Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/sizingingredientOOmoni Sizing Ingredients, Size Mixing and Sizing = A COMPLETE PRACTICAL WORK DEALING WITH EVERYTHING RELATING TO THE MODERN PROCESSES OF SIZING. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. HUGH MONIE, Jr. Master in Cotton Manufacture, Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute, Bombay^ Editor of " The Indian Textile Journal.'' A nthor of " Cotton and the Cotton Fibre "; Cotton Spinning and Weaving " The Engineers' Examination Handbook"; &c., S'C. " maNcbesiert" ' ' Abel Heywood & Son, 56 & 58, Oldham Street, COA/S IS (((c'^ct c etc c c* cct t ccccccc etc »; 7/ yOORf FUND THE GTTV CENTER INDEX. PART I. Subject Matter. A Acid 21, 22 Adhesive substances ... 2, 10, 60 Adulteration of flour ... 10, li, 12 Adulteration of tallow I4> ^5 Agitation of flour during fer- mentation II, 33. 34. 35 Air valve 46, 47 Aniline blue 25 Animalcule 12 Antiseptics 22, 60 Application of size to yarn 40, 41, 42 Arrangement of beams ... ... 42 Arrangements of vats ... 34, 35, 36 Atmospheric changes 21,30 Atmospheric moisture ... ... 26 B Bacteria ... ... ... ... 12 Badly sized yarn i Baryta, sulphate of ... ... 24 Beaming creel ... .. ... 60 Beam friction 59 Beams, arrangement of ... 42 Becks 59 Bees' wax 15 Blues 25 Boardy feel i, 60 Boiling 34 Boiling pan 59 c Calcium, chloride of .. ... 19 Calculation on T cloth 27 Carbolic acid ... ... ... 22 Castor oil 16 Cavity cylinder machine ... 46 Chain sizing ... 57 Characteristics of flour ... 10 Characteristics of size 2 China clay 24, 25. 38 Chloride of calcium 19 Chloride of magnesium . .. 18, 19 Chloride of zinc 18, 21, 22, 23 Cocoanut oil ... ... ... 16 Coloured yarns 58 Colouring action of sizing ingre- dients ... ... ... ... 25 Comb expanding 40, 59 Composition of flour 11 Condensed steam ... ... 46 Conducting of yarn through the machine ... ... ... 43 Contraction ... 57 Copper delivery rollers... ... 58 C — Continued. Creel 60 Cresylic acid ... ... ... 21, 23 Cut marker 42, 59 Cuts, first and last ... ... 60 Cylinder of slasher 40, 58 Cylinder stays 46 D Damp weather mixings for ... 26 Dasheis 33 DecDmposition of flour... ... 11, 12 Defects in sizing... ... ... i, 58 Deliquescent substances ... 17, 60 Dents .. 60 Description of slasher ... ... 40 Dhootie marker ... ... ... 59 Diff'erences in size mixing ... 31, 32 Different kinds of tallow ... 14 Draw roller 58 Dressing machine invented ... 29 Driving of slasher ... ... 47 Dry weather, mixings for ... 27 E Effect of sizing ingredients ... 25 Expanding wraith 41, 59 F Farina flour 12 Feel 60 Fermentation, objects of ... 33, 34 Fermentation of flour ... II, 12, 32, 33, 34, 38 Fermentation of flour, how stopped II First cuts 60 Fittings of slasher cylinders ... 46 Fixing of size ... ... 30, 31, 32 Flannel on squeezing rollers ... 58 Flour, adulteration of 10, 13 Flour, agitation of during fer- mentation ... ... ... II, 33 Flour characteristics of... ... 10 Flour, composition of ... ... 11 , Flour, decomposition of ... 11, 21 Flour, mixing of 12 Flours I, 13 Flour, proportion of, to water ... 33 Flour quality of lo, 13 Flour, selection of 10 Friction 43, 58 Friction roller 58 Fungi or mildew 3, 19 Fungi prevention of 3 iv. I X D E X — C071 tin lied. G Gluten lo Glycerine I7> I9 Gritty matters ... ... ... 60 Guide rollers .. ... ... 59 Gypsum 24 H Hammer ... ... ... ... 60 Hard yarn 2, 14, 32 Heading marker 42 Headsiock 60 Heavy sizing 4 History of s-zing 28 H. P. required for slasher ... 58 Humidifying and ventilating ... 30 Hydrometer ... ... ... 59 Hydrometer, use of ... ... 37 I Immersing roller ... ... 59 Indigo blue ... ... ... 25 Influence of the atmosphere ... 21, 30 Ingredients of size mixmg ...5 to 10 Ingredients, quantities of ... 21 J Japan ^^ ax ... ... ... 15 K Kaolin ... ... ... ... 25 L Last cuts 60 Lease rods 4i> 59 Leathery feel ... ... ... i Light sizing 24, 29 Lime, sulphate of ... 24 M Magnesia, sulphate of ... ... 24 Magnesium chloride ... ... iS Man-hole ... ... ... 46 Marking motion... ... ... 42, 59 Materials for size mixings ... 2 Measuring roller 43, 58 Medium sizing ... ... ... 4 Mildew or fungi .. ... ... 3 Milling up 58 Mixing of flour... ... •- ii, 12 Mixing of size 26 Mixings size .. 25 30 Mixings systems of 33, 39 Mixing vats sizes of ... ... 35 Moisture 35 o Objects of fermentation ... 53 Objects of sizing i Oil. castor 16 Oil cocoanut ... 16 Oil. palm 17 Qil, bleached palm 17 i Palm oil 17 I Palm oil, bleached 17 , Paraffin wax 16 Paraffin wax, characteri>tics of... 16 Paraffin wax. melting point uf ... 16 Pans of slasher 46, 56 Percentages how calculated ... 2 Percentages, sizing i» 39 Pipes 46 Plaster of Paris ... ... ... 24 Preparation of mixings 34, 39 Preparation of size ... ... 21 Preparation of tallow 15 Presser, double ... ... ... 51 Presser, single 51 Pressing arrangement ... 49 to 54 Process of sizing i Production of slasher 57. 58 Proportion of flour to water ... 33 Prussian blue ... ... ... 25 Pump ... ., ... ... 36 Q Quality of flour 10, 12 Quantities of ingredients 27 to 39 R Radcliffe and Johnson's dressing I machine 29 Reed, expanding ... 40, 41, 59 ' Rests 58 Rice flour 13 Rod rests ... 60 I s Safety valves 46 Sago flour ... .. ... 13 Salicylic acid ... ... ... 23 Saturation of yarn ... ... 2 Scorchedyarn ... ... ..,44,45 Selection of flour ... 30, 31, 32 Size box 40 Size, fixing of 30 Size mixings ... ...4 to 10 Size mixings variations in ...5 to 10 Size percentages of ... ... 26 Size preparation... ... .. 26, 27 Sizes of slashers ... 40, 41, 60 Sizing, division of ... ... 3, 4 Sizing, history of ... ... 28 Sizing ingredients, effect of ... 24 I Sizing, results of ... ... 3 ' Sizing specialities ... .-. 29 Sizing, successful ... ... 30 Sizing rollers ... ... ... 58 Skeleton roller 59 Slasher machine... ... 22 to 57 Slasher, method of driving 47, 48, 49 Slasher, working of ... ... 40 I N DEX — continued. V. S — Continued. vSlow motion Soaps ... Soda, sulphate of Softeners I4) Softenings, specialities Soft yarns Sow box ... ■ Specialities in sizing • Speed of yarn Splits Squeezing rollers Starch in flour Stays in cylinders Steam gauges ... Stopping and slow motion Substances for size mixings .. Successful sizing Sulphate of baryta Sulphate of lime _ Sulphate of magnesia Sulphate of soda Svphon boxes ... Systems of mixing .... T Tallow adulteration of Tallow, characteristics of Tallow different kinds of Tallow, effects of Tallow, melting point of Tallow, preparation of Tape machine invented T cloth calculation Tension of yarn Tension roller Thermometer, use of Traverse of yarn, speed of Trough Twaddle degrees Twaddle's hydrometer Twist in yarns 2, u UUramarine blue Undried yarn _ Uniformity of size Uniformity of sizing Unsized yarn Uses of hydrometer and ther- mometer V Variations in size mixings Vats arrangement of Vats and connection ■ Vats for fermentation Vats, sizes of Ventilating and humidifying ... 42, 56 17, 18 24 19, 60 19, 20 2, 34 59 30 49 60 58 12 46 46 57 2 30. 39 24 24 24 24 46 36, 37 15 14 15 8, 15 15 14 29, 30 27 49 42 37, 38 49 59 35 37 14, 34 25 44, 45 2 32 w 37 30 34, 35 34.35 34 35 30 vv ax ■ • • ... ^Vax, bees ... ... T C ^Vax, Japan ... ... Wax, melting point of Wax, paraffin Weighting materials 16 .. 23, 24 Weight of size to be added 23 Wet weather 21 Wet weather mixing for 26 Whitening materials ... 25, 26 Working of slasher 43, 44, 45 Wraith ... 40, 59 Yarns, characteristics of Yarns, colouied ... Yarn, conducting of through the slasher... ' ... Yarns for bleaching and dyeing Yarns, hard ... ... ... 2, Yarns scorched... ... ... 44, Yarns, soft ^ 2 Yarn, speed of ... Yarn, tension of.. Yarns, undried ... ... ... 44, 59 58 43 2 32 45 32 49 49 45 Zinc chloride of [8, 21, 22, 23 PART II. Calculations. To be found : — Weight of size for T cloth ... 27 Total weight of yarn available 61, 62 Weight of warp 61, 62 Length on the beam ... ... 61, 62 Number of ends on beam ... 61, 62 The counts of yarn ... ... 60, 62 Total weight on beam 62 Length of cut 62 Feed roller wheel 64 Stud-wheel 64 Bell-wheel 64 36 PART III. Illustrations. Arrangements of mixing vats, Fig. X... Slasher machine — three-page _ plj^,e Frontispiece Slow driving motion 48 Beam friction 5^ Presser ... 5i» 53, 54 Cut an^ dhootie marker ... 55 SIZING. CHAPTER I. Objects of Sizing, etc. In former times the only object aimed at in sizing was the strengthening of the yarn so that without breaking it might resist the fraying action of the healds, and the strain exerted upon it in weaving. In order to produce an even and uniform cloth it is necessary to have the yarn kept tight in its passage from the beam to the feed roller. Unsized, it would in many cases be too weak to resist this tension, and hence the necessity of a process which, how- ever, from its abuse, has frequently been condemned as an entire fraud. In later years the object of sizing has been made to include the weighting of the cloth by the adding of some per centage of foreign matter to the yarn. The process consists in saturating the warp yarn with some suitable adhesive material of considerable specific gravity, the constituents of the composition depending, amongst other things, on the use which is to be made of the yarn and the class of fabric which has to be produced from it. Badly sized yarn cannot possibly produce level cloth, and the defects in feel, known as leathery, boardy, etc., are due to this cause. B 2 Each concern has its own weight or per centage for adding to its yarns, and these are calculated with reference to the weight of tJie zvarp yarn only, and not the whole weight of yarn which is to compose the piece. Yarns for bleaching or dyeing should contain very little size, and then only of the best quality, otherwise the goods w^hen finished will be faulty in appearance, as the fibres and the floury admixture are differently affected in these processes. Soft twisted yarns absorb size better than hard twisted yarns, and therefore, a soft twisted thread, produced from a strong and coarse fibred cotton, should be used when heavy sizing is necessary. Size to be applied to yarns should be of such a character that it \\\\\ adhere to them firmly, not only while w^ct, but after the yarn has become perfectly dry. It should also retain its attachment to the yarn even when submitted to the chafing action of the working parts of the loom with which the yarn comes into contact, whether for light, medium or heavy sizing, the size must therefore be of uniform thickness and consistency throughout, capable of saturating the yarn thoroughly, and of good colour. The sizing substances at present in use are very numerous, and may be generally classified under four heads : — (1) The adhesive substances which form the body or basis of the mixing and attach the size to the yarn ; (2) Those required to add the necessary amount of weight to the yarn ; (3) Those used to prevent the size becoming harsh and brittle when dry, and thus preserve the softness and pliability of the yarn ; and 3 (4) The antiseptics which are used to prevent the de- composition of the size in the fibres or cloth technically known as mildew, or fungi growth. Results of Sizing. The results of sizing should be — (1) To make the yarn more uniform in thickness and diameter ; (2) To increase the diameter of the yarn ; (3) To lay the loose fibres on to the surface of the yarn ; (4) To increase the weight of the yarn ; (5) To alter the colour of the yarn to some extent ; (6) To increase the strength of the yarn in some cases. As has been already said, the original objects of sizing were — (1) To fill up the yarn and lay the fibres ; (2) To increase the strength of the yarn ; and at the present time these objects are not altogether neglected, though the chief object now is to materially increase the weight of the yarn. Division of Sizing. The weight of size which can be added to a yarn depends upon — (1) The class of yarn ; (2) The class of cloth into which it has to be woven ; (3) The amount of twist in the yarn ; (4) The character of the mixing ; (5) The manner in which the size is applied. 