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CASSELLS TECHNICAL MANUALS. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 BUILDING 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 AV0 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 
 
 WITH ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-THRU! ILLUSTRATION!, 
 DRAWN ON WOOD RY THE AUTHOR. 
 
 
 ELLIS A. D.AVI DSON\ 
 
 iriixct Atm ah C*‘ TiirrA w • m Vift or umttetn mipmkum 
 
 K MOOCS . AVTMOI 09 ” r»o|fe TK»I ” 
 
 ("CAMau'l TBCMNICAL UIIIM*); " «0»T ura I* Tim 
 biomt n.Acn.“ "oci MOt'taa,** "oci rx>iu * 
 ("camsu'i him ait til III*' . Re. Re. 
 
 CASSELL. PETTER. AND GALPIN, 
 
 LONDON AND NEW YORK. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGR 
 
 Of the Drawings required for Building 
 purposes. — Plans -Elevations — Sections — Perspec- 
 tives and Working Drawings — The Colours used in 
 Architectural Drawings to express the various Materials 
 employed— Plain Hints on Colouring Drawings — The 
 Construction of Scales ... From commencement to 19 
 
 Building Construction. — General Principles— Foun- 
 dations — Natural and Artificial — The Excavation — 
 Concrete — Beton — Biographical Notes of Vitruvius and 
 Smeaton — Signinum Opus — Corfe Castle — Eddystone 
 Lighthouse — Newgate Prison — Hydraulic Lime — 
 Hydrates — Nuclei — Foundations under Water — Pierre 
 Perdue — Plymouth Breakwater — Biographical Note 
 of Sir John Rennie — Coffer-dams — Caissons — Wooden 
 Piles and Pile-driving— Iron Piles ... ... 20 to 33 
 
 Masonry — Part I. — Uncoursed Rubble — Coursed 
 Rubble — Ashlar Work — Thorough or Bond Stones— 
 
 Beds of Stones — Architraves — Putty — Cement — 
 Igneous and Aqueous Stones 33 to 39 
 
 Brickwork — Part I. — Bricks— their size — Brick Walls 
 — their various thicknesses — “ Perpends” — Plumb-rule 
 — Principles of Walling — Headers and Stretchers — 
 Plans and Elevations of Walls in English Bond, &c. — 
 Closers — Flemish Bond — Rake and Herring-bone Bonds 
 — General Rules as to Brickwork ... .. 39 to 52 
 
 A 2 
 
 3 SS3 
 
IV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Foundations (continued). — Principle of Footings in 
 Brick and Stone 52 to 55 
 
 Brickwork— Part II. — Protection against Frost — Appli- 
 cation of Wall-plates — Templates — Discharging Arches 
 — Lintels — Woodbricks— The Principle of the Arch — 
 Various Forms of Arches — Construction of Brick 
 Arches 55 to 70 
 
 Drawing for Bricklayers. — Examples of Rough 
 Arch — Square-headed Window — Intrados — Extrados 
 — Centering — Square-headed Door, with Relieving 
 Arch and Tie-rod — Segment-arched Window, Exterior 
 — Ditto, Interior — Elliptical Arch — Gothic Arch in 
 Brickwork, with Centering 70 to 80 
 
 Masonry — Part II. — With Drawing for Masons — 
 Examples of — Vaulting in London Docks — Plan, Eleva- 
 tions, Development of Soffit, and Form of Voussoirs 
 for a Stone Arch crossing a road at 6o° — Groined 
 Arch— Form and Development — Stone Staircase 80 to 89 
 
 Woodwork, with Drawing for Carpenters and Joiners — 
 
 “ Scantling” — Modes of Lengthening Timbers — Strap- 
 ping — Bolting — Fishing — Coupling — Halving — 
 Scarfing — Trussing Girders — Flitch Girders — Joints in 
 Timber — Halving — Notching — Mortising — Fox-tail 
 Joint — Tusk-tenon used in Uniting Bridging Joists to 
 Girders — Oblique-tenon at Foot of Rafters ... 89 to 103 
 
 The Construction of Roofs. — Lean-to, Gable, Hip 
 and Mansard Roofs — Biographical Note of Mansard — 
 Tie-beam Rafters, Principal and Common — King- 
 post, Strap, and Gibs — Queen-posts — Straining-beam 
 — Struts — Purlins— Pole-plate — Battens ... 103 to 108 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 V 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Construction of Floors. — Single Floors — 
 Trimming Arch and Joist — Herring-bone Truss — 
 Sound Boards — Double Floors — Binders — Bridging and 
 Ceiling Joists — Framed Floors — Girders — Tusk Joint 
 — Floor Boards — Square-edged, Rebated, Ploughed, 
 and Tongued and Dowelled — Folded Flooring 109 to 1 12 
 
 Partitions. — The Principles of their Construction, with 
 Example 1 12 to 1 13 
 
 Joinery. — How distinguished from Carpentry — Mitre 
 Joint — Dove-tail Joint — Staircases — Their General 
 Construction — The Bracket Staircase — The Dog-legged 
 Staircase — The Newel — The Story Rod ... 113 to 117 
 
 Fire-proof Construction 1 17 to 120 
 
/ 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The purpose of the present volume, the third of the 
 Technical Series, is to give a general knowledge of the 
 principles of Building Construction, and at the same time 
 to afford elementary practice in Architectural drawing. 
 
 The instruction herein contained is therefore given in 
 as simple a manner as is consistent with the proper work- 
 ing out of the subject, whilst the illustrations are as 
 clearly rendered as possible, in order that they may serve 
 as drawing copies. 
 
 The student is strongly advised not to merely read the 
 text and look at the examples, under the idea that the 
 distinctive forms will be thus impressed on his mind, and 
 that he will be able to reproduce them when required. 
 Long experience has shown us that this plan is unsafe, 
 and that a book of this kind cannot be merely read as 
 a tale or history ; though in these, too, it is now admitted 
 that the illustrations of the events depicted serve to fix the 
 acts, actors, and scenes on the memory. This purpose 
 may to a certain extent be accomplished by merely seeing 
 the drawings ; but our object is twofold. We wish not. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 viii 
 
 only to teach the student to read a new language, and 
 that language a universal one, but to speak it fluently. 
 We wish to teach a workman not only to be able to 
 work from a drawing, but to make one. This applies 
 not only to masons and bricklayers, but to all artizans ; 
 and if once the pleasure of being able to sketch with a 
 piece of chalk from his pocket, or his rough flat pencil, so 
 as to satisfy and please his employer, is felt, we have no 
 fear but that the artizan will continue his study of drawing 
 with increased interest. 
 
 In plain words, we wish this book to afford mental study 
 combined with manual practice, so as to accustom the 
 student not only to think, but to act — a glorious combina- 
 tion which the education of the workers is most likely to 
 bring about. The system therefore advised is that the 
 student should firstly read the section carefully, referring 
 to the cuts, and accurately observing the lettering. The 
 illustration should next be drawn to a larger scale, and 
 correspondingly lettered ; and then the references or de- 
 scription written underneath it : not necessarily the whole 
 description, but an abstract of the principles upon which 
 the construction is based. The student will then be able 
 to look over his drawings occasionally, and will see at a 
 glance the constructions ; these glances will serve as 
 reminders, and will each awaken a chain of ideas which 
 may for the moment have glided away, but which such a 
 gentle touch may call back again. 
 
 It is further necessary to remind the student that the 
 constructions treated of in this book, and in the special 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IX 
 
 manuals diverging from it, are all more or less dependent 
 upon the geometrical principles, forms, developments, and 
 projections which have been exemplified in the two pre- 
 ceding volumes of this series ; and he is urged not to rest 
 satisfied with merely copying the diagrams , but to vary 
 the studies, to apply the principles , and to attempt, how- 
 ever humbly, to design for himself. Let him look at the 
 revival of architecture now going on around us, and reflect 
 that this is being accomplished by the careful and con- 
 scientious study of the sciences upon which the glorious 
 edifices of old were constructed, not by merely copying 
 them ; and therefore it is that we would have the student 
 throw his whole spirit into his vocation, and not merely 
 to hew stone or cut wood, but to remember the words — 
 
 “ Stamp each stone with earnest feeling, 
 
 In the rock thy soul revealing.” 
 
 Thus did the men of olden time. Their heart and soul 
 was in their work, and thus we look on it in the Cathe- 
 drals and in the museums, and our spirit enchained and 
 enraptured, we fail to ask how much did it cost? for, 
 to the man who would do his duty, the question, how 
 much shall I get for it ? must for the moment sink before 
 the one great resolution, I will do my best. But the artizan 
 will ask, will this bring me wages ? and we unhesitatingly 
 answer, Yes it will : for we may fearlessly assert that 
 never in the whole history of labour has there been a 
 period when the workman has been deemed more worthy 
 of his hire, or when greater efforts have been made, 
 
X 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 firstly to teach the artizan, and then to show apprecia- 
 tion of his work, than the present. Let him but show that 
 he possesses, in the words of Reynolds, “ a love of art, 
 and a desire to excel ; ” and he may be assured that he 
 will not want encouragement for his efforts. 
 
 ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. 
 
 London, May, 1869. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Of the Drawings required for Building purposes. 
 
 THE drawings required for the general purposes of build- 
 ing may be classed under four heads, viz. : — 
 
 PLANS. 
 
 ELEVATIONS 
 
 SECTIONS. 
 
 WORKING DRAWINGS. 
 
 To these must be added “ Perspective Drawings,” which, 
 however, are not used in absolute construction, but are 
 intended to represent the building when seen from various 
 points of view ; and “ projections ” by which the widths, 
 &c., of elevations, and the true shapes of the sections are 
 obtained. 
 
 The terms Plan, Elevation, and Section are fully ex- 
 plained and practically demonstrated in the volume on 
 “ Projection,” which in its turn is based on the construc- 
 tion of geometrical forms, treated of in the introductory 
 volume of this series, called “ Linear Drawing.” 
 
 It must be obvious that the course of instruction would 
 be impeded were we to repeat the definitions and 
 examples already given in explanation of these terms, 
 before entering on our present subject. We would there- 
 fore earnestly advise the student to refer to the previous 
 volumes ; not to be content with their mere possession, 
 but to work each lesson carefully ; by this means he 
 will have laid (to use a term adapted to our theme) a firm 
 foundation, the benefits of which he will experience during 
 the wholb course of his subsequent studies. 
 
12 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 We will merely then, remind the reader that the Plan 
 of a building, &c., is the exact form of the ground on which 
 it stands or overhangs. (See “ Projection,” page 23, 
 plate ii., fig. 1.) 
 
 Plans are spoken of as : 
 
 1. Block Plans. — These show the mere outlines of the 
 buildings, and their position in relation to the surrounding 
 objects. In most cases the block plans are accompanied 
 by drawings showing the levels of the ground and neigh- 
 bourhood, the drains, gas and water mains already exist- 
 ing, and the method by which the new works are to be 
 connected with the old. These drawings are, in fact, 
 maps of the whole property, on which the general shapes 
 and positions of the buildings are marked. 
 
 2. Excavation Plans. — This term is almost self- 
 explanatory. These drawings give the exact shape of the 
 excavations — that is, of the hollows to be sunk for the 
 required buildings. The term is derived from ex, “ out,” 
 and cavus, “ a hollow” (Latin). They show the trenches 
 to be dug for the walls to stand in, and also give the plans 
 from which the underground works, such as cellars, &c., 
 are to be excavated. 
 
 3. Basement Plans. — These show the foundations 
 and works, up to the ground-line or level of the ground. 
 
 4. Floor Plans, sometimes called Chamber Plans. — 
 These show the exact disposition of the rooms, &c., on 
 each floor, the staircases, &c. The beginner might at 
 first think that one drawing could show all this— but the 
 idea would be erroneous, because on the ground floor 
 some apartments, such as store-rooms, larders, &c., or 
 other outbuildings might project from the house and cover 
 more ground than the upper floors ; secondly, the rooms 
 in upper floors might be divided by partitions which would 
 make their plans different from those below, although 
 covering the same area. Under this head, therefore, 
 would be comprehended the ground floor plan , showing 
 the dining-rooms and drawing-rooms (where the latter are 
 on the ground floor), the entrance hall, staircase, &c. 
 The chamber plans, showing the bed-rooms, dressing- 
 rooms, and bath-rooms ; and of course, such a plan would 
 be necessary for each floor — and the attic plan, showing 
 how the space is apportioned in the highest floor of the 
 house. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 13 
 
 5. Hoof Plans, which show the exact manner in 
 which the building is to be covered, and the gutters by 
 which the water is to flow to the heads of the spouts by 
 which it is to be conveyed away. It is usual to show 
 parts of the roof plan uncovered, or naked ; that is, with 
 the slates or tiles removed, so as to allow of a plan of 
 the roof timbers being shown. 
 
 Elevations. 
 
 Elevations are exact geometrical views of each side of 
 the building. By the term “ geometrical view ” is meant a 
 drawing where every part is represented as it really is, 
 without any attempt at showing the sides or parts which 
 would be seen if the building were looked at from any 
 particular point of view ; for, in a perspective drawing, the 
 various parts, such as windows, doors, mouldings, &c., 
 would be rendered smaller as they become more distant, 
 and thus the drawing could not be measured from ; but in 
 an elevation, the eye is supposed to be exactly in front of 
 the side of the building which is to be delineated, so that 
 all the sizes and forms remain unaltered. The subject of 
 projecting elevations from given plans having been fully 
 treated of in the previous volume, it is unnecessary to enter 
 further into it in this place, especially as several oppor- 
 tunities will occur in the course of our study, in which the 
 principles taught may be practically applied. 
 
 It will be readily understood that as many elevations 
 are required as there are sides to the building ; thus, in 
 erecting a detached villa — that is, one which stands alone 
 — it will be necessary to prepare the Front Elevation, the 
 Back Elevation, and two Side Elevations (see page 47, 
 and plate xiv. “ Projection ”) ; whilst for a house in a 
 street, situated between two others, only the front and 
 back elevations would be required. 
 
 On all the plans and elevations figures are placed to 
 show the measurements. Those on the plans give the 
 widths of the different parts, whilst those on the elevations, 
 give for the most part, the heights ; in order that it may 
 be clear to which parts the dimensions apply, an arrow- 
 head is placed at each extremity. These are connected 
 by a dotted or coloured line. This is broken off in the 
 middle, and the necessary figures inserted. 
 
 Of course, plans and elevations are drawn very much 
 
H 
 
 B U1LDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 smaller than the real size, yet all the parts are represented 
 in such accurate proportion, that the figures may be 
 readily translated to the required dimensions ; this is 
 called “working to scale,” and the proportion in which 
 the drawing is made is always stated on it ; thus you will 
 notice in the margin, “ Scale, | inch to a foot,” this 
 means, that every part of the drawing which measures 
 J of an inch is to be I foot long in the building ; and as 
 there are eight eighths in an inch, and twelve inches in a 
 foot, it will be clear that the drawing is one ninety-sixth 
 of the real size. When one dash (') is placed over a 
 figure, it means that that figure represents feet ; whilst 
 two dashes (") mark inches ; and it is no doubt, known to 
 the student that X means “ multiplied by,” or, as it is 
 generally termed, “ by ; ” thus, if a room is marked 
 if 6" x 12' 3", it means that it is to be fourteen feet six 
 inches long, by twelve feet three inches wide. The mode 
 of making scales will be shown further on. 
 
 Sections. 
 
 The drawings next required are called Sections. The 
 study of “Projection” (pages 39, &c.) will have shown 
 what sections really are, and how they are obtained. It 
 is then only necessary here, to give a very simple defini- 
 tion of them, and this is done for the benefit of those who 
 may not have worked through the previous volume ; but 
 they must clearly understand that Projection is not to be 
 taught in the present book, but applied; and therefore 
 they are urged to take up that study either prior to, 
 (which is the more advisable), or together with this, other- 
 wise they will be likely to become truly “ mechanical 
 draughtsmen,” that is, men who simply draw mechani- 
 cally , who work from a ’ cofiy ^ and rightly or wrongly 
 measure and draw the lines because they are in the draw- 
 ing before them, thus becoming mere drawing machines ; 
 whereas the study of Projection will teach them to obtain 
 an elevation from a given plan and other data, and to 
 work out the sections according to the required position. 
 A section then, is the form which would be presented if 
 an object were cut in any given direction and one part 
 removed. Thus, a plan may be said to be a horizontal 
 section ; that is, the form which would be presented if a 
 large knife were passed through a building parallel to the 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 IS 
 
 floors, and the upper portion were removed. Sections are 
 however usually understood to mean vertical (or upright) 
 cuttings, generally parallel to one of the elevations ; thus, 
 a longitudinal section is a cutting parallel to the front, 
 whilst a transverse section is a cutting across ; viz., 
 parallel to the sides of the building. Sections need 
 not necessarily be parallel to either side, but may be 
 taken in any direction that may be required, their position 
 being shown by a line on the plan. 
 
 Now the section of a solid body shows just the shape 
 of the cutting, or in common terms, the “ slice ” taken on 
 a given line (see page 39, and plate ix. of “ Projection”) ; 
 but if the object were hollow, its internal surface would 
 be presented to view ; and thus, if a house be supposed 
 to be cut from back to front, the whole of the interior 
 structure will become visible ; and thus, by giving sec- 
 tional drawings taken on different lines, the entire modes 
 of construction of the floors, roofs, staircases, &c., are 
 shown, as are also the manner in which the rooms are 
 placed over each other, and the walls and chimney stacks 
 are carried up. 
 
 Working Drawings. 
 
 Next we come to the Working Drawings, or as they 
 are sometimes called, the Detailed Drawings. These are 
 to show exactly all the detail of the various parts, which 
 could of course, only be rendered on a very small scale in 
 the general drawings. Working drawings, therefore, are 
 made much larger ; it is necessary in fact, that the 
 drawings of some of the parts be made of the real size, 
 in order that the detail may be perfectly intelligible to 
 the workman, and so that drawings may be made for 
 other parts which are to fit exactly to them. 
 
 Working drawings are required not only for the builder 
 but for the purposes of the decorator as well, in order that 
 the ornamentation may be designed so as to be adapted 
 to the size and form of the surface to be covered. They 
 are also necessary for the mason, in order that from them 
 he may make his templets , or pieces of metal, cut to the 
 exact shape of the section, &c., of the moulding or string 
 course, and that by them he may make all the single 
 pieces of stone which are to form tracery, of the exaot 
 form and size required. 
 
i6 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Detailed drawings are also required in making the 
 patterns in wood from which the iron girders and other 
 castings are made, and for the carpenter and joiner, to 
 show the method of framing-in the doors, windows, 
 shutter-boxes, &c. It therefore becomes necessary that a 
 separate set of drawings be provided for each trade. 
 
 When it is intended that any part of a drawing is to 
 represent in section, as in Fig. 128, &c., it is usual to cover 
 such part with lines drawn at an angle of 45 °. This is 
 easily done by placing the T-square with its cross-head 
 against the left-hand edge of the drawing-board, and 
 moving the set square (of 45 °) along the edge of the blade 
 as each line is drawn. The section lines should not be 
 placed too closely together, and if the drawing is to be 
 coloured, the colour should be applied firstly, and allowed 
 to dry thoroughly before the section lines are drawn ; for, 
 if the lines have been drawn firstly, the colour would be 
 likely to “wash up” the. Indian ink, and so cause a 
 smeared and blotched appearance. The lines which 
 represent the sections of stone, bricks, &c., are straight, 
 but those which are to show the sections of wood are so 
 placed that they may either represent the grain or the 
 curves which are seen in the ends of timbers, and which 
 are parts of the rings of woody fibre of which the wood is 
 formed. Care must be taken that neither of these effects f 
 is overdone. The student must remember that he is not 
 making a picturesque drawing (and even if he were, 
 excessive elaboration of such detail would be out of place), 
 but that “ trade drawings,” the “ drawings of the work- 
 shop,” must be purely indicative, so that they may show 
 at a glance the different materials of which the object is 
 to be constructed. This purpose is much assisted by 
 tinting each part with the colours which are generally 
 understood to represent the various materials. The 
 following is a list of the colours used by most architects 
 to express the various substances : — 
 
 Material. Colour. 
 
 Brickwork to be executed 1 ~ . x , 
 
 (in the plans and sections) J Cnmson Lake ' 
 
 { Crimson Lake mixed with 
 Burnt Sienna or Venetian 
 Red. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 17 
 
 Material. 
 
 The lighter Woods — such as \ 
 
 Fir J 
 
 Oak or Teak 
 
 Granite 
 
 Stone generally 
 
 Concrete Works .... 
 Wrought Iron 
 
 Cast Iron j 
 
 Steel | 
 
 Brass 
 
 Lead j 
 
 Clay or Earth 
 
 Slate 
 
 Colour. 
 
 Raw Sienna. 
 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Pale Indian Ink. 
 
 Yellow Ochre, or Pale Sepia. 
 Sepia with darker markings. 
 Indigo. 
 
 Payne’s Grey, or Neutral 
 Tint. 
 
 Pale Indigo tinged with 
 Lake. 
 
 Gamboge, or Roman Ochre. 
 Pale Indian Ink tinged with 
 Indigo. 
 
 Burnt Umber. 
 
 Indigo and Lake. 
 
 The mode of fixing the paper to the board by means of 
 paste has been described in “ Projection,” in which volume 
 will also be found “a few plain hints on Linear Drawing,” 
 and “ a plain description of the mathematical instruments 
 mostly used ;” to these, therefore, we refer the student, 
 and proceed to give him 
 
 A FEW PLAIN HINTS ON COLOURING 
 DRAWINGS. 
 
 When you are about rubbing up some colour, firstly see 
 the slab is not dusty. Then drop some water on it from 
 one of the larger brushes ; but on no account dip the 
 cake of colour into the cup or glass of water, which is a 
 most wasteful plan, as it softens the cake, and causes it 
 to crumble off in rubbing. 
 
 Rub the paint firmly, but not too heavily, or you will 
 not get the colour smooth. Be careful to hold the cake 
 A upright, so as to keep the edge flat. 
 
 When you have rubbed as much colour as you think 
 you are likely to want, do not at once put the cake back 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 into its place in the box, but stand it on one of its edges 
 so as to allow it to dry, otherwise it would stick to the box. 
 
 Blue, Bed, and Yellow are called the three 
 Primary Colours. 
 
 When two primaries are mixed, they produce a 
 Secondary Colour. Thus : — 
 
 Primaries. 
 
 Yellow and Bed 
 Yellow and Blue 
 Bed and Blue 
 
 Secondary. 
 
 produce Orange. 
 
 „ Green. 
 
 „ Purple. 
 
 When you wish to mix a secondary colour, such as 
 Green, from the two primaries Blue and Yellow, rub the 
 blue in one division of the slab, and the yellow in another, 
 leaving a space between them. Then, with your brush, 
 mix the two colours in this vacant space ; but on no 
 account rub either of the cakes in the colour obtained 
 from the other, as this would leave the end soaked in 
 another tint, and when you used it again you would find 
 the colour would be impure. Of course, these remarks 
 apply to the mixing of any two colours. 
 
 In order that colour should flow easily, and cover a 
 surface evenly, it is necessary that it should be thin. It 
 is always easy to wash over it again if it should not be 
 found dark enough, but it is very difficult to wash off the 
 colour if it should be too dark. 
 
 When you have laid on your colour do not touch it 
 again whilst wet. If it should require retouching let this 
 be done when it has dried, as you will generally make it 
 worse by stirring, about in the wet colour, and will be 
 likely to rub up the surface of the paper. 
 
 Wherever it is possible, use a large brush in preference 
 to a smaller one, as you will by this means be the more 
 likely to succeed in getting a flat wash, whilst a small 
 brush might make the tint lie in streaks. Care is how- 
 ever necessary in using a large brush, so that you may 
 not pass over the outlines. 
 
 To lay a flat wash of colour is of great importance, and 
 to be able to accomplish this some practice is required, 
 in order to obtain which you are recommended to draw 
 several triangles, squares, or other figures, of different 
 sizes. Commence by colouring the smallest, and then 
 work on in order of size, as it is more difficult to spread 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 J 9 
 
 the wash over a large than a small surface. Let your 
 brush be quite full of thin colour, and holding it nearly 
 upright, pass it boldly over the upper part of the figure ; 
 then gradually bring the colour down, spreading it equally 
 over the whole work as rapidly as you can, so as to 
 prevent, if possible, any one part drying before the whole 
 surface has been covered with colour.* 
 
 To Construct a Plain Scale. 
 
