INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 (Botbic architecture, 
 
 BY THE LATE 
 
 JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B. 
 
 Hon. M.A. Oxon, F.S.A. Lond., etc. 
 
 URntb tS&ition. 
 
 PARKER AND CO. 
 
 6 SOUTHAMPTON-STREET, STRAND, LONDON ; 
 
 AND BROAD-STREET, OXFORD. 
 
 189I. 
 
lprtnteb b? Iparfccr ant> do., Crown J?arb, ©rforb. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 T^HIS little work was originally written as part of 
 ■*" a series of Elementary Lectures recommended by 
 the Committee of the Oxford Architectural Society to 
 be delivered to the junior Members of the Society, in 
 the spring of 1849. They were considered useful and 
 interesting by those who heard them, and as it was 
 thought they might be equally so to others who had 
 not the same opportunity, the President, in the name 
 of the Society, requested the author to publish them. 
 Mr. Winston’s admirable Introduction to the Study of 
 Painted .Glass formed part of the same series of Ele- 
 mentary Lectures, and has also been published under 
 the same auspices. 
 
 The distinction between “plate tracery” and “bar 
 tracery” was first clearly pointed out, and these names 
 applied to them, by Professor Willis at. the meeting 
 of the Archaeological Institute at Salisbury in August, 
 1849. This distinction is of so much importance in 
 the history of architecture, and these names are so 
 expressive, that when once pointed out it was im- 
 possible to avoid making use of them. 
 
 The chapter on French Gothic is chiefly the result 
 of observations made on a tour in the central part of 
 
iv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 France in the summer of 1849, assisted by the remem- 
 brance of several previous visits to Normandy. 
 
 The author is happy to take this opportunity of ex- 
 pressing his obligation to several friends for the valu- 
 able information and suggestions with which they have 
 favoured him, especially to the Rev. Professor Willis, 
 and R. C. Hussey, Esq., and in France to M. De Cau- 
 mont of Caen, M. Viollet-le-Duc of Paris, and the 
 Abbe Bulteau of Chartres. He trusts that the slight 
 sketch which he has been enabled to give of French 
 Gothic, and the comparison of it with English, will 
 lead to a more careful investigation of that interesting 
 subject. 
 
 The Turl, Oxford, 
 Nov. 6, 1849. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 HHHE present edition has been carefully revised and 
 considerably enlarged. The parts intended for 
 the use of beginners are printed in larger type ; these 
 consist of the description of the characteristic features 
 of each of the styles in succession, with illustrative 
 engravings on wood, to which descriptions have been 
 added, to make the technical terms more intelligible. 
 A Glossary is also added for the use of children and 
 beginners in the study. The part of the work printed 
 in smaller type is chiefly historical, and intended for 
 the use of more advanced students. The book is one 
 of facts, not of theories or fancies. Some persons 
 may think it dry, as matter-of-fact is apt to be con- 
 sidered by those who are fond of speculation : but the 
 facts here collected afford ample room for further in- 
 vestigation, and for theorizing within certain limits, 
 that is, so far as the theories based upon them are 
 consistent with the facts. 
 
 The rapid progress which has been made both in 
 the study and in the practice of Gothic Architecture 
 since this book was written, is very gratifying; the 
 two things should always go together : we always find 
 that the architects who are most successful in practice 
 are those who have studied the history of their art 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 the most carefully. An objection may be made to this 
 book that too much stress is laid upon French archi- 
 tecture ; that the English Gothic is complete in itself, 
 may have been entirely developed at home, and that 
 there is no need for English architects to study the 
 French or any other foreign style. This is true to 
 a certain extent, but at the time that the Gothic style 
 was developed, England and France were so closely 
 connected together that it is impossible to believe that 
 one did not influence the other ; and this work is not 
 intended for architects so much as for their employers, 
 the gentry and clergy of England, to whom some 
 knowledge of this subject has become a necessary part 
 of education. They are naturally more interested in 
 the historical than in the practical view of architecture, 
 and the connection between Eng and and foreign coun- 
 tries adds greatly to the interest of a study which has 
 a singular fascination for many minds. 
 
 The Turl, Oxford, 
 
 March 14, 1861. 
 
 The Third Edition, issued in 1867, having been a reprint 
 with little alteration, no new Preface was given. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION 
 
 rPHIS edition has been thoroughly revised through- 
 ■*“ out, a few corrections have been made where they 
 seemed to be required; considerable additions have 
 also been made, especially in the foreign part, with 
 the object of making that more useful to tourists, who 
 have greatly increased in numbers of late years. In 
 the English part, the chief alteration consists of call- 
 ing more especial attention to the construction of 
 the walls. 
 
 Professor Willis had shewn long since, in his ad- 
 mirable Architectural Histories of Canterbury and 
 Winchester, the importance of attending to this point, 
 on which the whole history of the fabric necessarily 
 turns ; but he did not always apply his own prin- 
 ciples himself, still less have others generally done 
 so. The construction of the walls is the real test of 
 the whole history, but it is rarely applied as it should 
 be by archaeologists, it is commonly supposed to be- 
 long to the architect, or the clerk of the works only. 
 This is a great mistake, the test is a very crucial one, 
 and easily applied when we can get at the surface 
 of the walls free from plaster. The thickness of the 
 mortar between the joints is the best and most certain 
 distinction between a construction of the eleventh 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 century and one of the twelfth, more especially the 
 upright or vertical joints. The horizontal joints de- 
 pend more on the building- materials. 
 
 We have so few buildings remaining between the 
 Roman period and the year 1000, that we cannot he 
 sure how far this test generally applies to them ; but 
 by applying it, on another visit, to the very curious 
 little early church at Bradford-on- Avon in Wiltshire, 
 I became convinced that the present structure is not of 
 the tenth or eleventh century, as there are no wide 
 joints, and, as a small early Norman window is in- 
 serted in the older wall, it cannot be of the twelfth. 
 It seems, therefore, that it must he the original small 
 church mentioned by William of Malmesbury as existing 
 in the twelfth century, when he wrote his history ; he 
 clearly implies that it was something different from 
 the usual churches of that period. The joints in that 
 building are as fine as they well could be ; this is 
 partly owing to the excellence of the building-material, 
 (Bath-stone) : but in the eleventh century, with the 
 same material, the joints would have been wide. This 
 is at present the only church of that early period for 
 which we have historical evidence agreeing with the 
 existing building, but having ascertained this one, 
 the same test should be applied to all the churches 
 of the Ante-Norman style, of which a list was given 
 by Rickman, enlarged in the “Glossary of Architec- 
 ture,” and by Mr. M. H, Bloxam, and now amounting 
 to about a hundred. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 IX 
 
 Rickman considered these churches as before the 
 year 1000, but few of them really are so; a large 
 proportion of them are in the Danes’ land, and 
 near the mouths of navigable rivers, where it is pro- 
 bable that the Danes had burnt wooden churches 
 during their wars with the Saxons, and it is recorded 
 that King Canute (or Cnut) ordered churches to be 
 built in all the places where churches had previously 
 been burnt by his father or himself. 
 
 Mr. Freeman recently shewed to the members of the 
 Royal Archaeological Institute at Exeter, in 1873, 
 the probability that parts of the old walls of that city 
 are of the time of King Athelstan, who is recorded to 
 have built a wall round it of squared stones , c. a.d. 930. 
 The present wall is of early character, the surface is 
 very much patched from frequent repairs of all pe- 
 riods, after the numerous sieges and battering down 
 the wall, but its earliest parts are faced with squared 
 stones of rough work, with wide joints of mortar, in 
 rude imitation of Roman masonry, which may very 
 well be of that period. 
 
 The walls of a city are generally built long before 
 any stone building within it, the original city to be 
 enclosed having been built of wood. The same test 
 of wide and fine jointing may be usefully applied to 
 numbers of our country village churches, where the 
 walls are Norman, although at first sight they appear 
 to be of much later character. The windows are 
 often all inserted, the original windows having been 
 
 b 
 
X PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 found too small, and the pier-arches are often rebuilt 
 without rebuilding the outer walls. 
 
 At Exeter it has been found, on careful examina- 
 tion, that the walls of the Cathedral are Norman, al- 
 though the windows and details are Early Decorated ; 
 the patterns of the window- tracery are identical with 
 those of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and they are 
 dated 1280 — 1300 by the fabric rolls, which are pre- 
 served, and have been carefully examined by Arch- 
 deacon Freeman, one of the Canons of the Cathedral, 
 to whom we are indebted for this information. At 
 Winchester it has long been seen by archaeologists that 
 the walls are still Norman, although the windows and 
 details are Perpendicular. Yet few have thought of 
 applying these observations to the parish churches, 
 which almost always followed the cathedrals. 
 
 On the Continent there are numerous examples of 
 this alteration of the character without rebuilding. 
 It is only in modern times that the builders, when 
 ordered to restore an old structure, have begun by de- 
 molishing it, and then rebuild it to the old pattern. 
 In the greater part of the medieval buildings all over 
 Europe some portions of the original walls may be 
 found, if carefully searched for, though often much 
 concealed. The guide-books generally give the date 
 of the original foundation accurately, and this only; 
 although the present appearance of the building may 
 be centuries later, no notice is taken of the frequent 
 alterations and additions. Tourists and hasty tra- 
 
PEEFACE TO THE FOUETH EDITION. 
 
 XI 
 
 vellers are often very much misled in this manner, 
 they naturally suppose that the date given in these 
 guide-books is that of the building as they see it, and 
 never imagine that they must often hunt in every 
 hole or corner to find any construction of that period 
 visible. 
 
 In Italy especially these changes are often very 
 marked ; for instance, the cathedral of Pisa has been 
 lengthened in all parts, the nave is twice its original 
 length, and the walls raised to double the original height. 
 The clerestory and the vaults have been added or re- 
 built. The present west front is at least a century 
 later than the original foundation, old inscriptions are 
 built in, but are clearly brought from an older wall 
 and built into the newer one ; one of them is upside 
 down. No one can walk round the outside of the 
 church without seeing this by the construction, after 
 his attention has once been called to it ; and the interior 
 has been almost entirely modernized in the sixteenth 
 or seventeenth century, as is shewn by several inscrip- 
 tions that remain in their original places, and by the 
 arms of the Medici on the arches of the central tower 
 
 In the present edition more attention has also been 
 called to the Pisan style, the glory of the Pisan Re- 
 public, of which the best examples are now in Lucca, 
 which belonged to that Republic, and where the build- 
 ings have been less altered than they have been in 
 Pisa itself. This style is distinguished by the number 
 of rich exterior wall-arcades, with their light elegant 
 
Xll 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 detached colonettes or shafts. It was adopted in the 
 Rhine churches, and is commonly miscalled the Lorn - 
 bardic style , and supposed to belong to the old Lom- 
 bards of the eighth or ninth century, but this is alto- 
 gether a delusion : buildings of that period are as 
 scarce in Lombardy as elsewhere ; they were only de- 
 based Roman, and clumsy work. The so-called seven 
 churches at Bologna, attributed to the tenth century, 
 are made out of an old Roman temple, and the me- 
 dieval work is not of the tenth century, but of the 
 eleventh and twelfth. 
 