4 Sizing is divided into four grades, viz : — Light Sizing, ]\Iedium Sizing, Heavy Sizing, Extra Heavy Sizing Light sizing represents an addition to the warp yarn of any weight up to 20 per cent. Medium, any weight from 20 to 50 per cent. Heavy „ „ 50 to 100 „ Extra Heavy „ „ 100 to 200 „ Successful sizing is almost certain to ensure the success of a weaving factory, and bad sizing is positively certain to cause great loss to a concern. Materials and Compositions of Mixings. The compositions of the various mixings vary greatly in different factories even for the same class and counts of yarn, and for the same per centage of size to be added. For example, two factories, both using 20s yarn, 17 turns per inch, from the same class of cotton, and both adding 35 per cent, of size, may be using mixings very different from one another. So far, therefore, as adding the 35 per cent, of size is concerned both factories are equally suc- cessful, but it is obvious that in some other respects the one must be inferior to the other. The difference may be in the discoloration of the yarn, or in the adhesiveness of the mixing. It is not sufficient to get the required weight of size added to the yarn. It must also be strongly adhesive, thoroughly incorporated with the fibres. Many sizing overlookers object to make public their compositions, but the days of secrets in this industry are passed. The following have been selected and compiled from various rehable sources : — 5 Authority — Marsden. To add 25 per cent. — (1) Farina 400 lbs. Tallow 56 „ Wax 6 „ (2) Wheat flour 600 „ China clay 200 „ Chloride of zinc 30 „ Tallow 15 „ Aniline blue J oz. To add from 50 to 100 per cent. — (a) (b) (3 & 4) Wheat flour 500 lbs. ... 500 lbs. China clay 360 „ ... 300 „ Tallow 140 „ ... 100 „ Chloride of magnesium ... 120 „ ... 30 „ Chloride of zinc 60 „ ... 56 „ Aniline blue Joz. ... J oz. To add 100 to 120 per cent. — (5 & 6) Wheat flour 400 lbs. China clay 500 „ Tallow 250 „ Chloride of magnesium 200 „ Chloride of zinc 200 „ Glycerine 50 „ Aniline blue oz. To add 100 per cent. — (7) Wheat flour 560 lbs. China clay 675 „ Tallow 140 „ Chloride of magnesium 80 „ Chloride of zinc 60 „ Aniline blue J oz. 6 Authority — Taylor. For light sizing — (8) Wheat flour 280 lbs. Tallow 16 „ (9) Sago 100 „ Farina 100 „ Tallow 10 „ Soap 4 „ To add 25 per cent. — (10) Farina 500 „ Tallow 20 „ To add from 30 to 50 per cent. — (11) Flour ICQ lbs Clay 30 to 40 lbs. Tallow 15 lbs. Chloride of magnesium i gal Chloride of zinc h „ To add 100 per cent. — (12) Flour Clay Tallow Chloride of magnesium Chloride of zinc NoU :— I gallon chloride of magnesium at 56^ Twaddel = 13 lbs. I „ „ zinc ... at 96^ „ = 15 „ I „ pure water ., = 10 „ 100 lbs. 130 n 5 gals. 7 Authority— The Author. To add 20 per cent. — (13) Wheat flour 72 per cent. China clay 20 „ Tallow 2 „ Chloride of zinc 5 „ Aniline blue 2 oz. To add 50 per cent. — (14) Wheat flour 51 per cent. China clay 33 Tallow 10 „ Chloride of zinc 3 „ Chloride of magnesium ... 3 „ To add ICQ per cent. — (15) Wheat flour 38 per cent. China clay 44 „ Tallow 9 „ Chloride of magnesium ... 5 „ Chloride of zinc ... ... 4 „ Aniline blue 4 oz. To add 150 per cent. — (16) Wheat flour 30 per cent. China clay 44 „ Tallow 8 „ Castor oil 3 ,, Chloride of magnesium ... 8 „ Chloride of zinc 7 „ Aniline blue 6 oz. The weight of blue added to any mixing should be from il^, to 200J part of the weight of the China clay. 8 Authority — Brooks. To add 10 per cent. — (17) Farina Wax Water To'add 50 per cent. — (18) Flour Clay Tallow Chloride of magnesium Chloride of zinc Soda , Water To add 100 per cent. — (19) Flour Clay Tallow Chloride of magnesium Chloride of zinc Soda 200 lbs. 20 „ 200 gals. 480 lbs. 224 60 „ 18 „ 14 >, 8 „ 150 gals. 560 lbs. 560 „ 130 „ 76 „ 70 » 10 „ In all these mixings it will be found that as the weight to be added to the yarn increases, the quantity of flour decreases in proportion to the weight of the China clay. To add 25 per cent. Marsden gives the proportions of China clay and flour as i of the former to 3 of the latter. To add from 50 to 100 per cent, he gives the proportions as I to r39. Taylor's proportions are — For 30 to 50 per cent, clay i ... flour 3 For 100 per cent. ... clay i ... flour 77 9 The Author's proportions are — For 50 per cent clay i ... flour 1*54 For 100 „ clay i ... flour "86 A further important analysis of size mixings might be made as showing the relative proportions of softeners to China clay. Marsden's proportions are — To add 25 per cent softeners i ... clay I3'3 „ 50 to 100 per cent.... „ i ... „ 2-57 „ 100 to 120 ... „ I ... „ 16 Taylor's proportions are — To add 30 to 50 per cent... softeners i ... clay 2*3 „ 100 „ ... ^ „ I ... „ 9'3 The Author's proportions are — To add 20 per cent softeners i ... clay 66 „ 50 n I 3*3 100 ' „ „ I ... „ 5 „ 150 „ „ I ... 4 An analysis showing the relative proportions of soft- eners and flour will complete this part of the subject. Marsden's proportions are — To add 25 per cent softeners i ... flour 6*4 „ 50 to 100 percent. „ i ... yS7 „ 100 to 120 „ ... „ I ... 1-33 Taylor's proportions are — To add 25 per cent softeners i ... flour 25 „ 30 to 50 per cent. ... i ... „ 6*66 „ 100 „ ... „ I ... „ 7'i lO The Author's proportions are — To add 20 per cent. ... softeners i ... flour 24 » 50 „ I „ 5"i » 100 „ „ I ... „ 4'2 ,,150 „ „ I ... „ 27 Adhesive Substances. — The adhesive substances are flours of some sort, sucli as wheat, farina, sago, and rice, the first-named being in most general use. All flours tend to encourage the development of fungi, but this miay be partially destroyed by steeping it in water for some time, say ten to thirty days. Flours vary greatly in quality and suitability for the purposes of sizing, and great care and experience are there- fore necessary on the part of those entrusted with their selection. The quality is generally determined by the colour and stiffness after boiling, but it is only in the course of actual use that its true qualities can be fully determined. In a doughy state its particles should stretch considerably without becoming separated, and it should always have a clear appearance, and be uniform throughout. If it seems dark and cloudy it should not be used, as this shade will also be communicated to the yarn. Wheat flour is often adulterated with other varieties, but when the samples are boiled the adulteration can be detected either by the appear- ance, feel, consistency, or condition, after having been exposed to the atmosphere for some time. A simple test to determine whether the material is pure flour, or of an excessively starchy character is to mix a small quantity with nitric acid. This will have the effect of giving a deep yellow tinge to the material if it is flour, but in the other case, its colour will remain unchanged. The quantity of gluten contained in wheat flours averages about twenty per cent.; it is a property much valued, being a constituent of a very adhesive character which gives strength to the warp 1 1 and also helps materially to fix China clay or other mineral weighting substances to the yarn. Fermentation of Flour. — As we have already stated, it is now customary to steep the flour for several days before using it. The objects in view by so doing are : (i) the pre- vention of mildew, as it is supposed that the fermented flour is not so liable to its generation as non-fermented flour; and (2) it is supposed to give a softer feel to the cloth. The process of fermentation is effected by merely mixing the flour with a quantity of water just sufficient to make the mixing almost thoroughly liquid. The proportion of flour to water should be about eleven pounds to one gallon, the mass being kept frequently and perfectly stirred while the mixing of the two is being done. When the mixing has been completed, fermentation soon sets in ; for the first few days a frothing takes place on the surface, but this gives place to a quiet and steady fermentation which would con- tinue for months. During the period within which the fermentation process goes on, the mJxture should be stirred daily so as to prevent it from " settling," and as it cannot be overworked in this respect there should be no difficulty in having the mixing done thoroughly. The mixings are often made in vats, and the operations necessary are carried out by attendants, but machines for the purpose have also been introduced largely, and the process is thereby more easily and more effectively performed. The machine consists of a series of large vats into one of which is run the required amount of water, and mixed with the proportionate weight of flour — say 560 gallons water to 6,000 lbs. flour. In the vat is a dasher with a series of wooden blades which can be driven from a shaft, and when the water has been run into the vat and the dashers set to work, the flour should be added bag by bag until the com- plete mixing has been made. 12 During fermentation, and for some time after its conclusion, the mixture is very liable to decomposition, unless carefully looked after. The flour contains animal- cula^ and bacteria which, if allowed to develop in large numbers and pass from a latent to an active stage, cause putrefaction to set in. When the first symptoms of this become observable, the attendant should do everything in his power to prevent the advance of the decay, for, should it be allowed to proceed to any great extent, the material will become entirely useless for sizing purposes. If, how- ever, it is observed in time, the fermentation can be stopped by the addition of some antiseptic, such as chloride of zinc or carbolic acid. The principal ingredients of the best wheaten flour are (i) starch, which forms about 70 per cent, of the whole, (2) water about 13 per cent., and (3) gluten about 8 per cent., making a total of 91 per cent., although tiours of different countries vary considerably in the percentages of their constituent bodies. Farina. — The flour known as farina is also used as an adhesive material in sizing. It is produced from the potato, and yields a thicker paste than any other starch. Its chief constituent is water, being about 70 per cent, of the whole, the proportion of starch being 20 per cent. In appearance the farina flour is bright and glistening, with a crisp, sharp feel, and not so soft to the touch as wheaten flour. When used as a sizing ingredient it imparts those characteristics to the cloth, but from its thickening nature no very great quantity can be put in. It is, therefore, generally used as an auxiliary to some other adhesive material, or alone in light sizing where the yarn is only to be strengthened and not weighted. It is cheap, and, although strongly adhesive, requires the addition of a softener, such as tallow or wax, in order to counteract the effect of its crispness. 13 Rice Flour. — Rice grain when ground to a powder is known as rice flour. The material, like farina, is much crisper than wheaten flour ; it produces a thicker paste, but is less adhesive than the latter, and for heavy sizing the wheat flour is often adulterated with it. For light sizing it can be used alone, as a much smaller quantity will produce a thicker paste than that of wheat flour. The chief con- stituents of rice flour are starch and water, the former amounting to 75 per cent, and the latter to 10 per cent. Sa^o Floitr. — Several kinds of palms yield a pitch from which sago flour is obtained. The process consists in con- verting the pitch into a pulp, then placing it upon a sieve, and while being crushed and stirred to allow a spray of water from a series of jets to fall upon it. The water passes through the interstices of the sieve, carrying with it the dissolved particles of the starch from the pith, and falls into a receptacle underneath. When the liquid is allowed to rest, the starch (being heavier than the water) settles to the bottom, after which the liquid is run off, and the starch removed and dried. (A similar process is adopted in the production of farina.) Sago yields a thick paste, and, like rice flour, may be used with advantage in light sizing and where weighting is unnecessary. The flours we have now described are those which are confined to sizing at the present time, but it is probable that there are others which might be made adaptable for the purpose. What is wanted in flour are the properties of whiteness and adhesiveness. The former may either be natural to the flour, or, if it contains colour, it must be so combined with it as to be easily removable by bleaching. Adulteration of flour is common amongst sellers, and buyers should see that they are not receiving an article which has been artificially deteriorated in quality. Cheap flours are 14 always dear flours in the end ; particularly in light sizing ; and if economy and cheapness is to be considered in the sizing, it is better to use less flour of a good quality and in addition to some of the other ingredients than a large quantity of grain adulterated with foreign matter of less value. In India there are several cereals from which flour is obtained, and experiments with them might prove that some of them could be utilized in sizing. We should be glad to hear of tests (if any) which have been made in this direction and the results which attended them. Softeners. — All flours, if used alone, and particularly if combined with "weighting" substances, would not only make the yarn hard and harsh, but, when dried after appli- cation, would brush or crumble off into dust. If the yarn is made harsh by the size, then this characteristic enters into the cloth, and if the size brushes off by