 Let it be required to construct a scale of i inch to the 
 foot. This has been taken for the first example owing to 
 its great simplicity ; for it will be at once understood that 
 a 12 -inch rule will represent 12 feet, and therefore the 
 drawing executed on this scale will be one-twelfth ( T \) of 
 the real size. This is called the representative fraction. 
 Draw a line of any length and mark on it several inches. 
 Mark the left-hand end of the line o, the first space 1, 
 and so on. This, however, only gives feet j it is necessary, 
 therefore, to divide the inches into twelfths, f and then 
 each twelfth will represent an inch of the real measure- 
 ment. It will be obvious that the same principle will 
 apply to the construction of scales whatever the repre- 
 sentative fraction may be ; thus — 
 
 To Construct a Scale of T ^, 
 
 that is, one of one-tenth of an inch to the foot ; because 
 there are 10 tenths in an inch and 12 inches in a foot. 
 Draw a line of indefinite length ; mark off on it any 
 number of tenths of an inch, and these will represent feet. 
 It is not necessary to figure every division, nor to carry 
 them beyond 10 feet in single feet ; after that they may 
 be marked in 5-feet lengths. 
 
 Of course, on such a small scale separate inches would 
 not be required ; it is only necessary, therefore, to divide 
 one of the tenths into four parts, each of which will 
 represent three inches. The detail would then be drawn 
 on a larger scale, as already explained. 
 
 * Elementary Lessons on “ Colour ” will be found at page 99 in “Right 
 Lines in their Right Places,” Cassell’s Primary Series, price is. 
 
 t To divide a line into any number of equal parts, see “ Linear Drawing,” 
 fig- 9 , Page 9. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 General Principles. 
 
 The term Construction, as applied in practical art, is 
 generally understood to mean fabrication rather than 
 form , its object being the adaptation of such materials as 
 are most fitted for the purpose intended, and the art of 
 the constructor being devoted to combining them so as 
 to ensure permanency and stability. 
 
 If an upright wall be properly constructed upon a 
 sufficient foundation, the combined mass will retain its 
 position, and bear pressure in the direction of gravity to 
 any extent that the ground on which it stands and the 
 component materials of the wall can sustain. The aim 
 of the constructor then must be, firstly, to secure a firm 
 basis on which the fabric is to rest, and secondly, so to 
 dispose his - structure, and so to combine all the parts, 
 that the whole pressure may act in the required direc- 
 tion ; for instance, when a building is to be roofed, the 
 rafters, if butting merely on the top of the walls and 
 meeting at the ridge, would of course be liable to press 
 the wall outward. The constructor, therefore, designs a 
 “ truss ” in a manner best adapted to the particular case. 
 A truss consists, in the first place, of a tie-beam, which is 
 a strong piece of timber. The lower ends of the rafters 
 are mortised into this, and their upper ends are inserted 
 into the top of an upright piece called a “ king-post,” 
 which, acting as a keystone of an arch, keeps the rafters 
 in their places ; whilst their lower ends, being inserted 
 into the tie-beam, cannot spread outward. A firm tri- 
 angular assemblage of timbers is thus formed, and when 
 this is raised to its place on the walls, there is not any 
 pressure outward, the entire weight bearing vertically , 
 that is, in the direction in which the wall is best calculated 
 to bear it ; and should the design of the building not 
 permit of the introduction of the tie-beam, the constructor 
 applies buttresses outside the walls, to enable them to 
 resist the thrust caused by the weight of the roof. The 
 numerous ways in which scientific construction is practi- 
 cally applied in building, will be exemplified according to 
 the requirements of the different materials treated of in 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 21 
 
 the following pages ; and we will proceed, in the first 
 place, to speak of 
 
 Foundations. 
 
 By the term foundation is meant — 
 
 1. The surface or bed of earth on which a building 
 rests ; and 
 
 2. The manner in which the lower portions of the 
 building are constructed so as to afford the best possible 
 bearing for the superstructure. 
 
 Foundations are spoken ot as— 
 
 1. Natural. 
 
 2. Artificial. 
 
 Although both these terms seem self-explanatory, it is 
 still deemed advisable to refer briefly to their exact signi- 
 fication in accordance with the principle adopted in this 
 elementary series*; viz., not to assume any previous 
 knowledge ; and although this plan may be open, to the 
 objection that information may be supplied which many 
 students have already acquired, yet this is by far safer 
 than that any one who may be totally unlearned on the 
 subject should seek information in these pages and be 
 disappointed. 
 
 A Natural foundation then is such as will be found 
 where the site is underlaid by a solid rock, or any kind of 
 incompressible, resisting substances, free from water. Of 
 course this must depend entirely on the locality ; and it 
 must be borne in mind that it is not so important that the 
 ground should be perfectly rocky and hard, as that it 
 should be compact and of similar consistence throughout; 
 not so necessary that it should be absolutely unyielding 
 as that it should yield equally throughout. 
 
 Artificial foundations are such as are constructed so as 
 to render the ground which is too soft to bear the building, 
 fitted for the purpose required. Of course the means 
 adopted must depend on the situation, the nature of the 
 soil, the character or purpose of the building, &c. ; and 
 some of the methods mostly used will be here described 
 and illustrated. 
 
 See Introduction to “ Linear Drawing.’ 
 
22 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION . 
 
 Bad foundations have been the cause of the ruin of 
 many modern buildings. This has arisen from the costly 
 nature of the work in making good the site, when the soil 
 is not naturally suitable. But it is clear that the saving 
 of the first expense is an unwise economy, as the entire 
 stability of the superstructure necessarily depends on the 
 firmness of the foundation. 
 
 The first process in connection with laying the founda- 
 tions is sinking the trenches in which the bases of the 
 walls, &c., are to rest, and in digging out the hollows for 
 cellars, &c. This is called the Excavation. 
 
 If the surface be found to be perfectly rocky, or to con- 
 sist of a gravelly soil embedded with stone, it becomes a 
 good natural foundation when it has been reduced to a 
 level. If the soil prove generally firm, the looser parts, 
 if not very deep, may be dug up until a solid bed be 
 reached, and the hollow may then be filled up with 
 broken stones and concrete ; if the soil be not very loose, 
 it may be made good by ramming into it large stones, 
 closely packed together, or dry brick rubbish widely 
 spread ; but if the ground be very bad, it must be piled 
 and planked, or covered with a bed of concrete, according 
 to the circumstances. 
 
 In a building to be erected on a slanting site, the foun- 
 dation must rise with the inclination of the ground, which 
 must be “ benched out ” — that is, cut into a series of broad 
 steps ; this will ensure a firm bed for the courses, and 
 prevent them from sliding, as they would be likely to do 
 if built on an inclined plane. 
 
 When a good hard foundation is easily accessible, as 
 solid gravel, chalk, or rock, we have nothing to do but to 
 excavate the surface mould to the sound bottom, and 
 build at once, first putting in the “ footings ” which are 
 one or more courses forming a sort of steps, each pro- 
 jecting a little beyond the other. These footings will be 
 referred to and illustrated further on. On hard ground, 
 one course of masonry, about half as wide again as the 
 wall, is ample, but of course this must depend on the dis- 
 cretion of the architect. The rule however, which must 
 always guide the builder, is that the broader the base the 
 safer the construction, and therefore the softer the ground, 
 the wider it will be necessary to spread the foundation ; 
 and thus on softer ground, in many cases, footings have 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 23 
 
 been employed extending not only double the width of the 
 wall, but even more. 
 
 But the invention, or rather the re-introduction of con- 
 crete, has altered much of the system formerly adopted. 
 When the ground is a deep clay, the building material, be 
 it what it may, should go so deep as not to be influenced by 
 changes of temperature or the rising or falling of springs, 
 as the alternate shrinking or swelling of the ground must 
 affect the stability of the building. It has been satis- 
 factorily proved that in this country frost seldom pene- 
 trates beyond a foot into the ground, but in clayey soils, 
 cracks and fissures, caused by the drying of the ground, 
 frequently extend to the depth of two or three feet. Under 
 such circumstances the bases of the foundation should be 
 below such level. If the ground be springy, it should be 
 drained, if possible ; if not, a foundation must be laid with 
 concrete as low as the lowest level of the water, or, if very 
 deep and boggy, piles must be used. The plan of building 
 on sleepers or planking has now been almost entirely 
 discarded ; for experience has shown that timber, where 
 exposed to alternations of wet and dry, soon rots, and is 
 liable to be crushed, thus allowing the walls to sink. 
 Where the ground is wet at one time and dry at 
 another, the best timber soon decays, and there- 
 fore piles used in supporting buildings should, where 
 possible, be so placed as not to be liable to such 
 alternations. 
 
 The use of concrete, except under very peculiar cir- 
 cumstances, has entirely superseded all other substances 
 used in artificial or semi-artificial foundations. Concrete 
 may be defined as a sort of rough masonry, composed of 
 broken pieces of stone or gravel, not laid by hand, but 
 thrown at random into the trenches, cemented together 
 with lime in various ways, and thoroughly mixed with it 
 before it is thrown in. 
 
 In England, the lime is generally ground, and mixed, 
 when hot, with the stones. In France, however, the lime 
 is first made into a paste, and the mixture is called Beton. 
 Beton has been much used in foundations of breakwaters, 
 bridges, &c., as it has the property of hardening under 
 water. The use of this composition is of very ancient 
 date, and many examples of its use by the Romans still 
 remain to us on the coast of Italy ; it is supposed to be 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 24 
 
 the “ Signinum opus ” mentioned by Vitruvius.* It was 
 in very common use in the middle ages, walls, and even 
 arches, having been frequently made of it. Smeaton f 
 states that he was induced to use it from his observation 
 of the ruins of Corfe Castle, $ in Dorsetshire. 
 
 Dance, the architect of Newgate Prison, employed a 
 sort of concrete in rebuilding that structure in 1770-1778. 
 The site of part of the new building was a deep bog, and 
 it was rendered available by shooting a quantity of broken 
 bricks into the holes, mixed with occasional loads of 
 mortar, in proportion of four to one, and suffering them to 
 find their bed. 
 
 Any hard substance, broken into small pieces, will serve 
 for the solid part of concrete. That most used is gravel 
 or ballast. This should not be sifted too fine, as the sand 
 which is left will mix with the lime, and form a sort of 
 mortar, and so assist to cement the stones together. If 
 broken stones or masons’ chips are used, it is well to mix 
 some sharp sand with them. The general rule is, that 
 no piece should exceed a hen’s egg in size. In this 
 country, the lime is generally ground, and used hot. It 
 is mixed with the ballast by scattering it amongst the 
 
 * Vitruvius, Marcus, a celebrated Roman architect, who was born about 
 eighty years B.c. He received a liberal education, and pursued those 
 studies which were calculated to fit him for the profession of an engineer 
 and architect, and was engaged in the Assyrian war, 46 b.c., as superin- 
 tendent of military engines. He wrote a work called “ De Architectura,” 
 in ten books, treating of the different branches of architecture and civil 
 engineering. 
 
 t Smeaton, John, an eminent civil engineer, was born at Austhorpe, near 
 Leeds, in 1724, and earlyshowed a bent towards mechanical pursuits. In 1755, 
 an event occurred, which was to afford him the opportunity of reaching the 
 very summit of his profession. The second wooden lighthouse which had been 
 erected on Eddystone rock (which is one of a group of rocks daily submerged 
 by the tide, situated in the English Channel, nine miles off the Cornish 
 coast), was destroyed by fire. The speedy re-erection of another beacon was 
 of the utmost importance, and the execution of the work was entrusted to 
 Smeaton. The new lighthouse was built of stone. The cutting of the rock 
 for the foundation commenced in 1756 ; the building was executed between 
 June, 1757, and October, 1759; and the lantern lighted on the 16th October 
 of that year. This work, the greatest of its kind hitherto undertaken, 
 remains to this day a stable monument of Smeaton’s engineering skill. 
 
 t This castle stands in the middle of a village, to which it gives its name. 
 In the vicinity are stone and marble quarries, clay works, and potteries. The 
 castle was founded in the tenth century, and was long one of the strongest 
 fortresses in the kingdom. Here King Edward the Martyr was murdered 
 by his mother, Elfrida, about a.d. 960 ; and King John, during his disputes 
 with the barons, kept his regalia here for safety. Here, also, in 1642, Lady 
 Bankes defended the castle for six* weeks against Charles I. It was dis- 
 mantled by Fairfax, in 1645. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 25 
 
 stones, and turning them over with a shovel, water being 
 at the same time thrown upon the mass. It is then 
 immediately filled into the trenches. This has sometimes 
 been done by shooting it from stages erected for the pur- 
 pose. This practice has, however, been much and justly 
 censured by the greatest engineers ; the proper method 
 being to put the concrete down in layers of about one foot 
 in thickness, to level each course, and ram it well down. 
 In support of this plan, we may quote the words of Mr. 
 George Burnell, C.E. (on limes, concretes, and cements) : 
 “ In almost every work upon the art of construction 
 we meet with descriptions of modes of making concrete. 
 It is, however, very discouraging to observe that in spite 
 of all that may be said, the majority of architects and 
 engineers treat the matter with such utter indifference 
 that the old imperfect systems are still retained, and the 
 conduct of these works is left almost invariably to some 
 rule-of-thumb workman, who only knows that he has 
 bee r accustomed to make concrete in a certain manner, 
 without knowing any one of the principles which regulate 
 the action of the materials he works with. We thus find 
 that the bulk of the concrete made in and near London, 
 where the building art ought to be the most advanced, 
 is made simply by turning over the ground stone-lime, a 
 very moderately hydraulic one, by the w r ay,* amongst the 
 gravel. It is then put into barrows and shot down from 
 a stage. Such a mode of proceeding is rapid and econo- 
 mical, but it is eminently unscientific, leading, doubtlessly, 
 to the waste of material we so often witness ; for the 
 practice is to make the concrete about one-third thicker 
 than would be at all necessary if the process of making it 
 were more perfect. It cannot be too often repeated, that 
 the first condition necessary to obtain a good concrete or 
 beton, is, that the lime should be brought to the state of 
 a perfect hydrate, f before being mixed with the nuclei J 
 which it is to surround. It should, therefore, be reduced 
 to the state of a thick paste and made into a mortar, 
 
 * Hydraulic lime is such as possesses the quality of setting or hardening 
 under water. 
 
 t Hydrates are substances in which a definite quantity of water is chemi- 
 cally combined with a definite quantity of some other constituent. 
 
 t Nuclei, plural of nucleus , a substance, however small, which forms a 
 centre around which other matters gather. 
 
26 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 before it is mingled with the gravel. Instead of being 
 thrown down from a height, and left to arrange itself as 
 it best may, it should be wheeled in on a level, and beaten 
 with a rammer ; for we find that when thrown thus from 
 a height the materials separate, and the bottom parts of 
 a thick bed of concrete are without the proper proportion 
 of lime. The advantage of making the lime into mortar 
 previously, is, that it fills in a much more perfect manner 
 the intervals of the gravel or stones, and in fact, renders 
 the concrete what it is meant to be, an imperfect species 
 of Rubble masonry.” 
 
 Where the soil consists of running sand or soft clay, the 
 area of the foundation must be enclosed by sheet piling. 
 This consists of piles driven close to each other, so as to 
 form a wall which encloses the soil, and prevents the 
 softer portion from spreading out under the superincum- 
 bent weight of the building. Sometimes as much as 
 possible of the soft matter is removed and replaced by 
 beton, or concrete, the heads of the piles sawn off level, 
 and a kind of wooden platform built on this support. In 
 other cases piles may be driven in at certain distances 
 apart over the entire area enclosed by the sheet piling, 
 the spaces between these piles being filled in with stones 
 or concrete, and a solid flooring constructed on this 
 foundation. 
 
 Foundations under water are constructed in various 
 ways. The most ancient and certainly the most simple is 
 that called by the French “ Pierre perdue ” (or lost stones). 
 This method consists in shooting rough stones, &c., into 
 the water, and leaving them to settle themselves as they 
 happen to fall. When the heap rises to the surface it is 
 levelled, and the superstructure raised upon it. This 
 system has been used principally for the erection of piers 
 and breakwaters, but is not adapted for structures of a 
 permanent character — as lighthouses — being erected upon 
 it, as the external portions are liable to be washed away, 
 and therefore, the mound requires frequent repair. Nor 
 do the stones always fall exactly within the prescribed 
 area, but may reach a greater distance than was intended. 
 The system is, therefore, not adapted for river works, 
 where any narrowing of the waterway is of consequence. 
 
 A breakwater is a barrier intended for the protection of 
 shipping in harbours or anchorages, by breaking the force 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 27 
 
 of the waters as the mighty waves roll towards the shore. 
 Sometimes a small island is situated opposite a bay and 
 thus forms a natural breakwater. This is in some degree 
 the case with the Isle of Wight, which occupies such a 
 position as to protect Portsmouth and Southampton. 
 
 The Plymouth breakwater (Fig. 1), built by Sir John 
 Rennie,* is the best known of these constructions. The 
 Sound, or harbour, being open to the south, was so much 
 exposed to storms that early in the present century it was 
 determined to erect a breakwater across it with openings 
 on either side between it and the shore to allow of the 
 passage of vessels. The works were commenced in 1812 
 
 fic . 1 
 
 Section of Plymouth Breakwater. 
 
 by transporting along a tramroad large blocks of limestone 
 from a neighbouring quarry. These were then carried by 
 vessels fitted with trap-doors, and were thus deposited on 
 the required spot. The good effect of the mound was felt 
 
 * Sir John Rennie was born at Phantassie, in East Lothian, in 1761. His 
 early education was obtained in the parish school of East Linton, and he 
 subsequently learnt mathematics at Dunbar. He was for some time a work- 
 man in the employ of Mr. Andrew Meikle, an ingenious Scotch mechanic, 
 who, in 1787, invented the threshing machine. After attending various 
 lectures on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, he was taken into the employ 
 of Messrs. Boulton and Watt, near Birmingham, and soon displayed such 
 mechanical genius that Watt, in 1789, entrusted him with the direction of 
 the construction and fitting up of the Albion Mills, London. His improve- 
 ments in millwork were so striking that he at once rose into general notice as 
 an engineer of great promise, and the thorough efficiency of his workman- 
 ship greatly contributed to his fame. To this branch of engineering he 
 added in 1799 another — the construction of bridges ; and, amongst numerous 
 others, he built Waterloo and Southwark bridges over the Thames, the 
 latter built of cast-iron arches resting on stone piers. He also drew up the 
 plans for London Bridge, which was not, however, commenced until after his 
 death. In addition to numerous bridges, the London Docks, the East and 
 West India Docks, at Blackwall, with their goods sheds, the Hull Docks, 
 the Prince’s Docks, Liverpool, and those of Dublin, were all designed and 
 wholly or partially executed under his superintendence. Besides the Ply- 
 mouth breakwater, Rennie planned many improvements in harbours, and 
 dockyards in Portsmouth, Chatham, and Sheerness. He died in October, 
 1821, and was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral. 
 
28 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 as soon as it began to rise above the surface, but the great 
 storm in November, 1824, threw a large quantity of the 
 stones over into the Sound, and it was not until 1841 that 
 the works were finally completed by the deposition of 
 more than three millions of tons of stone, and the expen- 
 diture of one million three hundred thousand pounds. 
 The breakwater is nearly a mile long. The central por- 
 tion is 1,000 yards, and two wings of 330 yards each 
 extend from the ends of this at a slight angle. The open 
 channels at each end, between the breakwater and the 
 shore, are each about half a mile wide, and their depth is 
 respectively 40 and 22 feet at low water. The breakwater 
 is; 1 33 yards wide at the base, and 15 at the top, the two 
 sides being made very sloping for the security of the stones ; 
 the slopes and top are faced with masonry. The water- 
 space protected by this breakwater comprises 1,120 acres. 
 
 There are breakwaters at Holyhead, Portland, and 
 Dover, but the limits of the present manual preclude 
 descriptions of them. The above will therefore serve as 
 an illustration of the system of “ pierre perdue,” or 
 “ random ” foundation. In some cases blocks of beton 
 have been used with success. 
 
 Foundations under water are sometimes laid in “ coffer- 
 dams .” This is done by driving parallel rows of piling 
 around the site on which the pier is to be built ; these 
 piles are kept in their places by horizontal timbers, so as 
 to form a coffer or strong box around the site. The space 
 between the parallel rows of piling is filled with clay, 
 puddle, &c., well rammed down, so as to render the wall 
 thus formed, water-tight ; this is one of the principal 
 difficulties in the system ; whilst another presents itself 
 in the pressure of the water on the outside, which is 
 resisted by struts placed inside the coffer-dam, extending 
 from side to side. When the coffer-dam takes the form 
 of a wall, to keep out the water during the building of a 
 wharf, &c., the struts are placed obliquely, and act as 
 buttresses. 
 
 When the structure is deemed satisfactory, the water is 
 pumped out of the enclosed space, the bottom of which 
 is then excavated and levelled until a solid stratum be 
 reached, or a bed of concrete or beton is laid down. 
 
 If solid ground is not found within available depth, the 
 plan adopted is to drive piles a few feet apart all over the 
 
B UJLDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 29 
 
 area. These are then surrounded by sheet-piling, to pre- 
 vent the soft soil escaping. Stones, concrete, &c., are 
 then rammed in between the piles ; the heads are cut off 
 at one level, sleepers are laid across, and on these planking 
 is placed, on which the building is erected. 
 
 Before the application of steam power to pumping, this 
 system was very expensive, and another was introduced 
 into this country by a Swiss architect, named Labelye ; 
 and was first used in the erection of old Westminster 
 bridge in 1739. The method adopted by Labelye was 
 the using of a caisson , or large water-tight chest (the word 
 caisson meaning a large box or caisse). The bed of the 
 stream was first carefully levelled by dredging. Strong 
 frames of timber were then constructed, having upright 
 sides like those of a box. These were floated over the 
 place where the piers were to be built, and the masonry 
 of each pier was commenced inside the caissons. When 
 the first course was laid and cramped together, water was 
 admitted by sluices into the caisson, which then sank. 
 The bottom was not however, found to be sufficiently 
 level ; the sluices were therefore closed, the water was 
 pumped out of the caisson, and it was floated again ; 
 the ground was then again dredged and levelled, and 
 this operation was performed three times before the mass 
 of stone settled on a level bed. The pier was then 
 built on this foundation, after which the sides of the 
 caisson were removed, and used for the next pier. Black- 
 friars bridge, erected in 1760, was also built by caissons. 
 In both these cases, however, the foundations proved 
 failures, and both of the bridges have been removed, and 
 that at Westminster is replaced by the elegant structure 
 designed by Mr. Page, completed in 1862 ; whilst the new 
 Blackfriars bridge is rapidly approaching completion. 
 
 Hitherto, we have spoken of wooden piles, and before 
 proceeding to mention those formed of iron, which are 
 now so much used, it is deemed advisable to give the 
 student some little information concerning piles, and pile- 
 driving. The piles then, are squared beams of timber 
 pointed at the bottom. The timber used for this purpose 
 is oak, beech, fir, and larch. The piles are bound at the 
 top by strong iron hoops, in order to prevent their being 
 split by the force of the blows which drive them down ; 
 they are also protected at the bottom by iron shoes. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 30 
 
 When the piles are to be placed singly, the point is 
 pyramidical ; that is, cut to a square point (Fig. 2) ; but 
 for sheet-piling the ends are cut flat (Fig. 3), so as to 
 present an edge rather than a point, and this edge too 
 is a little slanting ; that is, the triangular face is a 
 little longer at one side than the other. The purpose 
 of this is, that as the pile is being driven down, it will 
 have the tendency towards the last pile which has been 
 driven, and so, a closer wall of piles will be formed. 
 When sheet-piling is constructed, one pile is placed at 
 each end of the required width, and a few others at 
 
 intervals. These are called guide piles, and to these 
 horizontal timbers are attached called wales y which guide 
 the rest of the piles, so that they may be placed in a 
 straight line. 
 