 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 
 
 November , 1873. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 TN this edition the only alteration that has been made 
 relates to the churches of Benedict Biscop of the 
 eighth century, at Jarrow and Monk-Wearmouth. 
 A new woodcut of the latter church has been sub- 
 stituted for the old one, and the porch under the 
 tower is now shewn, which was not visible when 
 Mr. Blore made the sketch from which the old woodcut 
 was taken. This porch is built up against the west 
 wall of the old church, which now makes the lower 
 part of the east wall of the tower. The gable here 
 represented as over the porch in the west wall is of 
 doubtful authority; it is taken from the best draw- 
 ing that could be obtained, and Mr. Johnson the archi- 
 tect, who made the drawing, is a very high authority ; 
 but there is some reason to believe that he was de- 
 ceived by a mark in the plaster (since removed), and 
 that the porch had been rebuilt when the tower was 
 built upon it. There is a straight vertical joint be- 
 tween the porch and the west wall of the church with 
 its early doorway, that remarkable doorway in which, 
 instead of an arch, we have one long narrow block of 
 rude sandstone. This feature is found also in some 
 other churches in the valley of the Tyne, supposed to 
 be early imitations of this, but the whole seems to 
 depend on the quarries they come from, and where 
 such enormous masses were found they might be used 
 at any time. 
 
XIV 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 Mr. E. A. Freeman has also pointed out a slight 
 inaccuracy in the quotation from the Saxon Chronicle, 
 respecting “the churches ordered to be rebuilt by 
 Canute ( or Cnut), in all the places where churches had 
 previously been burnt by his father or himself.” He 
 says there is no such general order to be found in the 
 Chronicle, it is confined to the single instance of Es- 
 sendune (or Ashington in Essex). This is no doubt 
 literally true, but it may fairly be considered as implied 
 in many other instances. "When the Danes first became 
 Christians in the time of Cnut , they were very zealous 
 Christians, and as building in stone was just then 
 coming into fashion, after a long interval, nothing 
 could be more natural than that they would build 
 stone churches, to replace the wooden ones that they 
 had burnt in their wars. 
 
 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 
 
 September, 1877 . 
 
 In the Sixth Edition no alteration has been made in the 
 text , but twelve Elates of fresh examples have been added. 
 
 Oxford , March, 1881 . 
 
 In the Seventh Edition no alteration whatever has been 
 made , but the last Edition published during the Author’s 
 lifetime has been strictly follbwed. Mr. J. H. Parker 
 died Jan . 31, 1884 • 
 
 Oxford, July, 1884- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 From the Roman Period to the end of the 
 Tenth Century 
 
 The Basilica. — The Tribune, or Apse. — The Byzantine 
 Style. — Roman Masonry. — The Barbarian Period. — The 
 time of Augustine. — The Anglo-Saxon Period. — Wooden 
 buildings. — Stone buildings. — Crypts. 
 
 The Eleventh Century 
 
 The Millennium being passed, a new building era com- 
 menced. — Division of Styles and Nomenclature. — 
 Canute builds many Churches. — Early Towers. — Stone 
 Carpentry. — Long-and-Short work. — Belfry Windows. 
 — Balusters. — Rubble. — Saxon or Danish ? 
 
 The Early Norman Period. — Edward the Con 
 fessor, William I. and II., Henry I. a. d. 
 1050—1125 
 
 Westminster Abbey, dormitory, &c. — The Conquest. — 
 The Abbeys at Caen. — The Lower Town at Lincoln. — 
 The Norman Castles or Keeps. — Many Monasteries 
 founded, and Churches commenced under William I. 
 and II., completed under Henry I. — Winchester. Tran- 
 septs. — Canterbury, Choir of Conrad. 
 
 The Later Norman Style. — Stephen, Henry II. 
 a.d. 1125 — 1175 
 
 Great number of rich Norman Churches built between 
 1120 and 1170 : — Peterborough, Castor, Rochester, Dun- 
 stable, Rievaulx, Fountains ; St. Bartholomew’s, Smith- 
 field; Porchester, Buildwas, Castle Acre, St. Cross, 
 Kirkstall, Bayeux. — Shobdon. — Norman Houses. — De- 
 tails characteristic of the Period. 
 
 The Change of Style, a.d. 1175 — 1200 
 
 The Pointed Arch introduced before the change. — Foun- 
 tains. — Canterbury. — Sens. — Lisieux. — Hospital at 
 Angers. — Hall at Oakham. — Christ Church, Oxford. — 
 Byland Abbey. — Temple Church, London. — Galilee at 
 Durham. — Clee Church, Lincolnshire. — Paris: Notre 
 Dame and S. Germain des Pres. — S. Remi, Rheims. — 
 Soissons. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 32 
 
 50 
 
 90 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The Early English Style. — Richard I., John, 
 Henry III. a.d. 1189—1272 . . .101 
 
 Canterbury, Corona. — Lincoln, Choir of St. Hugh of Gre- 
 noble. — Winchester, Presbytery ; Bishop Lucy. — Glas- 
 gow, Bishop Joceline. — Ely, Galilee ; Bishop Eustace. — 
 
 Wells, Bishop Joceline. — Salisbury. — Oxford, Chapter- 
 house. — Worcester, Choir. — Westminster, Choir and 
 Transepts. — York, Transepts. — Wells, Lady-chapel. — 
 Salisbury, Chapter-house. — Lincoln, Presbytery. — De- 
 tails and Features characteristic of this Style. — Pro- 
 gress of Window Tracery. 
 
 The Decorated Style. — Edward I., II., and III., 
 a.d. 1272—1377 161 
 
 Gradual change of Style. — Merton College Chapel. — York, 
 Chapter-house. — Exeter, Choir. — Wells, Chapter-house. 
 
 — Southwell, Chapter-house. — The Eleanor Crosses. — 
 
 York, Nave. — Stoke Golding. — Selby Abbey. — St.Mary’s, 
 Beverley. — Leominster. — Gloucester. — Dorchester, 
 
 Oxon. — Details characteristic of the Style. 
 
 The gradual change from the Decorated to the Perpen- 
 dicular Style, from c. 1360 to 1399. — Gloucester Cathe- 
 dral. — Westminster, Works of Abbot Litlington. — 
 Edington Church. — Winchester. — New College; Wyke- 
 ham. — St. Mary’s, Warwick, Choir. — Gloucester. — Chip- 
 ping- Campden. — Howden and Gisburne Chapter-houses. 
 
 — Castles of the time of Richard II. 
 
 The Perpendicular Style. — Richard II. to 
 Henry VIII. a.d. 1377— 1547 . . . '195 
 
 Panelling and Perpendicular or Vertical Lines, the chief 
 characteristics : — examples at Winchester, Oxford, Fair- 
 ford, Choir of York, the Somersetshire Towers, Henry 
 the Seventh’s Chapel ; St. George’s, Windsor; Redcliffe 
 Church, Bristol; Bicester, Oxon.; Gloucester; King’s 
 College Chapel, Cambridge ; and Houses at Chalfield, 
 Cowdray, Thornbury, Glastonbury. 
 
 The Renaissance, and Jacobean Gothic . . 212 
 
 Elizabethan Houses. — Colleges and Chapels in Oxford. — 
 Lambeth Palace. — Middle Temple Hall. 
 
 On the Foreign Styles .... 217 
 
 The French Styles, 219; The Transition in France, 
 
 227 ; The Early French Style, 234 ; The Decorated 
 French Style, 258; The Flamboyant Style, 260; 
 
 Italy, and Rome, 266; Ravenna, 282; Florence, 283; 
 
 Pisa, 289; Lucca, 291 ; Venice, 294 ; Milan, 295; Ver- 
 celli, 298; Bologna, 299; St. Stephen, or the Seven 
 Churches, 300 ; Lombardy, 301 ; Spain, Switzerland 
 and Belgium, 302 ; Holland, 303 ; Germany, 304. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 From the Roman Period to the end of the 
 Tenth Century. 
 
 NO. PAGE 
 
 1. Roman Gate at Lincoln ... ,4 
 
 2. Roman Masonry, Porchester Castle, Hampshire . 5 
 
 3. Mint Wall, Lincoln . . . 5 
 
 4. Plan of Roman and Saxon Cathedral of Canterbury . 8 
 
 5. Roman Mouldings, Hexham, Northumberland . 13 
 
 6. Plan of Crypt, Hexham . . . .14 
 
 7. View and Plan of Bradford- on -Avon Church, Wilts . 15 
 
 The Eleventh Century. 
 
 8. Tower-arch, supposed Saxon, Barnack, Northants. . 23 
 
 9. Tower, Deerhurst Church, Gloucestershire . 25 
 
 10. Earl’s Barton Church, Northamptonshire . 27 
 
 11. Anglo-Saxon character, Sompting, Sussex . 28 
 
 12. Window, Caversfield, Buckinghamshire . . 29 
 
 13. Belfry Window, Deerhurst, Gloucestershire . 29 
 
 14. Wickham, Berkshire . . 30 
 
 15. St. Mary, Bishop’s-Hill Junior, York 30 
 
 16. Earl’s Barton, Northamptonshire . 31 
 
 17. Corhampton Church, Hampshire . . 31 
 
 The Early Norman Period. 
 
 18. Vaulting, Chapel of the Pix, Westminster Abbey . 32 
 
 19. Masonry, St. Leonard’s, Mailing, Kent . . 34 
 
 20. Chapel in the White Tower, London . 34 
 
 21. Tower, St. Peter’s at Gowts, Lincoln . .36 
 
 22. Monk’s Wearmouth, Durham . .37 
 
 23. Capital, Jarrow, Durham . . . .38 
 
 24. Respond, Gundulph’s Crypt, Rochester . . 38 
 
 25. Keep, Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . .42 
 
 26. Arch and Window, Chapel in the White Tower, London 43 
 
xviii 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 NO. 
 
 27, 28, 29. Transept, Winchester Cathedral 
 
 30. Arcade, Canterbury Cathedral 
 
 31. Capital, Crypt, Canterbury Cathedral 
 
 32. Arcade, Canterbury and Eochester 
 
 PAGE 
 
 47, 48, 49 
 51 
 . 52 
 
 . 57 
 
 The Later Norman Style. 
 
 33. West Doorway, Iffley Church, Oxon. . 
 
 34. Part of South Doorway, Iffley Church, Oxon. 
 
 35. Window, Eomsey Abbey, Hants. 
 
 36. Iffley, Oxfordshire . 
 
 37. Castle Eising, Norfolk 
 
 38. 1 — ■ Sutton Courtney, Berkshire 
 
 39. St. Maurice’s, York . 
 
 40. Pier, St. Alban’s Abbey, Hertfordshire 
 
 41. St. Peter’s, Northampton 
 
 42. Arch, Lindisfarne Priory, Durham 
 
 43. Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire . 
 
 44. Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire 
 
 45. Capital, Winchester Cathedral 
 
 46. White Tower, London 
 
 47. * Stourbridge, Cambridgeshire . 
 