friction on the threads, it is obvious that the process is a useless one. In order, therefore, to avoid these results, materials termed softeners are introduced into the mixing, these softeners being of an oleaginous character. There are several varieties of softeners in use, some being entirely animal and some being chemical. Animal soften- ing substances are in general use, one or more being introduced into every size mixing. Tallow is the most common, and, as every one knows, is the concrete fat of animals (suet), its composition being solid fat and oil. In order to prepare the tallow for marketable use, the fat requires to undergo several operations in order to destroy its cellular body, to remove the fat by liquefaction and to condense it into a homogenous mass — the form in which it is presented to us. Tallow is a product which can be sold at a low price, every country in the world being able to produce it in large 15 quantities. One would, therefore, suppose that no tempta- tion to adulterate it could exist, but this is, unfortunately, not the case. Russian tallow is acknowledged to be the best, but the amount of tallow sold under this name far exceeds the total production of that country. Adulterated tallow is common, but if more care was exercised in its selection, the market for this class would soon disappear and render its sale unprofitable. Tallow varies considerably in colour, freedom from gritty matters, melting point, smelling, etc., but it is not a difficult matter to distinguish a good quality from a bad one. When exposed to the atmosphere, it should not become darkened in colour, if it does, then it should be rejected as being of inferior quality. Rancid tallow or tallow in a state of approaching decomposition should be carefully avoided, and there is no difficulty in determining this point, as the odour arising from it is conclusive. It should not contain water to any perceptible degree, or its softening properties are reduced. If it contains an excess amount of water, the adulterant can generally be detected by the feel ; but if this is doubtful, then a portion should be liquefied, when the water and oil will be shown distinctly. A high melting point is also a necessary feature in good tallow, about iio'^ F. being considered a fair temperature. Wax. — There are three classes of wax obtainable, vi-z., bees' wax, Japan wax, and paraffin wax. Bees' wax is not used in sizing owing to its scarcity and cost, although several compositions are sold under the name. Japan wax is often wrongly called bees' wax ; it is the product derived from an indigenous Japanese tree, being a hard solid substance with a high melting point — about 120" F. — and specially useful as a softening agent. In combination with castor oil its value is increased, and probably no other softeners can yield an effect so satisfactory. The use of i6 this wax, however, is not very general owing to its com- paratively high price. Paraffin wax is obtained in the manufacture of paraffin and petroleum oils. It is really the heavy oil when cooled and compressed into a solid body. In its crude condition it is of a brownish colour, but by several purifications it becomes whiter, drier, and harder, the melting point being about 120'' F. This wax is much cheaper than Japan wax, but its use is restricted to the size applied to yarns for unbleached heavy goods, such as calicoes, sheet- ings, etc. It should not be introduced when the cloth is to be dyed, bleached, or printed, owing to its colour and chemical action. Castor Oil. — This oil is one which is largely used as a softener, and, like most other sizing oils, is a vegetable extract. It is purified after being expressed from the castor-oil plant so as to free it of outside matter. It is an oil of great body, almost colourless, and well adapted for intermixture with the other sizing ingredients, thus effectually preventing them from making the yarn harsh and wiry. It is in very general use in every manufacturing country, and in India no size mixing almost is considered right without it. In addition to being a good softener, it has the recommendations of not being very expensive, and of being colourless. Colourless size ingredients are much to be desired, for with their use we could have whiter yarn and cloth of better appearance and finish. Size mixings very often contain tallow, castor oil, and wax, or tallow and castor oil only. Cocoa-mit Oil. — This oil is obtained from the kernels of the palm-tree of that name. It is a fat of a solid character, but has a low melting point — about 80*^ F. It is sometimes used in size mixings, which is a great mistake, and is only done in the absence of a knowledge of its nature. 17 Cocoa-nut oil is very liable to decomposition, and any material with a tendency in that direction should be care- fully avoided. Palm Oil. — Palmoil, or bleached palm oil, is obtainedfrom another class of palm, and has been used to a greater extent as a softener than cocoa-nut oil. It is obtained by a process of boiling the broken nut, and when extracted is of a dark heavy colour. In this condition it is called palm or crude palm oil, and cannot be used for admixture with any substance where colouring matter is not desired. By sub- mitting the crude oil, however, to a bleaching process — either by exposure to the air or treatment by oxidising agents — the colour is, to a great extent, removed, and it then comes within the rana;e of softeners. Its meltine point is higher than that of cocoa-nut oil, being 90° F.; but its use should not be encouraged, as it has the same objection- able tendency (though in a lesser degree) to decomposition. Glycerine. — Glycerine is sometimes used for sizing pur- poses in its crude state and when of a dark colour and unlike the glycerine which the general public use. When purified and refined it would be too expensive, although it is one of the best softeners known. In its less purified con- dition it is, however, not much used, as the darkness of its tint is imparted to the mixing. Glycerine can be obtained either from vegetable or animal oils. Soap — Soap is very often introduced as a softener, although its true action when used for this purpose is not generally known. In mixings in which it has been intro- duced it has been found that a greater degree of softness has been imparted to the yarn, and it has, therefore, ob- tained the character ofbeingagood softening agent. This, however, is not quite correct, although it does possess softening properties to a certain extent. Its action is more especially to dissolve the other fatty matters of the mixing, c i8 and so make a more effective composition. Another advantage which soap possesses is its power of making China clay boil thifiner. Without soap the clay does not boil to so light a specific gravity as with it. and hence it would be advisable to add a small percentage to every mixing. There are two great objections to the use of soap in size mixings, viz., (i) they cannot be used to any extent in mixings containing antiseptics without making the size lumpy ; and (2) being of a frothy nature, they rise in a scum or froth in the boiling vat. Soft or hard soaps may be used, but they should be of good quality and not dark in colour. When soap is used, it would be advisable to add only a small amount, and that to the China clay when the latter is being boiled separately from the other ingredients. Chloride of Magnesium and CJdoride of Zinc. — These two substances are included under the headings of softeners, deliquescents, and antiseptics, although the former can only lay claim to being a deliquescent substance ; and from bein'j; a deliquescent substance, or absorbent of moisture from the atmosphere, it prevents the size from making the yarn harsh. Deliquescent substances are, therefore, also, in a different sense, softeners, and, in addition, they give weight and body to the size. They are only used in heavy sizing. Chloride of zinc is also a softener, but as its chief properties are antiseptic, we will deal with it under the heading devoted to this part of the work. In the use of deliquescent salts there is a serious objection : being good absorbents of moisture, they attract dampness to the yarn and cloth, and as this is one cause of the growth of mildew, they might in some cases, perhaps, be advantageously dispensed with. The chief deliquescent substances are chloride of mag- nesium, chloride of calcium and glycerine, but the first- named is by far the most suitable and serviceable. It should not be used alone, for the reasons already given, nor should it be used with soap, as the chemical action of the one tends to decompose the other. When chloride of mag- nesium is used, generally the other softener used with it is tallow, and in India these two constituents go hand in hand. Chloride of magnesium consists of chloride of magnesium, about ... 50 per cent. „ potassium, about 5 „ Water, about 40 „ In mixing for light weighting, chloride of magnesium should be avoided. Also, if the cloth has to be finished and calendered, it should not be used, as the hot rollers acting upon it liberate hydrochloric acid. Chloride of magnesium is often termed antiseptic, this name being somewhat general in India. It has, however, no antiseptic properties, but, on the contrary, encourages a mildew growth. Chloride of Calciiivt is a deliquescent substance, but should not under any circumstances be used, as it has a decomposing effect on several other ingredients — par- ticularly on sulphates. It is also of much less value as a deliquescent than chloride of magnesium, as it has not the same power of adding pliability and strength to the yarn. Glycerine. — Glycerine is also a deliquescent substance, but reference has been already made to its properties as a softener. Softeners are absolutely necessary in size mixings and in heavy sizing. Chloride of magnesium as a deliquescent substance may be used under certain circumstances, but the value of the latter is almost negatived by its tendency to encourage mildew growth. Several specialty compositions of an oleaginous com- position have been introduced by different makers for which 20 special softening properties are claimed, and some of them have been very largely adopted. Amongst these we may name — Octopus gloy, Glutino, Sizing curd soap, Glucose ; Sizing grease, but as they are only compositions of one or more of the substances already described, there will be no necessity to enter into any further explanation regarding them. CHAPTER II. Sizing Ing^redients (continued) and Size Preparations. ( Chloride of Zinc, Cresylic Acid, Salicylic Acid, Sidpliate of Lime, SnlpJiate of Magnesia, Sulphate of Soda, Sulphate of Baryta, China Clay, Whitening Materials, Effect of Dry A tmosphere. Percentage of Size, History of Sizing.) In our last chapter we dealt with the characteristics and uses of softeners, and showed that as some of the materials so used — particularly chloride of magnesium — were power- ful absorbents of moisture from the atmosphere, they had also a tendency to encourage the growth of mildew. The nitrogenous character of flour makes it apt to decom- pose, and this decomposition becomes more rapid by the use of deliquescent substances. Everyone knows, and par- ticularly residents in India during monsoon time, how rapidly a fungus growth occurs on leather neglected for a short time and exposed to the clammy atmosphere. This, then, is almost the same as what takes place by too freely using absorbent substances without the application of some counteracting constituents to the size-mixing. These counteracting constituents are called antiseptics, and are absolutely necessary in all classes of sizing, but more especially in medium and heavy work. If cloth was only exposed to dry, warm atmosphere, the use of antiseptics might to a great extent be dispensed with, but as it is subject to various atmospheric changes in humidity, becoming 22 alternately dry and damp, it is essential to apply them judiciously. The better the quality of the cloth the more necessary is the introduction of antiseptics into size-mixing. Antiseptics. — Several materials have the power of pre- venting fungoid growths without deteriorating the sizing properties of the other ingredients, but the most common are (i) chloride of zinc and {2) carbolic, or, as it is termed in its cheaper and less pure condition cresylic acid. The former is now in general use throughout the world, and is, therefore, supposed to have the greatest antiseptic pro- perty of the substances adapted for this purpose in size- mixings. This is, however, not correct, as there are others which are more effective, but the use of them is prevented either from colour, injurious effect of mixing with other constituents, or by their being too high in price. Chloride of Zinc is a metallic substance which can be produced in several ways. The simplest is the adding of hydrochloric acid to metallic zinc, a process which dissolves the zinc and produces the chloride. It is a white crystal- line solid, but it is often sold in solution, and in this condition is easily adulterated with other and cheaper chlorides which interfere with its antiseptic properties. To avoid this, chloride of zinc, when purchased in solution, should only be accepted if accompanied by a declaration of its composition from the sellers. This is a very necessary point to be attended to by consumers, as some of the liquid chloride of zinc supplies are not only of inferior quality in antiseptic properties, but contain ingredients which act most injuri- ously. Approximately, solutions of this class ought to be made up of from 40 to 45 per cent, of chloride of zinc and 55 to 50 per cent of water, the remaining 5 per cent, being distributed amongst other chlorides and sulphates — viz., chlorides of sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphate of soda, — sodium and calcium being the most common. 