 Piles are forced into the ground by pile-drivers or 
 engines. The subject of this work precludes any lengthened 
 description of these ; it will be sufficient to say that a 
 pile-driver consists of vertical guide-bars, between which 
 a weight called the “ monkey ” is drawn up, either by a 
 number of men or by steam power, and is suddenly 
 released, when its weight descends like a huge hammer 
 on the head of the pile, and thus drives it into the soil. 
 Nasmyth’s steam pile-driver consists of a guide-bar, with 
 the required machinery for hoisting the hammer, &c. This 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 31 
 
 hammer is an important application of Nasmyth’s steam- 
 hammer. The “ monkey ” is attached to the piston-rod, 
 working, as in the steam-hammer, downwards from the 
 cylinders ; it acts in an iron guide-bar, resting on the top 
 of the pile which is being driven, the steam being led 
 from the boiler to the cylinder by jointed pipes which allow 
 of the motion as the pipe sinks. Another important pile- 
 driver, which was first used in the construction of St. 
 Katherine’s docks, London, is the atmospheric engine, 
 which is worked by an air-pump and a steam-engine. We 
 shall have an opportunity of entering more fully into the 
 construction of these important engines in a subsequent 
 volume devoted to mechanism, and also, to give several 
 illustrations of them. When piles have only been used 
 for a temporary purpose, they are either cut off at the level 
 of the ground, or are drawn up ; the latter plan however, 
 must always be adopted with great care, lest the vacuum 
 caused by the withdrawal of them should weaken the 
 foundation. Piles of cast iron were first employed in the 
 construction of Bridlington harbour. The piles used in 
 this work were formed of plates of iron, so contrived at 
 the sides that each pile was united by a dove-tailed 
 joint with the adjoining one. In 1822, Mr. Ewart 
 took out a patent for iron piling, and the success of 
 those employed by him emboldened others ; eventually 
 cylindrical iron piles were introduced, and are now 
 largely employed. 
 
 These vary, according to the nature of the work, from 3 
 to 7 feet in diameter. They are firstly lowered into the 
 water and driven as far as they will go without great diffi- 
 culty into the ground ; a quantity of clay is then placed 
 around the outside of them, for the purpose of preventing 
 the water forcing its way underneath the bottom. The 
 water is pumped from the inside, and the workmen then 
 descend into the cylinder and dig away the soil which 
 they send up in buckets, thus literally undermining the 
 cylinder, which then sinks either by its own weight or by 
 additional pressure. The pile is formed of parts, and at 
 the top of the first part are flanges, which also exist at 
 both ends of the other section. As one part sinks another 
 is bolted on to it, until the required depth is reached. On 
 the ends of these cylinders the platform of girders and 
 planking is constructed. 
 
32 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 The screw piles introduced by Mr. Mitchell are ad- 
 mirably adapted for loose, movable, and even sandy soils, 
 and have been found very useful in situations where all 
 other means have failed. 
 
 These piles are of wrought iron and hollow, and ter- 
 minate at their lower end in screws of various shapes. 
 (See Figs. 4 and 5.) They are screwed down into the bed 
 
 «— 1 ”—* 
 
 FIC. 4 
 
 of the river or the bottom of the sea, until the pile is firmly 
 fixed ; their heads are then connected by sleepers, and 
 the superstructure raised upon the base thus formed. 
 The lighthouse on the Chapman Sand, in the mouth of the 
 Thames, is built on such piles 7 inches in diameter and 
 about 40 feet long ; the blade of the screw (which is of 
 cast iron) is 4 feet in diameter. They are screwed down 
 to the depth of about 37 feet, on their heads, iron girders, 
 braces, &c., are bolted, and on these the lighthouse, 
 which is entirely of wrought iron, is erected. The piles 
 are seven in number, one driven in the centre, and the 
 others at equal distances around it. 
 
 It will be remembered that the term Foundation 
 refers not only to the surface or bed on which a building 
 stands, but to the manner in which the lower portions of 
 the walls are constructed , . 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 v> 
 
 Now, as walls are built either of stones or bricks, we 
 think it advisable to give the principles connected with the 
 laying of both these materials before proceeding with the 
 subject of the foundations in which they are to be em- 
 ployed ; otherwise several of the terms used might not be 
 understood by the beginner. 
 
 Masonry.— Part I. 
 
 Stonemasons class the methods of building walls into — 
 
 1. Rubble Work. 
 
 2. Ashlar Work. 
 
 Rubble work is either Uncoursed or Coursed. 
 
 In Uncoursed Rubble (Fig. 6), stones of any sizes 
 and shapes are used without any reference to their heights. 
 The workman merely uses a tool, called the scabling 
 hammer, to chip off any portion which may be unsightly 
 or project from the general surface of the wall ; an in- 
 telligent mason is however careful so to dispose his 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 variously-shaped stones that they may fit into each other, 
 packing in every interstice with smaller stones, filling in 
 every crevice with mortar, and using his plumb-rule to 
 keep his wall perpendicular. It must be borne in mind 
 that the wall is to be composed of stone, which is com- 
 pact, and mortar, which is yielding ; and therefore the 
 more stone, and the less mortar put in, the better. As 
 the mortar will continue to shrink until it is dry and 
 hard, it will be easily understood that a thick bed of soft 
 
B U1L DING CQNS TR UC TION. 
 
 34 
 
 material will necessarily allow of a greater settlement at 
 the part where it exists than in any other — nor should any 
 stone be placed so as to rest on one part which may pro- 
 ject more than another, and be bedded up with mortar, 
 which would of course cause unequal settlement when 
 other stones are placed upon it. It will thus be seen that 
 
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 //’ s-lllll 
 
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 'uni I l '"'il ,✓//'!=/! sJ"\ "'"I 
 
 
 
 W/'l 
 
 -zg! 
 
 
 mill 
 
 "/ill 
 
 ill! 
 
 »!■..» [• 
 
 | | **•»' J f ^ | "W. 
 
 
 
 1 "iif ||j 
 
 mi 
 
 v/j/tf' 
 
 ml 
 
 ^,1111 \ 
 
 
 *9f9 
 
 "II run 
 
 ( ,|| 
 
 "I'll iih 1 
 
 
 Fig. 7 . 
 
 even in the simplest operation there is scope for intelligent 
 application of thought, and necessity for knowledge of 
 principles. 
 
 In Coursed Rubble (Fig. 7), the workman roughly 
 dresses the stones before he begins to lay them. He 
 is careful to get good beds to them ; that is, to get the 
 under and upper surfaces of the stones perfectly parallel ; 
 and he also gets the front of them at right angles to the 
 beds, and tolerably level. The wall is built in courses, 
 which are kept of one height all along in each, although 
 the different courses need not be equally high, nor need 
 the separate stones of which a course may be composed 
 necessarily be equal, but some may be laid on others to 
 make up the height. The stones at the corners are 
 called “ Quoins,” and are always laid with care, as they 
 serve as gauges by which the height of the course is regu- 
 lated, the workman using the line and level to guide him. 
 
 Ashlar work (Fig. 8) is a sort of facing to a wall built 
 either by one of the other methods or of bricks. Ashlar 
 stones, or ashlars, as they are usually called, are neatly 
 squared and tooled on their surface, and are made of 
 
B UJLDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 35 
 
 various sizes according to convenience or the character 
 of the building. The following is given on the authority 
 of Mr. Peter Nicholson : — 
 
 Walls are most commonly built with an ashlar 
 facing, and backed with brick or rubble work. Brick 
 backings are common in London, where brick is 
 cheaper ; and stone backing in the north of England 
 and Scotland, where stone is plentiful. Walls faced 
 with ashlar and backed with brick or uncoursed 
 rubble are liable to become convex on the outside, 
 from the greater number of joints and from the greater 
 quantity of mortar placed in each joint, as the shrinking 
 of the mortar will be in proportion to the quantity ; and 
 therefore, a wall of this description is much inferior to 
 one of which the facing and backing are of the same 
 kind, and built with equal care, even though both sides 
 were uncoursed rubble, which is the worst of all walling. 
 Where the outside of a wall is of ashlar facing, and 
 the inside coursed rubble, the courses of the backing 
 should be as high as possible, and set in thin beds of 
 mortar. In Scotland, where stone abounds, and where 
 
 perhaps as good ashlar facings are constructed as any in 
 Great Britain, the backing of their walls most commonly 
 consists of uncoursed rubble, built with very little care. 
 
 In the north of England, where the ashlar facings of 
 walls are done with less neatness, they are much more 
 particular in the coursing of their backings. Coursed 
 rubble and backings are favourable to the insertion of 
 
 C 2 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 36 
 
 bond timbers ; but in good masonry wooden bonds 
 should never be in continued lengths, as in case of fire 
 or rot, the wood will perish, and the masonry, being re- 
 duced by the breadth of the timbers, will be liable to bend 
 at the place where it was inserted. When it is necessary 
 to have wall timber, for the fastening of battens for lath 
 and plaster ; the pieces of timber ought to be built with 
 the fibres of the wood perpendicular to the surface of 
 the wall, or otherwise in unconnected short pieces not 
 exceeding nine inches in length. 
 
 In an ashlar facing the stones generally run from 
 twenty-eight to thirty inches in length, twelve inches in 
 height, and eight or nine inches in thickness. Although 
 both the upper and lower beds* of an ashlar, as well 
 as the vertical joints, should be at right angles to the 
 face of the stone, and the face-bed and vertical joints at 
 right angles to the beds, in an ashlar facing, where the 
 stones run nearly of the same thickness, it is of some 
 advantage in respect of bond that the back of the stone 
 should be inclined to the face, and that all the backs 
 thus inclined should run in the same direction, as this 
 gives a small degree of lap in the setting of the next 
 course ; whereas, if the backs were parallel to the fronts, 
 there could be no lap where the stones run of an even 
 length in the thickness of the wall. It is of some ad- 
 vantage, likewise, to select the stones so that a thicker 
 and a thinner one may follow each other alternately. The 
 disposition of the stones in the next superior f course 
 should follow the same order as in the inferior course, 
 and every vertical joint should follow as nearly as possible 
 in the middle of the stone below. 
 
 In every course of ashlar facing, with brick or 
 rubble backing, thorough-stones, % as they are techni- 
 
 * Beds of a stone. By this term is meant the upper and lower surfaces of 
 the block. In usual walling these are horizontal, viz., at the right angle 
 with the face, and are called the lower bed — that is the one on which the 
 stone rests, and the upper bed, the surface in which the next above it will 
 
 be placed. 
 
 . f The terms superior and inferior, when thus used in building, &c., refer 
 to situation , not quality. Thus, the superior course means the higher , and 
 similarly, uiferior means the lower. 
 
 $ Thorough-stones or bond-stones. These are stones placed with their 
 greatest length going through the thickness of the wall at the right angle to 
 its surface. Some of the ashlar stones must of course be thus used, or the 
 facing, having nothing to connect it with the backing, would soon separate 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 37 
 
 cally termed, should be introduced ; their number 
 should be proportioned to the length of the course, and 
 every such stone of a superior course should fall in the 
 middle of two similar stones in the course below. This 
 disposition of bonds should be strictly attended to in long 
 courses. 
 
 In every pier where the jambs are coursed with the 
 ashlar in front, every alternate jamb-stone ought to go 
 through the wall with its beds perfectly level. If the 
 jamb-stones are of one entire height, as is frequently the 
 case when architraves* are wrought upon them and 
 upon the lintel crowning them, every alternate stone at 
 the ends of the courses of the pier which are to adjoin 
 the architrave jamb ought to be a ‘thorough-stone;’ and 
 if the piers between the apertures be very narrow, no 
 other bond-stones will be necessary in such short courses; 
 but where the piers are wide, the number of bond-stones 
 must be proportioned to the space. Thorough-stones 
 must be particularly attended to in the long courses, below 
 and above the windows. 
 
 Bond-stones should have their sides parallel, and of 
 course perpendicular, to each other, and their horizontal 
 dimensions in the face of the work should never be less 
 than the vertical one. All the vertical joints, after 
 receding about three-quarters of an inch from the face 
 with a close joint, should widen gradually to the back, 
 and thereby form wedge-like hollows for the reception 
 of mortar and packing. The adjoining stones should 
 have their beds and vertical joints filled with oil-putty 
 from the face to about three-quarters of an inch inwards, 
 and the remaining part of the beds with well-prepared 
 mortar. 
 
 Putty cement will stand longer than most stones, and 
 
 itself from it and give way. Bond-stones are generally put in alternate 
 courses with backing to the jambs of windows, doors, &c. They are placed 
 alternately in the different courses, so that they may not come immediately 
 over each other, and thus the tying is spread over the whole surface of the 
 wall ; but unless the backing be set in quick-setting cement, or otherwise 
 carefully packed, the tendency of the backing to settle away from the facing 
 will not be counteracted. 
 
 • Architrave. The assemblage of members or mouldings which surround 
 a door or window, the sides of which are called jambs , and the cross-top the 
 lintel or traverse. The under side of the lintel— that is, the ceiling of the 
 opening, or the surface seen on looking upward when standing in a doorway — 
 is called the soffit. 
 
D UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 38 
 
 will even remain permanent when the stone itself is in a 
 state of dilapidation from ^the influence of the corroding 
 power of the atmosphere. 
 
 It is true that in all newly-built walls cemented with 
 oil-putty the first appearance of the ashlar work is some- 
 what unsightly, owing to the oil of the putty spreading 
 into the adjoining stones, which makes the joints appear 
 rather dirty and irregular ; but this disagreeable effect is 
 soon removed, and if care has been taken to make the 
 colour of the putty suitable to that of the stone, the joints 
 will hardly appear, and the whole work will seem as if one 
 piece. This is the practice in Glasgow, but in London 
 and Edinburgh fine water-putty is principally used. 
 
 All ashlars should be laid on their natural beds ; that 
 is, the surface which was horizontal when the stone lay in 
 its native quarry, should be placed horizontally in the 
 wall. To understand this very clearly, the student must 
 be informed that there are two kinds of stone known to 
 geologists,* viz., igneous (from the Latin word ignis , fire), 
 and aqueous (from the Latin word aqua , water). 
 
 The Igneous are such as have been formed by the 
 agency of fire, which has melted some of their constituent 
 parts and left others hard and bright. The whole of the 
 mass, when hardened, becomes of the same structure 
 throughout, and forms the various sorts of granite used in 
 building. 
 
 The Aqueous are such as have been formed by the 
 numerous rocky particles which have been carried along 
 and deposited by water in past ages. This sediment 
 having become hardened by time and heat, now con- 
 stitutes most of the stones we use in building, which are 
 sometimes, from their origin, called sedimentary, j- 
 
 Now the solid masses we know as stone, have not been 
 formed by the sediment which was deposited at one 
 period ; but ages may have elapsed between each for- 
 mation : thus the stone is deposited in layers, called 
 strata (from the Latin word stratum , strewn or spread 
 out), and this is the reason that such stone may be easily 
 
 * Geology. The science which treats of the formation of the crust of the 
 earth. 
 
 t For further information on the formation of stone and much other elemen- 
 tary but useful instruction on subjects connected with building, tools, &c., 
 the student is referred to “ Our Houses,” Cassell’s Primary Series. 
 
D UILD1NG CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 39 
 
 split into slabs, whilst granite would only chip into irre- 
 gularly shaped pieces. 
 
 This explanation will now enable the student to under- 
 stand the rule that “ all ashlars should be laid on their 
 natural beds,” that is, that they should be placed so that 
 the strata of which they are formed should be horizontal, 
 or nearly so, as they were in the quarry from which they 
 were taken. The purpose will be clear to any reflective 
 mind, for it will at once be understood that the strata, 
 when standing on edge, will be more liable to separate as 
 the stone yields to time, the influence of the atmosphere, 
 or to pressure, and thus flakes or layers will separate 
 vertically and drop off, leaving a portion of the stone 
 above unsupported. 
 
 As many of the principles of building in stone apply 
 equally to brickwork, they will be found under that head, 
 and masonry will be further considered in a section 
 devoted to drawing as applied to stonework. 
 
 Brickwork.— Part I. 
 
 Bricks may be considered as artificial stones, and seem 
 to have been used from a very early period in the history 
 of man. Their average size in this country is a trifle less 
 than nine inches long, four and a-half inches wide, and 
 two and a-half inches thick. Their uniformity in size 
 enables builders to describe the thickness of walls by the 
 number of bricks extending across it ; thus, a slight brick 
 partition wall being formed of bricks lying on their broad 
 side, with their length in the direction of the length of the 
 wall, is called a “ half-brick thick,” its thickness being 
 four and a-half inches ; a wall in which the length of the 
 brick extends through the thickness is called a “one- 
 brick thick a wall 14 inches through is called a “ brick 
 and a-half thick” (though to speak more accurately it 
 would be 13J inches, that is, 9 for the whole brick and 4 \ 
 for the half) ; an 18-inch wall is said to be a “two-brick 
 thick,” and so on. 
 
 It is important that brick walls should be kept perfectly 
 vertical ; and it must be remembered that if a wall at the 
 bottom is in the slightest degree “ out,” the evil (like 
 every other) will go on increasing, the top will gradually 
 extend beyond the foundations and fall ; but this is not- 
 
4o 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 all ; the wall must be kept “ plumb,” which does not 
 necessarily mean upright, but a straight surface ; thus, a 
 wall may be slanting, as against a bank, or the side of a 
 tower which tapers towards the top, but in whatever posi- 
 tion it may be, it must be kept plumb ; and the plumb- 
 rule * may not only be used for this purpose, but to keep 
 the vertical joints regularly over each other. This is 
 generally termed “keeping the perpends .” Next in 
 importance to this, or, we may say, equal to it, is the 
 subject of bonding. By bond, is meant that method of 
 combining the bricks that each individual may be sup- 
 ported by as many others as possible ; and this is done 
 by the judicious arrangement of the joints, which will be 
 seen on reference to the annexed illustrations. 
 
 FIG. 9 
 
 1 A - 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 
 C 
 
 H 
 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 
 E 
 
 J 
 
 
 Let us suppose that an attempt were made to build a 
 wall, as in Fig. 9, viz., by placing rows of bricks over each 
 other : it will be evident that here none of the stones receive 
 any other support than is afforded by those immediately 
 under them. Thus A is supported by B C D and E, and 
 this is the greatest amount of support it could receive ; 
 nor would it be less liable to sink (supposing the ground 
 to give way under it), even if it rested on a greater number 
 of bricks so disposed, for in case of failure in the foun- 
 dation, the whole column A B C D E would sink, sliding 
 down at the side of F G H I J. 
 
 Now let us turn to Fig. 10. Here, by the simple arrange- 
 ment of “ breaking joint,” we get the brick A supported 
 by two others, B and C ; these rest on three bricks, DEF; 
 
 * A plumb-rule is a straight piece of wood, to which is attached a string 
 with a plummet or lump of lead. The name is derived from the Latin word 
 plumbum , lead, and the line formed by the weighted cord, when perfectly 
 still, is a true vertical line. 
 
B UIL DING CONS TR UC T/ON. 
 
 41 
 
 which, in their turn, are supported by /our, G H I J ; 
 and these again rest on five, K L M N O ; and thus the 
 brick A, is supported by fourteen others, and its founda- 
 tion rests on the entire space extending from P to Q ; 
 further, this breadth of foundation does not refer to this 
 brick only, but to every individual one composing the wall ; 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 u 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 V 
 
 thus, r rests on C s, E F t, H I J u, and L M N O v, 
 and any brick taken promiscuously is similarly supported ; 
 thus D rests on G H, and G H rests on K L M, &c. 
 
 In this illustration, all the bricks are supposed to be 
 laid on their broadsides, with their length parallel to the 
 front of the wall ; in this position they are called stretchers . 
 When bricks are laid, so that their ends are towards the 
 surface, and their 
 length extends into 
 the thickness of the 
 wall, as in the group 
 shown in Fig. 11, 
 they are called 
 headers. 
 
 Now, on referring 
 to the previous dia- 
 gram (Fig. 10), it 
 will be seen that the 
 wall there represented would be a “half-brick thick” 
 one ; and that even if we were to build one three 
 times as thick on the same system, the wall would 
 consist of three separate ones of half-brick thickness 
 each, neither having any connection with the other j and 
 thus, the front might fall forward, the hindermost one 
 might fall backward, or the middle one might sink : for 
 neither one would give any support to the other, not being 
 
R UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 42 
 
 in any way built in to each other, the bonding being 
 merely longitudinal or lengthwise , but no cross bond 
 existing between them. Combinations of stretchers and 
 headers have therefore been devised, by which the entire 
 thickness of the wall is so bonded as to form one compact 
 structure. Thus, in the one system called “ English 
 bond,” one course of bricks is laid lengthwise, or as 
 stretchers ; and the next crosswise, or as headers. 
 
 The annexed illustration, Fig. 12, shows the commence- 
 ment of a wall of one-brick thickness, built in what is 
 called English bond. In this it will be seen that the 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 FIC. 14 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 A 
 
 
 , 
 
 1 
 
 
 FIG. 12 
 
 
 FIC. 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 fic . 13 
 
 one course consists entirely of stretchers, and the other 
 entirely of headers. The plan of the lower course 
 (Fig. 13) is given below the elevation, and the plan of the 
 upper course (Fig. 14) is placed above it. 
 
 Now bricks are exactly half as broad as they are long, 
 and thus, if when the first course of stretchers had been 
 laid, we followed the simple idea of placing the next 
 course as headers, and commenced at A (Fig. 12), we 
 should not produce a bond at all, for the second header, 
 B, would fall over the end of the first stretcher at C ; 
 thus one joint would be immediately over another ; an4 of 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 43 
 
 course, if this were carried up, one portion of the wall 
 would soon separate itself from the other. The brick- 
 layer therefore, having laid his lower course, places D, 
 his first header at A ; he then cuts a brick in halves 
 lengthwise , and lays this half-brick next to the stretcher. 
 This is called a “ closer,” E. He can after that proceed to 
 lay the headers regularly, for the next header, F, will then 
 be placed so that half of its width will be on each side of 
 the joint, C. Then will follow another header, G, which 
 will leave a quarter of the length of the stretcher exposed, 
 and this will be covered by the next header, H, which 
 will overlap the joint by half its width. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows the end of the wall which has been 
 described. 
 
 /+”- 
 
 i 
 
 / FIC. 
 
 16 
 
 FIC. 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FIC. 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 16 illustrates a 14-inch, or “brick and a-half” wall. 
 The elevation is the same in this as in the last ; for of 
 course the thickness of a wall is not visible on its surface ; 
 the plans, however show how the bonds are arranged. 
 
44 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 17 shows the plan of the first course, and all 
 alternate courses above it ; in this it will be seen why the 
 wall is called “ brick and a-half.” 
 
 Fig. 18 is the plan of the 
 second course, and the alternate 
 courses above it ; and Fig. 19 
 shows the end of such a wall. 
 
 Fig. 20 shows the end, and 
 Figs. 21 and 22 are the plans of 
 a two-brick thick wall, built in 
 old English bond, and from 
 these it will be seen how the 
 thickness is made up. In the 
 lower course, there is a row of 
 stretchers on each side, between 
 which headers are placed ; thus 
 the thickness is made up of the 
 widths of two half and one whole 
 bricks, whilst in the upper course 
 two headers laid transversely to 
 the face of the wall give the 
 required width. The dotted 
 lines on each of these plans 
 show where the joints would fall 
 when the one course should be 
 worked over the other. 
 
 Note. — In copying these ex- 
 amples, the student is advised to 
 work to a scale, so that the bricks 
 and half-bricks may be drawn in 
 their proper proportion ; and it 
 may be well to state here that 
 this plan is desirable in working 
 all the exercises in the book, for 
 if every line be simply measured, 
 the studies will not convey all 
 the instruction intended, whilst, 
 by working them to a larger 
 scale, they will afford excellent 
 practice. The student is also advised to attempt 
 simple colouring from the commencement, so that 
 the use of compass, pencil, and brush may be practised 
 together. 
 
 fig. 22 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC T/ON. 
 
 45 
 
 Another kind of bond in very general use is that called 
 
 Flemish bond. 
 