 48. — — Wotton-Wawen, Gloucestershire 
 
 49. Base, Winchester Cathedral . 
 
 50. St. Cross, Winchester 
 
 51. Tabernacle, Leigh, Worcestershire 
 
 52. Mouldings, St. Alban’s Abbey, Hertfordshire 
 
 53. Westminster Hall 
 
 54. Chevron, Andover, Hampshire . 
 
 55. Star, Herringfleet, Suffolk 
 
 56. Billet, Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire 
 
 57. Abacus and string, Durham Cathedral 
 
 58. Billet and Lozenge, Walmer, Kent 
 
 59. Sculpture, Shobdon Church, Herefordshire . 
 
 60. Corbel-table, St. Peter’s-in-the-East, Oxford . 
 
 61. Vault, Sherborne Castle, Dorsetshire . 
 
 62. Peterborough Cathedral 
 
 . 59 
 
 60 
 
 . 61 
 62 
 62 
 63 
 . 64 
 
 . 65 
 
 . 65 
 
 66 
 68 
 . 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 . 76 
 
 76 
 . 77 
 
 . 78 
 
 . 79 
 
 . 79 
 
 . 80 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX 
 
 K0 * PAGE 
 
 63. Tower, Penmon Chnrch, Anglesey . . .81 
 
 64. Turret, Bishop’s Cleeve, Gloucestershire . . 82 
 
 65. Round Tower, Little Saxham, Suffolk . . 83 
 
 66. Buttress, Iffley, Oxfordshire . . . .84 
 
 67. Buttress, Glastonbury Abbey . . . .84 
 
 68. Porch, St. Margaret-at-Cliffe, Kent . . .85 
 
 69. Apse, Romsey Abbey, Hampshire . . .87 
 
 70. West Front, Porchester Church, Hants. . . 88 
 
 The Change of Style. 
 
 71. Elevations, Canterbury Cathedral . . .94 
 
 72. Capital, Oakham Castle, Rutlandshire . . 96 
 
 The Early English Style. 
 
 73. Pillar, Lincoln Cathedral .... 104 
 
 74. Window, Lincoln Cathedral .... 105 
 
 75. Triforium, Beverley Minster .... 107 
 
 76. Westminster Abbey . .110 
 
 77. Clustered Pillars, York Minster .111 
 
 78. Mouldings, Haseley, Oxfordshire . .114 
 
 79. Milton Church, Oxon. . . 115 
 
 80. 81. Temple Church, London . 115, 116 
 
 82. York Cathedral .... 117 
 
 83. Crockets, York Cathedral .... 118 
 
 84. Foliage, Lincoln Cathedral . . .119 
 
 85. Capital, Westminster Abbey .... 120 
 
 86. Abacus, Lincoln Cathedral .... 121 
 
 87. Base, Lincoln Cathedral .... 122 
 
 88. Pillar, Salisbury Cathedral .... 123 
 
 89. Arch, Westminster Abbey .... 123 
 
 90. Windows, Polebrook, Northants. . . . 125 
 
 91. Warmington, Northants. . . 126 
 
 92. Ringstead, Northants. . . . 127 
 
 93. Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxon. . . 128 
 
 94. Solihull, Warwickshire . . 129 
 
 95. Glapthorn, Ashfordby, Melton . . 130 
 
 96. Wimborne Minster, Dorset . . . 131 
 
XX LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 NO. pAge 
 
 97. Windows, Castle Hall, Winchester . . . 132 
 
 98. * Bishop’s Palace, Wells . . . 133 
 
 99. • Stone Chnrch, Kent . . . 134 
 
 100. Raunds, Northamptonshire . . 135 
 
 101. Irthlingborough, Northamptonshire . 136 
 
 102. St. Mary-le-Wigford, Lincoln . . 137 
 
 103. Dorchester, Oxfordshire . . . 138 
 
 104. Beverley Minster .... 139 
 
 105. Hargrave, Northamptonshire . . 140 
 
 106. Westminster Abbey . . . 140 
 
 107. Cusp, Raunds, Northamptonshire . . . 141 
 
 108. Doorway, Lutton, Huntingdonshire . . . 145 
 
 109. St. Cross, Hampshire . . . 146 
 
 110. Porch, Barnack, Northamptonshire . . . 147 
 
 111. Vault, Salisbury Cathedral .... 148 
 
 112. Boss, Lincoln Cathedral .... 149 
 
 113. Buttress, Beaulieu, Hampshire . . . 150 
 
 114. Pinnacle, Peterborough Cathedral . . . 150 
 
 115. Flying Buttress, Hartlepool, Durham . . 151 
 
 116. Corbel-table, Beverley Minster . . . 152 
 
 117. Notley Abbey, Bucks. . . 152 
 
 118. Gable-end, Strixton, Northamptonshire . . 153 
 
 119. Spire, Ringstead Church, Northants. . . 155 
 
 120. Window, end of Hall, King’s Palace, Winchester . 157 
 
 The Decoeated Style. 
 
 121. Window, Merton College Chapel, Oxford . .163 
 
 122. Chapter-house, York . . . 164 
 
 123. Piddington, Oxfordshire . . . 165 
 
 124. — St. Mary Magdalen Church, Oxford . 166 
 
 125. Leominster, Herefordshire . . 167 
 
 126. Dorchester, Oxfordshire . . . 168 
 
 127. Over, Cambridgeshire . . . 169 
 
 128. St. Mary’s, Cheltenham . . . 170 
 
 129. Cranford St. Andrew, Northants. . . 171 
 
 130. Barton- Segrave, Northants. . . 171 
 
 131. Moulding, Bray, Berkshire .... 172 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI 
 
 NO. PAGE 
 
 132. Moulding, Chacombe, Northants. . . . 172 
 
 133. Finedon, Northants. . . . 173 
 
 134. The ball-flower ..... 173 
 
 135. The four-leaved flower .... 174 
 
 136. Oak-leaf foliage, Winchester Cathedral . .174 
 
 137. Diaper ornament, Lincoln Cathedral . . 175 
 
 138. Pillar, Exeter Cathedral .... 176 
 
 139. Sculpture from Monumental Cross, Northampton . 177 
 
 140. Doorway, Kislingbury, Northamptonshire . . 178 
 
 141. Porch, Aldham, Essex .... 179 
 
 142. Arch, Selby Abbey Church, Yorkshire . . 180 
 
 143. Arcade, Beverley Minster .... 181 
 
 144. Piscina, Fyfield, Berkshire .... 182 
 
 145. Roof, Sparsholt, Berkshire .... 183 
 
 146. Buttress, Over, Cambridgeshire . . . 184 
 
 147. Gadsby, Leicestershire . . . 185 
 
 148. Font, Bloxham, Oxfordshire . . . 186 
 
 149. West Front, Edington Church, Wilts. . . 191 
 
 The Perpendicular Style. 
 
 150. Window, New College, Oxford . . . 196 
 
 151. Merton College, Oxford . . . 197 
 
 152. Swinbrook, Oxfordshire . . . 198 
 
 153. York Cathedral .... 199 
 
 154. Doorway, Merton College Chapel, Oxford . . 200 
 
 155. r- Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire . . 201 
 
 156. Tower, Brislington, Somersetshire . . . 202 
 
 157. Porch, All Saints, Stamford, Lincolnshire . . 203 
 
 158. Bicester, Oxon. .... 204 
 
 159. Vault, Cloisters, Gloucester Cathedral . . 205 
 
 160. Moulding, St. Mary’s, Oxford . . . 206 
 
 161. Tudor-flower ornament, Henry the Seventh’s Chapel 206 
 
 162. Foliage, Stoke-in-Teignhead, Devonshire . . 207 
 
 163. Crocket, Solihull, Warwickshire . . . 207 
 
 164. Buttress, Divinity School, Oxford . . * 208 
 
 165. Roof, St. Michael’s, Coventry . . . 209 
 
 166. George Inn, Glastonbury, Somersetshire . . 210 
 
xxu 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ON THE FOREIGN STYLES. 
 
 The Early French Style. 
 
 NO. 
 
 167. Capital, Abbey of Jumieges, Normandy 
 
 168. Window, S. Martin des Champs, Paris 
 
 169. Vault, Hall of Hospital at Angers . 
 
 Paris — Notre Dame, West Front 
 
 170. Flying-buttress, S. Denis, Paris 
 
 171. Window, Chartres Cathedral 
 
 172. Auxerre Cathedral 
 
 173. Noyon Cathedral .. 
 
 174. Capital, Soissons Cathedral . 
 
 175. Tower, Mortain, Normandy . 
 
 176. Versainville, Normandy 
 
 177. Spire, St. Peter’s, Caen 
 
 The Decorated French Style. 
 Paris — La Sainte Chapelle . 
 
 178. Window, Bayeux Cathedral 
 
 The Flamboyant Style. 
 
 179. Porch, Harfleur, Normandy 
 Paris — S. Germain L’Auxerrois 
 
 180. Window, S. Sauveur, Dinan, Brittany 
 
 181. Moulding, St. Lo, Normandy 
 
 182. Villequier, Normandy 
 
 183. Abbeville, Normandy 
 
 184. Open parapet, S. Gervaise, Falaise 
 
 Paris — S. Eustache .... 
 
 Italy — Rome. 
 
 185. Wall of Roma Quadrata 
 
 186. Wall of the Latins on the Aventine 
 
 187. Wooden Tower, from Trajan’s Column 
 
 188. S. Clement’s Church, Aisle of 
 Venice — Doge’s Palace 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 225 
 . 229 
 . 233 
 . 236* 
 . 238 
 . 241 
 . 242 
 . 243 
 . 244 
 . 246 
 . 247 
 . 249 
 
 . 258* 
 . 259 
 
 . 260 
 . 260* 
 . 261 
 262 
 . 263 
 . 264 
 . 264 
 . 264* 
 
 . 267 
 . 268 
 . 273 
 . 278 
 296, 297 
 
 Germany — Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 189. Tower of Palace of Charlemagne, Aix-la-Chapelle . 305 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii 
 
 PLATES ADDED TO THE SIXTH EDITION. 
 
 The Early English Style. 
 
 To face p. 
 
 Sedilia, Piscina, and Window, Rushden, Northants . 112 
 
 Window, Peterborough Cathedral .... 139 
 
 Vaulting, South Aisle of Choir, Chester Cathedral . 159 
 
 The Decorated Style. 
 
 Window, Dorchester Abbey Church, Oxon . . 169 
 
 Doorway, Cloisters, Westminster Abbey . , . 177 
 
 Irthlingborough, Northants . . .178 
 
 Arch, Dorchester Abbey Church, Oxon . . . 180 
 
 Arcade of Sedilia, Chesterton, Oxon . . . 181 
 
 Sedilia and Piscina, Dorchester Abbey Church, Oxon . 182 
 
 Roof, Chapel of St. Blaise, Westminster . . . 183 
 
 The Transition from Decorated to Perpendicular. 
 Roof, Gateway of Abbot Litlington, Westminster 193 
 
 The Perpendicular Style. 
 
 Roof, St. Stephen’s, Norwich . 209 
 

 
 - 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 STUDY OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 From the Roman Period to the end of the 
 Tenth Century. 
 
