 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF HENEY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 THE COMPLETE WORKS OF LOUD BOLINGBEOKE : 
 With a Life, prejoared expressly for this Edition, containing 
 
 Additional Information relative to his Personal and Public Character, selected 
 
 from the best authorities. In Four Volumes, 8vo. Bound in cloth $7.00 
 
 In sheep $8.00 
 
 FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 Of Useful Knowledge and General Literature; containing 
 
 about Four Thousand Articles upon Scientific and Popular Subjects. With Plates. 
 By John L. Blake, D. D. In One Volume, 8vo, cloth extra $3.50 
 
 CHEOmCLES OF PINEVILLE. 
 
 By the Author of " Major Jones's Courtship." Illustrated by 
 
 Daeley. 12mo, paper 50 cts. 
 
 Cloth 75 cts. 
 
 GILBERT GTJRNEY. 
 
 By Theodoee Hook. With Illustrations. In One Volume, 
 
 8vo, paper 50 cts. 
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE GENERALS, COMMODORES, AND OTHER 
 COMMANDERS, 
 
 Who distinguished themselves in the American Army and 
 
 Navy, during the War of the Revolution, the War with France, that with Tripoli, 
 and the War of 1812, and who were presented with Medals, by Congress, for their 
 gallant services. By Thomas Wyatt, A. M., Author of "History of the Kings of 
 France." Illustrated with Eighty-two Engravings from the Medals. 8vo, cloth 
 
 gilt $2.00 
 
 Half morocco $2.50 
 
 VISITS TO REMARKABLE PLACES : 
 
 Old Halls, Battle Fields, and Scenes Illustrative of striking 
 
 passages in English History and Poetry. By William Howitt. In Two Volumes, 
 8vo, cloth... $4.00 
 
 THE MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF WILLIAM HAZLITT; 
 
 Including Table-talk ; Opinions of Books, Men and Things ; 
 
 Lectures on Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth ; Lectures on the Eng- 
 lish Comic Writers ; The Spirit of the Age, or Contemporary Portraits. Five 
 
 Volumes, 12mo, cloth $5.00 
 
 Half calf $6.25 
 
 FLORAL OFFERING: 
 
 A Token of Friendship. Edited by Frances S. Osgood. Il- 
 lustrated by 10 beautiful Bouquets of Flowers. In One Volume, 4to, muslin, gilt 
 
 edges $3.50 
 
 Turkey morocco super extra $5.50 
 
 THE HISTORICAL ESSAYS, 
 
 Published under the title of " Dix Ans D'Etude Historique," 
 
 and Narratives of the Merovingian Era ; or, Scenes in the Sixth Century. With 
 Autobiographical Preface. By Augustus Thierry, Author of the "History 
 
 of the Conquest of England by the Normans." 8vo, paper $1.00 
 
 Cloth $1.25 
 
PUBLICATIONS OF HENHY CAREY BAIRD. 
 
 13 
 
 BOOK OF THE SEASONS ; 
 
 Or, The Calendar of Nature. By William Hottitt. One 
 
 Volume, 12mo. Cloth ,. $1 
 
 Calf extra $2 
 
 NOTES OF A TRAVELLER 
 
 On the Social and Political State of France, Prussia, Switzer- 
 land, Italy, and other parts of Europe, during the present Century. By Samuel 
 Laing. In One Volume, 8vo, cloth §1.50 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CAPTIVITY OF NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA. 
 
 By General Count Montholon, the Emperor's Companion in 
 
 Exile and Testamentary Executor. One Volume, 8vo, cloth $2.50 
 
 Half morocco $3.00 
 
 MY SHOOTING BOX. 
 
 By Frank Forrester, (Henry Wm. Herbert, Esq.,) Author 
 
 of " Warwick Woodlands," &c. With Illustrations, by Darley. One Volume, 
 
 12mo, cloth 75 cts. 
 
 Paper covers 50 cts. 
 
 MYSTERIES OF THE BACKWOODS : 
 
 Or, Sketches of the South-west — including Character, Scenery, 
 
 and Rural Sports. By T. B. Thorpe, Author of " Tom Owen, the Bee-Hunter," 
 
 &c. Illustrated by Darley. 12mo, cloth 75 cts. 
 
 Paper 50 cts. 
 
 NARRATIVE OF THE LATE EXPEDITION TO THE DEAD SEA. 
 From a Diary by one of the Party. Edited by Edward P. 
 
 Montague. 12mo, cloth $1 
 
 MY DREAMS: 
 
 A Collection of Poems. By Mrs. Louisa S. McCord. 12mo, 
 
 boards 75 cts. 
 
 RAMBLES IN YUCATAN : 
 
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