23 For export the solid zinc is sold in large blocks, and the liquid in jars and casks. Careful buyers generally prefer the former, afterwards diluting it to the specific gravity required. If, however, the composition of the liquid is guaranteed, then, so far as antiseptic properties go, the one is as good as the other. Generally block zinc is the cheaper of the two, but with the liquid there is less trouble. Cresylic Acid, — As already stated, cresylic acid is crude carbolic acid. In its original state it is an oily liquid with a pronounced odour, which, however, almost disappears in the mixing. Salicylic Acid. — This is a preparation from carbolic acid, and it is a splendid antiseptic, but too costly for general use. Weighting Materials. — In fine sizing, weighting materials are unnecessary. For muslin yarns and those of other fine fabrics, the addition of weighting materials would destroy, to a great extent, the usefulness and capabilities of the thread. For weaving cloths of this class the yarn must not be harsh, but elastic and smooth, so that all that the sizing process has to effect is the laying of the loose fibres on the surface of the yarn, and increasing its strength by binding the fibres of which the threads are composed, more securely together with some pure adhesive preparation. In medium and heavy sizing these objects are also aimed at, but in addition the weight of the yarn (as the percentage is always calculated in the weight of the warp) has to be raised to a certain point. Thus, if a warp has to contain, say, twenty per cent, of size, it means that the yarn has to absorb one-fifth of its own weight in passing through the size-mixing. For this purpose weighting materials are necessary. The characteristics required in materials of this class are (i) weight, (2) the property of distribution in water, (3) freedom from hard lumps, and (4) they must be 24 capable of attaching themselves to the yarn or of being fixed by the flour and other ingredients. The weighting materials which can be used in size- mixing are (i) sulphate of lime, (2) sulphate of magnesia, (3) sulphate of soda, (4) sulphate of baryta, and (5) China clay. The latter has of late years come into general use, the others being now entirely neglected, except as additions to the China clay in some cases. In the present article it will be therefore unnecessary to describe in detail any of these substances except the last named. It may, however, be advisable to refer to them briefly. Sulphate of Lime, sometimes called plaster-of-Paris and, in fact, best known by that name, is produced from gypsum by grinding. It is still much used as a filling agent in bleaching cloth, being three times heavier than water. SuIpJiate of Magnesia, better known as Epsom salts. It is easily soluble and a good yarn " filler." Sulphate of Soda, made up of water, soda, and sulphuric acid. Sulphate of Baryta, is a very weighty material, but it is harsh and difficult to fix on the fibre. China Clay.— This, substance is found in many moun- tainous countries where felspar has become decomposed* but southern England, China, and Japan yield important supplies. The two latter varieties are the best, being much whiter and softer than the other. As the " fixing " of the clay to the yarn is, to a great extent, dependent upon the quality, it is an important matter that the selector should be able to decide as to what characteristics it should possess, and what it should be without. Briefly described, it should be free from gritty matter, of an oily unctuous feel, and uniform in colour. Being in such general and world- wide demand, it has not, of course, escaped the hands of 25 the professional adulterator, and many inferior qualities are now forced upon the market. It is, of course difficult in some cases to detect the pure from the impure by the eye, but the matter is soon determined when the mixing is made. An important quality of China clay is its affinity for water ; it has been proved by experiment that the watery particles held by it have not even been entirely evaporated at 212° F. Before using China clay, some sizers first boil it in water ; others again mix it with the starchy ingredients and then boil. If boiled alone it is apt to bubble and spurt, but this can be stopped by the addition of soap or tallow, which have the property of making it boil thinner. Another name for China clay, but one now rarely used, in kaolin. Whtteriing Materials. — Every class of material added to a size-mixing tends more or less to darken the warp in colour. Pure flour alone has the same tendency, and this is greatly increased when China clay is added. This darkening of the yarn has little of an injurious effect upon it, but it of course makes the cloth less attractive in appear- ance until it is bleached or washed. To prevent this, and to preserve the whiteness of the yarn, small quantities of blue are generally added to size-mixings. Blues are sold in solid and liquid form, some sizers using the former and some the latter. The solid form, is, however the best, as adulteration is more likely to have been done with the liquid. Liquid blues are often of inferior quality, so that the solid blue has come into very general use. In choosing blue for sizing purposes it should be known that the violet-shaded blue is much superior to the green for the purpose of whitening." The blues which could be used in sizing are aniline, Prussian, indigo, and ultramarine. Of these the aniline is the best and now generally used ; it is inexpensive, gives a 26 comparatively clear bright tint to the yarn, and is perfectly fugitive if the material requires to be bleached. It is some- times called Victoria blue. Prussian blues have a greenish tint; indigo blues are fast ; ultramarine blue would do for size-mixtures, but the colour is discharged by acids (such as those produced from flour fermentation), and an objectionable odour is produced. With the whitening constituents the description of the various substances combined in size-mixtures is completed. We have, of course, omitted reference to the patent and other speciality compositions which are now so numerous. Of the latter some are worthy of a trial by manufacturers, but the great majority are practically useless. Si-ze Preparation. — Size preparation consists in the blending of the various adhesive, weighting, deliquescent softening, whitening, and antiseptic substances in certain proportions. The proportions depend upon the class of cloth to be woven, the weight of cloth necessary for a given length or for a given weight of yarn. To make the process thoroughly successful, the points which must be taken into consideration are (i) the weight to be added ; (2) the class and counts of yarn ; (3) the amount of twist in the yarn ; (4) the class of cloth to be woven, whether grey, dyed, or bleached fabrics ; (5) the humidity of the atmosphere ; (6) the materials to be added to the mixing ; and (7) the consistency or specific gravity of the mixture when completed. In producing a size-mixing, care must be taken to see that only those ingredients be added together which are known to assimilate well. Some substances have a decomposing effect upon others, although each under different circumstances might be used as size ingredients. The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is a feature which should be more fully considered in sizing than it is. One composition which will adhere in a moist surrounding, 27 will fall off if the air is dry. A damp atmosphere is of course always the best when heavy weighting is to be resorted to, and a variable humidity is the worst. In India it is almost necessary to have two distinct mixings, one for the dry weather and one for the monsoon; but as this is only in a few concerns attended to, the result is that on the floor under the looms there is always a large amount of dusty white material to be seen, which proves that a con- siderable percentage of the size is being removed by the fraying or rubbing action of the heddles. In setting about the preparation of a size-mixing, it is obvious that the first consideration must be the weight which is to be added. For example, suppose we are required to make a T cloth of the following par- ticulars : — 32 in. wide, 24 yards long, 14 x 14 reed and pick, 16/20 yarn, and 7 lbs. weight ; the amount of size w^hich must be added will be the difference between the actual weight of yarn and that of the piece, or _ 14 X 4 X 32 X 24 ^ 14 X 4 X 32 X 24 ^^^^ 840 X 16 840 X 20 7 — 3-2 lbs. X 2 • 6 = I • 2 lbs. Now as the percentage of size is calculated on the warp yarn only (as the weft yarn is unsized), we have 1*4 lbs. increase on 3*2 lbs. = 38. No fixed rule can be laid down for the quantities of different materials which are to be added together in order to produce a certain percentage of increase in the weight of the yarn. So many points, as we have already stated, are to be considered, that a mixing which would give one result on yarns in one concern might give a quite different result in another, although the class of threads and compo- sition of the mixings were alike in both cases. 28 Before proceeding with size-mixing it may not be out of place to glance back at the history of this important process. No record is in existence which points to the probable date when sizing was first attempted ; it is known that it must have commenced in the early stages of the manufacture in India, as several writings refer to the application of rice- water to the warp. Sizing," a modern writer says, " began in necessity, but has ended in something very like dis- honesty." Whether the accusation is just or not is a matter upon which judges differ. Originally the intention of the process was only to strengthen the yarn, whereas it is now chiefly intended to fill it with useless material and make it heavier. In some cases English yarn can be made to contain 200 per cent, of foreign matter ; or, in other words, when a pound of thread passes through the sizing machine, it comes out three pounds in weight. Although, then, the process may appear as one of doubtful honesty, the im- peachment cannot be laid at the door of the manufacturer. All he does is to supply the dealer with what he is asked for. The latter knows and in many cases orders the weight or percentage of size which has to be in the cloth, and if any deception is practised on the retail buyer, the whole blame should be laid on the dealer and not on the producer. Manufacturers only supply an article for which there is a demand, and thus in England, as the process of cotton manufacture developed, so did the demand for cheap cloths by the retail consum.ers from the dealers, and heavily-sized ones by the latter from the makers. India innocently has much to answer for encouraging the practice of increased sizing. Before the factory system was introduced into the East, large supplies of cotton, cloths were sent from England, and as the poverty of the large proportion of natives only admitted of their purchasing the cheapest goods, they consequently selected the heaviest and fullest 29 looking they could get for their money. Some writers have gone so far as to state that the poor in India preferred a full heavily-sized cloth to an open unsized one. To a certain extent this is correct, that is, if the cloth is at least two-thirds cotton, but no native ever knowingly purchased a mixture of two pounds of clay and one pound of fibre. In connection with this question, Dr. Thompson, at the Society of Arts, made the following amusing reference : " He " — the dealer in his defence — " will tell you that the natives in the country to which he ships those goods makes various pieces of clothing out of them, and they prefer to buy a cloth at a given