 T HE history of ecclesiastical architecture cannot be 
 clearly understood without going back to the begin- 
 ning. The original type of all Christian churches is uni- 
 versally acknowledged to have been the Roman Basilica, 
 or hall. These buildings were numerous in all parts of 
 the empire, and were the most convenient structures 
 then existing for the purpose of congregational wor- 
 ship. Their original use was for the law courts, the 
 merchants’ exchange, and market halls, no place being 
 entitled to municipal privileges which did not possess 
 one. The principal room in a palace or large house, 
 Jbomus , was also called a basilica, and was on the same 
 plan : and in these the early Christians assembled for 
 worship, in the houses of the more wealthy Christians. 
 We do not find any notice of their having been con- 
 verted into churches in Eusebius or the other ecclesias- 
 tical historians of the period, though it is constantly 
 asserted by modem writers. It is, however, clear that 
 they served as models for the churches. Many of them 
 
 B 
 
 
2 
 
 THE ROMAN BASILICAS . 
 
 are said to have been consecrated by Pope Sylvester in 
 the time of the Emperor Constantine a , and they became 
 one type of the earliest Christian churches. Their plan 
 was uniform, consisting of a parallelogram divided into 
 three parts longitudinally by two rows of pillars ; these 
 divisions became the nave and aisles of the church ; the 
 aisles usually had galleries over them : at one end was 
 the tribune for the judges, arranged in a semicircle; 
 this became the apse of the church, and the place for 
 the priests behind the altar, the entrance being at the 
 opposite end. In a few instances they were double, 
 having a tribune at each end, and the entrances at the 
 sides. Eor some centuries the type of the basilica 
 appears to have been generally followed, but in pro- 
 cess of time various changes were introduced ; one of 
 the first was to place a transept across, thus producing 
 a cruciform plan. In the western parts of the empire, 
 the plan was that of the Latin cross, the nave being 
 long, the choir and transepts short; in the eastern 
 parts, the plan generally adopted was the Greek cross, 
 the four arms being of equal length. 
 
 It is natural to suppose, also, that in different parts 
 of the Roman empire the character and style of build- 
 ing, the more or less perfect masonry or brickwork, 
 would vary according to the civilization of the different 
 provinces and the nature of the building materials, and 
 this we find to have been the case. 
 
 In Italy the plan of the basilica was in general closely ad- 
 hered to : the original basilicas which served as models were 
 numerous in that country, and the ruins of the pagan temples, 
 
 a See Anastasius, in the life of Silvester ; this passage is, however, pro- 
 bably an insertion. 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD. 
 
 3 
 
 the palaces and public baths of the ancient Romans, which were 
 destroyed, furnished in many instances the materials of the 
 new churches, the original columns, capitals, entablatures, and 
 other finished parts being employed again, while the main 
 structure was wholly of brick, carefully concealed within by 
 plaster and ornament. In the earlier examples the columns 
 carried horizontal entablatures only, afterwards small brick 
 arches were introduced from column to column ; these were at 
 first concealed behind the entablature, but by degrees the en- 
 tablature was abandoned and the arches were shewn. On the 
 exterior the brick walls were sometimes cased with slabs of 
 marble. Circular churches were occasionally used from an 
 early period, as St. Vitale at Ravenna, and St. Stefano Rotondo 
 at Rome. 
 
 In Greece, on the other hand, the models before the eyes of 
 the people were superior to those of Rome itself, and as Byzan- 
 tium became the centre of civilization, the art of building also 
 was in higher perfection there than in the other provinces. The 
 ground-plan was accommodated to the opinions of the people, 
 the Greek cross of four arms of equal length being invari- 
 ably adopted. Advantage was taken of the facilities afforded 
 by this ground-plan, and of the skill of the workmen, to erect 
 those beautiful cupolas which are still the admiration of the 
 world for their scientific and skilful construction. The Byzan- 
 tine style thus formed was introduced in the course of time into 
 several other provinces. In Italy it is rare, but a few speci- 
 mens are found: in the south of France it is more frequent; in 
 the province of Perigord, churches of a thoroughly Byzantine 
 type are numerous. 
 
 In Lombardy a distinct style was formed, which partakes in 
 some degree of the Byzantine character, but is readily dis- 
 tinguished from it by the absence of the cupola. In the re- 
 public of Pisa another peculiar style was introduced in the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries, distinguished chiefly by the 
 great number of small columns used on the exterior. The best 
 examples of this style are at Pisa and Lucca : the well known 
 falling tower of Pisa is one. In the countries bordering on the 
 Rhine a similar style prevailed, and it continued in use down to 
 the thirteenth century. Many Romanesque churches in Italy 
 and on the Rhine are contemporary with our cathedrals at 
 Lincoln, Wells, and Salisbury. 
 
4 
 
 TTIE ROMAN PERIOD. 
 
 In Britain the buildings of the Romans appear to 
 have been generally of an inferior description ; it was 
 a remote and half-civilized province, and little attention 
 seems to have been paid to the ornamental character of 
 the buildings. It may be useful to mention the usual 
 characteristics of Roman walls in Britain : they may 
 generally be distinguished by layers of large flat tiles 
 laid horizontally at regular intervals, to strengthen and 
 bind together the rubble walling. In some instances; 
 however, Roman walls are built of, or faced with, 
 large stones, without any layers of tiles, and sometimes 
 without mortar, as in the Roman gateway at Lincoln, 
 
 1. Roman Gate at Lincoln. 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD , 
 
 5 
 
 
 2. Porchester Castle, Hampshire. 
 
 Roman Masonry and Arch formed of Roman bricks or tiles. 
 
 3. Mint Wall, Lincoln. 
 Roman Masonry. 
 
6 
 
 THE BARBARIAN PERIOD. 
 
 part of which is cased with small ashlar-work ; and in 
 the Piets’ Wall in Northumberland, a great part of 
 which still remains. The actual construction of the 
 mass of the wall is usually concrete, or rubble faced 
 with cut stone, with layers of bricks or tiles. Roman 
 mortar may usually be distinguished by being mixed 
 with pounded brick, and in general by its extreme 
 hardness, being often more difficult to break than the 
 tile or the stone itself. This hardness arises in part 
 from the lime having always been burnt on the spot, 
 and used hot and fresh, on which the strength of lime 
 greatly depends. Occasional instances, however, do 
 occur in which this has been neglected, and Roman 
 mortar is reduced to powder as easily as any other. 
 On the other hand, instances also occur of medieval 
 mortar being as hard as Roman, and also in some few 
 cases mixed with pounded brick. Such occasional and 
 rare exceptions do not interfere with the general rule. 
 The Roman ashlar-work generally used for the facing 
 of the wall in England is of small stones almost cubical, 
 laid in regular courses, with rather wide joints. 
 
 The walls of Burgh Castle, Suffolk, and Richborough, 
 Kent, are among the most perfect Roman walls in 
 England. Portions remain, but generally less perfect, 
 in the Roman towns of Colchester, York, Lincoln 
 (1 and 3), Porchester (2), Silchester, Pevensey, and 
 Caister, and others at Leicester, Worcester, Dor- 
 chester, Reculvers, &c. There are vestiges of Roman 
 towns and villas throughout the country, but these 
 consist usually of foundations only. Roman build- 
 ing material is often used again in other buildings 
 near the site of the Roman stations, — as Colchester 
 
THE TIME OF AUGUSTINE. 7 
 
 Castle ; St. Martin’s, Canterbury ; Darent Church, 
 Kent, &c. 
 
 The Koman buildings in England were ruthlessly 
 destroyed by the barbarians who succeeded them, and 
 who appear to have nearly exterminated every trace of 
 civilization. Of the innumerable Koman villas and 
 towns of which the foundations have been discovered 
 in all parts of England, every one bears marks of 
 having been destroyed by violence, and not by time : 
 fire seems to have been the agent of destruction in 
 almost every instance. The upper story was usually 
 of wood, and this greatly facilitated their demolition 
 by fire. 
 
 There is no reason to doubt that many of the Roman- 
 ized Britons were Christians, and had churches ; but 
 it is not probable that the pagan barbarians who de- 
 stroyed every house would leave the churches stand- 
 ing, and instances are very rare of the foundations even 
 of a Koman basilica having been found in England. 
 
 The celebrated direction of Pope Gregory the Great 
 to his missionary St. Augustine of Canterbury 5 , that 
 41 If the temples of the idols are well built, it is requi- 
 site that they be converted from the worship of devils 
 to the service of the true God,” appears to be intended 
 rather as a general instruction on abstract principles, 
 than to be dictated by local knowledge that such was 
 the case. 
 
 It appears, however, from Bede c , that Augustine, by 
 the assistance of the king, recovered the Koman church 
 at Canterbury, and reconsecrated it, and this became 
 
 b S. Gregorii Magni Opera, ed. Bened., vol. ii. col. 1176. 
 c Bed® Hist., lib. i. c. 33. 
 
8 
 
 THE EARLY CHURCH OF CANTERBURY. 
 
 D. Entrance to the Crypt. 
 
 E. Tomb of St. Dunstan. 
 E, F. Choir of the Singers. 
 
 G. Altar of Lady-chapel. 
 
 H. Episcopal Throne. 
 
 I. Baptistery. 
 
 K & L. Towers. 
 
 EAST 
 
 WEfT. 
 
 4. Plan of Roman an d Saxon Cathedral of Canterbury , according to Prof. Willis. 
 
 A. The first altar, enclosing the relics of St. Wilfrid : this was the original 
 high altar, and was built of rough stones and cement, according to Edmer d , 
 which marks its antiquity ; it was afterwards considered too sacred for 
 ordinary use, and 
 
 B. The second altar was constructed in front of it for daiiy use. 
 
 CC. Steps descending from the Presbytery to the Choir. 
 
 d Edm. Vit. S. Wilfridi: Mabilloii, t. iii.p. 227; MS. C.C.C.,p. 77; apv 
 Willis's Cant., p. 4. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 
 
 9 
 
 the foundation of the cathedral. Archbishop Cuthbert 
 added a baptistery about a.d. 750. Archbishop Odo 
 raised the walls and rebuilt the roof about a.d. 950. 
 This fabric was entirely destroyed by fire in a.d. 1067, 
 and Archbishop Lanfranc removed the ruins and laid 
 the foundations of an entirely new church. But Pro- 
 fessor Willis considers that we have sufficient data to 
 shew what the plan of the ancient church was. ( See 
 woodcut, No. 4.) 
 
 When the Saxons were converted to Christianity 
 they were not masons ; they dwelt in wooden houses, 
 and there can be no doubt that their churches were 
 also usually of wood. This is confirmed by numerous 
 passages in contemporary historians, and the frequent 
 mention of the destruction of churches by fire. 
 
 The Roman remains in Britain may be said to be dated by 
 history, and by the principle of comparison with the buildings 
 that are dated in Rome itself, or in the Roman provinces. The 
 Romans left Britain early in the fifth century, and the great 
 wall across, from Carlisle to Newcastle, to keep out the Piets, 
 was one of their last works in Britain (c. a.d. 416)*, and the cha- 
 racter of the existing remains agrees with this; but in some 
 parts there is evidently construction of two periods. The sub- 
 structure of at least one fort, or castle, is of the time of Hadrian, 
 with later work built upon it. The other remains of Roman 
 walls in Britain seem, from the construction, to be almost en- 
 tirely of the third century. 
 