 FIC . 24 
 
 F I C . 25 
 
 This consists of stretchers and headers laid alternately 
 in the same course. Fig. 23 is the elevation, and Figs. 
 24 and 25 are plans of two courses according to this 
 method. It is neater in appearance than the English 
 bond ; but, owing to there being less headers in it, the 
 cross bonding is not considered to be as strong. In walls 
 of almost all thicknesses above nine inches it is often 
 necessary to use half-bricks, in order not to break the 
 longitudinal bond ; but although uniformity in the bond on 
 the surface may be thus preserved, it is at a sacrifice of 
 the cross-tie. It must be taken as a rule therefore, that 
 a brick should never be cut, if by any skill on the part of 
 the workman it can be laid whole j for when a brick is 
 cut, an extra joint is created in a structure, in the erec- 
 tion of which the greatest difficulty arises from the great 
 number of joints. The utmost care then, should be taken 
 to avoid making more than are absolutely indispensable. 
 
46 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Figs. 26 and 27 represent plans of first and second 
 courses of a brick and a-half wall, built in Flemish bond. 
 
 Figs. 28 and 29 show plans of the same wall, built so 
 as to avoid the half-bricks without interfering with the 
 strength of the bond. This however, leaves an open 
 space on each side of the header in the thickness of the 
 wall, which may either be filled up with a bat or left open. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TJON. 
 
 A7 
 
 Figs. 30 and 31 show plans of first and second courses 
 of a wall in which the front is built in Flemish and the 
 back in English bond. This is considered a good wall, 
 but still possesses the disadvantage of half-bricks. And 
 thus it will be seen that in the one course the front line of 
 bricks, and in the other the back line, is totally unat- 
 tached to the rest ; whilst in Figs. 28 and 29 the headers 
 penetrate two-thirds into the thickness of the wall. 
 
 Flemish bond has been much used in situations where 
 the walls were not to be covered with stucco, for the 
 reason already assigned, viz., its neat appearance. But in 
 every case where the greatest strength and compactness 
 are required the English bond is preferred, in consequence 
 of its admitting of more transverse bonding than the 
 other. Flemish bond was introduced into this country 
 in the time of William and Mary ; but why it has re- 
 ceived the name it bears does not seem to be known ; for 
 in Flanders, Holland, Rhenish Germany, &c., this system 
 is not by any means generally practised, the style which we 
 call old English bond being almost universally adopted. 
 
 A third kind of bond is sometimes used with the view 
 of strengthening very thick walls. This mode consists in 
 laying the bricks which fill up the core, or space between 
 the front and back surfaces, diagonally or angle-wise, 
 their direction being reversed in each course. This is 
 
48 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 called a rake , and does away with the necessity for using 
 half-bricks in the heading courses ; but of course, it leaves 
 triangular interstices at the points where the angles of the 
 bricks in the core meet the straight faces of the external 
 facings of the wall. 
 
 Fig. 32 represents the plan of a three-brick wall built in 
 this manner. It will be seen that the connection between 
 the faces and the core is but very imperfect. The external 
 faces consist of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, 
 the core being filled up by a raking course. This course 
 rests on, and is also covered by, a complete course of 
 headers, and each time it occurs the direction of the 
 bricks is reversed. 
 
 Fig. 33 is the plan of a wall similarly constructed, called 
 herrmg-bone bond. In this mode also, courses of headers 
 would bed and cover the herring-boning, and the direction 
 of the bricks in the core, like in the last, is reversed in 
 each course. It will be noticed that this plan leaves a 
 central line of squares to be filled up by half-bricks, 
 in addition to the triangular pieces used at the sides. 
 
 Neither of these two systems should be used for any 
 but very thick walls. 
 
 Perfect accuracy in bricklaying, as indeed in all me- 
 chanical arts, cannot be too much impressed on the 
 artizan ; and this should be carried out not only in the 
 parts of a structure which are visible, but in those which 
 
 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 49 
 
 may be hidden. For instance, it is of the utmost 
 importance that all the joints in brickwork should be 
 perfectly plumb or vertical, and that every course should 
 be absolutely horizontal, both lengthwise and across. The 
 lowest courses of a brick wall should be laid with the 
 strictest attention to this particular ; for, as all the bricks 
 are of the same thickness, any irregularity will be carried 
 up throughout the whole wall, and the workman will then 
 attempt to rectify it, or to “ level it up,” by using more 
 mortar in some parts than in others ; but, of course, mortar 
 whilst wet is more elastic than bricks, and there will thus 
 be unequal settlement, which will subsequently not only 
 impair the appearance, but endanger the safety of the 
 wall, and possibly of the entire structure. In order to 
 save the trouble of constantly applying his rule and level 
 to the work, the bricklayer, when he has got beyond the 
 footings or foundations of the walls, builds up three or 
 four courses at the ends of the wall, as at A and B 
 (Fig. 34). These he very carefully plumbs and levels 
 
 across ; he then strains a line from one end to the other, 
 and this guides him as to the level of his course ; but if 
 the distance be long, the line will sag or hang slightly 
 downward in the middle, and to prevent this, occasional 
 bricks are placed which serve to support it, as shown 
 at C. When the work has been carried up three or four 
 courses, it should however, be tested with the plumb- 
 rule and level. In bricklaying, the workman spreads 
 the mortar over the last course with his trowel, so as 
 to form a bed on which the brick may rest. As any 
 mortar spreads beyond the edge of the course, it is caught 
 up on the face of the trowel and is put up against the 
 vertical end of the last brick laid in the new course. The 
 bricklayer then with his left hand lays the brick, and 
 
 D 
 
I 
 
 50 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 presses it downwards until it is in its exact place in the 
 line, sometimes striking it with the side of the trowel, or 
 giving it a smart tap with the end of the handle. The 
 small quantity of mortar thus pressed out between the 
 bricks is struck off with the trowel, and the line smoothened 
 with the point — that is, if it is to be seen ; but on the 
 inside of walls which are to be plastered, the rough pro- 
 jecting line of mortar is left, as it helps in attaching the 
 plaster. It is advisable that bricks should be damp 
 when they are being laid ; for if their pores are full of air, 
 and their surfaces covered with dry dust, the mortar will 
 not adhere. This is generally done on the scaffold, for 
 wetting them below would make them much heavier for 
 the labourer to carry up, and many of them would dry 
 before they were wanted for use. They should, therefore, 
 be dipped in water just as they are wanted, and this 
 may be done by boys supplying them as required by the 
 bricklayer. 
 
 The following remarks, taken from Mr. W. Hoskings* 
 excellent work, are quoted, as from their exceedingly 
 practical character they cannot fail to be of use to the 
 artizan : — “ As mortar is a more yielding material used 
 in bricklaying for the purpose of making the detached 
 portions of the staple adhere, by filling up their interstices 
 and producing exhaustation, and the object being to 
 produce as unyielding and consistent a mass as possible ; 
 as much of it should be used as is sufficient to produce 
 the desired effect, and no more. No two bricks should be 
 allowed to touch, because of their inaptitude to adhere to 
 each other, and no space between them should be left 
 unoccupied by mortar, which may produce adhesion. 
 When the bricks are a fraction under 2 J inches thick, no 
 four courses of bricks and mortar, or brickwork, should 
 exceed 1 1 inches in height ; and if they are fully that 
 thickness, four courses should not reach ii£ inches. The 
 result of thick beds of mortar between the bricks, is 
 that the mortar is pressed out after the joint is drawn 
 on the outside of the front, and being made convex 
 instead of slightly concave, the joints catch every 
 drop of rain that may trickle down the face of the 
 wall, and thus become saturated ; the moisture freezes, 
 and in thawing bursts the mortar, which crumbles 
 away, and creates the necessity, which is constantly 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 5 * 
 
 recurring, of ‘ pointing ’ the joints to preserve the wall.” 
 Fig. 35 shows the section of a 9-inch wall with the joints on 
 the side a as drawn, and on the side b as 
 bulged out in consequence of the quantity 
 of mortar in them yielding to the weight ® 
 above. This too, is in addition to the 
 inconvenient settling which is the con- 
 sequence of using too much mortar in 
 the beds. In practice, bricklayers lay the 
 mortar on the course last finished, and 
 spread it over the surface with the trowel, 
 without considering or caring that they 
 have put no mortar between the bricks of that course — 
 except in the external edges of the outside joints ; that the 
 mortar is not, or ought not to be so thin as to fall into the 
 joints by its own weight, and that unless they press it 
 down, half the space between the bricks remains in every 
 case unoccupied; and the wall is consequently hollow, 
 incompact, and necessarily imperfect. To obviate this, it 
 is common to have thick walls “ grouted” in every course — 
 that is, mortar made liquid, and called grout, is poured on, 
 and spread over the surface of the work, that it may run in 
 and fill up the joints completely. This, at the best, is but 
 doing with grout what should be done with mortar ; and 
 the difference between the two consisting merely in the 
 quantity of water they contain, mortar must be considered 
 the best ; for the tendency of grout, is by hydrostatic 
 pressure to burst the wall in which it is employed ; and 
 moreover, it must, by taking a much longer time to dry 
 and shrink than the mortar of the beds and external joints, 
 make and keep the whole mass unstable, and tend to 
 injure rather than to benefit it. Filling, or flushing-up 
 every course with mortar, is therefore far preferable, and 
 may be done with very little additional exertion on the part 
 of the workman. 
 
 So much having been said on the subject of settle- 
 ment, it will be seen that owing to stones or bricks 
 being united to each other by mortar, a certain amount 
 of shrinking or settlement from this, and other sources 
 is certain to take place. The art of the builder, must 
 however, be devoted to ensure equal settlement, and this 
 can only be done, firstly, by using the same thickness of 
 mortar throughout, and sec^dly, by carrying up all the 
 
 D 2 
 
 FIC 
 
 .55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 52 
 
 walls which are to sustain the same floor, simultaneously; 
 for, as all walls shrink immediately after building, the part 
 which is first built will settle before the adjoining part is 
 brought up to it, and the shrinking of the latter, will cause 
 the two parts to separate. The ends of the walls first 
 built should be “ racked back; ” that is, left off slantingly 
 as in Fig. 23, not merely “ toothed” vertically as in Fig. 16. 
 
 Foundations ( continued ) . 
 
 Having thus explained the elementary principles of 
 masonry and bricklaying, the subject of foundations can 
 be proceeded with. 
 
 In foundations then, considered in relation to the 
 walls &c., of buildings, it is necessary to observe : — 
 
 1. That when the wind blows, or any other lateral 
 force acts against a wall &c., the higher it is the more 
 powerful will be the leverage by which it acts against the 
 point on which it rests, and the greater the danger of its 
 being thrown over. 
 
 2. The narrower the base on which it rests, the more is 
 it liable not only to be thrown over but to sink. 
 
 A timber construction will, perhaps, best serve to illus- 
 trate this. 
 
 Let Fig. 36 represent a stick of timber or square pole 
 simply placed in the ground ; it will be clear 
 Fi c . 36 t | lat - t wou id b e ver y ii a bi e to sink, or that 
 the wind or any other force would be very 
 likely to throw it down. We will endeavour 
 to treat each of these evils separately ; and 
 ■ as this book aims at not only teaching work, 
 but thought, let us earnestly impress on our 
 young students the benefit arising from sys- 
 tematic thinking and action, and urge them, 
 before putting pencil to paper, or laying a 
 single brick, to ask themselves : What do I 
 want to do ? what is the object to be accom- 
 plished? what is the best method of attain- 
 ing this end ? are the means I am taking the 
 best, just because others use them ? and if 
 they are so, why are they so ? These ques- 
 tions lie at the foundation of all progress and improve- 
 ment ; and it is through the habit of thus reflecting that 
 an artizan rises above the level of a working machine to 
 the dignity of a working man . 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 53 
 
 Let us see then, what would be the best way to prevent 
 the sinking of the pole, and it will at once be evident 
 that this will be the best accomplished by widening the 
 base. Of course this would be done by placing it on 
 another stick of timber laid horizontally, but better still 
 if two such pieces are placed in the form of a cross 
 (Fig. 37) ; by this means a basis is formed which, to all 
 intents and purposes, is equal to the complete square in 
 which the cross could be inscribed, and therefore the 
 pole rests, as it were, on a foundation equal to that area. 
 Thus the sinking would be prevented. And now we can 
 turn our attention to the second point ; viz., the swaying 
 of the pole, or the liability to be thrown over by any 
 
 lateral (or side) force. This may be accomplished by 
 mortising struts ABC and D (Fig. 38), into it, and into 
 the stand, in the direction of the single lines here given, 
 and by this means the effect of the breadth of the base 
 will be transmitted to the post. These struts will not 
 
B UILD1NG CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 54 
 
 only serve to steady the pole, but to relieve the pressure 
 which would otherwise fall on its lower end, but which is 
 thus shared by all the struts, and is by them spread over 
 the whole base ; and so fracture at the point where the 
 whole weight would fall is avoided. This illustration 
 has been worked by perspective, a study which will be 
 treated of in another volume. 
 
 In stone and brick walls, the foundations are formed by 
 
 by commencing the lower 
 
 course wider than the in- 
 tended thickness of the 
 wall, and then gradually 
 diminishing the breadth 
 until the real size is 
 reached. These projecting 
 edges are called “ foot- 
 ings” (Fig. 39). 
 
 In stone walls, where the 
 weight falling on the foun- 
 dation is very heavy, care 
 must be taken that the off- 
 sets for footings are not too great in each course, as, owing 
 to the natural brittleness of stone, fracture is likely to 
 ensue ; nor should the joints 
 between the stones fall too 
 near or beyond the face of the 
 wall, as in that case they would Fi &- 4° 
 be liable to yield under the 
 superincumbent weight. 
 
 In cases such as the founda- _ 
 tions of the piers of bridges, 
 vaults, and the like, the offsets 
 are made very narrow, and 
 even these are generally slanted 
 off so as to give the wall or 
 pier what is called a “ batter,” 
 as shown at A (Fig. 40). 
 
 In placing the footings in 
 brick walls, the greatest care 
 must be taken to throw the 
 joints as far back within the 
 surface of the wall as possible. 
 
 Excepting in walls of one-brick 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 55 
 
 thickness, no course of footings should project more 
 than a quarter-brick beyond the one above it ; and addi- 
 tional strength is given by a double course below, which, 
 indeed, should be adopted for every thickness of wall. 
 
 Figs. 41 and 42 are sections of walls of different thick- 
 nesses. 
 
 Brickwork— Part II. 
 
 Brickwork should not be carried on in frosty weather, 
 and even if such is expected, it is advisable where possible 
 to delay the building. Unfinished walls should be covered 
 with straw, on which boards called weather-boards should 
 be laid. By attention to this simple matter injury to walls 
 might often be prevented. 
 
 The introduction of substances other than those com- 
 posing the wall should be as far as possible avoided. In 
 general however, some wooden members are required, 
 but these should be treated with the greatest caution, so 
 that they may not be crushed by the weight above them, 
 or lest the superstructure, by being made to rest upon 
 them, might become liable to sink should the wood decay. 
 The principal wooden parts of the structure which are 
 connected with the brickwork are the wall-plates, tem- 
 plates, lintels, and wood-bricks. 
 
 Wall-plates are pieces of timber laid length-wise 
 on the top of a wall to receive the ends of the floor- 
 joists, which rest upon them. This will be fully treated 
 of under the head of Flooring, and is only referred to in 
 this place to explain the purpose of wall-plates in re- 
 lation to the walls. It will be clear that if the joists were 
 tailed singly on the walls themselves the pressure of each 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 56 
 
 individual timber would be on a single brick and those 
 which support it, whilst those between the joists would 
 not in any way share the burden. The wall-plate then, 
 resting as it does on the wall, distributes the weight over 
 the whole length ; and thus all parts of it bear alike. 
 The application of a wall-plate will be seen in Fig. 122. 
 
 The purpose of Templates (called also Templets) 
 is similar to that of wall-plates. They are used in a 
 stronger form of flooring, which will subsequently be 
 treated of, called “ framed floors,” the weight of which is 
 borne by a few very large girders. Under these are placed 
 the templates, which are stout pieces of timber two or 
 three feet long ; these, like the wall-plates, serve to spread 
 the pressure over a wider surface than that on which the 
 girders would otherwise rest. 
 
 Fig. 43 shows the section of a girder resting on a 
 template. Now it is necessary, that firstly, pressure 
 
 FIG. 43 
 
 should be averted as much as possible from the end of 
 this girder ; for, in the event of damp striking it, or its 
 rotting, it would give way under the weight. Secondly, 
 the upper portion of the wall should receive no support 
 from the girder by resting on it ; for, should the girder 
 warp, sag, or by any means shake, the brickwork de- 
 pendent upon it would crack and give way. The arch, 
 then, turned over the end of the girder and lintel, not 
 only supports the wall above but “discharges” the weight 
 over the walls on each side. 
 
 Lintels are pieces of timber placed over the square- 
 heads of windows ; they are used to preserve the square 
 form, and for the attachment of the wooden lining of the 
 under surface of the opening called the “ soffit,” &c. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. ^ 
 
 They should not, however, be allowed to bear the weight 
 of the wall above, under which they would certainly give 
 way ; and any sagging in the middle would cause their 
 ends to rise, by which the entire brickwork would be 
 disturbed. It is therefore necessary to build “dis- 
 charging” arches over them. The principle on which 
 arches are constructed will be considered further on ; it 
 is therefore only necessary here, to demonstrate their use 
 in relieving the lintel from pressure. 
 
 Fig. 44 illustrates the position of a lintel, over which 
 
 a discharging arch is placed, for the same purpose as that 
 above. This cut also shows the application of Wood- 
 bricks, W W. These are used for the attachment of 
 joiner’s work in the jambs of the windows and doors, for 
 their fittings, and along the walls at certain heights for 
 the skirtings or wainscoting to be nailed to. It is scarcely 
 necessary to remind workmen that it is worse than use- 
 less to drive nails into mortar between bricks ; and that 
 therefore when it is necessary to drive a nail into a wall 
 already built, the wall must be plugged; that is, wedges 
 
B UIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 53 
 
 of wood must be driven in, and into these the nails may be 
 hammered. But the use of wood-bricks supersedes the 
 necessity of wedges in a wall in course of building, and 
 as it is known beforehand what fittings are to be attached, 
 the blocks of wood cut to the exact shape and size of the 
 bricks can be worked in as bricks at the points in the 
 wall where they will be required by the joiner. 
 
 Bond timbers are long pieces of wood like con- 
 tinuous wood-bricks. They are not much used now. 
 Their purpose is to bond the bricks together, and for 
 the attachment of mouldings, wainscoting, &c. ; but they 
 are liable to shrink, swell, and decay, according to the 
 situation in which they may be placed ; and further, in the 
 event of taking fire, they burn away, and thus the wall 
 resting on them is weakened. Their use in England is 
 now almost entirely superseded by hoop-iron. Thin and 
 narrow strips of this metal, tarred, are laid in the bed-joints 
 of the mortar, at intervals more or less frequent according 
 to the thickness of the wall ; and they are found in every 
 way effective, whilst it has been shown that the joiner’s 
 fittings may be attached to single wood-bricks, on which 
 so much structural strength or safety does not dep 
 
 Arches. 
 
 Arches have been incidentally spoken of, but they form 
 such an important feature in building construction, that 
 it is deemed advisable that they should be treated of 
 separately. It is necessary then, that the student should 
 have a very clear conception as to what an arch really is. 
 
 For if a positive conclusion has not been 
 arrived at, and if the “ arch principle ” is 
 not thoroughly understood, he cannot be 
 expected to design an arch, or to con- 
 struct it with accuracy or intelligence, 
 even if designed by another. Let us 
 then state once for all, that every curved 
 covering to an aperture is not necessarily 
 an arch. Thus, the stone which rests on 
 the piers shown in Fig. 45 is not an arch, being merely a 
 stone hewn out in an arch-like shape ; but at its top, 
 the very point (A) at which strength is required, it is the 
 weakest, and would fracture the moment any great weight 
 were placed upon it. 
 
B UIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 59 
 
 Equally faulty is the annexed example of an early 
 Egyptian attempt (Fig. 46), in which the first course of 
 horizontal stones projects beyond the piers, and on these 
 rests a third, hewn out to complete the form ; and here 
 again we have weakness where strength is required. 
 
 At Etruria, and also at Phigalia, constructions similar 
 
 to Fig. 47 have been found, which are, if possible, worse 
 in principle than the previous ones ; for it is clear that, 
 unless the upper slab be longer than the width of the 
 opening, and the lower 'stones are weighted at their tail 
 ends, the w T hole must fall in the moment any weight rests 
 on A. 
 
 We come, then, to the point at wdiich it is required that 
 we should state, as briefly as possible, what,, an arch really 
 is. 
 
 An arch, then, is an assemblage of stones or bricks, so 
 arranged that they may by mutual pressure support not 
 only each other, but any w r eight that may be placed upon 
 them. 
 
 The leading principles in the construction of an arch 
 are — 
 
 1. That all the stones of which it is formed shall be of 
 the form of wedges ; that is, narrower at the inner than 
 the outer end. 
 
 2. That all the joints formed by the meeting of the 
 slanting sides of the wedges should be radii of the circle, 
 circles, or ellipse, forming the inner curve of the arch ; 
 and will therefore, converge to the centre or centres from 
 which these are struck. 
 
 These two brief statements will serve at the present 
 stage to make clear to the mind of the student the general 
 principles of an arch ; the mathematical reasonings 
 connected with the designing of arches to bear certain 
 weights are omitted, as not coming wuthin the scope 
 
6o 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 of this work; but the author is very anxious that the 
 student should clearly comprehend and not misconstrue 
 the cause of this omission. It is not because he deems 
 this mathematical knowledge unnecessary , but simply 
 because he wishes to give information to students who 
 have not had opportunities of acquiring such. Ele- 
 mentary works on the various mathematical subjects 
 connected herewith can however be easily obtained, and 
 all who would really study principles, and appreciate the 
 exquisite refinement of the examples herein given, are 
 strongly urged to read them. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 48, we will firstly explain terms. The 
 
 under surface is called the z;/trados, and the outer the 
 ^trados. The supports are called the piers or abut- 
 ments, though the latter term is one of more extensive 
 application, referring more generally to the supports 
 which bridges obtain from the shore on each side than 
 to other arches. The term “ piers ” is, as a rule, supposed 
 to imply supports which receive vertical pressure, whilst 
 abutments are such as resist outward thrust. The upper 
 parts of the supports on which an arch rests are called 
 the imposts. The span of an arch is the complete width 
 between the points where the intrados meets the imposts 
 on either side ; and a line connecting these points is 
 called the “ springing ” or spanning line. 
 
 The separate wedge-like stones composing an arch are 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 6 1 
 
 called Voussoirs, the central or uppermost one of which 
 is called the Key-stone ; whilst those next to the impests 
 are termed “ springers.” 
 
 The highest point in the intrados is called the vertex 
 or crown , and the height of this point above the springing 
 line is termed the “rise” of the arch. It will be evident 
 that in a semicircular arch, such as Fig. 48, this would 
 
 FIC .49 
 
 
 
 
 Sp 
 
 C 
 
 > 
 
 6 
 
 c 
 
 be the radius with which the semicircle is struck. The 
 spaces between the vertex and the springing line are 
 called the flanks or haunches. 
 
 The following are the varieties of arches used 
 
 The Semicircular, as shown in Fig. 48. 
 
 The Segment (Fig. 49), in which a portion only of 
 the circle is used ; the centre c is therefore not in the 
 springing line Sp, Sp. 
 
 The Elliptical (Fig. 50). 
 
 Fig. 50 . 
 
62 
 
 B U1LDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 The Hyperbolical (Fig. 51). 
 