price which has a full and good appearance rather than pay the same amount for a cloth which is entirely composed of pure cotton, but through which the daylight would penetrate and show every thread of the fabric ; in fact, they have no objection to clothe themselves with a composition of flour, tallow, afid China clay, to which a little cotton has been added to make it stick together. I am informed that, as a rule, they do not wash the cloth before wearing it, so that if some enter- prising Lancashire manufacturer could hit upon the mode of making cloth without cotton, but composed only of size, he would no doubt be considered a benefactor to his poorer foreign brethren." For many years the only method of laying the size upon the yarn was by a brush, but as " weighting " increased, it was found that the process became too slow, as it took much longer time to saturate the yarn than merely to cover the outside with the preparation. The advent of the power- loom made matters worse, and mechanics set about to study the difficulty. Ultimately the dressing machine of Radcliffe and Johnson was invented at Stockport in 1803 and gave a great impetus to the trade. In 1830 this was followed by the tape machine, and a few years later the 30 slasher was introduced by one Bullough, of Blackburn. The development and improvement of this machine has been going on steadily for the past few years, and it is doubtful whether anything further can be done to make it more effective. Size-mixings vary greatly even on the same classes of yarn spun from the same classes of cotton and to be used in the same classes of cloth, if even only the temperature or humidity differs. The great point to be aimed at in preparing a mixture is that, in addition to adding the necessary weight to the warp, the mixture permeates the yarn and becomes firmly " fixed " to it. If the materials are not thoroughly incorporated and secured, then a large proportion will be rubbed off in the weaving, thus causing loss to the proprietors of the mill. A size which will become well fixed in a moist atm.osphere, may not adhere securely to the yarn in a dry atmosphere. This is one of the great difficulties in the process of sizing as carried out in India. Some districts up-country have a ver}' dry atmosphere all the year round, others again have a dr}- atmosphere in the hot season and a damp one in the monsoon. It is much easier to apply and fix the size in a low temperature and moist atmosphere than it is in a hoi, dry one. In the former a much less weight of softeners are used, and in most cases no deliquescents, whereas in the latter -an increase in softeners and the application of deliquescents are required, if the yarn is to be at all kept soft and pliable. To make the process of sizing a success, therefore, it is obvious that those entrusted with its management must vary their mixtures with the weather, or some good system of regulating the temperature and humidity of the sizing-room must be introduced to prevent variation beyond unimportant limits. Many arrangements for this latter purpose have been introduced of late years with more or less — generally 31 less — success. A perfect humidifying and ventilating apparatus would be a necessary adjunct to every spinning, sizing, and weaving room, if such were invented, so that the subject is well worthy of the attention and study of inventive genius either in England, America, India, or elsewhere. In connection with sizing, a large number of patented or registered specialities have been introduced to the market of late years. Some have taken the form of softeners, others whiteners, and others ready-made size combinations, Some have had considerable success, while others have rapidly died out, as they deserved to do ; some have been harmless, while others have been distinctly injurious to the )'arn. It is therefore advisable for buyers to be carefully on their guard when a new speciality is placed before them. It must not be understood that we discountenance the use « f all combinations of this class, as several of them we know are highly beneficial and valuable as sizing ingredients. All we wish to do is to prevent buyers from being induced to purchase and pay for those which are worse than worth- less. When a new ingredient is placed upon the market, buyers should either require the dealer to state under guarantee the materials of which it is composed, or have it analysed or experimented cautiously with on small quantities of yarn. If one or all of these precautions are adopted, then the mixture can be safely introduced or rejected in accordance with the results. Everything connected with sizing has become very varied in character ; the materials, the proportions of the materials, the methods of preparation and blending, and the appliances used for the purpose, all differ to a greater or lesser extent in different concerns, Thus, for example, two concerns may be using exactly the same weight of ingre- dients, and in the same proportion, but if the specific 32 gravity of the one differs from the other, the percentage of weight added to the yarn will not be the same. Take another example : Two concerns may prepare size-mixings which have little in common, except in the names of the materials, and yet both add exactly the same weight to the yarn. A more obvious proof of the difficulty of uniform sizing may be found in two examples where the mixings are exactly alike in every particular but in the boiling and blending, the one has been more carefully carried out than the other. The result even in this case might cause a difference of five per cent, or more in the weight added. To produce uniform sizing even in the successive mixings at the same concern, it is absolutely necessary that (i) the ingredients be not varied in weight, (2) nor in quality, (3) nor in the specific gravity when mixing, (4) nor in the temperature, (5) nor in the methods of preparation. The least variation in these respects produces a cor- responding variation in the success of the sizing process. The preparation of size-mixings must be varied for hard or soft twisted yarns. For example, if the size-mixing given second on the list (page 5) adds 50 per cent, of weight to very soft twisted yarns, it might probably only add 40 per cent., or even less, to specially hard twisted yarns. When yarns variable in twist have to be sized, the mixture must always be made thinner in density for the hard than for the soft, otherwise it will adhere to the surface, and not penetrate to the core of the thread, which is an essential characteristic of good sizing. Having, from experiment, determined upon the ingre- dients and proportions which will give the required addition of weight to the warp, the next thing is to decide as to the best and most successful system of combining them, and reducing them to a liquefied mixing. One point now gene- rally agreed upon is that flour, before being used, should be 33 fermented. The objects of this process are to reduce the tendency towards developing fungi and towards hardening the yarn. Fermentation consists in steeping the flour in a sufficient quantity of water to make the mixture liquid, in allowing it to remain in the water for some days, and in keeping it stirred or agitated for several times each day^ The proportion of water should not be too much nor too little; about i gallon of water to lolbs. of flour, or say, in equal proportions, being considered satisfactory. The length of time which the fermentation should be continued, must, of course, depend upon the conveniences possessed by the mill for the purpose. Some sizers ferment for three days only, but the process might as well not be undertaken. A fort- night is the shortest time in which the objects of the process can be effectually carried out, but three weeks would some- times be more satisfactory. Flour may be fermented for two or three months, but this would be inconvenient, as an enormous supply would have to be kept in preparation and require looking after. The addition of water produces fermentation of flour, but the process requires more attention than this in order to work it out successfully. Dashers or paddles should be fixed in the mixing vat and turned several times a day, or, better still, driven constantly at a slow speed by a belt from some shaft. If not agitated in this way the flour sinks to the bottom and forms into a hard mass or cake, which be- comes difficult to again dissolve thoroughly. In preparing the flour and water for fermentation, the required amount of the latter should be admitted into the vat, after which the dasher should be set to work, and one bag of flour slowly poured in. This should be followed by another in about five minutes, and so on with each succeeding bag, until all have been emptied into the yat. D 34 Two vats are generally used — one in which is a supply of fermented flour, ready to be drawn off as required— and the other in which the process of fermentation is going on. The latter is called the " fermenting vat " and the former the " storage vat." Fermentation can be continued for too long a time, and in that case a putrid odour is emitted, due to the decom- position of the material. This decomposition can be stopped by putting some antiseptic into the mixture, and in some cases sizers add all or part of the chloride of zinc at this point. Fermentation, it must be remembered, does not prevent the possibility of fungoid growths, either in the flour itself or in the cloth. If it did, there would be no necessity to use antiseptics. What it really does is to reduce the tendency in this direction, and experience has shown that whereas unfermented flour, if exposed to the atmosphere for a few hours, produces fungi, flour fermented for, say, a fort- night, may not develop decomposition for several weeks. The preparation of the other ingredients for mixing may be carried out in one of the following systems : — First system with five vats : — 1st vat is for mixing the flour and water. 2nd vat is for promoting fermentation. 3rd vat is for storing the fermented flour. 4th vat is for boiling the several ingredients separately. 5th vat is for boiling the whole mixture together. Each vat is connected to its neighbour by pipes, and by means of little force pumps the mixture in one can be pumped into the other without difficulty. In No. 4 vat the China clay is thoroughly boiled, after which it is run into No. 5 vat ; the softeners are next boiled with a little water in No. 4 vat, and then passed into the 35 next vat with the China clay. From No. 3 vat pump the flour into No. 5 vat, after which reduce the chloride of magnesium at 120° temperature to, say, 56° Twaddle, and then allow it to run into No. 5 vat. This vat then contains flour, softeners, and deliquescent substances, so that all that is now necessary is the chloride of zinc and the blue. The zinc is mixed with water which becomes boiling hot in No. 4 vat, after which it is brought to 120^ temperature and 92** Twaddle before being run into No. 5 vat. The aniline blue, with a little water to dissolve it, is then also placed in this vat, and the whole boiled together by the admission of steam, a pipe for which from the boilers is fitted into the vat for the purpose. Second system with four vats : — 1st vat about 8ft. x 4ft. x 4ft. for mixing and fermenting flour. 2nd vat for storing the flour (same size). 3rd vat for mixing the flour and other ingredients (same size). 