 At TJriconium, and at Silchester, the foundations of the 
 basilica have been found; at Brixworth, the present church 
 appears to have been a Roman basilica ; the walls are Roman, 
 with the arches filled up with rubble-work; the arches are 
 formed of Roman tiles, and are double, one over the other, for 
 additional strength: it has been much altered at different 
 
 e Bed® Hist., lib. i. c. 12. 
 
IO 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD , 
 
 times, and has a tower of the eleventh century at the west 
 end, built upon the Roman walls either of a porch or a western 
 tribune, with a newel staircase to give access to the belfry story, 
 which was built at the same time with it. 
 
 A church is recorded to have been founded in Dover Castle, 
 in a.d. 526, with twenty-two secular canons attached to it, who 
 were appointed and ordained by Adelbald. The establishment 
 was removed into the town in 686, but the old church that 
 remains in the castle seems to be the one then founded. 
 
 The existing church in the castle is partly of Roman work, 
 altered in the eleventh century, and again almost rebuilt in 
 the thirteenth. The tower at the west end, which has been 
 a Roman Pharos, has an original Roman arch opening towards 
 the church, but seems to have been always half detached from 
 it, connected by a porch only. The tower of the church in 
 the port at Ravenna is connected with the church in a similar 
 manner, forming what may be called a semi-detached tower, 
 and this was also probably used as a Pharos, or lighthouse. 
 It is of the sixth century, rather later than the one at Dover. 
 
 The church of St. Martin at Canterbury was also Roman, but 
 has been so frequently altered, and partly rebuilt, that small 
 portions only of the Roman walls remain. Roman bricks are 
 used as old materials in the parts rebuilt. 
 
 In Rome itself the upper stories of the palaces of the Caesars 
 were of wood, and in the Roman villas in England the upper 
 stories were also of wood. “ Half-timber houses,” as they are 
 called, that is, houses of which the foundations and the ground- 
 floors only are of stone, and the upper part of wood, have been 
 found convenient, and therefore have been common in all ages ; 
 but wood was more used in early times than afterwards. The 
 frequent fires shewed the evil of so much wooden building, and 
 after the revival in the eleventh century, churches were gene- 
 rally built of stone, but these were exceptions at all early 
 periods. In districts where stone could not be obtained with- 
 out great difficulty and expense, wood was still used, as in 
 Cheshire. In some districts brick was used largely, as in some 
 parts of the low countries in the east of England ; but on the 
 banks of rivers where stone could be brought by water-carriage, 
 as in Lincolnshire, it was freely used, and some of our finest 
 churches are in those districts. The building materials had 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 
 
 I I 
 
 necessarily great influence in the construction of walls at all 
 periods, but wide-jointed masonry is a usual characteristic of 
 the eleventh century in England and Normandy, and the north 
 of France, and in other countries also. 
 
 The charter granted by King Edgar to Malmesbury Abbey, 
 late in the tenth century (974), mentions that the churches 
 “were visibly ruinated, with mouldering shingles and worm- 
 eaten boards, even to the rafters { ; ” and King Canute’s charter 
 to Glastonbury Abbey, in 1032, is dated from the wooden church 
 there; yet Glastonbury was one of the most wealthy abbeys, 
 even at that time. The walls were covered inside with plates 
 of gold and silver, and outside with lead, but the material of 
 construction was wood t. There is, however, no doubt that the 
 Saxons had some stone churches ; but the building of a stone 
 church was an event of importance, recorded with much pomp 
 by the historians of the period ; they were therefore not com- 
 mon, and it is not until the eleventh century that we can ex- 
 pect to find manv remains of stone buildings h . 
 
 Ordinary dwelling-houses continued to be usually of wood 
 throughout the Middle Ages, and in some parts of the country 
 wooden houses are to this day more common than any others. 
 Wooden palisades were also much used in fortification at all 
 periods. 
 
 Soon after the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, Bede 
 records the building of stone churches at Wearmouth and Jarrow, 
 in the county of Durham, about 680. As this has been considered 
 the starting-point of the history of architecture in England, it 
 
 f “When St. Aidan was sick, they set up a tent for him close to the wall 
 at the west end of the church, by which means it happened that he gave 
 up the ghost leaning against a post that was on the outside to strengthen 
 the wallP The church was twice destroyed by fire, but “ it would not touch 
 that post, although in a most miraculous manner the fire broke through the 
 very holes in it, wherewith it was fixed to the building, and destroyed the 
 church.” — Bede, Hist. Eccles ., lib. iii. c. 17. 
 s See Chron. Petriburg., p. 3. 
 
 h In a.d. 652 St. Finan built a church in the island of Lindisfame : 
 “Nevertheless, afttr the manner of the Scots, (a name which at that 
 period included the Irish,) he made it not of stone, but of hewn oak, and 
 covered it with reeds.” Eadbert afterwards took off the thatch, and 
 covered it, both roof and walls, with lead. (Bede, lib. iii. c. 25.) 
 
12 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD . 
 
 will be better to give the substance of his words : — “ A year after 
 the monastery of Wearmouth had been built, Benedict crossed 
 the sea into Gaul, and no sooner asked than he obtained and 
 carried back with him masons to build him a stone church in 
 the Roman manner, which he had always admired * 1 .” The pre- 
 sent churches at these two places still retain considerable parts 
 of the original structure, although they have been partially 
 Rebuilt towards the end of the eleventh century. As we see from 
 the account given by Beda, that the church at Jarrow was 
 built in one year, it must have been small (see p. 37). There 
 are also a few other churches in the valley of the Tyne, which 
 retain features of very rude and early character, especially 
 doorways, very much resembling that at Monk- Wearmouth, 
 the top of the doorway being formed of one stone; but this 
 evidently depends a good deal on the quarries from which the 
 stone is taken k . 
 
 Before the end of the seventh century stone churches were 
 built by St. Wilfrid at York, Ripon, and Hexham. At York there 
 are no remains of this period, the church having been several 
 times rebuilt, and the earliest portions now remaining are the 
 foundations of the early Norman one. But at Ripon and Hex- 
 ham are crypts closely resembling each other in plan, dimen- 
 sions, and character : they are evidently very early ; and at Hex- 
 ham, bits of Roman ornamented mouldings are built into the 
 walls, which is generally an indication of early work. (See wood- 
 cut, No. 5.) The plan of these crypts is a small oblong cell, with 
 very massive walls, and a passage in the thickness of the walls 
 round three sides of the cell : these passages are not level, but 
 ascending and descending, and there are small openings at in- 
 tervals, as if for persons to look into the cell, or possibly for con- 
 fession. They are popularly called confessionals, but this name 
 is so commonly given to any part of a church of which the use 
 is not obvious, that no importance can be attached to it. 
 
 The ascending and descending passages coincide exactly 
 with the description given by Eddius, in his life of Wilfrid *, 
 
 1 Beda?, Vitae de SS. Benedict, Abb. Wiramuth et Gyrum, &c., s. 1 and 5. 
 
 k A full account of these will be found in the Proceedings of the Durham 
 and Newcastle Archaeological Society. 
 
 1 Sfee Observations on the Crypt of Hexham Church, Northumberland, 
 by T. Hudson Turner, in the Archaeological Journal, vol. ii. p. 239. 
 
st. Wilfrid’s crypt at hexham. 
 
 13 
 
 and the coincidence is too remarkable to be considered as acci- 
 dental. (See No. 6.) They seem to indicate that these crypts 
 were used on certain occasions for the exhibition of the relics of 
 the saint, according to an ancient custom still in common use 
 on the Continent : the faithful descend by one staircase, pass 
 along the narrow passage, look through the opening in the wall 
 
 5. Fragments of Koman Mouldings built in at Hexham. 
 
 at the relics, and then pass on, ascending by the other stair- 
 case ; or sometimes are allowed to pass through one corner of 
 the inner chamber, or cell, and touch the coffin of the saint. 
 The same arrangement occurs in the crypt of St. Peter’s Church, 
 Oxford, as was discovered by some excavations made in the 
 year 1862. 
 
 The old church at Bradford, Wiltshire, is one of the most per- 
 fect examples of the Anglo-Saxon class : the construction is very 
 remarkable ; the stones are unusually large, well cut, and closely- 
 fitted together, with fine joints. In the interior, there are two 
 small figures of angels with scrolls, which seem to have been on 
 the capitals or imposts of the chancel-arch, and which bear 
 a strong resemblance to two figures in the Benedictional of 
 St. iEthelwold, a.d. 960, published in the Archceologia , vol. xxxiv. 
 Plate VIII. [1832] ; but one of them has been moved, and the 
 carving may be later than the original construction. A Norman 
 
14 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 
 
 6. Plan of tlie Crypt at Hexham. 
 
 A. Present entrance, a square pit 7 ft. long by 2 ft. 7 in. broad, and about 
 18 ft. deep to the bottom level of the crypt. 
 
 B. An arched chamber, 9 ft. 2 in. by 5 ft. 7 in., height to top of roof 9 ft. ; 
 recess in the wall, cavity at the bottom. 
 
 C. The cell, an arched chamber, 13 ft. 4 in. by 8 ft., same height as B } 
 three square recesses in side walls, with a cavity m the bottom stone, (per- 
 haps for holy water, or for a lamp,) and a funnel-shaped hollow above ; 
 a stone bracket at the east end, as shewn in plan. 
 
 D. A small chamber, (pointed triangular roof, formed with large flat 
 stones,) 5 ft. 4 in. by 3 ft. 6 in. ; height to apex of roof 8 ft. 
 
 E. A passage, 2 ft. 6 in. broad, length to angle 8 ft 6 in., elbow 4 ft., flat 
 roof covered with large stones. 
 
 F. A small chamber, 6 ft. by 3 ft. 6 in., with a pointed triangular roof, 
 same as D. 
 
 G. A passage, 2 ft. 6 in. broad, 6 ft. 6 in. high, length to angle 13 ft. 6 in., 
 elbow to north 4 ft., walled up with dry stones. 
 
 H. A Roman inscribed slab forms the cover to this angle of the passage. 
 
 The dotted half circles at the openings from one chamber to another, are 
 arched doorways about 6 ft. 3 in. in height. 
 
 The crypt at Ripon is similar as to the general plan of passages round 
 three sides of a central cell, but the entrances are not arranged quite in the 
 same manner. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 
 
 15 
 
 window is inserted in the old wall. The exterior is ornamented 
 with shallow arcading of very unusual character, being only 
 
 7. View and Plan of the Anglo-Saxon Church at Bradford-on-Avon, 
 Wiltshire, A.D. 705. 
 
 incised in the surface of the stone, and not regularly built as 
 arches, nor projecting, so that this ornament might have been 
 cut at any subsequent time after the church was built, but it 
 is itself of rude and early character. This curious building is 
 probably the small original church of the abbey founded by 
 
1 6 THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD . 
 