 The Parabolical (Fig. 52). 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 
The Cycloidal (Fig. 53). 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 * 
 
 JSIu IE 7a 
 
64 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The Catenarian (Fig. 54), the form of which is the 
 reverse of the curve taken by a chain or heavy rope 
 when suspended between two points, as A B. A simple 
 mechanical method of describing this curve is as follows : 
 — Draw the springing or spanning line A B, and bisect 
 
 it by a perpendicular ; place your drawing-board upright, 
 and having marked on the central perpendicular the 
 length 4 C, equal to the height of the required arch (the 
 rise), fasten a cord at A ; place a nail at B, and, sus- 
 pending the cord over it, draw it until it gradually 
 reaches C ; then fasten it, and with your pencil carefully 
 trace the curve thus formed, being guided by, but not 
 disturbing the cord, which should be first wetted and 
 drawn between the fingers. A further improvement on 
 this method is to obtain a quantity of shot, drilled 
 through their centres like beads, and thread them on a 
 fine flexible cord, such as silk, having previously slightly 
 rubbed them over with common black lead. When this 
 loaded cord has been accurately placed, press gently on 
 the shot, and thus a series of marks will be made on the 
 paper. The curve drawn through these points will be the 
 Catenary. 
 
 Now set off any number of divisions on each side of 
 the centre and draw perpendiculars through them, cutting 
 the curve in a b c C d e f and passing through the span 
 A B in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ; set off all the perpendiculars above 
 the spanning line, the lengths of 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, &c. ; join 
 these points, and the curve will be the catenary inverted, 
 as used in the Catenarian arch. 
 
 The Semicircular Arch was that principally used 
 by the Romans, who employed it largely in their aqueducts 
 

 BUI'LDING CONSTRUCTION. 65 
 
 and triumphal arches. The others are, however, men- 
 tioned by some writers as having been employed by the 
 ancients. In the middle ages, however, other forms were 
 gradually introduced. Thus we have 
 
 The Stilted Arch, which it is scarcely necessary to 
 say is but an adaptation of the semicircular, the springing 
 being raised above the capitals of the columns. The 
 above illustration (Fig. 55), copied from Mr. Owen 
 Jones’s admirable handbook 
 to the Alhambra Court of the 
 Crystal Palace, will afford the 
 student a good example of this 
 species of arch. 
 
 Next we have the Horse- 
 shoe Arch, also used in, 
 and almost entirely restricted g 
 to, the Arabian style of archi- 
 tecture. In this form of arch 
 the curve is carried below the 
 line of centre or centres ; for 
 in some cases the arch is struck from one centre, and in 
 others from two, as in Fig. 56. 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Now it must not be supposed that the real bearing of 
 the arch is at the impost A A ; for if this were really so, it 
 must be seen that any weight or pressure on the crown of 
 the arch would cause it to break at B, but the fact is 
 simply that the real bearings of the arch are at B B, and 
 the prolongation of the arch beyond these points is 
 merely a matter of form and has no structural signifi- 
 cancy. The Horse-shoe arch belongs especially to the 
 
 Mohammedan architecture, from its having originated 
 with that faith, and from its having been used exclusively 
 by its followers. 
 
 Next in point of time, but by far the most graceful in 
 form, is the pointed arch , which is essentially the mediae- 
 val (or middle age) style, and is capable of almost endless 
 variety. The origin of this form of arch has been the 
 subject of much antiquarian discussion; but it is certain, 
 that although the pointed arch was first generally used in 
 the architecture of the middle ages, recent discoveries 
 have shown that it was used many centuries previously in 
 Assyria. 
 
 The greater or less acuteness of the pointed arch 
 depends on the position of the centres from which the 
 flanks are struck. 
 
 Thus the Lancet arch (Fig. 57) is constructed by placing 
 the centres C C outside the span, but still on the same 
 line with the imposts. This form of arch was first used 
 in the Gothic, and as a rule indicates the style called 
 “ Early English,” which prevailed in this country from 
 about 1189 until 1307. 
 
£ UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 67 
 
 Fig. 58 is the Equilateral arch, the radius with which 
 the arcs are struck being equal to the span of the arch, and 
 the centres being the imposts ; and thus, the crown and 
 
 the imposts being united, an equilateral triangle is formed. 
 This form was principally used in the “ Decorated ” period 
 of Gothic architecture from about 1307 until about 1390, 
 at which time the Ogee arch (Fig. 59) was also occasion- 
 ally used. 
 
 At a later date, during the existence of the “ Perpendi- 
 cular” style of Gothic architecture, viz., from the close 
 of the 14th century to about 1630, we find various forms 
 of arch introduced, such as the Segmental (Fig. 60), 
 formed of segments of two circles, the centres of which 
 are placed below the springing ; and still later on we find 
 the Tudor or four-centred arch (Fig. 61), in which two 
 
 FIG. 60 : FIG - 61 
 
 of the centres are on the springing and two below it. The 
 arches at the later period of this style became flatter and 
 flatter, and this forms one of the features of Debased 
 Gothic, when the beautiful and graceful forms of that style 
 gradually decayed, and for a time were lost. Happily, in 
 
 E 2 
 

 68 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the present century there has been a gradual and spirited 
 revival of the Gothic style, and works are now being pro- 
 duced which bid fair to rival in beauty of form and in 
 principles of construction, the marvellous buildings of the 
 middle ages. As the principles of Gothic Architecture 
 will form the subject of another volume of this series, 
 further description is here unnecessary. 
 
 We now return to the constructive principles of arches, 
 and these may be conveniently treated of under the separate 
 heads of brick arches and those constructed of stone, the 
 main principles being the same ; viz., that the bricks or 
 stones composing the arch must be so placed that they act 
 as wedges. In stone arches, this is accomplished by cut- 
 ting the stones into the exact forms required. In bricks, 
 they must either be “ gauged,” that is, rubbed or cut to 
 the shape required, or the difference must be made up by 
 mortar ; the skill of the workman being in this case dis- 
 played, by his so bonding his courses that the shrinking 
 may be equally distributed, and that when the necessary 
 settlement is arrived at, the structure may be found per- 
 fectly safe and strong. 
 
 Arches in brickwork are Plain, Rough, and Cut or 
 Gauged. 
 
 Plain arches are built of uncut bricks, and these 
 being blocks of equal thickness, must be “ made out ” with 
 mortar ; that is, the difference between the intrados and the 
 extrados must be filled in with mortar or cement. Thus, 
 in building such an arch, the bricks at the inner line 
 should all but touch, and the centering, that is, the wooden 
 framework upon which the arch is temporarily built, 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 69 
 
 should not be struck (or removed) until the arch has 
 settled or the cement perfectly hardened. The cement 
 used should be of greater consistency than for general 
 purposes. In consequence of the unavoidable defect in 
 plain brick arches ; viz., that the bricks are not in them- 
 selves wedge-like in form, but are kept apart at the top 
 by a matter liable to shrink, it is advisable in extensive 
 and continuous works, such as tunnels, sewers, vaults, &c., 
 to make them of thin independent rings of half brick or 
 one brick thick ; that is, a 9-inch arch should be in 
 two half-brick arches, as in the annexed illustration 
 (Fig. 62); and an 18-inch arch should be formed of 
 rings consisting of alternate whole and half-bricks ; but 
 by half-bricks we do not, in this case, mean bricks cut 
 into halves, but merely laid on their edge, as headers , s-o 
 as to be half-brick high. Each arch thus becomes bonded 
 in itself with headers and stretchers, as in a brick wall. 
 
 Rough arches are those in which the bricks are 
 roughly cut with an axe to a wedge form, and are used 
 over openings, such as doors and windows when the work 
 is to be plastered on the outside, or in plain back-fronts, 
 outhouses, garden gates, &c. ; when however, they are 
 generally neatly finished off with what is called a “ tuck 
 joint.” This consists in marking the divisions by a 
 neatly raised line of fine white plaster, having previously 
 pressed a blue mortar into the joints.* 
 
 Semicircular and Elliptical arches, when large, are 
 generally formed of uncut bricks ; but those composed 
 of small segments of circles are either cut or axed. 
 These are sometimes called Scheme arches. Very 
 flat arches are known by the name of “camber,” from 
 the French word cambrer , to round*like an arch. 
 
 Gauged arches are formed of bricks which are cut 
 and rubbed to gauges or moulds, according to a full-sized 
 drawing of half an arch. Gauged arches are, of course, 
 the neatest in appearance, and are therefore used in the 
 fronts of houses. 
 
 When the arches are semicircular, the bricks will all 
 be of one shape, and therefore, if the number of arches 
 renders it worth while, the bricks may be all moulded ; 
 
 * Pointing is of two kinds, Tuck, as above, and Flat. This last consists in 
 firstly raking out the mortar in front of the joints, and filling in a blue 
 mortar, on which the line is then marked with tne edge of the trowel. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 70 
 
 that is, made specially of the exact size and form required. 
 These arches over windows in fronts of houses are very 
 frequently straight. Fig. 63 shows such a window. The 
 outer slant line of the arch is called the skew-back, and, as 
 a rule, the skew-backs of both sides should meet on the 
 centre line, at an angle of 6o°. From this drawing it 
 will be seen that the material between the two arcs 
 struck from H is all that is really efficient in forming 
 the arch, and that all between the arc and its chord 
 is of no service. This breadth may be increased by 
 making the angle at the centre less than 6o° ; i.e., taking 
 the centre lower down on the perpendicular line ; the 
 skew-back will not then slant so much, and the width at the 
 crown will be more, the arch being flatter ; but that portion 
 will be less secure than by the former system, for, as 
 the radii diverge less, they are more nearly parallel, and 
 hence are not so tightly wedged together These arches 
 require to be executed with the utmost nicety, being 
 generally of only half a brick thick, and not being bonded 
 to the work behind them. 
 
 Drawing for Bricklayers. 
 
 In accordance with the plan laid down in the Intro- 
 duction, viz., that the cuts in this manual should serve 
 not only as illustrations of the text, but as studies for 
 drawing, we now proceed to give the student some in- 
 structions on the architectural drawings contained in these 
 pages, assuming that the “ Plain hints on Linear drawing,” 
 given in page 13 of the volume of this series devoted to 
 the study of “Projection” will have been sufficient for his 
 guidance in the earlier subjects. 
 
 One illustration previously given may, however, require 
 a few hints to guard the student against error, viz., Fig. 62. 
 
 The subject of this is “ Plain arches,” that is, arches in 
 which the bricks are not cut or altered in form, but are 
 still made to radiate j that is, the intrados of the arch is 
 to be made smaller than the extrados, for otherwise an 
 arch could not be formed ; and here it is to be remem- 
 bered that the difference between the small intrados and 
 the larger extrados is made up by mortar or rough pieces 
 of bricks, but that the bricks themselves retain their 
 original size. 
 
 Now to draw such an arch. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 7 1 
 
 The radius of the intrados being given, viz., A B; from 
 A, with radius A B, describe the semicircle, half of which 
 is here shown, and also the semicircle C; the width 
 between these two semicircles being equal to the width 
 of a brick laid on its broad side ; viz., 4I inches by scale. 
 
 Divide the intrados into as many equal parts as there 
 are to be bricks in the .inner ring of the arch ; viz., 1 2 3 
 4, &c. 
 
 It will be evident that the centres of these bricks radiate 
 from the centre of the circle, though their sides do not . 
 
 Therefore, bisect each of the spaces 1234, &c., and 
 draw radii through these bisecting points. 
 
 Now, if a line were drawn along the end of a brick 
 it would be at once seen that the edge of the top and 
 bottom surface would be parallel with this line, and of 
 course with each other ; therefore, from points 123 
 4, &c., draw lines between the semicircles, parallel to the 
 radii. This may easily be done with a pair of set squares, 
 by the method shown on page 14, in the volume on 
 “Projection;” and thus a semicircle of oblongs will be 
 obtained ; that is, approximately so : for were this drawing 
 executed on a larger scale, it would be seen that the inner 
 and outer edges of the ring are made up of pieces of 
 straight lines equal to the width of the shorter edge of the 
 end of each brick. 
 
 For the second ring, mark off the width C D, equal to 
 B C ; set off on the semicircle C the width of the narrow 
 sides of the bricks, as at 1 2 3 4, &c. ; bisect these spaces, 
 and draw lines parallel to the bisecting lines as before. 
 
 We now come to the square-headed window (Fig. 63), 
 referred to on page 70. 
 
 Draw a perpendicular A B, and at the point C draw a 
 horizontal line ; the point C representing the height of 
 the top line of the sill from the ground, or some fixed 
 horizontal line, such as a string course. 
 
 On each side of C set off half the width of the window, 
 D and E ; and at these points erect perpendiculars of 
 indefinite height. 
 
 Take in your dividers the height of a single brick, and 
 from D set off on the perpendicular the number of bricks 
 which are to form the height of the jamb, in this case 
 30 ; then from the highest point, draw the horizontal F G, 
 cutting the perpendicular in I. This will complete the 
 
7 2 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 oblong for the window, and the line F G will form the 
 intrados , or soffit, of the square arch. 
 
 Now, it has already been stated that the “skew-back” 
 usually inclines at 6o°; therefore, on F G construct the equi- 
 lateral triangle F G H, and produce the sides beyond F and G. 
 
 Mark above I the length of a brick and a half, and at 
 this distance draw a horizontal line, which, cutting H F 
 and H G in K and L, will form the extrados, and will 
 complete the square arch. Set off on each side of the 
 central perpendicular on the extrados half the thickness 
 of a brick, and then fill up the remaining portion of the 
 line on each side with the widths of bricks. From these 
 points draw lines to H, which will divide the general form 
 of the arch into a number of wedges. From I, mark off 
 the height of a brick placed on end, viz., I M, and draw a 
 horizontal line across each alternate wedge, which will 
 divide it into a brick and a-half. Now, set off the length 
 of a brick from the top line, viz., N, and at this height 
 draw horizontal lines across the bricks omitted in the last 
 operation. This will complete the square arch. 
 
 Now through the points of division in the sides draw 
 horizontal lines, which may be carried over to the other 
 side ; in fact, if there are several windows, or even if the 
 courses are to be marked, they may be carried along the 
 whole elevation, and will save all the trouble of repeating 
 the measurement. A practical hint is however, neces- 
 sary, in order to secure accuracy in this operation. 
 Firstly, be very careful that your T-square is held tightly 
 against the left edge of your board, and as you move 
 your pencil along, let your right hand press on the blade 
 to prevent it rising at the middle or distant part. Where 
 this occurs, the pencil or pen-point is liable to travel out 
 of the required track. It is advisable to mark off with 
 compasses on the last window, or on a line at the extreme 
 right of the board a few of the points, such as D 5, 
 D 10, &c. ; these will act as guide-points, and will serve 
 to check the work. The rest of the window will be com- 
 pleted by marking off the whole bricks, halves, and 
 closers, and drawing the necessary vertical lines. 
 
 It will be seen that in this window the stone sill occupies 
 the height of two bricks. When this has been drawn, 
 the number of courses of bricks underneath may be 
 added according to circumstances. 
 

74 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 64 shows the plan of the same window. If the 
 elevation is to be projected from a given plan, this must 
 be finished first ; and perpendiculars raised from O and P, 
 which will give the width of the window. 
 
 Fig. 65 is a study of the front elevation of a window, the 
 head of which is formed by a segment arch, gauged. The 
 general form of the aperture, and the courses of bricks, 
 the sill, &c., will all be done by the method shown in the 
 former subject. 
 
 The centre having been fixed at C, draw radii from it 
 touching the imposts I I. The position of the centre will 
 of course depend on the sweep or curve which is to con- 
 stitute the intrados of the arch ; for of course the lower the 
 centre be placed, the longer will be the radius, and hence 
 the flatter the arc. 
 
 Now set off D E equal to the length of a brick and 
 a-half ; with C E as radius describe the extrados , and on 
 it set off the width of the bricks ; that is, the length of 
 their shortest edges. From these points draw radii to the 
 centre which wiil give the wedge-like divisions in the arch. 
 Divide these alternately into brick and half-brick, as in 
 the last study, and complete the rest of the brickwork 
 and sill. 
 
 Fig. 66 is the back or interior elevation of the same 
 window ; here it will be seen that the arch at the back 
 is formed of two rings of half-a-brick each, worked as 
 rough arches, the lower third of the width of the gauged 
 arch is thus left, and forms the revel (or reveal). This 
 elevation shows also the positions of the wood-bricks for 
 the attachment of the wood-work. 
 
 Segment arches are not deemed advisable in the eleva- 
 tions of detached or corner houses, for although they may 
 be safe as far as the middle arches are concerned, since 
 the thrust of each counteracts the other and they receive 
 mutual support from the pier, which is common to both, 
 yet in regard to the outer arch this is not so ; and as 
 its thrust will be obliquely outwards, there will be the 
 tendency to force the wall out of the perpendicular. 
 
 Semicircular and elliptical arches are not, however, 
 open to this objection, as in these the thrust is directly 
 downwards. 
 
 Fig. 67 is a semi-elliptical arch, using the term in 
 an approximate sense, for it will be remembered that 
 


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B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 77 
 
 strictly speaking no portion of an ellipse is a part of a 
 circle. The figure however shows the form adopted 
 for general purposes, and the construction of such an 
 elliptical figure will be found in “ Linear Drawing,” 
 page 73. 
 
 The span and rise, that is, the long and half of the 
 short diameter being given, construct the ellipse, and 
 another parallel to it, struck from the same centres. 
 
 Set off on the outer curve the sizes of the bricks, and 
 then the radii are to be drawn to the centres from which 
 the arcs on which they are placed are struck. Thus all 
 
 those between A and B will be drawn to the centre C, 
 whilst all those between A and D and B and E will be 
 drawn to F and G. 
 
 This subject will be further treated of when the con- 
 struction of stone arches is described. 
 
 Fig. 68, taken from an excellent German example, shows 
 the union of the straight with the segment arch. 
 
 Before, however, entering into the brick construction, it 
 is necessary to speak of the wooden support temporarily 
 used whilst constructing arches. These will be fully 
 described in subsequent manuals ; still it is necessary 
 incidentally to mention them ; for although they are really 
 branches coming under the head of constructive carpentry, 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 73 
 
 still it is necessary that their general purpose, principles, 
 and application should be understood by the bricklayer 
 and mason. The temporary wooden constructions re- 
 ferred to are called “ centerings,” and consist of an 
 assemblage of timber beams so disposed as to form a 
 strong frame ; the convex or outer frame of which is of 
 the exact form of the intrados of the arch. 
 
 These constructions are of course only intended for 
 temporary use, and therefore the following objects should 
 be kept in view by the designer : — 
 
 1. To damage the timber as little as possible, so that it 
 may be used again when required. Of course this con- 
 dition must yield to the necessity of the case, but in all 
 works proper economy (provided it do not degenerate into 
 a “ penny wise and pound foolish ” system) is an element 
 which must never be neglected. 
 
 2. That the design of the centering must be such as to 
 resist any strain which may cause alteration of form 
 during the building of the arch ; and 
 
 3. That arrangements should be made that the center- 
 ing can be eased or lowered gradually , in order that any 
 settlement of the arch which may take place owing to the 
 support being removed, may not be sudden ; for if the 
 support were at once withdrawn, the arch might settle in 
 one part more than in another, and the whole work might 
 give way or be permanently injured. 
 
 In Fig. 68 now before us we find an exceedingly simple 
 centering. 
 
 The walls A B C D having been raised, the centering 
 is erected. This consists of five sticks of timber, E F 
 G H I, kept in their places by the cross-struts J K. 
 These posts would be placed at each face of the arch if 
 it were a deep one, or even at closer distances if the 
 arch were built over a very deep arch or passage. 
 
 Cross-wise, resting on these uprights, are laid hori- 
 zontals, the ends of which, L M N O P, are shown in the 
 illustration ; and on these again, planking is placed, on 
 which the arch would be built. An important feature, 
 however, is that mentioned under the third heading, 
 namely, the arrangement which must be made so that 
 the centering may be eased gradually before absolute 
 removal. 
 
 The illustration shows the most simple mode of doing 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 79 
 
 this. It will be seen that each support rests on two 
 wedges mutually opposed, as Q R, &c. Now, it will be 
 evident that by striking each in turn, the whole of the 
 wooden structure will sink almost imperceptibly, and 
 thus allow the arch to come to an equal settlement 
 throughout, and then the whole framing may be 
 removed. 
 
 We now return to the brickwork of the subject under 
 consideration. 
 
 It will be seen that the greater portion of the weight 
 of the superstructure is borne by the upper arch, which is 
 hence called the Relieving arch. That this is neces- 
 sary will be evident when it is remembered that all the 
 support gained from the apparently broad straight arch 
 was that derived from the arch of the width S T, or about 
 one brick. 
 
 The relieving arch, struck from the same centre as that 
 to which the skew-backs of the straight arch converge, 
 thus bears the main burden ; and its purpose is further 
 enhanced by a tension-rod, U V, viz., a rod of iron 
 passing from the intrados of the flat, to the extrados of 
 the relieving arch, by reason of which the sinking of 
 the former is rendered impossible, owing to its being 
 suspended, as it were, from the latter. 
 
 Fig. 69 represents a Gothic, or pointed arch, constructed 
 of bricks. Here another very simple form of centering 
 is shown. It will be seen that the posts a and b are 
 placed against the piers, and are kept separate by the 
 cross-strut c , the force of which may be gradually di- 
 minished by striking the wedges at d. On these posts 
 rests the true centering, which it will be seen is formed 
 of pieces of timber placed in the manner called “break- 
 joint,” that is, of two thicknesses of timber, so united 
 that the joints of the one side, e f are covered by the 
 whole wood on the other; and this mould again, is sup- 
 ported by, firstly, a cross-piece, g, at the springing, and 
 then by cross-struts, h z, which can be relieved or eased 
 by the wedges at j and £, as can also the centering by 
 those at / and m. The several centres, or trusses, which 
 may be required for the depth of the arch, are united 
 by timber laid cross-wise, the ends of which are shown 
 at n and 0 , &c. 
 
 The curves of the arch are, of course, struck from the 
 
So 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 imposts, this being an equilateral arch. The intrados 
 and extrados having therefore been drawn, divide the 
 latter into the number of bricks required. 
 
 Now the majority of the radii are drawn to the 
 centres, from which the arcs p q are struck; but it will 
 be seen that if this system were continued, the entire 
 mass of bricks forming the block r s t u would not be 
 influenced by such convergence, for the bricks would have 
 to be cut so as to meet in the centre line, and would thus 
 have no influence as a key-stone unless a heavy weight 
 were placed over it to keep it down, without which the 
 pressure on each side would tend to force it upward and 
 out of its place. When therefore, these radii have reached 
 about 50° on each side, and intersect in v, this point 
 must be constituted a new centre, and all radii between 
 s t and s u must be drawn to it. 
 
 The annexed plate, Fig. 70, is an example of planking, 
 .jrick footings, and stone piers, as adopted in the circular 
 vaulting at the London Docks. 
 
 The foundation consists, in the first place, of nine fir piles 
 9 inches square, disposed as in the plan (Fig. 71). On these 
 rest, firstly, three fir-sleepers, also 9 inches square, and 
 across these, fir-planking 6 inches thick, forming a plat- 
 form 4 feet io£ inches square. On this rests the mass of 
 brickwork in five ranges, ii£ inches high, consisting of 
 four courses (Fig. 72). The footings are 2\ inches all 
 round, thus making each range 4i inches smaller across 
 than that on which it rests. The surface of the brick 
 foundation at A is therefore 3 feet 4^ inches 
 
 The base of the pier, which stands on the brickwork, 
 is of stone taken from Bramley Fall Quarry. This 
 base is 3 feet square at the bottom, and 2 feet 4 inches at 
 the top ; the angles are, however, splayed off, and the upper 
 surface thus becomes an Octagon * The shaft, which is 
 of granite, is octagonal, and is 2 feet wide at its lower 
 end, but diminishes to 1 foot io£ inches at 3 feet high. 
 This may be said to be the springing point of the 
 
 Masonry.— Part II. 
 
 WITH DRAWING FOR MASONS. 
 
 * To inscribe an Octagon in a given square, see " Linear Drawing,” Fig 65. 
 
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 Fig- 7 X * Fig. 72. 
 
 F 
 
 
S2 * BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 arches. The section shows that of a four-centred arch, 
 the centres of which are marked in the drawing. 
 
 The pier widens out at the top, and is surmounted 
 by a cap, or springing-stone, also from Bramley Fall 
 Quarry. 
 
 Stone Arches. 
 
 The simplest form of arch, viz., the semicircular, may 
 be considered as the half of a cylinder, and this know- 
 ledge will materially assist the student in projecting the 
 different forms now required. The subject of cylinders, 
 their sections and developments, having been fully treated 
 of in “ Projection,” plates xxxiii., xxxiv., and xxxv., it will 
 only be necessary here to apply the principles there laid 
 down. 
 