4th vat placed over the top of the third for boiling the other ingredients. In the first vat the mixing and fermenting of the flour with water takes place, after which it is pumped into the second vat. From the second vat it is removed in the requisite quantities to one side of the third vat, this vat being divided into two parts. The object of this division is to admit of the mixing of the flour with the other ingredients in the one half, while a complete mixture may be ready for drawing off to the slashing machine in the other compartment. The boiling pan which is placed over the third vat is connected to each department by a pipe, one of which can be closed and the other opened as desired. In each vat or compartment is a revolving dasher which 36 keeps the materials thoroughly in agitation and produces a thorough mixing. The following represent these arrangements of mixing- becks : — Fig. X. AAA are flour vats for fermenting, diluting^ and storing. B Pipe connecting A to C. C Boiling pan. D Pipe connecting C to E. E ]\Iixing vat. After the softeners, China clay, etc., have been put into the boiling pan (Fig. X) steam is admitted until all are in perfect solution. One of the taps is then opened and admits the passage of the mixture into the compartment of the third vat, which contains the flour. The whole is then boiled together until ready for use. Each vat is connected by pipes and force pumps, so that no difficulty is experienced in passing the mixtures from one vat to the other. Stated briefly, the two systems are : — First System. — (i) Mix flour and water, (2) ferment, (3) store it up, (4) boil the China clay with water, (5) boil softeners, (6) mix altogether in the last vat, (7) prepare magnesium, (8) prepare the zinc, (9) prepare the blue, (10) boil altogether. Second System. — (i) Ferment the flour, (2) store it up, (3) boil other ingredients, (4) mix all together in last vat and boil. The boiling must in every case be perfectly carried out ; heating only will not do, as hard, undissolved lumps remain in the size. The mixing with water must also be uniformly done from time to time, otherwise the size will vary in weighting property. The amount of water to be added cannot be stated as a fixed rule, as it depends upon the materials used. Generally only sufficient to make the mix- ture run freely is added, but when once a series of ingre- dients is laid down by a sizer to be used, he should also fix, a standard of specific gravity for each combination. This is done in the following manner: — When a satisfactory mixing has been produced, he should note the temperature of the flour and water, and then take its specific gravity by means of a hydrometer specially graduated for the purpose,^ called a " Twaddle hydrometer." A similar course should be adopted with the China clay and softening mixtures, and finally also with the combined and finished mixture. When this standard has been laid down, there is nothing then to prevent uniformity in the size-mixing produced from the beginning to the end of the year if required, providing that a uniform temperature and humidity can be main- tained. The use of the thermometer and hydrometer is of much more importance than many imagine ; without it, uniformity cannot be obtained, and it is therefore to the interest of agents and managers to look carefully into the subject. In India only very few concerns ever use thesa instruments, 38 and one might as well ask the sizing master how many stars are in the heavens as the degrees Twaddle of his mixtures. He says, when asked, he gets on all right without testing ; but this is as unreasonable as it would have been for spinners to say " We won't have the ring frames as we get on all right with the throstle." Before concluding this part of the work, we might quote another system in use in one of the large mills which has been very successful. The flour and antiseptics are mixed together and boiled after the former has been fermented. The China clay is then boiled by itself, or with the softeners, and then added to the flour. When this combination is made, the chloride of magnesium and the blue are then added with water until the requisite density has been arrived at. The whole is then thoroughly boiled, after which it is drawn off for use. When a good size composition has been arrived at the following points should be carefully considered in its pre- paration : — (i) The humidity and temperature of the room ; (2) the densities of the different mixtures ; (3) that the dashers thoroughly incorporate the one ingredient with the other ; (4) that fermentation is properly effected without being overdone ; (5) that when steam is admitted, the com- binations should be thoroughly boiled and not heated only. China clay is sometimes boiled for one hour and some- times for several hours ; the time taken should be sufficient to thoroughly dissolve its particles, and this can only be done by keeping them in suspension through the action of the dashers. If any ingredient is allowed to settle, the mixing must necessarily be imperfect. With this chapter we conclude a description of the most important process in cotton manufacture. It can do more to make a concern profitable, or to ruin it, than any other 39 in mill work, and it is therefore surprising that its working should be so often left to men in very subordinate positions. No weaving manager should be appointed who does not thoroughly understand every detail connected with it, and he should make it his special study to personally super- intend every mixing made. In the next chapter we intend to deal fully with the process of applying the size to the warp yarn and the machinery in use. CHAPTER III. Aj^plication of Size to Yarn. ( Construction of Slasher Sizing Machine : Conducting the Yarn through the Machine : Working of the Machine. ) When size was first applied to yarns in England, the process consisted of brushing- the mixture several times upon the outspread warp. In India, Japan, and other countries where the domestic or hand weaving of fine cloths is carried out, this primitive process still exists in all its original simplicity. Rice flour is in most general use, but farina and wheat flours are also employed for the purpose. In machine sizing the principle is the same, and since the introduction of the " slasher " the construction and appearance of the machines of different makers have varied but slightly. Successful sizing consists (i) in thoroughly saturating the yarn with a weighting and strengthening material which will strongly adhere to it, (2) in drying it thoroughly and rapidly without scorching it, (3) in cooling it, (4) in distributing the threads equally over the barrel between the flanges, and (5) in making a hard, uniform, and compact beam. The slasher sizing machine consists of the following essential parts : — (1) Creel to hold 6, 8, or more warpers' beams. (2) The framing. (3) Guide rollers. (4) " Sow " box. (5) Skeleton, copper, or immersing sow box roller (6) Size box. (7) Squeezing rollers. 4.1 (8) Small steam cylinder with its fitttings. (9) Large do. do. (10) Guide rollers. (11) Fan. (12) Lease rods. (13) Expanding " wraith," reed," or " comb." (14) Tension and measuring roller. (15) Beam upon which the yarn is wound. (16) Driving friction for beam. • (17) Presser. (18) Slow or varying motion arrangement. (19) " Cut " or " heading " marker. Brief description of the parts. — Each beam placed in the creel forms part of the total number of threads which are to be in the width of the cloth. Thus, if 2,000 ends were necessary, the four beams of 500 ends each would be used. The guide rollers conduct the yarn from the beams to the sow box. The sow box contains the size and the sizing roller under which the yarn passes. J- . : : fL jc:;!: The size box receives the size from the mixing becks and passes it to the sow box. The squeezing rollers compress all superfluous size from the yarn.' - ^- f The large and small steam cylinders contain steam at a low pressure which heats the metal and so dries the yarn. The guide rollers guide the yarn under and over the fan or fans which cool it. The lease rods separate the ^thread from each of the beams at the back, and help to prevent the different layers of yarn from sticking together. - ^ ' The expanding wraith prevents i the yarn spreading beyond the required width, and also keeps the threads equi-distant from one anotlier. 42 The tension and measuring rollers keep the yarn tight and register the number of yards passed through. Thedriving friction gives the winding motion to the beam. The slow or varying motion is used to reduce or regulate the speed or traverse of the yarn through the machine. The cut or heading marker puts an aniline mark on the yarns at any required length, say lo, 20, 30, 60, or more yards. Sometimes two markers are used, one to mark, say, at 60 or 120 yards, and the other at the headings, say at every 10 yards. In this case two different colours must be used. The beams are generally arranged in two rows, thus the creel being constructed with bearings for the purpose, an arrangement which reduces the space occupied. The yarn on the lower row of beams unwinds from the bottom, while the upper row unwinds from the top. If two widths of beams are used in the same creel, then the narrower ones should be placed farther away from the machine, so that the web of ends would be carried between the broader webs of the other beams. If placed at the front, the broader webs would overhang the narrower ones. Sizing machines vary in length, width, and the diameter of the cylinders, but the usual dimensions are 7 feet to 8 feet wide, 30 feet to 36 feet long, large cylinder 60 inches to 70 inches diameter, and the smaller cylinder 40 inches to 48 inches diameter. The machines are specially numbered for different sizes : the most general in use is the 9/8 machine, which has cylinders 60 inches wide and makes beams up to 54 inches wide between the flanges. A 6/4 machine has cylinders 66 inches on the face and makes beams up to 60 inches wide, while the largest size is 84 inches wide on the cylinder face, and can make beams up to 78 inches between the flanges. Fig. I is a good illustration of a slasher sizing machine 43 showing the warper's beams, the guide rollers, the sow and size boxes, the steam pipes for keeping the size boiling, the large cylinder, guide rollers, small cylinder, guide rollers, the fan, lease rods, tension and measuring rollers, beam, the presser, arrangement for slow driving, and the beam friction. Conducting the Yarn through the Machine. — When it is necessary to put a new set of beams into the creel, the ends are taken and tied to the tail ends from the previous beams, which should be left hanging over the back roller. In starting a new machine, however, there are no tail ends to tie the yarn to, so a different arrangement has to be adopted. The ends drawn from the two back beams are tied together, and those from the front beams to a stick or cord held by two attendants, one on each side of the machine. This cord or stick is then conducted over the guide rollers, under the immersing roller, through the squeezing rollers, over the large cylinder to the guide roller, over the small cylinder which revolves in the opposite direction to the large cylinder, then round the other rollers to the beam. When the ends have thus been got all straightly through the machine, they are then equally distributed over the wraith or comb and the machine started to work. The places for the insertion of the lease rods, or for changing the lease rods, are found in the following manner : A cord is stretched across the machine between two men, who lay it between the yarn of the two back beams ; this is carried through to the front and a rod inserted in its place at the "rest." Another cord is then passed between the third and second beams, and one between the second and first beams, so that at the lease rods the yarns of any two beams can be easily determined, and when a thread breaks, the beam upon which the end is broken can be found without difficulty. 44 Working of the Machine— V^htn the machine is work- ing, the size in the sow box should be kept steadily boilings and the immersing roller should be lowered by the wheel and rack to its lowest position in the sow box. The bottom pair of the squeezing rollers, which are generally made of copper, revolve in the size to a depth of about half their diameters. The surfaces of the cylinder should be hot from the circulation of steam inside, and the fans should rotate in order to cool the yarn, which, in addition to being dried; is also heated by contact with the cylinders. The yarn passes round the various rollers until it is wound upon the beam. In the passage of the yarn the only parts that are positively driven between the back beams and front beam are the measuring roller and the squeezing rollers. A bevil wheel on the end of the former gives motion to a side shaft which by means of another bevil drives the squeezing rollers. In this way both parts revolve simultaneously^ when the belt is pushed from the loose to the fast pulley, if they did not start together, an additional strain woul4 be put upon the yarn which would probably causQ excessive breakages. As the yarn passes through the machine it is under great tension. The squeezing rollers have to drag it from the beams and through the box. Again, the drag of the headstock rollers causes the large and small cylinders to revolve, and also drags the yarn round the various guide rollers, over and under the lease rods and through the comb. Unity is strength,^' and as these great strains are divided equally over the threads, they are strong enough to resist them without breaking. The top squeezing rollers are covered with one or more rolls of flannel so as tO; present a saturated and yielding surface to the yarn. With the size^of a proper consistency, thoroughly boiling, and the speed of the yarn not too 45 great, then in passing through the sow box the threads must get thoroughly saturated with the h'quid mixture. On the surface also a large amount of superfluous size adheres, which, however, is rerfioved by the squeezing action of the rollers, and falls back again