 St. Aldhelm in the eighth century, a.d. 705. It is mentioned 
 by William of Malmesbury, as existing in his time m . It stood 
 originally in the same churchyard with the present large 
 church, part of which is of the time of Henry II. This good 
 construction may be partly accounted for by the excellent 
 quality of the material, and the situation, in the midst of, or 
 under quarries of excellent stone, of the quality usually known 
 as Bath stone, an oolite very similar to the Caen stone ; but 
 this is not sufficient to account for the absence of wide joints 
 of mortar, which are an invariable characteristic of buildings 
 of the eleventh century. Fine-jointed masonry was not intro- 
 duced before the beginning of the twelfth century, as is proved 
 by the examination of every building whose date can be ascer- 
 tained to belong to the earlier period n . 
 
 St. Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne, founded three monasteries 
 in Wiltshire, at Malmesbury, Frome, and Bradford, at the begin- 
 ning of the eighth century : the charter was confirmed by King 
 Ina in 705°. He also built or rebuilt his cathedral at Sherborne, 
 and William of Malmesbury says he had seen this church ; we 
 have no other remains of that period at any of those places ; but 
 the old church at Bradford may fairly be assigned to that date. 
 
 In the year 710 Bede records that Naitan, king of the Piets, 
 sent messengers to Ceolfrid, Abbot of Jarrow, and prayed to 
 have architects sent him to build a church in his nation after 
 the Homan manner [that is, of stone, not of wood] , promising to 
 dedicate the same in honour of St. Peter, “and Ceolfrid sent 
 the architects as he desired.” This probably records the first 
 introduction of stone churches into Scotland. 
 
 In the ninth century many churches were destroyed in the 
 incursions of the Danes, and although Alfred exerted himself 
 
 m Wilhelmus Malmesburiensis de Vita Aldhelmi, ap. Wharton, Anglia 
 Sacra, vol. ii. p. 22. 
 
 n This observation is intended to apply to buildings with mortar in the 
 joints, not to the early buildings of natural construction. Some of the later 
 examples of that class have very fine joints, too fine indeed to admit mortar 
 or cement of any kind ; but these belong to a much earlier period. After 
 the revival of building in cut stone, subsequent to the year 1000, the 
 construction was at first very rude, and the joints wide. 
 
 ° Wilhelmus Malmesburiensis de Vita Aldhelmi, ap. Wharton, Anglia 
 Sacra, vol. ii. p.22. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 
 
 17 
 
 greatly after the restoration of peace, and employed a sixth 
 part of his income “in the erection of new edifices [of stone] in 
 a manner admirable and hitherto unknown to the English,” no 
 buildings of his age are known to exist. 
 
 In the tenth century we are told by William of Malmesbury, 
 that “ King Athelstan and Archbishop Odo built and repaired 
 many monasteries the word monasterium (or minster) at this 
 period, and long afterwards, frequently means only a church, 
 with three or four priests attached to it. In Osborne’s Life of 
 St.Dunstan mention is made of the building, or rebuilding, 
 of many churches and monasteries by King Edred and King 
 Edgar. The Saxon Chronicle and the Peterborough Chronicle 
 both record the building or restoring of many churches and 
 monasteries by St. Athelwold, and Ordericus Vitalis mentions 
 that St. Dunstan, St. Oswald, and St. Athelwold built twenty- 
 six abbeys or nunneries. The large number of them, and the 
 rapidity with which they were built, shew that they were 
 of wood. 
 
 In these wooden churches all the ornamentation was of 
 metal-work, either bronze or more precious metals ; these have 
 all been melted down, and the wood burnt or decayed. As 
 late as a.d. 962, William of Malmesbury p also tells us that 
 St.Dunstan, as Archbishop of Canterbury, “built, or rebuilt, 
 many monasteries in all parts of w he island, and accumulated 
 'precious metals for the ornamentation of the altars and of the 
 buildings.” It is evident that these buildings were of wood 
 for the most part, but others may have been of stone, as some 
 were standing at the time that William of Malmesbury wrote, 
 about a.d. 1140. The great abbey churches and cathedrals built 
 at that time were certainly of stone (as Ely, Peterborough, 
 Thorney, Winchester, and Ramsey) ; but a century afterwards 
 these were, either on account of the bad construction, or because 
 they were thought too small, entirely rebuilt by the Normans. 
 
 In the illuminations of the celebrated Benedictional of St. 
 Athelwold, engraved in Archceologia, vol. xxiv., a.d. 1832, the 
 capitals and other architectural ornamentation have very much 
 the appearance of being partly of metal and part of wood, rather 
 than of stone. We know that bronze was used for architectural 
 
 p Wilhelm. Malmesb. de Gest. Pontif., p. 202. 
 C 
 
i8 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD . 
 
 ornaments from the earliest period. In the temple of Solomon 
 “ all the ornamentation was of cedar-wood and bronze.” 
 
 A curious poetical description of the rebuilding of Winchester 
 Cathedral by St. Athelwold, a.d. 980, written by his disciple 
 Wolstan, has been preserved; it is very magniloquent, but 
 leaves no doubt that the material was stone, that it had a crypt, 
 and was considered one of the most magnificent works of that 
 age in England t; yet within a century afterwards this church 
 was so much out of repair, or then considered so small, that 
 Bishop Walkelyn found it necessary to build an entirely new 
 one on another site. At the end of this century many churches 
 were again destroyed by the Danes, who overran sixteen coun- 
 ties, and besieged London. It is most probable also that at this 
 period the Christians in England partook of the general belief 
 of Christendom, that tbe world was to come to an end in the 
 year 1000, and of the lethargy which accompanied that belief. 
 
 q MS. Reg. 85, c. vii. in the British Museum, printed in the Honasticum 
 Anglicanum, and frequently reprinted. The most important parts are ex- 
 tracted in the Companion to the Glossary of Architecture, 8vo., Oxford, 
 1846, at the date a.d. 980, p. 19. 
 
 “ Istius antiqui repararit et atria templi 
 Mcenibus excelsis culminibusque novis ; 
 
 Partibus hoc austri firmans et partibus arcti 
 Porticibus solidis arcubus et variis,” &c. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Division of Styles. 
 
 T HE architecture of the Middle Ages, from the 
 eleventh to the sixteenth century, is usually di- 
 vided into certain periods, or styles, for the conveni- 
 ence of classification and to assist the memory. These 
 styles are by no means arbitrary ; they are strictly 
 historical periods, during which certain characters 
 prevailed, succeeding each other in a regular, natural, 
 and well-ascertained order. The change from one style 
 to another was not immediate ; it generally took nearly 
 half a century to effect the transition; and the last 
 half of each of the five centuries, from the eleventh to 
 the fifteenth, was such a period of change or transition. 
 Buildings of the last ten years of a century generally 
 belong in style rather to that which follows. 
 
 1. To the eleventh century belong the greater part 
 of the buildings of the Anglo-Saxon style. In the last 
 half of the century the Norman style was gradually 
 introduced. 
 
 2. In the twelfth century the buildings belong 
 chiefly to the Norman style. In the last half of it, 
 the transition from the Romanesque, or Norman, to 
 the Early English, or first Gothic style, took place. 
 
 3. In the thirteenth century the buildings belong 
 chiefly to the style which is usually called Early Eng- 
 lish ; the last half of it is the period of transition to 
 the Decorated style, which became established before 
 the end of that century. 
 
 4. In the fourteenth century the general character 
 
20 
 
 DIVISION OF STYLES. 
 
 is of the style called Decorated ; the last half of it is 
 the period of transition from the Decorated to the 
 Perpendicular style. • 
 
 5. In the fifteenth century the Perpendicular style 
 prevailed, and this continued during the first quarter 
 of the sixteenth century, though not without symp- 
 toms of a change even before the close of the fifteenth. 
 It was revived again, or perhaps lingered on, to the 
 beginning of the seventeenth; what are called Jaco- 
 bean Gothic buildings of the time of James I. are often 
 very good examples of the Perpendicular style, such 
 as the choir of Wadham College Chapel, and Jesus 
 College Chapel, in Oxford. 
 
 6. In the sixteenth century the Roman style was 
 revived, and that period was called the Renaissance. 
 In Italy it was called Cinque Cento, from the Italian 
 mode of reckoning; Cinque Cento in Italian usually 
 signifies what we call the sixteenth century; the 
 thousand is always left to be understood, and the hun- 
 dred is called after the figures that represent it ; this 
 error is common in other countries also. Many per- 
 sons, not thinking on the subject, call the century by 
 the figures that represent it. Thus, 1450 they call 
 the fourteenth century, and 1350 the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. The revival of the Pagan style did however 
 begin in Rome in the fifteenth century. In England 
 this style at first assumed a character of its own, and 
 is usually called the Elizabethan style, which is a 
 mixture of the old English and the ruder Italian of 
 the Renaissance. 
 
 This nomenclature and this classification of the styles are 
 alike confined to England and English work. The names of 
 
THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 21 
 
 First Pointed, Middle Pointed, and Third Pointed are general, 
 and were intended by their authors to be applied to all Europe. 
 But the progress of the art was not entirely simultaneous, and 
 it would be entering on too wide a field to attempt to point out 
 the character in each country at each period. It will therefore 
 be more convenient to confine our attention to England, and 
 to make use of the received terms, which are most generally 
 understood, and most applicable to the peculiar features of our 
 own buildings. 
 
 The name of Pointed applied to the Gothic styles is further 
 objectionable as being calculated to mislead beginners in the 
 study, who are thereby led to attach far too much importance 
 to the form of the arch, which is not a safe guide at any period. 
 Many very good Gothic buildings, especially castles and houses, 
 have scarcely any pointed arches in them, even as late as the 
 Edwardian castles; and, on the other hand, the pointed arch is 
 found in buildings of early Norman character, of the time of 
 Henry I., and becomes more common than the round arch in 
 the time of Henry II., before the end of the twelfth century. 
 The First Pointed style in England is therefore the style of the 
 twelfth century, and in the south of France of the eleventh. 
 The inventors of this nomenclature applied it to the buildings of 
 the thirteenth century, the earliest period at which the use of 
 Gothic mouldings and details was fully established; but the 
 introduction of these was not simultaneous with that of the 
 pointed arch. 
 
 Beginners also naturally assume that all round-headed door- 
 ways belong to the Norman style or period, which is very far from 
 being always the case. Bound-headed doorways, with distinctly 
 Early English mouldings, are extremely common. They also 
 naturally assume that flat-headed or segmental-headed doorways 
 or windows cannot belong to the Pointed style, or only to the 
 latest and most debased period of it. This is also a mistake ; 
 there are many long, narrow Early English windows with flat 
 heads, and segmental-headed windows are common in the Deco- 
 rated style, as are also flat-headed windows in some parts of 
 the country. These are often local peculiarities, and not any 
 characteristic of the period. These persons also object to the 
 name of Early English , as assuming that the Gothic or Medieval 
 style is exclusively English; this is not the meaning of the 
 term. There are Early French, Early German, or Early Belgian 
 
22 
 
 THE ELEVENTH CENTURY . 
 