 Let A B C D (Fig. 73) be the plan of a road to be 
 crossed by a bridge, the arch of which is semicircular. It 
 must however at the outset, be explained, that an elliptical 
 or any other form of arch would be projected in an exactly 
 similar manner, the semicircular being merely chosen in 
 this case as simplest for the present purpose. 
 
 Now if the arch were to cross the road at right angles 
 to its sides, A C B D, the elevation would be that drawn 
 as at E F (Fig. 74), and of course, any section taken at 
 right angles to the sides would be of the same form, the 
 arch being perfectly semicircular. 
 
 The development of the soffit — that is, the shape of the 
 covering of the interior of the arch — would in that case be 
 a parallelogram, whose width would be equal to the depth 
 of the arch, and whose length would be equal to the curve 
 forming the semicircle E F, and its plan would be the 
 rectangle H I K L. But, in the present study, the arch 
 crosses obliquely , its elevation making an angle of 6o u 
 with the side of the road, C D. The plan of the bridge 
 then becomes the rhomboid G H I J, instead of the 
 rectangle H I K L. 
 
 The construction necessary for the proper projection 
 of the arch under these circumstances, so as to find its 
 exact shape, is an application of the study given in “ Pro- 
 jection,” plates xxiv. and xxv. ; for it will be seen that 
 the arch must be treated as a semi-cylinder , and the ele- 
 vation as a section of it at an angle of 6o°. 
 
 Having drawn the elevation (Fig. 74) as it would be if it 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 83 
 
 ! crossed at right angles to the roadway, and having divided 
 it into its voussoirs, the joints of which converge to the 
 centre, draw lines perpendicular to E F from the points 
 ENOPQRSF, meeting the line at which the arch 
 really crosses in the points H n 0 p q r s G (Fig. 75). 
 
 At these points draw lines perpendicular to H G. 
 
 Now the ground line G H (Fig. 75) corresponds with 
 the ground line E F (Fig. 74) ; it is only longer because it 
 crosses obliquely, and the perpendiculars, in consequence 
 of this lengthening of the whole line, will be further apart 
 than they are in the original elevation. 
 
 But although they will become further apart they will 
 not be in any w^y altered in height ; therefore mark on 
 the perpendiculars n tip q r s, the heights of the per- 
 pendiculars N O P Q R S in the original elevation 
 (Fig/ 74), thus obtaining the points «' o p' q' r s'. 
 
 The curve drawn through these points will give the true 
 form of the required elevation, and is the shape for the 
 centering on which the arch would be built, and of the 
 templet used in shaping the separate youssoirs. 
 
 It will now be convenient before too many lines crowd 
 the paper, to work out the development of the underneath 
 surface of the arch (and here again the student is referred 
 • for elementary information to the figures in “ Projection ” 
 already mentioned). 
 
 Produce the line L H indefinitely, and from the point 
 H, which, in Fig. 75, is coincident with E of Fig. 74, set 
 off the lengths N O P Q R S F from the original cleva - 
 tion, in order to obtain the length of curve. But the 
 student is reminded (see foot-note, page 25, “ Projection”) 
 that this is only approximately correct, for it is measuring 
 chords instead of arcs, and straight lines are, of course, 
 shorter than curves. In order, therefore, to approach as 
 nearly as possible to the true length of a curve, it is 
 desirable to divide it into numerous parts, by which the 
 chords become shorter, and the difference between the 
 curved and straight lines is lessened. 
 
 Divide, then, one of the spaces as F S into say four 
 equal parts, and set these off from H on L FI, produced, 
 viz., H IT. Now there are seven divisions in the intrados 
 of the arch, and they are all equal ; therefore set off from 
 FI, the distances N' O' P' O' R' S' FI' equal to F S. The 
 length H H' is thus the length of curve. 
 
 F 3 
 
 
8 4 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 From N' O' P' O' R' S' H' erect perpendiculars, and 
 intersect them by horizontals drawn from the points 
 similarly lettered in the base line of the oblique elevation. 
 
 Through the points thus obtained, viz., n" o" p” q" r” 
 s" h!' draw the curve H //", and from them set off on the 
 perpendiculars the lengths H I. Connect these points by 
 the curve I T, and the figure HIT h' (Fig. 76) will be 
 the development of the soffit of the arch. 
 
 To draw the outer edges of the voussoirs, proceed, pre- 
 cisely as before, to draw lines parallel to the axis of the 
 cylinder, and at the points where such lines meet the base 
 line of the oblique elevation, draw perpendiculars to G H. 
 Mark on each of these the heights taken from the base 
 line in the original elevation, and the rest will be seen 
 from the diagram. 
 
 Fig. 77 shows a simple projection of one of the voussoirs, 
 the first on the left side. The face is, of course, drawn 
 from the oblique elevation, the curve being struck from 
 the templet already mentioned which may for drawing 
 purposes be cut out of a piece of veneer. If this is done 
 the student will easily be able to draw the portion of the 
 curve required for each voussoir. 
 
 Produce the base and the slanting portion of the face until 
 they meet in W. This wedge form will then correspond 
 with that in the oblique elevation produced to the centre. 
 
 With the set square of 30° draw the receding lines, and 
 it will be evident that the distant edges are parallel to 
 those in the front. 
 
 In the last plate the case worked out has simply been 
 the arching over of an open road or space. Now, had 
 this space been already covered by an arch of the 
 same height as the present one, and having its spring- 
 ing in A B, the arch here drawn would cross it, and 
 their intersection would form a groin. The general prin- 
 ciples of obtaining the curves thus generated have been 
 given in u Projection,” plates xxxiii., xxxiv., and xxxv., 
 under the head of Penetrations and Developments of 
 Cylinders. The following study will show the application 
 of these principles. 
 
 Fig. 78. Here A B D C is the plan of a building to be 
 covered by a groined roof. 
 
 The arch, the springing of which is A B and C D, is a 
 semi-cylinder. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 
 
 85 
 
 The arch which has its springing in A C and B D, being 
 of the same height but of wider span, is a semi -cyli?idroid. 
 
 A cylindroid is a solid body of the character of a cylin- 
 der. But whilst in a cylinder all sections taken at right 
 angles to the axis are circles, in the cylindroid all such 
 sections are ellipses . It is in fact a flattened cylinder. 
 
 The curve at the groin then is generated by the pene- 
 tration of a cylindroid and cylinder. 
 
 On A B describe the semicircle which represents the 
 form of the arch at the ends A B and C D, and divide it 
 into any number of equal parts, a b c, &c. It is only 
 necessary to use the quadrant, as throughout the working 
 the measurements are the same on each side. 
 
 Draw the diagonals A D and B C. 
 
 From a b c d e f draw lines perpendicular to A B, and 
 cutting the diagonal A D in a! b' c d' d and set off the 
 same distances on the other half of the diagonal. 
 
 From these points draw lines at right angles to A C, 
 and passing through it in points 1234567891011, 
 mark off on the perpendicular 6 the height 6 f equal to 
 the height of the semicircle at f and on the perpendiculars 
 54321 mark off in succession the heights of the perpen- 
 diculars e d c b a, as contained between the semicircle 
 and its diameter. Set off the same heights on the corre- 
 sponding perpendiculars on the other side of 6f and the 
 curve traced through these points will be the semi-ellipse, 
 which is the section of the semi-cylindroid forming the 
 arch of which A C and B D are the springings. 
 
 We now proceed to find the curve of the groin ; and it 
 will be evident, that although the span is still further 
 increased in length, the heights of the different points in 
 the curve will be the same as in both the previous eleva- 
 tions. 
 
 The span, then, of the arch at the groin is the diagonal 
 A D (or B C), to which the divisions a' b' d d' d f have 
 already been transferred from the semicircle, and from 
 these the lines were carried at right angles to A C, on 
 which the heights of the points in the curve were set off. 
 
 These points on the diagonal, then, will be seen to be 
 common to both arches, since they are the plans of the 
 points in the roof where the cylindrical and cylindroidal 
 bodies penetrate each other. At these points, therefore, 
 draw lines perpendicular to the diagonal and mark off on 
 

Scale /inch to 
 
D UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 87 
 
 these the heights of the perpendiculars in the semicircle 
 from which the points on which they stand were deduced. 
 These extremities being connected, the curve so traced is 
 the groin curve, and will give the shape for the centring 
 for the groin, as the semicircle and semi-ellipse will for 
 those used in the elevations of the arches. 
 
 It now only remains to develope the soffits or under 
 surfaces, and we commence with the semi-cylindrical arch. 
 
 Fig. 79. Draw any straight line, and commencing at A 
 set off on it the distances into which the curve A C is 
 divided (measuring on the curve , not on the springing 
 line), namely, the distances A a b c, & c. 
 
 At the points on the straight line thus marked, draw 
 perpendiculars ; make the middle one equal to 6 those 
 on^ equal to 5 e' , those on d d equal to 4 d\ those on 
 c c equal to 3 c' , those on b b to 2 b , and those on a a equal 
 to 1 a’. Join the extremities of these perpendiculars, and 
 the two curves meeting in a point, and joined by the 
 original straight line, will form the development of the 
 soffit of the cylindroidal arch. 
 
 Fig. 80 is the development of the semi-cylindrical arch. 
 As this is worked in precisely the same manner from the 
 semicircle , no further instructions are deemed necessary. 
 
 Fig. 81 gives the plan, and Fig. 82 the elevation, of a 
 stone staircase, with detail to an enlarged scale. 
 
 Draw the walls of the plan, and from the inside lines of 
 these draw the lines a b, c d, and e f equal to length of 
 the steps from end to end. * Mark off on these the widths 
 of tl^e steps, and draw the lines which will be the plans of 
 the edges dghc,bij klmnopqrstuvw a, e x y f 
 The quarter-spaces will still be left in the corners, and of 
 these the one is divided into five stairs called winders , 
 whilst the straight stairs are called flyers. 
 
 To draw the winders, produce the lines forming the edges 
 of the steps b and c , until they meet^in A. Then from A 
 with radius A b describe the quadrant connecting the 
 lines d c and a b. The same radius will also give the 
 quadrant at the opposite end. Now from A with any 
 radius describe the quadrant B, and divide it into five 
 equal parts ; through these points draw lines converging 
 to A, which will complete the plan of the winders. 
 
 In the other corner there is really a quarter-space, and 
 from this four steps rise, the last of which is the landing. 
 
33 
 
 B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 It will be seen that the steps are built into the wall. 
 This is shown by the dotted lines in the plan. The 
 lowest one also rests on the ground, and this supports the 
 length of the one above it, and so on in succession, the 
 stairs fitting in to each other by a joint called a “ joggle ” 
 shown at a b and c in Fig. 83. 
 
 It is necessary here to mention that the flat surface of a 
 stair is called the tread, and the upright face is termed 
 the rise. 
 
 The slabs forming the passage seen in section in the 
 elevation at X (Fig. 82), are joined as shown in Fig. 84. 
 They, too, are built into the wall at their inner edge, and 
 the passage is further supported by a cantaliver, or bracket, 
 not shown in this elevation. 
 
 Fig. 85 shows the mode of describing the curtail, or 
 lowest step, drawn to the scale of one and a-half inch to 
 the foot. 
 
 Draw A B equal to the width of the visible portion of 
 the tread of the step— namely, eleven inches by scale, 
 an inch and a-half being covered by the step above. 
 
 Bisect A B in C, and divide C B into four equal parts. 
 On the bisecting line C, construct the square CDEF, the 
 sides of which equal any one of these four parts. 
 
 From C, with radius C B, describe the quadrant B G. 
 From D, with radius D G, describe the quadrant G H ; and 
 from E the quadrant H I, which will complete the spiral.* 
 
 From I draw a perpendicular, and make I J equal to 
 I E. From J, with radius J I, describe the quadrant I K, 
 and from K the straight end of the step will be drawn as 
 shown in the general plan. The projection of the ele- 
 vation of the steps is so simple, that it will not require 
 much explanation. 
 
 Having projected from the plan the mere sections of 
 the walls supposed to be cut through, draw any perpen- 
 dicular, as C, and on it set off the heights of the rises. 
 This height is of course regulated by the room at the 
 disposal of the architect, and the height of the floor to be 
 reached — in this case an average height of rise is taken — 
 that of six inches. 
 
 Letter each of these points to correspond exactly with 
 the figuring of the edges of the steps on the plan. (It 
 
 *For modes of describing spirals, see “ Linear Drawing/' Figs. 96, 97, and 9S. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 89 
 
 will be seen that, in order to avoid crowding, figures 
 belonging to the winders are placed on the lines, instead 
 of at their extremities.) 
 
 Now, from the points marked in the perpendicular in 
 the elevation, draw horizontals, and from the points at the 
 extremities of the edges of the steps in the plan draw 
 perpendiculars ; then the right angles formed by the inter- 
 sections of the lines similarly lettered will be the end 
 elevations of the stairs. All other guidance may be 
 obtained by careful study of the diagrams. 
 
 The construction of circular and other staircases in 
 stone will be further elucidated in the special volumes of 
 this series. 
 
 Woodwork. 
 
 WITH DRAWING FOR CARPENTERS AND 
 JOINERS. 
 
 The purpose of this manual being of an absolutely prac- 
 tical character, the mathematical principles of Descriptive 
 Carpentry are not deemed within its province. The 
 subject will therefore be treated of under the following 
 heads : — 
 
 1. Joints in Timber. 
 
 2. The Construction of Roofs. 
 
 3. The Construction of Floors. 
 
 4. The Construction of Partitions. 
 
 5. Staircases and Joinery. 
 
 Joints in Timber. 
 
 Before treating of what are usually termed joints, we 
 must give some attention to the methods of uniting pieces 
 of timber so as to increase their length, whilst achieving, 
 as nearly as possible, the same amount of strength which 
 the timber would have if it consisted of one piece only. 
 
 In writing on this subject, the author necessarily bases 
 his observations on the principles laid down by such 
 standard authorities as Tredgold, Robison, Thomas Young, 
 Peter Nicholson, &c. ; but he has also been guided in some 
 degree by German and French practice. Some of the 
 examples, not only in this particular department but 
 throughout the work, are culled from Continental sources. 
 
BUILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 90 
 
 in order to give the student as extended a view of the 
 subject as the limits of this manual admit ; and to the 
 information thus gleaned he has added the results of his 
 own experience, extending over many years. As in Build- 
 ing Construction, several distinct mechanical arts are 
 comprised, each of these is further worked out in manuals 
 devoted to special branches. 
 
 The modes of joining timbers, so as to increase their 
 length, are very numerous, and have most of them certain 
 advantages when applied under particular circumstances. 
 Some of the methods adopted are very ingenious ; but, as 
 is frequently found in other matters of daily life, the 
 simplest is generally the best. It will be clear that the 
 method of joining shown in Fig. 86 must be the strongest 
 that could possibly be adopted. Here two pieces of the 
 same scantling* are laid over each other for a certain 
 length, and then either held together by iron bolts or 
 bands. The author prefers the latter, because, by boring 
 holes through the timber, the fibres are divided, and the 
 strength of the beam thereby diminished. This, it is 
 hoped, will be made clear by the following diagram. 
 
 Let us suppose ourselves looking down on a beam 
 united as proposed, by placing the ends one over the 
 other and bolting them together. Our view then would 
 be that shown in Fig. 87. 
 
 Fig. 88 shows the section of the lower timber on the 
 line A B, as it would be if bored for bolts, and in this 
 it will be seen that the fibres are totally severed at C 
 and D, and that the wood between the two bolt-holes 
 cannot in any way contribute to the strength of the beam 
 as far as its length is concerned, as it is only connected 
 with it by its lateral cohesion. 
 
 This being understood, we return to the plan, Fig. 87, 
 and here we shall see that, as the connection between the 
 fibres at E and F has been severed by the bolts, the 
 whole of the strip between them (shown in dotted lines) 
 is rendered useless ; and as this occurs three times in the 
 beam, the only parts left in their natural strength are 
 
 * Scantling. The transverse dimensions of a piece of timber in breadth 
 and thickness. Scantling is also the name of a piece of timber, as of 
 quartering for a partition, or the rafter, pole-plate, or purlin of a roof. All 
 quartering (the small timbers of which partitions are built) under 5 inches 
 square, is called scantling. 
 
B UILDING CONS TR L/C TION. 
 
 91 
 
 those not pierced by the bolts ; and these are not fastened 
 together at all. It is therefore necessary, that iron plates 
 should be placed over the parts to be joined, and by this 
 means the whole may be held firmly together. 
 
 Now, the system proposed by the author for joining 
 beams of great length is shown in the following diagrams. 
 
 Figs. 89 and 90 show how a rebate is to be sunk in 
 the one beam and a tongue left in the other. This 
 form leaves a shoulder at C, against which the end D 
 presses, thus affording security against compression from 
 the ends, and preventing all chance of the beams sliding 
 over each other. 
 
 Fig. 91 is a section showing the iron strap which forms 
 three sides of a rectangle, the fourth being formed by a 
 plate, which fits in the screws at the ends of the strap, 
 and is secured by nuts. This allows of occasional tighten- 
 ing-up, if there should be any sagging owing to shrinking 
 of the wood, &c. 
 
 Another excellent method is that often adopted by 
 ship-carpenters, called “ fishing ” the beam ; and this is 
 used not only in original construction, but constantly in 
 repairs. 
 
 This system consists in placing the two beams end 
 to end, and clasping them between two similar pieces, 
 then either bolting or strapping all three together. In 
 Fig. 92 both these methods are shown. If strapping be 
 adopted, it will be necessary to scarf the side pieces to 
 the middle pieces, to prevent any chance of the middle 
 pieces being drawn out. Scarfing timber will be presently 
 spoken of. 
 
 This system was used by Mons. Perronet for the tie- 
 beams, or stretchers, by which he connected the opposite 
 feet of a centre on which an arch was being built, and 
 which, giving way under the load, had pushed aside one 
 of the piers above four inches. Six of such beams not 
 only withstood a strain of 1,800 tons, but by wedging 
 behind them, he brought the feet of the truss 2\ inches 
 nearer together. 
 
 These stretchers were 14 inches by 11 of sound oak, 
 and could have withstood three times that strain. Mons. 
 Perronet, however, fearing that the great length of the 
 bolts employed to connect the beams of these stretchers 
 would expose them to the risk of bending, scarfed the 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 93 
 
 two side pieces into the middle piece. The scarfing was 
 of the triangular kind, called “Trait de Jupiter ” (which 
 will be fully described in connection with Fig. 99), each 
 “jag” being only 1 inch deep, whilst the faces were 2 feet 
 long, and the bolts passed through close to the angles. 
 
 Of course, the methods here described are open to the 
 objection that they increase the width of the beam at the 
 juncture, and that they have a clumsy appearance. This 
 must be admitted ; but it is equally certain that they are 
 the strongest systems, and should in every case be used 
 where absolute stability is of more importance than the 
 appearance. 
 
 The method of joining next in simplicity is that called 
 “ scarfing,” which may be of the rectangular or oblique 
 kind. The former is shown in Fig. 93. It consists in 
 “ halving ” the pieces on to each other and bolting them 
 together. 
 
 Now it will be clear that, when bolted together, the 
 wood will only be half as strong as it was before being 
 cut, as half its thickness has been cut away, and therefore 
 the widths a b and c d represent all the strength remaining 
 in the beam ; and even this is injured by the bolt-holes, as 
 already referred to. This is in some degree remedied by 
 affixing iron plates at A and B. But although the beam 
 thus formed might be available for columns, or other 
 vertical purposes, it will be seen that if exposed to cross 
 strain it is liable to give way ; for the iron plates, being of 
 but small section, are liable to bend under the weight, 
 whilst the bolts too might bend or tear out ; and against 
 any forces which might tend to draw the pieces apart 
 no greater resistance is offered. 
 
 The author therefore proposes — 1. That the parts 
 which are to be halved together should be left several 
 inches longer than required for the mere joint, the surplus 
 portion of each to be formed into a dove-tail to be sunk 
 into the thick part of the other, as at A (Fig. 94). If this 
 is done at both ends, a great protection against the parts 
 being drawn asunder is provided. 
 
 2. That instead of bolts, coupling-boxes be employed at 
 each end to cover the joints, as at B. These boxes to con- 
 sist of a bottom and sides, the latter having flanges to 
 which the top is bolted. This will give perfect strength to 
 that which was previously the weakest part. Two or three 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 94 
 
 bands around the middle part will complete the joining, 
 and these may be slightly countersunk into the sides of 
 beams, by which means the parts will be still more surely 
 prevented sliding over each other, whilst they will not be 
 materially injured by the small quantity of wood taken 
 away in that part. 
 
 By this system the size of the beam is only increased 
 by the mere thickness of the iron-work, which may be 
 easily covered by a cornice or other joiner’s work should 
 the situation require it. 
 
 Fig. 95 is an example of the oblique system of scarfing, 
 and here again it will be seen that if considered as two 
 pieces of wood joined, it has as a tie of but half the strength 
 of an entire piece, supposing that the bolts, which are 
 the only connections, are fast in their holes. The ends 
 of this scarf require strengthening by plates, and a bolt 
 is required through the middle of the scarf. This form 
 of scarf is not adapted for the office of a pillar, because 
 the pieces by sliding on each other, are apt to splinter off 
 the tongue which confines their ends at A and B. 
 
 Figs. 96, 97, and 98 exhibit forms of scarfing which 
 are very generally approved, for either ties or posts. The 
 keys represented at A in each are not absolutely neces- 
 sary, for the pieces might simply meet square at those 
 points. This form without the key needs no bolts, though 
 they strengthen it to some extent, due allowance being 
 made for the division of the fibres before alluded to (in 
 relation to Fig. 87) ; but if worked very true and close 
 and with square abutments, will hold together, and will 
 resist bending in any direction. 
 
 But the key is a great and ingenious improvement, and 
 will force the parts together with perfect tightness ; care 
 being taken not to produce constant internal strain on the 
 parts by overdriving the key. The forms of Figs. 96 and 
 97 are by far the best, because the tongue of Fig. 98 ( a ) 
 is so much more easily splintered off by the strain or by 
 the key, than the square wood at b in the other two figures. 
 
 Fig. 97 differs from Fig. 96 only in having three keys. 
 The principle and longitudinal strength are the same. 
 The long scarf of Fig. 97 tightened by three keys enables 
 it to resist a bending much better. 
 
 None of these scarfed-tie beams can have more than 
 one-third of the strength of an entire piece, unless with 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 95 
 
 the assistance of iron plates ; for if the key be made 
 thinner than one-third it will have less than one-third of 
 the fibres to pull by. 
 
 Fig. 99 is the elevation, and Fig. ioo the plan of the 
 French scarf before alluded to, called “ Trait de Jupiter 
 which differs from the method shown in Fig. 98 only in 
 the key being placed at right angles to the slanting 
 line of the scarf, instead of parallel to the line of the 
 
 Fig. Q 7 
 
 A A 
 
 C j Q o < K P ol 
 
 
 
 U-J Fig. 100 
 
 beam, as in Fig. 98. The advantage of this method is 
 supposed to be that, when the key in Fig. 98 is driven in, 
 it is liable to split off the piece B, as the force acts in the 
 direction of the fibre ; whilst in Fig. 99 the pressure of 
 the key tends rather to press the fibres together than to 
 separate them. But, on the other hand, it seems evident 
 that, as the object of the key is to push the parts away 
 from the centre, so as to force them tightly against the 
 tongue b , the stress coming in the slanting direction 
 shown at is by far more likely to splinter the tongue 
 off than when coming in the parallel direction shown at 
 a in Fig. 98. Both the French and the English methods 
 are sometimes worked with several keys, and in both, the 
 
B UILDTNG CONS TR UC TIOiV. 
 
 96 
 
 ends of the beams are generally cut to a sally, as shown 
 in the plan Fig. 100, which prevents ( the beam bending in a 
 side direction ; and this may be further strengthened by 
 the addition of an iron plate, shown at c. 
 