into the size box. The cylinders are heated with steam reduced to about lolbs. pressure. If they are too hot, or the surface speed of the yarn too slow, then the threads will get scorched or burnt. If too cold, or the surface speed too great, the opposite effect is produced — ^ the yarn is not properly dried. The steam is brought from the boilers, but reduced in pressure by being carried through reducing valves and pipes, the latter of which leads into the centre of the large and small cylinders, with a branch also leading to the size and sow boxes. CHAPTER IV. Parts of the Slasher Machine. (Method of Driving, Slozv Driving Arrangement^ Beam Friction A rrangement^ Presser and Cut Marker.) The pipes which pass through the cyHnders and size boxes are perforated, so that the steam passes through the perforations and circulates in the hollow cylinders, thus heating the surfaces. The condensed steam in the form of water passes from the cylinders through traps or syphon boxes, otherwise there would always be a considerable quantity of water rolling about inside, with the rotation of the cylinders. A steam gauge is also one of the fittings, its use being to register the pressure of the steam passing in. Ten pounds on the gauge represents 25 lbs. pressure, or 10 lbs. above atmospheric pressure. There is also an air valve on the cylinder to admit air and so produce equilibrium of pressure, should a vacuum be formed inside and the pressure tend to fall below the outside pressure of the atmosphere. A man-hole is another of the cylinder fittings, the cap of which can be removed, and thus give an opening for inside inspection or repairs. A safety valve is the last important auxiliary fitting which we need mention. It is usually of the dead-weight or spring type and opens to blow off when the pressure of the steam exceeds a little over lolbs. The cylinders are made of sheet copper, the ends being bolted to the shell, and the axes rotating on ball bearings in order to reduce friction. Longitudinal 47 stays connecting the two ends are also used so as to reduce the possibility of the two ends being blown out, flat surfaces being always weaker to resist an inside bursting pressure than the cylindrical surface of the shell. A cavity cylinder sizing machine is made by Messrs. Howard & BuUough, only one cylinder of 9 ft. diameter being used. The steam, instead of circulating through the cylinder, is carried to an annular space round the shell by means of a pipe, and thus the outer drying surface is heated. In other respects this slasher differs but little from the ordinary two-cylinder machine. The parts of the slasher machine which we have yet to describe before concluding this chapter are : (i) the method of driving and arrangement, (2) the beam friction of giving motion to the weaver's beam, (3) the methods of keeping a uniform tension upon the ends, (4) thepresser arrangement for building the yarn tightly upon the beam, (5) the slow- driving motion for preventing the necessity of altogether stopping the machine when only short pauses are required, (6) the marking motions, and (7) the calculation as to length, headings, etc. Method of Driving. — The belt from the driving shaft is passed round one of the three pulleys on a cone shaft in the front part of the machine. One pulley is fast on the shaft, another is loose on the shaft, and the third is fixed on a boss, also loose on the shaft but connected to a slow-driving apparatus as shown in plan as Fig. 2. When the belt is on the fast pulley, motion is conveyed by a belt from the driving to the driven cone, and by wheels the motion from the latter is transmitted to the beam and also to the draw roller on the headstock of the machine. When the belt is moved to the slow-motion pulley, the motion to the driving cone ceases, but is carried by means of the wheels and shaft shown to a click and ratchet wheel on the driven cone shaft. 48 Fig. 2. : j r — "vT^ When the slow motion becomes the driver, the click engages with the teeth of the click wheel, which is fast on the shaft, and so gives the reduced motion to the driven cone and to the dependent parts of the machine. As the beam gets larger in diameter, it is obvious that its speed must be reduced in order to keep its surface speed the same throughout the process of winding. This is effected by hand, the cone belt fork being attached to a screw which the tenter turns from time to time, thus moving the belt to a larger diameter of the driven cone and a smaller diameter of the driving cone. The friction roller is made a very little larger in diameter than the squeezing rollers, but as both are connected together through bevil wheels and the side shaft, their speeds of rotation are the same. In this way the yarn is kept tight while passing through the machine. This roller also receives its motion from the driven cone, and its speed is, therefore, altered when any movement of the cone belt takes place. Some- times the size varies in density, and the amount of drying 49 becomes either insufficient or excessive. The cylinders may also vary in their surface heat, so that to prevent these variations burning the yarn or not sufficiently drying it, the sizer can regulate its speed through the machine by altering the position of the cone belt. The next point requiring consideration is the method adopted of maintaining any required tension upon the yarn as it is wound upon the beam. The beam is mounted upon a shaft D, and on one end of the latter the arrange- ment shown at Fig. 3 is carried. The wheel A with its two flanges are loose upon the shaft and separated from the two flanges B and C (through which motion is given to the shaft) by means of two thin steel discs L faced with flannel. Unless the two outer flanges B and C are forced up to clip the flannel no motion would be conveyed to the beam, but when compression is produced by means of screw and hand-wheel the motion of A is transmitted through its flanges to the flannel-faced discs, then to the flanges B and C to the beam shaft. The greater the pressure used, the greater will be the speed of the beam until it becomes sufficient to prevent slip between the frictional surfaces, when the speed of both the wheel and beam shaft will be the same. By this arrangement it is an easy matter for the attendant to regulate the tension upon the yarn. If he wants more, then he increases the pressure between the discs ; and if he wants less, then he reduces it, thus increasing or reducing the speed of the beam. The friction between the discs is sometimes very great, and the parts not only get heated, but the flannel washers rapidly wear out and require replacing. The Pressing Arrangement, — The pressing of the yarn against the beam as it is being wound on, looks to be simple and unimportant, but this is not the case. A good pressing motion may admit of 20 per cent, more yarn being wound E 50 Fig. 3. upon the'same diameter of beam than a bad one, and this gain also means that four beams will do for five in doffing, in drawing in, and in gaiting at the loom, while also making a saving in the waste from "first pieces" and from "last cuts." The pressers in conjunction with the manipulation of the friction are most important considerations in deter- mining the perfectness of the beam when completed. A 52 good beam ought to be hardly and uniformly pressed throughout its whole length, otherwise the yarn will not easily or uniformly unwind when placed in the loom. Two classes of pressers are in use, vis., single and double, the former pressing the yarn on the beam with one roller, and the latter with two. Some sizers prefer the former, and some the latter arrangement, but as the single presser has fewer parts, and is simpler in construction, we have selected it for the requirements of this article. Fig, 4 gives a view in perspective of a single roller presser, Fig. 5 a plan of the working parts, Fig. 6 an end elevation, and Fig. 7 the arrangement employed to give a traversing motion to the pressing roller between the flanges of the beam, thus keeping the pressure uniformly distributed from flange to flange. The roller, it will be observed, is a tubular one, and in one piece, the total length being somewhat shorter than the width between the flanges. This roller is supported on anti-friction bowls, called tilting anti-friction bowls, the whole arrange- ment in turn being connected to the square cross shaft as shown, this shaft being movable in its bearing so as to allow the counterpoise weights (one of which is shown at the right-hand side of Fig. 4) to keep the pressing roller always up in contact with the yarn. The traversing motion of the presser is continuous ; on the axis of one of the bowls is the worm H (Figs. 5 and 7) gearing with the worm wheel J, in the boss of which is the pin K shown in all the sectional sketches. This pin being eccentric to the boss acts as a crank ; and by working in the slot (Fig. 7) which is in a fixed bracket, the arm carrying the wheel is con- trolled and operated upon. The brackets for the other pair of bowls shown at the right-hand side of Fig. 5 is also simi- larly controlled by the' connecting rods L and M. As the worm wheel rotates by the frictional motion of the bowls, the latter change their oblique position in relation to the 54 pressing roller, which thus receives a traversing motion from flange to flange. Pressing motions with two rollers are on a slightly different principle, but as they are generally used for very wide machines, the description we have given of the single roller is sufficient for our present purpose. Fig. 7. The last motion to be described is the marking motion its object being to mark places on the threads for the insertion of headings or cross borders of coloured yarn at the loom. It can be made to act at any required length from a few inches to almost any number of yards. If pieces of cloth have to be made of, say, 28 yards length, with cross borders or headings of coloured yarn at every 4 yards, then two marking motions are desirable, one to act upon the yarn at every 30 yards (allowing two yards for shrinkage in weaving), and the other to act at every 44 yards. The marking motion, no matter how constructed, is always a simple arrangement and driven by wheels and worms from the friction roller, so that by changing the wheels any required speed can be obtained. Marking motions (if two) are often called combined dhootie and cut 55 Fig. 8. markers, the cut representing the lengths of the pieces, and the dhootie markers the places where the coloured yarn is to be inserted at the weaving. Fig. 8 represents a plan of an improved combined marker ; the stud A is driven by change wheels from the measuring roller in the manner shown, the worm H drives the bell wheel I, and the bell shaft K, which, through the cam L, the lever M operates the hammer M, which striking the colour bowl Q, indicates the ait-7nark. The dhootie mark is driven also from the usual stud A, but independently of the bell shaft ; through the wheels B (on stud A), G pinion D on the same stud as G, wheel E pinion F on same stud as E. F is the change pinion and gears into wheel G and turns the cam 0, the step in which operates the hammer N, and gives the dhootie mark. The dhootie marker is easily arranged to strike any number of times for once of the cut marker, the teeth of change pinion F being at once ascertainable by a simple rule. Every lo teeth in the wheel counts a mark, 20 teeth 56 give 2 marks to i cut-mark, 30 teeth give 3 marks to the cut, 100 teeth give 10 marks to the cut and so on. In our next and concluding chapter we shall deal with a few of the minor points which we have left over from the former chapters, and to make the work complete, we shall add examples of the calculations connected with the process of sizing. For the blocks used for illustration purposes we have to thank Messrs. Howard & Bullough, of Accrington. CHAPTER V. Notes on Sizing — Definition of Technical Terms— Calculations. Notes on Sizing : — (1) The sizing of warps in the chain differs but little from the ordinary form of sizing, except that in the former the ropes of yarn are passed through the immersing boxes without the separation or division of the threads. (2) Putting on more flannel, say one or two rolls on the surface of the sizing rollers, adds to the percentage of weight which the yarn will absorb. (3) Coloured yarns are in some cases not sized. If a few ends only of coloured yarn, say, at the selvedges, are to be added to a weaver's beam, the arrangement often adopted is to mount the required number of coloured bobbins on rods or stands and then draw the ends from them to the rods, tension rollers, reed and beam without passing them through the size boxes. (4) In stopping or slowing a beaming machine the admission of steam from the cylinders ought to be