 Gothic buildings, but each has some national or local pecu- 
 liarities distinct from the Early English, which is the most 
 pure Gothic of all. The round abacus to the capitals is the 
 natural form for the style, and this is almost exclusively Eng- 
 lish. It is probable that the style was developed in England 
 a few years earlier than in any part of the Continent, owing to 
 the long peace during the reign of Henry II., throughout the 
 British dominion, just during the period of the greatest transi- 
 tion of styles. 
 
 The French Archaeologists also call our Norman style the 
 Anglo-Norman style , and they are right: this style was not 
 fully developed until after the time of the Norman Conquest, 
 and from that time Normandy became a province of England, 
 and the buildings on the Norman side of the channel are not 
 at all in advance of those on the English side. The buildings 
 of the thirteenth century in Normandy are of Early English, 
 not of Early French character. The round abacus is common 
 in Normandy. 
 
 Immediately after the year 1000, when the long- 
 dreaded millenium had passed, the Christian world 
 seems to have taken a new start, and was seized with 
 a furore for erecting stone buildings. Radulphus 
 GLiber, who died in 1045, and appears to relate what 
 he had seen, says that so early as the year 1003 the 
 number of churches and monasteries which were building 
 in almost all countries, more especially in Italy and in 
 France, was so great, that the world appeared to be put- 
 ting off its old dingy attire and putting on a new white 
 robe. “ Then nearly all the bishops ’ seats, the churches, 
 the monasteries of saints, and even the oratories in the 
 villages, were changed by the faithful for better ones*.” 
 
 * “Igitur infra supra dictum millesimum, tertio jam fere imminente 
 anno, contigit in universo pene terrarum orbe prsecipue tamen in Italia 
 et in Galliis innovari ecclesiarum basilicas, licet pleraeque decenter locat® 
 minimi indiquissent : aemulabatur tamen quaeque gens Christi-colarum 
 adversus alteram decentiore frui. Erat enim instar ac si mundus ipse 
 

 THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE. 
 
 23 
 
 In the year 1017 Canute succeeded to the throne, 
 and soon began to restore the monasteries which had 
 been injured or destroyed by the military incursions of 
 himself and of his father: “He built churches in all 
 
 8. Barnack b , Northamptonshire. 
 
 Tower-arch of Anglo-Saxon character. 
 
 the places where he had fought, and more particularly 
 at Aschendune [Ashdon, Essex]. 1 ” This edifice is 
 
 excutiendo semet rejecta vetustate, passim candidam ecclesiarum vestem 
 indueret. Tunc denique episcopalium sedium ecclesias pene universal 
 ac caetera quaeque diversorum sanctorum monasteria, seu minora villarum 
 oratoria in meliora quique permutavere fideles .” — Glabri Radulphi His- 
 tories , lib. iii. cap. 4, ex bibl. Pithaei, fol. Francof., 1506, p. 27. 
 
 h Barnack was one of the places where the old church was burnt by the 
 Danes in their raid through that part of the country, and rebuilt by order 
 of Canute, after the settlement of the Danes. 
 
24 
 
 THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 called a Basilica, and is expressly mentioned as being 
 of stone and lime ; at the consecration of it, Canute was 
 present himself, and the English and Danish nobility 
 made their offerings. All these circumstances shew 
 that it was a building of considerable importance at 
 that time. Yet William of Malmesbury, writing about 
 a century afterwards, says that in his time it was “an 
 ordinary church, under the care of a parish priest C . M 
 
 In 1041 Edward the Confessor succeeded to, and 
 carried on, the good work of restoration which had 
 been begun by Canute. In the great abbey that he 
 founded at Westminster, the style of the building is 
 distinctly Norman, though early in that style. It is 
 about as much advanced as the work in Normandy of 
 the same period, and is said to have been built by 
 Norman workmen. The original parts of the church 
 of St. Stephen, or the Abbaie aux hommes , at Caen, 
 are not more advanced d ; but the work was carried on 
 after the Conquest, and it is doubtful how much is 
 of the time of the Confessor. Many churches and 
 monasteries were now rebuilt, and new ones founded, 
 and as masonry and the art of building were improved 
 by practice, and by the importation of Norman work- 
 men, it is probable that we have several churches of 
 this period still remaining. 
 
 c William of Malmesbury, lib. ii. c. 181, a.d. 1020, vol. i. p. 306, ed. 
 Hardy : Ad consecrationem illius Basilic® ut ipse affuit, et optimates 
 
 Anglorum et Danorum donaria porrexerunt; nunc ut fertur, modica est 
 Ecclesia presbytero parochiano delegata.” 
 d See “Gleanings from Westminster Abbey,” by Sir G. G. Scott, R.A., 
 8vo., 1861, and a Memoir of St. Stephen’s Church, Caen, by J. H. Parker and 
 G. Bouet, in the Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects, 
 1863 and 1866. The vaults are a century later than the walls. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE 2$ 
 
 Leofric and his wife Godiva built many monasteries in this 
 reign ; among them Stow in Lin- 
 colnshire is mentioned; and of 
 the present church at Stow it is 
 probable that the lower part of 
 the walls of the transepts, with 
 the jambs of the arches on the 
 north and south sides of the tower 
 are of this date. It is a curious 
 andinteresting cruciform church : 
 the nave is early Norman, the 
 chancel late Norman, and a Nor- 
 man clerestory has been added 
 upon the Anglo-Saxon walls of 
 the transepts; later arches have 
 also been introduced within the 
 old ones, either to reduce the size 
 of the tower, or because the build- 
 ers were afraid to trust the old 
 arches, though these are Norman, 
 built upon the Saxon jambs. 
 
 The church of Deerhurst, in 
 Gloucestershire, may also be 
 safely assigned to this period. 
 
 The chancel -arch is now built 
 up ; the original chancel was de- 
 stroyed in the Civil Wars, and 
 a stone, with an inscription re- 
 cording the dedication of the 
 church in 1053, was dug up on 9* Tower ^Deerhurst Church, 
 the site of the chancel, and sent The upper sto ' ry is a * n additi on. 
 to Oxford, where it is now pre- 
 served among the Arundel marbles in the Ashmolean Museum. 
 The tower is a very remarkable one, being divided into two 
 parts by a solid wall, with a barrel- vault over one division only, 
 but this vault is of later date. The tower itself may be, and 
 probably is, of somewhat later date than the chancel was, and 
 the inscription related to the chancel rather than the tower. 
 
 The church of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, also has an inscription 
 in the Danish language recording its erection by Earl Tosti, in 
 
2 6 
 
 THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 the time of Edward the Confessor, about 1060. Respecting this 
 church, Rickman, with his usual accuracy and caution, observed, 
 “ As this inscription has been removed from its original place, 
 it is now no evidence of itself as to what part of the church 
 is Saxon; but as the western door, now stopt, and the arch 
 to the chancel, are both of them very rude, though in some 
 degree resembling Norman, they may, on a careful examination 
 of them, be considered portions of the old building.” There 
 can be little doubt that several of the towers now generally 
 considered as Anglo-Saxon belong to this reign e . It should be 
 noticed also that these early towers are generally more lofty, 
 and of smaller diameter, than the Norman towers usually are. 
 
 The characteristic features of the buildings of this 
 style, by which they are readily distinguished, may be 
 briefly described. 
 
 The towers are without buttresses or staircases, and 
 are either of the same dimensions from the ground to 
 the summit, or diminishing by stages, or, in some late 
 examples, slightly battering. The masonry of the 
 earlier examples is very rude and irregular, often with 
 tiles built in among the stones, and frequently of the 
 kind called herring-bone, and was, in many instances, 
 originally covered with plaster. There are almost 
 always at the angles quoins formed of long stones set 
 upright, alternately with others, either long or short, 
 laid horizontally, being what is technically called 
 
 e Their peculiar character was first pointed out by Mr. William Twopeny 
 to his friend the late Mr. Rickman, who followed up the search with great 
 diligence and success, and described them admirably. His researches have 
 since been followed up by Mr. M. H. Bloxam and others, and the number 
 of churches of this character enumerated in the Glossary of Architecture 
 is about a hundred. Mr. Twopeny has since come to the conclusion that 
 the greater part of these are not Saxon. By this he probably means that 
 they are not earlier than the year 1000, many of them are before the 
 time of the Norman Conquest, but that event made no immediate change 
 in the style of architecture. 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE. 
 
 2 7 
 
 long -and- short work, as at Corhampton Church, Hamp- 
 shire, (17). In several instances this long-and-short 
 work is carried over 
 the surface of the 
 tower in the manner 
 of a framework of tim- 
 ber, as in the tower of 
 Earl’s Barton, (10). 
 
 This framework is 
 evidently intended 
 to bind together the 
 rude masonry of the 
 walls, and gives an 
 idea of their having 
 been imitated from 
 timber -buildings. 
 
 Each side of the 
 tower of Sompting 
 Church ends in a ga- 
 ble, and from thence 
 rises a pyramidal 
 roof, in the man- 
 ner of the German 
 
 churches; and this io. Tower of Earl’s Barton, Northamptonshire, 
 Tu-nhnbl'o- fho shewing the Anglo-Saxon character, with 
 was prODaDiy me “long-and-short work” at the corners, and 
 
 mode in which most the “P ilaster strips,” or an imitation of 
 moue m wnicn most wooden construction in stone, which has 
 
 Of the towers were been called “stone carpentry.” 
 terminated originally, as the parapets of all the other 
 examples known of this character are comparatively 
 recent. 
 
 The windows are frequently triangular-headed ; that 
 is, the head is formed by two straight stones placed 
 
28 
 
 THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 obliquely and meeting in a point, whilst the jambs are 
 formed either of single stones, or of long-and- short work, 
 (13). Sometimes 
 the single windows 
 are mere rude open- 
 ings in the walls, 
 round-headed (12), 
 and, in many cases, 
 the arch is formed 
 of tiles set edge- 
 ways, forming a 
 triangular head ; in 
 small windows the 
 head is frequently 
 cut out of a single 
 stone, and often a 
 frame-work of 
 square-edged stones 
 runs quite round 
 the window; the 
 opening is likewise, 
 in many instances, 
 wider at the bot- 
 tom than at the 
 
 . 11. Tower, Sompting, Sussex, 
 
 top. Another com- , , 
 
 Of the Anglo-Saxon character, with long-and- 
 mon feature is, that 8hort ^ork at the angles, and pilaster strips 
 on the face. 
 
 they are splayed on 
 
 the outside as well as the inside, the window being 
 set in the middle of the wall; the opening widens 
 both outwards and inwards, as at Caversfield, Bucks., 
 (12), whereas in the windows of the later styles the 
 window is usually placed near the outer face of the 
 
TEE ANGLO-SAXON STYLE. 
 