 When girders are extended beyond a certain length, 
 they are liable to bend under their own weight. They 
 thus require support, which it is not always possible 
 to give by means of columns or posts. It therefore 
 becomes necessary that the strengthening should be in- 
 dependent of any other support than that which can be 
 connected to, or contained by, the girder itself. This 
 method is called “trussing.” Numerous indeed are the 
 methods adopted for this purpose ; three will be given 
 here, further elucidation being contained in the manual 
 in this series devoted specially to carpentering. On this 
 subject, the writer takes the authority of Mr. Peter 
 N icholson, who says, “ An excellent method to prevent 
 the sagging (or drooping) without the assistance of up- 
 rights from the ground or floor below, is to make the 
 beam in two equal lengths, and insert a truss, so that 
 when the two pieces are bolted together the truss may be 
 included between them, they forming its tie.” 
 
 To prevent any bad effects from shrinking, the truss- 
 posts are generally constructed of iron, screwed and 
 nutted at the ends ; and to give a firmer abutment the 
 braces are let in with grooves into the sides of each 
 flitch. The abutments at the ends are also made of iron, 
 and either screwed and nutted at each of the ends, and 
 bolted through the thickness of both pieces with a broad 
 part in the middle that the braces may abut upon the 
 whole dimensions of their section ; or the abutments are 
 made in the form of an inverted wedge at the bottom, 
 and rise cylindrically to the top where they are screwed 
 and nutted. These modes may either be constructed 
 with one king-bolt in the middle, Fig. 101, A, or with a truss- 
 bolt at one-third of the length from each end, Fig. 102, 
 B and C. When there are two such bolts, they include 
 a straining-place, D, in the middle. 
 
 It is obvious, that the higher the girder the less will 
 the parts be affected by the stress, and consequently 
 there will be the less risk of their giving way under heavy 
 weights, or through long bearings. 
 
 Mr. Nicholson says that the rods inserted may be 
 
B UIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 97 
 
 “ either of oak of cast, or wrought iron. The latter 
 material is, however, very seldom used.” As this state- 
 ment does not, however, give any reasons for the 
 employment of either wrought or cast iron, a few observa- 
 tions on this subject are deemed necessary, especially as 
 the immense improvements in the manufacture of iron have 
 caused it to be so much more generally used than formerly. 
 
 Iron will be but briefly mentioned in this manual of 
 general knowledge of Building Construction ; it will how- 
 ever receive full consideration in a special volume of this 
 series. It is however, necessary to the present purpose 
 to state, however briefly, that cast iron is crystalline in its 
 structure ; that is, it is formed of separate particles which 
 have settled into their position whilst the molten metal 
 was cooling ; whilst wrought iron is fibrous ; that is, the 
 particles have been, whilst in a soft condition caused by 
 heat, hammered or rolled together, so that they are of a 
 long instead of a crystalline form, and their adhesion is 
 thus increased. Malleable iron is therefore, able to bear 
 longitudinal strain (that is, the force which would tend to 
 pull the ends apart) better than cast iron ; whilst the 
 latter is best adapted to bear vertical pressure, as in a 
 column, without bending or giving way. In brief, cast iron 
 bears compressioii, and malleable iron tension ; and to 
 speak familiarly, if the student wishes to know under what 
 circumstances ought cast or wrought iron to be employed, 
 let him ask himself the question, “ Could a rope be used ? ” 
 Now if any weight had to be supported from below , it is 
 clear that a rope could not be used ; and hence, columns 
 to bear a roof would be made of cast iron ; but when 
 the two feet, A B (Fig. 103) of the iron rafters of a railway 
 station have to be tied together, so as to prevent their 
 spreading out, a rope would (though, of course, not per- 
 manently) answer the purpose ; and therefore, malleable 
 iron would be best adapted. For it is clear that the 
 weight of the roof would have the tendency to push the 
 ends A and B outward, and that, if cast iron were em- 
 ployed, it would be in a state of tension, which it is not 
 calculated to bear ; wrought iron is therefore best calcu- 
 lated to resist this strain. But the rafters C and D, 
 meeting in E, butt against each other, and thus the 
 weight of the roof is acting as pressure ; Cast iron 
 would therefore be used for these, as best fitted to 
 
 G 
 
Fig. 105 Fig. io^ 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 99 
 
 bear compression ; and from the shoe in which they 
 meet, and which acts as the keystone of an arch, a rod 
 (E F) can be suspended to bear up the tie-rod A B. 
 Here, again, a rope would do ; so that this rod must be of 
 malleable iron. The point F being thus firmly held up, 
 may be used as an abutment for a“strut”FH, and 
 F G ; and as these would have to bear the pressure of 
 the roof, cast iron would be used ; whilst from G and H 
 rods of wrought iron might again be employed to draw up 
 the tie-rod at I and J. 
 
 Returning now to Fig. ioi, it will be evident that the 
 pressure of the beam will be at A, and that the weight 
 at that point would have the tendency to press downward. 
 The trusses B and C, therefore, act as an arch, of which 
 the king-bolt, A, acts as the keystone. The trusses B and 
 C are therefore under compression , and cast iron or pieces 
 of oak may be used. 
 
 The same remarks apply to the form of truss applied in 
 Fig. 102, where it will be seen there is, as it were, an arch 
 formed within the girder. 
 
 Where however, it is not absolutely required that the 
 trussing should be within the girder, far greater strength 
 may be given by adopting the system, the simplest form 
 of which is given in Fig. 104. Here the weight of the 
 beam is suspended from its ends , at which cast iron shoes 
 are placed, through which tension rods are bolted. These 
 act on an iron support in the middle of the length, and 
 as the nuts are screwed up at A and B, the tendency is 
 evidently to raise the central casting, and so afford sup- 
 port to the beam. Girders of this form are used to support 
 floors of upper rooms of warehouses, &c., or in schools 
 where, for instance, the girls’ department is over that for 
 the boys ; also in the now generally adopted system of 
 scaffolding where travelling cranes traverse the work in 
 progress. In such cases where the girders on which the 
 trams are placed for the cranes are of great length, two 
 supports, united by tension rods, are used. 
 
 Fig. 105 shows a section of a girder built up of wood 
 and iron, and is called a flitch girder. An iron plate is 
 inserted between the two planks, and iron bolts pass 
 through all three ; this is found convenient for the archi- 
 trave of shop fronts, from the convenience with which the 
 casing, cornice, &c., can be attached to it. 
 
 G 2 
 
ICO 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 We now proceed to speak of joints properly so called. 
 
 Where two pieces of timber of equal thickness cross 
 each other, and the joint is to be flush — viz., the 
 pieces when joined are to form a flat surface — they are 
 “ halved ” together ; that is, a piece is taken out of each 
 of half its thickness and of the breadth of the piece which 
 is to cross it, and thus the one drops into the other, as 
 shown in Fig. 106, and pins are then driven through both. 
 
 When a joist is to rest on a girder, the joint is said to 
 be “ notched in” (Fig. 107), pieces of an oblong form being 
 taken out of the opposite upper edges of the girder or 
 
 lower joist, and a piece (A) is taken out of the lower edge 
 of the upper timber equal to the piece (B) left standing in 
 the middle of the girder. The upper one then drops into 
 the notches. 
 
 When the beams stand square with each other, and the 
 strains are also square with the beams, and in the plane 
 of the frame, the common mortise and tenon is the most 
 common junction. This is shown in Fig. 108 and Fig. 109, 
 and will not require any explanation. A pin is usually 
 put through the joint in order to counteract any force 
 which may tend to separate the pieces. Every carpenter 
 knows how to bore the hole for this pin, that it shall 
 have the tendency to draw the tenon tightly into the 
 mortise, thus causing the shoulder to butt closely without 
 the risk of tearing out the piece of the tenon beyond the 
 pin if he draws it too much. Square holes and pins are 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 IOI 
 
 by far preferable to round ones for this purpose, bringing 
 more wood into action with less tendency to split it. A 
 joint of this kind often used is that called “ foxtail joint,” 
 the peculiarity of which is that the mortise (Fig. iio), is 
 not cut through the wood, and still the tenon is firmly 
 wedged in. The mortise is cut wider at the bottom than at 
 the top ; the end of the tenon (Fig. 1 1 1 ) is then slightly split 
 in several places, and wedges of hard wood are inserted ; 
 the tenon is placed in the mortise, and the piece driven in 
 with the mallet. As the broad ends of the wedges are 
 forced against the bottom of the mortise they split the end 
 of the tenon, which thus spreading out fills up the wider 
 part of the cavity. In order to prevent the wedges split- 
 ting the piece beyond the shoulder, the outer wedges 
 placed near the edge of the tenon should be very thin, 
 and project further than the others ; the succeeding pairs 
 should be rather thicker as they follow inward, and 
 should stand out from the end less and less. Now it will 
 be clear that a and b will touch the bottom first, and as 
 they come into action will split off a very thin slice, which 
 will bend without breaking ; the wedges c and d will act 
 next, and will have a similar effect ; thus, the rest, as 
 they come into operation, will be prevented splitting the 
 tenon further than is required. The thickness of all the 
 wedges added together should be equal to the difference 
 between the width of the mortise at the top and that at 
 the bottom. 
 
 The binding joists of a floor are mortised into the gir- 
 der. In this case the tenon should be as near the upper 
 side as possible, because the girder would, in the event of 
 its yielding to any strain, become concave on that side ; 
 but as this exposes the tenon of the binding joist to the 
 risk of being torn off, it is necessary to mortise lower 
 down. The form of mortise (illustrated in Fig. 112), 
 usually given to this joint is extremely judicious. The 
 sloping part, a , gives a very firm support to the addi- 
 tional bearing, a d , without much weakening the girder. 
 This form should be adopted in every case where the 
 strain has a similar direction ; e is a pin driven in from 
 the top of the girder through the tenon, which gives it 
 additional security. 
 
 The joint that most of all demands careful attention is 
 that which connects the ends of beams, when one pushes 
 
102 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the other very obliquely, putting it into a state of tension. 
 The most familiar instance of this is the foot of a rafter 
 pressing on the tie-beam.* When the direction is very 
 oblique (in which case the extending strain is the greatest), 
 it is difficult to give the foot of the rafter such a hold of 
 the tie-beam as to bring many of its fibres into the proper 
 action. There would be little difficulty if we could allow 
 the end of the tie-beam to project a small distance beyond 
 the foot of the rafter ; but, indeed, the dimensions which 
 are given to tie-beams for other reasons are always suffi- 
 cient to give enough abutment when judiciously employed. 
 This joint is, unfortunately much' subject to failure by 
 
 the effects of the weather. It is much exposed, and fre- 
 quently perishes by rot or by becoming so soft and pliable 
 that a very small force is sufficient either for tearing the 
 filaments of the tie-beam or for crushing them altogether. 
 
 Long tenons to the ends of rafters are not now so much 
 used as they formerly were. They have been observed to 
 tear up the wood above them, and thus to push their way 
 to the ends of the rafters. Carpenters therefore, now 
 give to the toe of the tenon a shape which abuts firmly in 
 the direction of the thrust on the solid bottom of the 
 mortise, which is well supported on the under side by the 
 wall-plate. This form, which is represented in Fig. 113, 
 has the further advantage of having no tendency to tear up 
 the mortise. The tenon has a small portion (a) of its end 
 cut perpendicular to the surface (b c ) of the tie-beam, and 
 the rest {d) is perpendicular to the length ( ef ) of the rafter. 
 
 Fig. 1 14 is another form of tenon for the foot of rafters. 
 Here the whole thickness of the rafter is brought into 
 service, and the end a b cut so as to make a right 
 
 The parts to which these names apply will be found in Fig. 117. 
 
102 
 
 the otl 
 The it 
 pres si j 
 obliqu 
 it is d: 
 the tit 
 action 
 the en 
 the fbt 
 are gi 
 cient ' 
 This j 
 
 the e 
 quent 
 that a 
 filarm 
 
 Loi 
 
 used f 
 
 tear v 
 
 to th 
 
 give 1 
 
 the d 
 
 morti 
 
 wall-] 
 
 has t' 
 
 the rr 
 
 cut p 
 
 the r« 
 
 Fi| 
 
 Here 
 
 servi 
 
B NIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 I03 
 
 angle with the surface of the tie-beam, is sunk into it, the 
 line c gradually slanting down to d ; the tenon c d 
 b e , then, whilst it is the whole length of the part of 
 the rafter entering the tie beam, is only a part of its 
 thickness ; and, as will be seen in the illustration, the 
 end of the rafter and tenon, a b, forms a perpendicular 
 with the upper surface of the tie-beam, whilst be is at 
 right angles to b a. 
 
 This joint is common on the Continent, but has been 
 objected to by some carpenters on the ground that, should 
 there be any shrinking in the king-post which should 
 allow it to sink, the rafter would turn on the point c, as 
 on a pivot, and the point b , describing an arc, might 
 push up the wood above it ; but this does not seem 
 very likely. It is quite impossible, within the limits of 
 the present manual, to dwell longer on this department 
 of woodwork ; and the student of that branch of Building 
 Construction is therefore referred to the volume of the 
 series specially devoted to it. The joints by which the 
 ends of rafters abut on the beams are often bound by iron 
 straps. These will be shown in the illustrations connected 
 with roofs. 
 
 The Construction of Roofs. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that the roof of a building 
 is that covering which is to protect the inhabitants, &c., 
 and their property from the effects of the weather, and 
 that in addition to this it should be so constructed that it 
 may shelter the walls, foundation, aitd fabric generally 
 from snow and rain. 
 
 Many of the ancients (like some of the Eastern nations 
 of the present day) made their roofs flat, and the Greeks 
 seem to have been the first who used the slanting surfaces. 
 These were, however, very gentle in their inclination, the 
 height from the ridge to the level of the walls being about 
 one-eighth of the span, as may be seen by many ancient 
 temples still remaining. In northern climates, subject to 
 heavy rains and falls of snow, it is necessary that the 
 ridge should be more elevated. 
 
 In most old buildings of Britain, the equilateral triangle 
 seems to have been the standard for the pitch, both in 
 private and public buildings, and this continued until 
 Gothic architecture reached its zenith ; but with the decay 
 
i©4 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 of that style the pitch was lowered, that is, the roof 
 became more flat. There are some advantages in high- 
 pitched roofs, as they discharge the rain with greater 
 facility, the snow lies on their surface for a much shorter 
 time, and they are less liable to have the slates or tiles 
 stripped off by severe winds. Low roofs require large 
 slates and the utmost care in execution ; but they have 
 the advantage of being cheaper, since they require 
 shorter timbers and of a much less scantling. When con- 
 structed on sound principles, the roof is one of the principal 
 ties of a building, as it binds the exterior walls to the 
 interior and to the partitions ; whilst badly-designed roofs 
 will have the tendency to give way in their own structure, 
 or to force the walls out of the perpendicular. 
 
 Roofs are of various forms, dependent of course, upon 
 the nature and purpose of the building and the form of 
 the plan. The most simple is that which consists of a 
 single inclined plane, which throws the roof entirely on 
 one side. This is called a shed-roof, or more commonly, 
 a “lean-to.” Next to this ranks the “pent,” or gable 
 roof, consisting of two inclined planes meeting in a 
 ridge. The ends of the building remain upright, being 
 formed of a square or other parallelogram, on which a 
 triangle, the base of which is equal to the width of the 
 side, rests, and the whole block, consisting of a triangular 
 prism, resting on a square prism. This form of roof is, 
 perhaps, more generally used than any other. 
 
 When all the four sides of a roof are formed of inclined 
 planes, it is called a “hipped” roof, in which case the two 
 inclined sides of the roof which slant from the longest 
 walls will be trapezoids ,* and the other two triangles ; 
 but if the building to be roofed is square , all four sides 
 of the roof will be formed of triangles, and will thus 
 form a square pyramid, for the projection and develop- 
 ment of which see “ Projection,” page 57. A building 
 having a hipped roof consists of a triangular prism resting 
 on a square prism, as in the last case, but the ends of the 
 triangular prism are slanted off. 
 
 When the planes of roofs, instead of being continued 
 until they meet in a ridge, take another slant at a certain 
 height, they are called curb roofs, and are often termed 
 
 * See “ Linear Drawing,” page 18. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 105 
 
 “ Mansard,” (from the name of their inventor,*) or French 
 roofs, being much employed in France. 
 
 Roofs upon circular bases, with all their horizontal 
 sections circular, the centres of the circles being in a 
 perpendicular drawn from the centre of the base perpen- 
 dicular to the horizon, are called revolved roofs, or roofs 
 of revolution. 
 
 When the plan of a roof is a regular polygon, or circle, 
 or an ellipse, the horizontal sections being similar to the 
 base though becoming gradually smaller, and the vertical 
 sections portions of a curve convex on the outside, the 
 roof is called a dome. 
 
 We will now enter more particularly into the construc- 
 tion of a roof, in order to explain the principles which 
 guide the designer, and to give the names of the dif- 
 ferent timbers employed. 
 
 It has already been stated that a badly-designed roof 
 may prove the ruin of an entire building by forcing the 
 walls outward ; whereas, if constructed on correct prin- 
 ciples, it will tend to tie them together, and so give 
 firmness to the whole structure ; and it has also been 
 mentioned that the simplest roof is that formed by two 
 inclined planes ; but it will at once be seen that this 
 must be very limited in its application, and could only be 
 used with anything like safety where the walls are 
 very strong so as to resist the pressure of the roof ; 
 for it must be clear that the weight of the timbers 
 and slates or tiles would tend to force the walls out 
 of the perpendicular ; this will be understood on 
 referring to Fig. 115. 
 
 Now, when this force (W) came into action, it would spread 
 the feet of the rafters outward, and therefore the obvious 
 remedy is to tie them together. Thus a rope would, to a 
 certain extent, answer the purpose as before stated ; but, 
 instead of tying the feet of the rafters together, they are 
 mortised into a beam called the tie- beam, in such a manner 
 
 * Francis Mansard, an eminent French architect, bom at Paris in 15^8, 
 was the son of the King’s carpenter, and received those instructions which 
 led to his eminence as an architect from Gautier ; but for the high rank to 
 which he attained in his profession he was indebted to the force of his own 
 genius. He became a great favourite of Louis XIV., and was enabled 
 under his patronage to realise a large fortune. Amongst his principal works 
 were the Chftteau de Clugny and the Palace of Versailles. He died suddenly 
 at Marley in the year 1708. 
 
io 6 building construction. 
 
 that they cannot spread outward, and this is the first step 
 towards the proper construction of a roof. Wall-plates 
 have already been mentioned. They are timbers laid on 
 the tops of the walls to prevent the roof trusses pressing 
 on one particular part, and to spread the pressure along the 
 whole length. Resting on these, and crossing the entire 
 width of the building, the long timber called the Tie-beam 
 is placed ; and the very manner of placing it is such that 
 any weight pressing on it may bear downwards and not 
 outward, and thus it ties the walls together ; into this 
 the rafters are mortised, in one or other of the methods 
 already shown. 
 
 The rafters are not allowed simply to meet at the top, 
 but abut against the slanting part of an upright, called 
 the king-post, the purpose of which must not be mis- 
 understood. 
 
 Casual observers might imagine that the king-post rests 
 upon the tie-beam, and supports the rafters at their 
 junction ; but it does no such thing, the rafters abutting 
 against the tie-beam meeting at the top and forming a 
 triangle, because the two sides together are greater than 
 the third (“ Euclid,” Book i, prop. xx.) } and the third in 
 this case is the tie-beam. Now, in the triangle ABC 
 Fig. 1 1 6, the weight D could be suspended; and as the 
 two sides, A and B, meet in C, C becomes, as it were, the 
 keystone of an arch, and firmly supports the weight 
 D suspended from it. 
 
 Thus then, in Fig. 117, the points A and B act as the 
 abutments of an arch, and the head of the king-post K, 
 is the keystone into which the upper ends of the principal 
 rafters P R are mortised ; and thus, the more the key- 
 stone be pressed down, the firmer will the structure be. 
 But the weight of the roof does not really press upon the 
 keystone, but upon the rafters, and these again transfer 
 their force to the tie-beam, T B. Now, at its- ends, the 
 tie-beam is well supported, but in most cases is liable to 
 sag, or sink in the middle ; and if this were to occur, 
 the ends of the rafters would be drawn inward, and with 
 them the walls on which the wall-plates rest. The king- 
 post is therefore a continuation of the keystone, and 
 comes just down to, but does not rest upon, the tie-beam, 
 which is therefore strapped up to the king-post by an 
 iron band ; and thus, instead of the tie-beam supporting 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 
 
 107 
 
 the king-post, the king-post supports the tie-beam, the 
 middle portion of which is suspended from it. 
 
 In order to tighten up the tie-beam, an opening is 
 pierced through the upper ends of the iron strap, and 
 through the king-post. Iron “ gibs ” are passed through 
 this hole, and two iron wedges entering from the opposite 
 sides are driven in. It will be evident that the effect of 
 this will be to draw up the strap, and with it the tie-beam 
 around which it is placed. Fig 1 18 is a section showing 
 the king-post, tie-beam, iron strap, gibs, and wedges, and 
 Fig. 1 19 shows the front of the strap. 
 
 All the parts referred to will be seen in their places in 
 Fig. 1 17, in which are also shown struts S, S which, 
 abutting on the foot of the king-post, support the principal 
 rafters P R, at a point between their upper and lower 
 ends. The width requires that the beam should be 
 further braced up ; the struts S, S, then, instead of being 
 mortised directly into the rafters, serve to support two 
 posts smaller than the king-post, but of the same 
 character, called queen-posts, Q. To these, again, the 
 tie-beam is strapped up as in the former case. Against 
 their feet struts abut, supporting the rafters ; and it will 
 be seen that this system may be carried on as long as the 
 nature of the materials would permit ; the whole truss 
 resting on the wall-plates W. 
 
 Now it will be clear that such strong and heavy- 
 assemblages of timber as these roof trusses need not 
 necessarily be placed close together, being intended as 
 the main supports of the whole covering of the building ; 
 further framing is therefore necessary, in order that the 
 intermediate spaces may be properly and securely roofed 
 over. This is done by throwing timbers at intervals 
 across the trusses. These are called “purlins,” P, and 
 are sometimes “ notched ” on to the principal rafters, 
 as at P, on the right side of the drawing, or rest against 
 blocks, as shown at the corresponding point on the left 
 side ; the latter is to be preferred, as the principal is 
 not weakened by the removal of any part of the thickness. 
 Thus a horizontal framework is created, and across these, 
 at about a foot apart, smaller timbers called common 
 (or Jack) rafters are placed, C R. These either abut on 
 a timber called the pole-plate, /, resting on the end of 
 the tie-beam, outside the insertion of the foot of the 
 
IOS BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 principal rafters, or may be notched on to it, and passing 
 by it, may form the eaves, or projecting part of the roo£ 
 under which a gutter may be placed. Across the common 
 rafters strips of wood called “ battens ” are nailed, and to 
 these the slates are attached ; or, in cases where the 
 inside of the roof is to be left visible, it is covered in 
 with boards, to which the slates are nailed. The 
 interior of these boards, and the timbers on which 
 they rest, are then stained and varnished ; and such roofs 
 have a beautiful appearance, especially when 'the lines are 
 such as to show the scientific principles upon which the 
 whole is constructed. The open timber roof of the middle 
 ages forms one of the most beautiful features of that period 
 of architecture. They were, in the first instance, con- 
 structed on the most perfectly correct principles of science. 
 They were then, in some cases, elaborately carved and filled 
 in with most exquisite tracery, or were painted. The con- 
 struction was not concealed by ornament ; but, on the 
 contrary, the decoration served all the more to show the 
 construction to advantage. And we can thus feel the truth 
 of Mr. Brandon’s words : “ A timber roof of the fifteenth 
 century, with its massive timbers elaborately wrought ; 
 its rows of hammer-beams, terminating in beautifully- 
 carved figures of angels ; its enriched panelling and 
 traceried spandrils ; its exquisite bosses ; and, above all, 
 its profusely-ornamented cornice, is truly as glorious a 
 sight, as it is a grand triumph of the carpenter’s art. 
 Such excellence, however, was but very gradually ac- 
 complished.” * 
 
 In some cases the heads of the queen-posts are kept 
 apart by a horizontal timber (shown by a dotted line in 
 Fig. 1 17) called the “ straining beam,” which is strapped 
 up to the king-post, which in such a roof truss would not 
 come down to the tie-beam. The subject of roofs in timber 
 and iron is of such importance, and its elucidation 
 requires such numerous illustrations that a separate 
 volume of this series is devoted to it. 
 