shut off separately by the valve if there is no connection to actuate it from the stopping or slowing rod which will cause the former to close or open when the latter is moved. (5) A slasher sizing machine is capable of supplying beams for from 250 to 300 looms. (6) The defects which may be produced in the process are : {pi) burning or scorching of the ends ; {h) imperfect 58 drying by which the ends stick to one another on the beam ; (c) surface sizing in which the size only lies on the surface of the yarn and is likely to be rubbed off in weaving ; (d) hard or boardy yarn ; (e) over-sized yarn ; (/) under-sized yarn ; (^) soft beams ; (/i) rough or irregular beams ; (/) beams with bad ends ; (/) excessive breakages of the threads ; (/-) too much waste in end pieces ; (/) stains upon the yarn ; and (;;/) discoloured yarn. With ordinary care and experience all these defects may easily be avoided and the maximum efficiency of the machine in quality and quantity obtained. (7) In weaving the milling up in length and the con- traction in width which take place necessitate the sizing of the beams to a greater width, and the marking of the cuts at greater length, than what the cloth is to be. For ordinary tappet woven cloths the usual allowance is 2 in. to 2j in. in width, and five per cent in the length. Thus for 40 in. cloth with 20 yd. pieces the width on the reed would have to be 42 in. and the length 21 yards. The actual amount of contraction or milling up of course depends upon the class and counts of yarns used and the character of the weaving. (8) The horse-power required to drive a g/8's machine is about I "5 to I "6. Explanation of Technical Terms tised in Sizing. Measuring roller, Frictio7i roller and Draiv roller are names given to the largest roller at the front end of the machine from which the yarn passes to the beam. It gives motion to the copper delivery rollers at the sizing boxes. Copper Delivery rollers, Sizing rollers, Squeezi7ig rollers and Flannel rollers are the rollers through which the yarn passes from the sow box. 59 Sozv Box or Trough is the box through which the yarn passes and in which the immersing roller is contained ; Size Box is the box in which the size is received from the mixing becks. Immersing roller or Skeleton roller is the roller under which the yarn passes in the sow box. It is generally a skeleton roller. Steam Cylinders are the cylinders upon which the yarn is dried. Guide rollers are the rollers round which the yarn is guided in any part of the machine. Lease rods are the rods which separate the yarn from the different beams, and prevent the threads from sticking to one another. Expanding Wraithy Reed, or Comb is the comb at front of the machine through the teeth of which the threads are divided, kept equi-distant from one another, and contracted or expanded to any required width. Beam Qx Tension Friction is'^h,e frijctjpii from which the weaverVbeam; is driven, i i ,* > o *J ! ; • • \ ] Cut marker is the motion which applies coloured marks to the yarn at aoy ^required. lengths. ;.■ . v " > Dhootie marker is the motion which marks the place for the insertion of heading or coloured borders at any required distances between the cuts. Presser is a motion which keeps the layers of yarn as they are wound upon the beam tightly pressed against one another. Hydrometers (Twaddle) are instruments used to deter- mine the specific gravities of size mixings at different temperatures. Becks are the boxes used to mix the sizing ingredients. Boiliiig Pan is the cast-iron or copper pan used to boil the softening materials. 6o Fermentation is the steeping of the flour in water. Dents or Splits are the spaces between the projecting wires of the expanding wraith, reed, or comb. Rod Rests are those brackets on the framing in which the lease rods rest. Beam Creel is that part of the framing at the back end of the sizing machine in which the beams are placed. Headstock is that part of the sizing machine at the front in which the driving parts are arranged. Antiseptic often wrongly used to indicate chloride of magnesium. It refers generally to chloride of zinc. Deliquescent is a term generally used to indicate chloride of magnesium. Softeners is used to denote castor oil, tallow, soap, wax, or some other oleaginous substance used in sizing. WeigJiteners generally indicate China clay. Adhesive Material denotes flour, generally wheat flour, but sometimes farina, etc. Wh^teners refers to aniline blue. Gritty 'Matter 'is ha' c, undrs'solvW *'fd'.'tr3es.^ ' • Hammer, that part of the cut or dhootie marker which strikes the yarn.' ' ' ' Last Qits, a term sometimes ap'f)ii'ed to the short lengths of yarn left on the beams, which cannot be woven. First Qits, a term sometimes applied to any short lengths of yarn at the tops of beam, which cannot be utilised in weaving. Feel, a term sometimes used to denote the condition of the threads after passing through the sizing machine, as recognised by the touch. Boardy Feel means that the yarn is hard and harsh. g/8 machine is one which usually makes beams up to 54 in. wide between the flanges. 6/4 machine is one which usually makes beams up to 60 in. wide between the flanges. 6i 8/4 machine is one which usually makes beams up to 78 in. wide between the flanges. We have now concluded this work on Sizing. It is the first practical treatise of the kind yet published, and there- lore any " errors of omission or commission " which may have crept in, will, we hope, be excused by our readers. In view of a further edition being published, we shall be greatly obliged if any of our practical readers can assist us with either additions or corrections in any particulars ; we shall be pleased to acknowledge them in the preface attached to the book. Calculations Relating to Sizing. QUES. — There are five warpers' beams put into the creel of the sizing machine, each beam containing 120 lbs. of 2o's yarn, what will be the total weight obtainable for weaving, allowing i per cent, for waste and adding 25 per cent, of size ? Ans. — The total amount of yarn will be 120 x 5=600 lbs., less I per cent, or 6 lbs. for waste, leaving a balance of 594 lbs. To this weight must be added 25 per cent, of size, so that the weight available for weaving would be 594x25 , QUES. — On the weaver's beam there are to be 2,200 ends of 2o's yarn, the length to be half a zvrap ; what would be the weight of the warp yarn used? Ans. — As a wrap is equal to 3,564 yards, the total length on the beam would be yards of each end 2 ^ equal to 1,782 x 2,200 of one end, as i lb. of 20's yarn would contain 20 x 840 = 16,800 62 yards, then the weight of the warp yarn would be 1,782 X 2,200 ^,,11 ~ = 233 lbs. 20x840 OUES. — At a slashing machine the weight of yarn on a weaver's beam is 120 lbs. after having been sized 20 per cent.; the counts were 40's. What length is on the beam, the number of ends being 2,000? Ans. — Nett weight of the yarn without size would be 120 — 120 X 100 11 r . -=ioo lbs.; as i lb. of 40s yarn con- 100 ^ tains 40 X 840 yards, then the beam would con- tain 96 X 40 X 840 yards of one end, or 100 X 40 X 840^ gg^ 2,000 QUES. — A v/eaver's beam weighs 100 lbs. having been sized 10 per cent. It contains 1,200 yards of 20's yarn ; what number of ends are on it ? Ans. — Nett weisrht of yarn without size will be ^ 100 __ ^ no 91 lbs. nearly. As I lb. of 20's yarn contains 840 X 20 yards, the total number of yards of one end will be 91 x 840 X 20. As each end is 1,200 yards long, then the number of ends will be 01x840x20 ^ , " ^ = 1,274 ends. 1,200 QuES. — On a weaver's beam there are in lbs. of yarn which have been sized 333- per cent. The length is 1,000 yards and the number of ends 1,800 ; what were the counts of the yarn ? 1 1 1 X ■J J- Ans. — The nett weight of yarn would be in— — — ^ = ^ ^ 100 74 lbs. As the number of ends is 1,800 and the length of the web 1,000 yards, this will be equiva- lent to a length of 1,800 x 1,000 yards of one end, 63 . I,800XI,000 . u } -ru or to — — ^ ^ =2,143 hanks. Ihe equation now stands ^'^^^ =74 lbs., so that ^^i^ = 2q's counts 74 almost. Briefly stated, the formulae for the three preceding calculations are — ( 1 ) To find the length on the beam. Given: the weight, the counts, and the number of ends. , the nett weight of yarn without size x counts X 840 Formula: — 5 — ^ the number of ends (2) To find the niunber of ends. Given: the weight, the length in yards, and the counts. Formula * "^^^ weight of yarn without size x counts x 840 the length m yards (3) To find the counts of the yarn. Given : the weight, the length in yards, and the number of , 1 the lenp^th in yards x number of ends ends, formula: — ^ . — JNett weight 01 yarn without size x 040 To find the iveight of yarn on a zveavers beam. Given : the number of ends, counts of yarn, length in yards. Formula - length in yards x number of ends counts X 840 If, instead of finding the weight of yarn as in the last formula, it was required to find the total weight on the beam. Given: number of ends, counts, length in yards, and percentage of size added. Formula • ^^"^^^ yards x number of ends counts X 840 ^ (quotient x percentage of size) IQO QUES. — 100 lbs. of 30's yarn has got 25 per cent, of size added, what counts is the yarn then equivalent to.-* 64 Ans. — Making no allowance for waste the counts would be 30x75 100 In an ordinary w^orking motion gearing, the parts that are taken into consideration in calculating lengths of cuts are the bell wheel, the stud wheel, the tin or feed roller wheel, and the circumference of the tin roller. OUES. — Given the tin roller wheel, bell wheel, stud wheel, and circumference of feed roller, the formula to find the length of the cut is — Bell wheel X stud wheel x circumference of feed roller feed roller w^heel. OUES. — To find the feed roller wheel when the bell wheel, stud wheel, circumference of feed roller and length of cut are given. Formula : Bell wheel X stud wheel x circumference of feed roller length of cut OUES. — To find the stud wheel, all the other factors being given. Formula : length of cut X feed roller wheel bell wheel X circumference of feed roller OuES.— To find the bell wheel. Formula : length of cut x feed roller wheel circumference of feed roller x stud wheel Note. — In changing the wheels to alter the distances between the marks, the driving wheels are changed in direct inverse proportion to the length, and the driven w'heels in direct proportion. CATALOGUE OF BOOKS rUBLISHED BY ABEL HEYWOOD & SON, 56 \ 58, OLDHAM STREET, MANCHESTER. Third Edition, Revised Entirely, price 7s. 6d., cloth, 8vo, illustrated. Cotton Spinning and Weaving. A Practical Treatise. By Herbert E. Walmsley, **0n the whole we may call the book a very useful one, and well worth keeping in a mill or on the book-shelves of a manager in his house." — Textile IMamifacturer. Paper Covers, price is.. Cloth, 2s. Answers to Questions Set in Cotton Spinning Examinations. By Robert Cunliffe, Lecturer at the Bolton Technical School. This little work is intended chiefly to assist Students preparing for an examination, though a vast amount of in- formation will be conveyed also to the general reader. More than 100 questions are taken from the City' and Guilds Examination Papers, comprising : The Raw Material, Gins, Lord's Regulator, Card Grinding and Clothing, Differential Motion on Fly Frames, Mule and Throstle Spinning, Warping, Sizing, Weaving, &c., &c. In 3 vols., bound in cloth, vols. L and IL, price gs. each, vol. IIL 1 8s. Sold separately. Recent Progress in the Industries of Dyeing and Calico Printing : Being a supplement to " The Printing of Cotton Fabrics " and " Dyeing." Fully illustrated, and with patterns. Rv Antonio Sansone. 2 Abel Heywood & Son's Publications. Price 2IS., cloth, 2 vols, (one text, one patterns). Dyeing : Comprising the Dyeing and Bleaching of Wool, Silk, Cotton, Flax, Hemp, China Grass, &c. By Antonio Sansone. Author of " The Printing of Cotton Fabrics." Illustrated with over 70 Plates and Illustrations, and 210 Mounted Specimens. "The work of Mr. Antonio Sansone on 'Dyeing' has made its appear- ance. We consider it a most complete work. It consists of two volumes ; the first, after going over the history of dyeing and of coal tar dyestuffs, the general characteristics of fibres, and methods of testing dyestufifs, contains the practical processes of bleaching, dyeing, and finishing textile materials in the loose con- dition. It is liberally illustrated with sketches of the modern machiner}' and apparatus used in the dyeing industry. The second volume, or better part, consists of a number of samples illustrating the processes described in the first volume, furnished by various manufacturing firms. They are not bound together, but loose in a case. The book is published by Messrs. Abel Heywood 6c Son. Manchester, England. " — 7