 * The whole subject of Gothic Architecture is treated of in a separate 
 volume of this series. 
 
B UIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 I09 
 
 The Construction of Floors. 
 
 The assemblage of timbers by which floors are sup- 
 ported is called the “ naked flooring,” and is of three sorts, 
 single, double, and framed. 
 
 Single Flooring consists of one row or tier of joists, 
 bearing from one wall or partition to another without 
 any additional support. On these rests the flooring 
 boards, and to their lower edge is attached the ceiling 
 of the room below (if there be any), either by means of 
 laths or ceiling-joists.* These floor-joists rest upon a 
 wall-plate built into the wall ; the brickwork of the wall 
 should not quite touch the end of the joist, but should 
 leave a small space all around the end ; this prevents any 
 damp in the wall from spreading into the timber, and 
 allows of a certain play of air around it. In better work, 
 however, the ends of the joists are gathered by wooden 
 end-ties and iron tie-rods. These are drawn up by nuts. 
 The joists being meanwhile shored up in the middle, so 
 that when this support is removed the joists may be stiffly 
 braced. Another plan is to rest the wall-plate on projecting 
 corbels, by which means the ends of the joists do not enter 
 the walls at all ; and thus any fracture, such as might 
 arise from shaking, crowding, dancing, &c., is avoided. 
 The wall-plates for basement-floors are best supported 
 on short piers carried up from the footings. Joists in 
 single floors should never be less than two inches, nor 
 even as small as that where it can be avoided ; and they 
 should not be farther apart than twelve inches from 
 centre to centre. They may be strengthened by in- 
 creasing their depth (which should not be less than nine 
 inches), and may be prevented from twisting by putting 
 a herring-bone truss between them (Fig. 120). This con- 
 sists of pieces of batten one and a-half inches thick and 
 three inches wide, or thereabouts, placed diagonally 
 between the joists to which they are nailed in the 
 diagonal form shown. They should be ranged in a 
 right line so that none of their strength may be lost, and 
 these ranges should be repeated at intervals not ex- 
 ceeding five or six feet. This strutting should be done 
 
 * Ceiling-joists are timbers of small scantling notched on to the lower 
 edges of the joists, and to these the laths are attached. 
 
iio 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 to single flooring under any circumstances, as it adds 
 materially to its firmness, and indeed to its strength, by 
 making the joists transmit any stress or pressure from 
 one to another. 
 
 The strength of single flooring is materially affected 
 by the necessity which constantly occurs in practice of 
 “trimming” around fire-places and vacuities. Trim- 
 ming is the mode of supporting the end of a joist by 
 tenoning it into a piece of timber running at right 
 angles to it, instead of running it on into the wall 
 which supports the ends of the other joists ; and by 
 
 this means the placing 
 of timber under hearth- 
 stones is avoided. 
 
 Fig. 1 21 shows the 
 sectional elevation of 
 this arrangement. The 
 cross-piece A, called the 
 trimming-joist, is united 
 at both ends to the joists 
 running the entire length 
 or breadth of the floor 
 by means of strong te- 
 nons ; and these joists, 
 
 1 having to bear the weight 
 
 of several which run into the trimming joist, should be 
 made stouter than the others ; and a brick arch, B, called 
 the trimming-arch, should be thrown across from the 
 wall to the trimming-joist, on which the hearth-stone 
 C may rest. 
 
 Fig. 122 shows the mode of preventing sound passing 
 through floors. Narrow fillets, a a, are nailed to the 
 floor-joists, and on these boards called sound-boards, 
 b b b are fixed ; pugging, which is a coarse sort of 
 mortar, &c., is then filled in as at p. 
 
 Double Flooring, a section of which is shown in 
 Fig. 123, consists of three distinct series of timbers ; viz., 
 the binding, B, bridging (or floor), B R, and ceiling-joists, 
 C. In this system the binders are the real supports of the 
 floor, they run from wall to wall, and carry the bridging- 
 joists above, and the ceiling-joists, C, below. Binders need 
 not be less and should not be more than six feet apart. The 
 bridging-joists are notched down on to the binders in 
 
 Fig. 121 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 the manner shown in Fig. 107 ; but in notching the 
 ceiling-joists to the lower edge of the binder the whole 
 notch must be taken out of the ceiling-joist, as the lower 
 part of the binder must not in any way be wounded or 
 weakened. The details, as already given in relation to 
 single floors are, of course, equally applicable to the 
 system here described. 
 
 Framed-Flooring, a section of which has already 
 been shown (Fig. 112), is composed of girders (G), 
 bridging-joists (B), floor-joists, and ceiling-joists. 
 
 Girders are large beams, either formed of one piece or 
 built up, according to the length required and the size 
 and strength of which timber can be procured. They are 
 intended for longer bearings than binders, and may be 
 strengthened by trussing, as already shown in Figs, ior, 
 102, 104, and 105. To be efficient, the height of the 
 truss should always be greater than the girder itself, and 
 the strength is increased by extending that height as the 
 space or bearing increases. 
 
 Binders are made dependent upon the girders by means 
 of double tusk tenons. This mode of joining has already 
 been illustrated in Fig. 112. 
 
 It must be observed that the binders should not be 
 mortised into the girders opposite to each other, since the 
 girder would be unduly weakened by being mortised on 
 both sides at the same place. 
 
 The floor boards are nailed either at one or both edges. 
 The longitudinal joints, or those in the direction of the 
 
 fibres, are either square (Fig. 124), ploughed and tongued 
 (Fig. 125), or rebated and lapped over each other 
 (Fig. 126). 
 
 Ploughed and tongued and rebated joints may be used 
 where the apartment is required to be air-tight, the head- 
 ing joints being either square or ploughed and tongued. 
 Sometimes, instead of a tongue extending all the length, 
 separate pins are used, called dowels, which run into 
 holes in the next board. In square longitudinal-jointed 
 floors it is necessary to nail the boards on both edges ; 
 but where the boards are dowelled, ploughed and tongued, 
 
 Fig. 125, 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
I 12 
 
 B UIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 or rebated, one edge only need be nailed, as the tongue 
 or lapping is sufficient to keep the other down. 
 
 In the most common kinds of flooring the boards are 
 folded together in the following manner Supposing one 
 board already laid and fastened, a fourth, fifth, sixth, or 
 other board is also laid and fastened, at such a distance 
 as to admit of two, three, four, five or more boards 
 between the two, but which can only be inserted by force, 
 as the breadth of the opening must be barely that of the 
 
 may be thrown across the separate boards laid, which may 
 be forced down by two or more men jumping upon it. 
 This done, all the intermediate boards may be nailed 
 down, and the operation is to be repeated until the whole 
 is complete. In this system, which is called “ folded 
 flooring/’ less than four boards are seldom laid together. 
 No attention is paid to the heading joints, and sometimes 
 three or four such meet in one continued line. 
 
 In dowelled floors, the distances to which the dowels 
 (or projecting pins) are set are from 6 to 8 inches, gene- 
 rally one over each joist and one over each interspace. 
 No heading joint of two boards ought to be so disposed 
 as to meet the heading joints of two other boards, and 
 thereby form a straight line equal to the breadth of two 
 boards. 
 
 Laying down the floor boards is usually classed under 
 joinery, but it is found more convenient to treat of this 
 branch in the present section, in connection with the 
 construction of the floors themselves. 
 
 Partitions are the internal walls which divide the 
 building into separate rooms, and may be formed of 
 solid walling, of timber framing filled in with brickwork, 
 or may be made wholly of timber and covered with board- 
 ing or laths and plaster. This latter kind will be here 
 
 Fig. lay. 
 
 aggregate width of the 
 boards, in order that 
 the joints may be close 
 when they are all 
 brought down to their 
 places. For this pur- 
 pose, a plank (Fig. 127) 
 
 Partitions. 
 
rnM. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 113 
 
 considered. Partitions must be constructed on proper 
 principles of trussing, so as to guard against cross strain, 
 especially when placed over a vacuity without any sup- 
 port but at the ends, or when having to bear the weight 
 of a floor above it. 
 
 Partitions should form a portion of the main carcase of 
 the building, and should not be dependent upon, but should 
 rather support the flooring. An important form of par- 
 tition is given in Fig. 128, which represents a 6-inch par- 
 tition so trussed as to support a floor above. It will be seen 
 that A B C D is a complete roof truss, with queen-posts 
 E, principal rafters F, and straining-piece G. This truss 
 rests on stone templates in the wall. The sill at the 
 bottom of the partition rests on a brick corbel built out 
 of the wall, and on this is placed a stone template and 
 an iron clamp. This supports a wooden wall-plate, or 
 template, to receive the end of the sill. 
 
 The middle part of the partition is further to receive 
 folding-doors. The upright posts for this opening are 
 placed under the queen-posts, are kept apart by a strain- 
 ing-piece, and pressed together at the top by braces, 
 I I, which being mortised into the sill act as principal 
 rafters again ; and thus a second truss is formed under 
 the other, whilst the whole structure is firmly braced 
 up by the iron tie-rods at K K. 
 
 Joinery. 
 
 Having thus, as far as the limits of this volume permit, 
 described the leading branches of carpentry, a brief sec- 
 tion will be devoted to joinery; the distinction between 
 the two being that, whereas carpentry comprehends the 
 coarser and heavier portions of the woodwork connected 
 with the absolute structure of the carcase, joinery is more 
 refined in its operations, and has to do with framing or 
 joining wood together for the finishings both internal and 
 external of a house. 
 
 Joinery requires much more accurate and nice work 
 than carpentry ; the latter consisting only of the rough 
 timbers used in supporting the various parts of the 
 edifice (and hence it has been laid down as a distinction, 
 though not an absolute one, that a carpenter never uses a 
 plane). Joinery has to do with decoration, and being 
 
 H 
 
BUILDING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 114 
 
 always near to the eye, and consequently liable to in- 
 spection, requires that the joints should be fitted together 
 with the utmost care, and the surfaces made smooth. 
 
 There are numerous modes of uniting timber used by 
 joiners, some of which are but refined methods of those 
 practised in carpentering, as mortising, tenoning, &c. 
 already given. One of the simplest methods of joining two 
 pieces of wood at any angle is to cut the edge of each to 
 half that angle, and when they are brought together, cut- 
 ting down into both with a small saw and inserting 
 
 strips of a harder wood. This joint is called a mitre, 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 Fig. 1 30 and 131 show a very strong and constantly em- 
 ployed joint called the dovetail, used for angles of drawers, 
 boxes, cisterns, &c. These two methods are sometimes 
 united and form a joint called the “mitre dovetail.” 
 
 Numerous other systems employed by joiners will be 
 given in the manual specially devoted to the subject. 
 
 But it must not be supposed that joinery is a decorative 
 art only, for to its province fall several structural works of 
 the utmost importance, such as staircases, doors, window 
 framing and sashes, shutter-boxes, closets, &c. The limits 
 of this manual will only permit one of the sections of 
 these being treated of, viz., Staircases, the construction 
 of which is generally considered the highest branch of 
 joinery. The general principles of stairs and the modes 
 of projecting them have already been given ; and the 
 principal difference to be pointed out is that caused by the 
 
B UIL DING CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 115 
 
 material now employed, viz., that the stairs themselves 
 are made of a riser and a tread instead of out of a solid 
 block, as are most stone steps, and thus cannot be built 
 into the wall, but must be grooved at their ends into a 
 wooden bearing. 
 
 Geometrical stairs, i.e., such as are supported by or 
 against a wall and rest on each other, have already been 
 described ; and next follow : 1. Bracket stairs. These are 
 such as have an opening or well, with strings or newels, 
 and are supported by landings and carriages, the brackets 
 mitreing to the end of each riser. 2. Dog-legged stairs. 
 These have no well-hole, and the rail or balusters of both 
 the progressive and retrogressive flight fall in the same 
 vertical plane. The steps are fixed to strings, newels, and 
 carriages, and the ends of the steps of the inferior kinds 
 terminate only in the side of the string without any 
 housing. 
 
 Fig. 132 is the plan of a dog-legged staircase with two 
 quarter-winders. Here a is the seat of the newel, and g 
 the seat of the upper newel. The dotted lines represent 
 the face of the risers, and the full lines the edges or 
 nosings of the steps. 
 
 H 2 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 1 16 
 
 In the elevation, Fig. 133, A is the lower and B the 
 upper newel ; the upper part of each being generally 
 turned. C and D are the lower and upper string boards 
 framed into the newel. 
 
 R S is the story rod. This is a necessary appliance in 
 fixing the steps ; for if a common measuring rule be used 
 for this purpose, the workman will be very liable to err, 
 
 either in excess or defect, and thus render the stairs ex- 
 tremely faulty, which cannot be the case if the story rod 
 be applied to every riser, and if each successive riser be 
 regulated thereby. When steps are put up without the 
 story rod the smallest error is liable to multiply. 
 
 The story rod is a measure used for the above purpose. 
 It is of the gross height of the complete story, or from the 
 upper surface of the boards of the one floor to the under 
 surface of those of the other. It is divided into as many 
 equal parts as there are to be rises in the stairs, and from 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 II 7 
 
 these the heights of the steps are gauged. In the con- 
 struction of dog-legged staircases, the first thing is to take 
 the dimensions of the stair and the height of the story, and 
 lay down a plan and section upon a floor to the full size, 
 if possible, representing all the newels and steps ; then, 
 the situations of the carriages, pitching pieces, long 
 bearers and cross bearers will be ascertained ; as, also, of 
 the string boards ; and the quantity of room required by 
 the stairs, at nine inches tread and six inches rise, as 
 the case may be, will determine whether there are to be 
 quarter-paces, half-paces, one-quarter winders, or two- 
 quarter winders, &o 
 
 Fire-proof Construction, 
 
 A perfectly fire-proof construction has yet to be dis- 
 covered, and therefore the author, guided by the best 
 authorities of the day, of which Mr. Hoskings must rank 
 as one of the highest, adds the following remarks : — 
 
 It is seldom that houses take fire from common acci- 
 dents such as occur to the lighter movable furniture and 
 to drapery, but for the most part from the exposure of 
 timber in or about the structure to the continued action 
 of fire, or of heat, capable, sooner or later, of inducing 
 the combustion of timber ; and as the source is most 
 commonly in some stove, furnace, flue, pipe or tube for 
 generating or conveying heat, or for removing the pro- 
 ducts of combustion, much of the real danger to buildings 
 by fire would be prevented by avoiding that degree of 
 proximity between timber and all such things as can lead 
 to its combustion. 
 
 With the view of rendering their stairs, partitions, and 
 floors as nearly as possible fire-proof, the French frame 
 and brace with timber quarterings, much in the manner 
 practised in England, excepting that the timber used in 
 Paris is generally oak, previously well seasoned. The 
 framed structure being complete, strong oak batten laths, 
 from two to three inches wide, are nailed up to the quar- 
 terings horizontally, at four, six, or even eight inches 
 apart, according to the character of the work, throughout 
 the whole height of the enclosure and partition ; and the 
 spaces between the quarterings and behind the laths are 
 built up with rough stone rubble which the laths pre- 
 vent falling out until the next process has been effected. 
 
US BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 This is to apply a strong mortar, which in Paris is mainly 
 composed of plaster of Paris, which is there of excellent 
 quality, laid on from both sides at the same time and 
 pressed through from the opposite sides, so that the 
 mortar meets and incorporates, imbedding the stone 
 rubble by filling up the interstices, and with so much 
 body on the surface as to cover up and imbed also the 
 timber and the laths ; in such manner indeed as to render 
 the concretion of stone and plaster, when thoroughly set, 
 an independent body, and giving strength to, rather than 
 receiving support from, the timber. The ceilings are 
 constructed on a somewhat similar system. According to 
 their practice, the ceiling must be formed before the upper 
 surface or floor is laid, being formed from above instead 
 of from below. The carpenter’s work being complete, 
 strong batten laths are nailed up to the under side of the 
 joists, as laths are with us ; but they are much thicker 
 and wider than our laths, and are placed so far apart that 
 not more than perhaps one-half of the space is occupied 
 by the laths. The laths being affixed — and they must be 
 soundly nailed, as they have a heavy load to bear — a 
 platform made of rough boards is strutted up from below 
 parallel to the plane formed by the laths, and at about 
 half an inch below them. Mortar is then laid in from 
 above over the platform, and between and over the laths 
 to a thickness of from two and a-half to three inches, and 
 is forced in under the laths and under the joists and 
 girders. The mortar being gauged, as our plasterers call 
 it, or rather, in great part composed of plaster of Paris, it 
 soon sets sufficiently to allow the platform to be removed 
 onwards to another compartment, until the whole ceiling 
 is formed. 
 
 The plaster-ceiling thus produced is in fact a strong 
 slab or table in the body of which the batten-laths which 
 hold it up are incorporated, and in the back of which 
 the joists from which the mass is suspended are im- 
 bedded. The finishing coat of plaster is then laid on. 
 Such a ceiling will resist any fire that can act upon it 
 from below under ordinary circumstances, and it would 
 be difficult for fire to take hold from above in such a 
 manner as to destroy the joists to which a ceiling so 
 composed is attached, the laths and the under side of 
 the joists being alike out of its reach ; and con- 
 
B UILDING CONS TR UC T/ON. 
 
 1 19 
 
 sequently such a ceiling alone would diminish the 
 danger of fire, although the floor above the joists were 
 laid with deal boards. 
 
 But a boarded floor in Paris is a luxury not to be found 
 in the dwellings of the labouring classes, nor indeed is 
 it to be found in any dwelling-house but those of the 
 most costly description. But whether the eventual sur- 
 face is to be a boarded floor or not, the flooring-joists 
 are covered by a table of plaster above, as completely 
 as they are covered by a plaster-ceiling below. Rough 
 battens, generally split, and in short lengths stout enough 
 to bear the weight of a man without bending, are laid 
 with ends abutting on every joist, and as close together 
 as they will lie without having been shot or planed on 
 their edges. Upon this rough loose floor mortar of 
 nearly similar consistence to that used for ceilings is 
 spread to a thickness of about three inches, and as it is 
 made to fill in the voids at the ends and sides of the 
 floor-laths upon the joists, the laths become bedded 
 upon the joists, whilst they are to some extent also in- 
 corporated with the plaster. The result is a firm floor 
 upon which in ordinary buildings paving-tiles are laid, 
 bedded in tenacious cement. 
 
 It must be clear that the timbers of a floor so encased 
 could hardly be made to burn, even if fire were let in 
 between floor and ceiling. But it has been already stated 
 that the practice of making these almost fire-proof floors 
 is connected with the use of walls which have no timber 
 laid in them bed-wise, and that the timber enclosures 
 employed instead of walls and the internal partitions 
 are rendered practically fire-proof, whilst the wooden 
 staircases which economy dictates to the Parisian 
 builders (the freestone which is used in building the walls 
 being wholly unfit for the purpose) are also rendered 
 unassailable by fire, by being filled in with a solid mass 
 of concreted rubble. , , 
 
 The author has ,thpught: jt radvjsribl^ 'tcv/qupte the 
 above, written by a ^istin^ujsheri^erjgipe^r 'au'd 'architect, 
 fn the nope "that, if It can be proved statistically that a 
 smaller number of dwellings are destroyed in Paris than 
 in London, th^ systerri here ^es^irftied tnfy be introduced 
 into this cOufitry. “ >\ ’ j ’j“ ) , ))J 1 J : i ‘ *• 
 
 It must, however, be added that the subject of fire- 
 
20 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 proof construction has within recent years received much 
 attention in England, and it is hoped it may become more 
 generally adopted. One of the plans patented is based, 
 firstly, on the use of wrought iron girders combined with 
 concrete, the patentees urging that for any part of a 
 structure to be fire-proof all the materials employed 
 should be absolutely indestructible ; and hence no wood 
 should be employed in the absolute construction ; though 
 when the fire-proof floor is completed fillets of wood 
 may be bedded in the cement on the surface for the 
 attachment of a carpet, or may even be continued across 
 the room and boards nailed to them, as in the French 
 system. 
 
 The iron girders, joists, and T-bars are fitted together 
 before delivery, and after the main girders are fixed any 
 boy or labourer can complete the work. The concrete 
 should be mixed thick like the French beton, a flat board 
 being held up underneath the T-bars whilst spreading it 
 between the joists and girders. A concrete made of 
 Portland cement or blue lias lime with gravel, ballast, or 
 broken brick, in the proportion of one part of the former 
 to eight of the latter, sets quickly and becomes as hard as 
 stone. The upper surface may be finished in fine cement, 
 and the notched or slotted ends of the bars sustain the 
 plaster under the flanges of the joists and girders where 
 there is a tendency to break away when any vibration 
 takes place. 
 
 The subject of the application of iron in building in the 
 form of girders, columns, roof trusses, &c., and of zinc 
 in roof coverings, and other architectural purposes, will 
 be treated of in a subsequent manual. 
 
 CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.C. 
 
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 14 
 
LIST OIF 
 
 FINEST WATER COLOURS 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 
 CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN. 
 
 WHOLE CAKES, AT SIXPENCE EACH. 
 
 Antwerp Blue. 
 Bistre. 
 
 Blue Black. 
 Blue Verditer. 
 Brown Pink. 
 Brown Ochre. 
 Burnt Ochre. 
 Burnt Sienna. 
 Burnt Umber. 
 Chrome Yellow. 
 Cologne Earth. 
 Coloured Sepia. 
 Crimson Lake. 
 Dragon’s Blood. 
 Emerald Green. 
 
 Flake White. 
 Gamboge. 
 Hooker’s Green. 
 Indian Red. 
 Indigo. 
 
 Ivory Black. 
 King’s Yellow. 
 Lamp Black. 
 Light Red. 
 Naples Yellow. 
 Neutral Tint. 
 Olive Green. 
 Payne’s Grey. 
 Prussian Blue. 
 Prussian Green. 
 
 Purple. 
 
 Purple Lake. 
 Raw Sienna. 
 Raw Umber. 
 Red Lead. 
 
 Red Orpiment. 
 Roman Ochre. 
 Sap Green. 
 Sepia. 
 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Venetian Red. 
 Vermilion. 
 Yellow Lake. 
 Yellow Ochre. 
 
 Burnt Carmine... 
 Cadmum Yellow 
 Chrome Green . . . 
 Cobalt Blue 
 Emerald 
 Finest Carmine 
 Gallstone 
 
 EXTRA COLOURS. 
 
 s. d. | 
 
 each 2 o Madder Brown 
 „ 2 ° Madder Pink 
 
 ” 1 a 1 P ure Scarlet 
 
 ” ! £ \ Scarlet Lake 
 
 ” 2 6 j Smalt ... 
 
 „ 2 6 j Ultramarine 
 
 each i 
 » i 
 „ 2 
 „ 2 
 
 » 1 
 
 „ 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 Japanned Tin Sketch Boxes, fitted with Extra Colours , 
 to Order. 
 
 MICROSCOPES. 
 
 Special Lists, containing full description, prices, &c., of 
 Instruments, prepared expressly for School use and for Private 
 Study, may be had on application to 
 
 CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN, 
 
 LA BELLE SAUVAGE YARD, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON. 
 
 i5 
 
Prize Books. 
 
 A carefully-selected Catalogue of Works, suitable for all 
 classes of Prize Books, will be forwarded, post free, by 
 Cassell, Petter, & Galpin, on application. 
 
 Cassell, Petter, and Galpin’s Illustrated Catalogue of 
 Fine Art Publications may be had of all Booksellers. 
 Price 2S. 6d. 
 
 The Dove Vignette Gallery. 
 
 A special Series of Vignettes, giving Miniature Specimens 
 of all Gustave Dore’s Drawings, may be had, post 
 free, from Cassell, Petter, & Galpin. 
 
 Magazines for Home and School. 
 
 Cassell, Petter, & Galpin, the largest Publishers in the 
 World of Illustrated Periodicals, are prepared to for- 
 ward complete Lists or Specimens to any part of the 
 Kingdom, post free, on application. 
 
 Illustrated Works.