 29 
 
 wall, and splayed within only. The double windows 
 are either triangular- headed or round-headed, but 
 their chief pecu- 
 liarity consists in 
 the divisions of 
 the lights; these 
 are usually not di- 
 vided by a piece 
 of masonry, but 
 by a rude kind of 
 shaft, or baluster, 
 set in the middle 
 of the wall, and 
 
 supporting the 
 
 f v -u q 12. Window, Caversfield, Buckinghamshire, 
 impost, wnicn is wittl small opeflW and very wide splay. 
 
 a long stone car- 
 ried through the 
 entire thickness 
 of the wall (14) f . 
 The doorways, like 
 the windows, are 
 either triangular- 
 headed or round- 
 headed, and are 
 sometimes built of 
 rough stones, and 
 perfectly plain, 
 sometimes, like 
 the windows, sur- 
 rounded by a 
 
 13. Belfry Window, Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, 
 A.D. 1053. 
 
 With triangular heads and fluted pilasters. 
 
 f These are technically called mid-wall shafts, they are common in 
 many parts of the Continent, and are not always early, though they 
 generally are. 
 
30 
 
 THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 14. Bellry Window, Wickham, Berkshire. 
 Of the Ai.glo-.-*axon character. 
 
 framework of square-edged stones, with plain stones 
 for imposts; but in some instances these imposts are 
 moulded, or ornament- 
 ed with fluting, and 
 the arches are also 
 moulded: some of these 
 mouldings are exactly 
 like Norman work. 
 
 Sculptures are not 
 frequent, but the 
 cross of the Greek 
 form is found in seve- 
 ral places. In general, 
 few mouldings are 
 used, and some of 
 these are thought to 
 resemble Roman ra- 
 ther than Norman 
 work, as at Sompting 
 and Deerhurst. (See 
 11 and 13) The 
 chancel-arch and the 
 tower- arch frequently 
 remain in the build- 
 ings of this class ; 
 they are distinguished 
 chiefly by the peculiar 
 character of the impost 
 mouldings, which are 
 different from those of 
 any subsequent style : 15. Belfry Window, St. Mary, Bishop’s- Hill 
 sometimes merely a Of the Anglo-Saxon character. 
 
THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 31 
 
 square tile- shaped stone is used, and sometimes the 
 lower edge is chamfered off, like the common Anglo- 
 Norman mould- 
 ing ; in other 
 cases the mould- 
 ings are very 
 singular, as at 
 Bamack (8) and 
 Corhampton. 
 
 The impost fre- 
 quently has its 
 projection in- 
 ward from the 
 
 j amb of the jg. Be ^ ry -^th Balusters, Earl’s Barton, 
 
 arch, and is not Northamptonshire. 
 
 carried along the plain face of the wall g . 
 
 17. Corhampton Church, Hampshire. 
 
 g They frequently appear to have been left plain by the builders, -with 
 the intention of being carved afterwards. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Early Norman Period. 
 
 T HE Norm an style was introduced into England in 
 the time of Edward the Confessor; the king himself 
 founded the great Abbey of Westminster, and many 
 of the buildings were begun in his time. Of this 
 
 18. Early Norman Vaulting, Chapel of the Pix, in the substructure of the 
 Dormitory, Westminster Abbey, A.D. 1060—1066. 
 
 church he had completed the choir and transepts, which 
 were sufficient for the performance of divine service, 
 and it was then consecrated, Dec. 28, 1065, a few days 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 33 
 
 only before his death. The nave at that time was not 
 built : it is probable tha a nave was built soon after- 
 wards, but of this church we have no remains \ The 
 dormitory was in all probability building at the same 
 time, as the monks who had to perform the service in 
 the church must have required a place to sleep in. Of 
 this dormitory the walls and the vaulted substructure 
 remain (18). The refectory also was begun at the 
 same period, and we have the lower part of the 
 walls, with the arcade at the foot; the work is rude 
 and clumsy Norman, with wide -jointed masonry, 
 and the capitals left plain, to be painted or carved 
 afterwards. 
 
 Soon after the Norman Conquest a great change 
 took place in the art of building in England. On 
 consulting the history of our cathedral churches, we 
 find thaf in almost every instance the church was re- 
 built from its foundations by the first Norman bishop, 
 either on the same site or on a new one ; sometimes, 
 as at Norwich and Peterborough, the cathedral was re- 
 moved to a new town altogether, and built on a spot 
 where there was no church before; in other cases, 
 as at 'Winchester, the new church was built near the 
 old one, which was not pulled down until after tbe 
 relics had been translated with great pomp from the old 
 church to the new\ In other instances, as at York and 
 Canterbury, the new church was erected on the site of 
 the old one, which was pulled down piecemeal as the 
 
 » Fragments of a church of the twelfth century have been dug up in 
 different parts of the church ; and the remains of St. Catherine’s Chapel, 
 which belonged to the infirmary, are of the time of Henry I. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. 
 
 new work progressed. These new churches were in 
 all cases on a much larger and more magnificent scale 
 than the old; they were also constructed in a much 
 better manner, the Normans being far better masons 
 than the Saxons. 
 
 Notwithstanding this superiority of workmanship to 
 that which had preceded it, the early Norman masonry 
 is extremely rude 
 and bad; the joints 
 between the stones 
 are often from one 
 inch to two or 
 three inches wide, 
 and filled with 
 mortar not always 
 of very good qua- 
 lity. In conse- 19. Rubble Masonry, Gundulph’s To^er, called 
 
 J . . St. Leonard’s, at Mailing, Kent, A.D. 1070. 
 
 quence 01 this mi The earl j est Norman Keep in existence. 
 
 perfect construc- 
 tion, many of the towers fell down within a few years 
 after their erec- 
 tion. It is pro- 
 
 bable, however, j\ W «a- o #.i, 
 
 that the work- ~ ^ 
 
 men employed on « 
 these structures ($] 
 were for the most 
 part Saxons, as 
 theNormansmust 
 
 have been too 20. Wide-jointed Masonry, Chapel in the Wliite 
 much employed Tower, London, A.D. 1081. 
 
 otherwise during the reign of the Conqueror to execute 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 35 
 
 much masons’ work with their own hands. Nor were 
 the Norman monks established in sufficient numbers 
 to be able to superintend all the works which were 
 going on at this period ; the cathedrals and large 
 monasteries must have occupied nearly all their atten- 
 tion. The ordinary parish churches which required 
 rebuilding must have been left to the Saxons them- 
 selves, and were probably built in the same manner as 
 before, with such slight improvements as they might 
 have gleaned from the Norman works. 
 
 The Normans themselves were, however, but little in 
 advance of the English in the building art: the style 
 which we call Norman correctly for this country, is 
 called by the French archaeologists Anglo-Norman, 
 and with reason ; that style was developed as much in 
 England as in Normandy. 
 
 We have a strong confirmation of this in the city of Lincoln : 
 the Conqueror having taken possession of about a quarter of the 
 old city to build a castle upon, and Bishop Kemigius having pur- 
 chasednearly another quarter to build a cathedral and monastery, 
 the Saxon inhabitants were driven down the hill on which the old 
 city stands, and took possession of some swampy land at the foot 
 of the hill, which they drained, and redeemed from the fens or 
 marshes of which nearly all the low country then consisted. 
 On this new land they built several churches. One of these, 
 St. Peter’s at Gowts (21), or at the Sluices, remains nearly entire, 
 and St. Mary le Wigford has retained the tower built at this 
 period b . This is an important and interesting fact in the his- 
 
 b For these particulars respecting the city of Lincoln I was indebted to 
 my lamented friend the late Mr. E. J. Wilson of that city, one of the most 
 learned archaeologists of his day, the author of the Glossary in Pugin’s 
 “Specimens,” and of much of the letterpress in the works of the elder 
 Pugin, the “ Specimens” and “ Examples” of Gothic Architecture. 
 
36 
 
 THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. 
 
 tory of architecture, as it confirms what was before only a na- 
 tural supposition, and it enables us to fill up a gap : we appeared 
 to have scarcely any parish churches of the early Norman period, 
 but it is now evident 
 that many of the long 
 list of churches of the 
 Anglo-Saxon typebelong 
 to a period subsequent 
 to the Conquest. The 
 tower of St. Michael’s 
 Church, Oxford, is one 
 of those included by 
 Rickman as of the 
 character supposed to 
 be Saxon, but the im- 
 posts of the window- 
 arches are quite of Nor- 
 man character, and it 
 was probably built after 
 the Conquest. The 
 tower of Oxford Castle 
 was built by Robert 
 D’Oyly in the time of 
 William Rufus, but it has 
 much of the appearance 
 of the Saxon buildings. 
 
 The churches at Jar- 
 row and Monk -Wear- 
 mouth were almost en- 
 tirely rebuilt in the lat- 
 ter part of the eleventh m x 
 
 f . , , 21. Tower, St. Peter at Gowts, Lincoln, c. 1080. 
 
 century, by monks sent 
 
 t tn i. , , , , Of the Anglo-Saxon character, 
 
 from Durham, but the 
 
 old materials were used, and portions of the old walls retained. 
 At Monk-Wearmouth the west wall of the old church forms the 
 east wall of the tower up to a certain height. The other three 
 walls have been rebuilt of the old materials. There is a straight 
 vertical joint between these porch-walls and the old church, and 
 some of the stones are misplaced. The arch of the north door 
 has been reversed. At Jarrow one wall of the chancel appears 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 37 
 
 to have belonged to the old church, both the towers are 
 of the eleventh century, or certainly the upper part 0 . The 
 date of the partial rebuilding of the present church must be 
 shortly after 1075, when the monk 
 Aldwin and his two associates 
 were placed there by Walcher, 
 bishop of Durham : and “ when 
 the bishop saw the monks wishful 
 to rebuild the church itself and 
 the ruined monastic dwelling- 
 places, he gave to them the vill 
 of Jarrow with its appendages, 
 viz. Preston,” &c. The rebuild- 
 ing of Jarrow was subsequent to 
 that of Wearmouth, and if we 
 assign the date of 1083 to it, we 
 cannot be far wrong (22). 
 
 Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester, 
 was the great architect of the 
 time of William the Conqueror. 
 
 The first building of his that we 
 have remaining is the keep of his 
 castle at Mailing, in Kent, called 
 St. Leonard’s Tower, which was 
 built about 1070 (19). This is of 
 earlier character than any keep 
 in Normandy. My lamented 
 friend, M. de Caumont, long the 
 leader of the Norman antiquaries, 
 examined the sites of the castles 
 of all the barons who came over 22. Tower, Monk’s Wearmouth, 
 to England with William, and Durham, A D. 1075. 
 
 he found no masonry of that Of the Anglo-Saxon character, 
 period in any one of them. Their 
 
 castles had consisted of very fine earthworks and wood only. 
 Soon after this time, Gundulph built the keep of the cas- 
 tle in London called the White Tower (20), and the cathe- 
 
 « Simeon of Durham, in his short summary prefixed to the “ History of 
 the Church of Durham,” and chapters 56 and 57. 
 
38 
 
 THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. 
 
 23. Capital, Jarrow, 
 A.D. 1075. 
 
 dral® of Rochester, of which we have a part of the crypt, and 
 some remains of the wall of the nave 
 and north transept. The whole of this 
 work is extremely rude; the construc- 
 tion is usually rubble. When of ashlar, 
 the joints are very wide, and the capitals 
 of the shafts clumsy. (24.) 
 
 The abbey church of St. Alban’s, built 
 in the time of William the Conqueror 
 and William Rufus, as distinctly re- 
 corded by contemporary historians, partakes of the Saxon cha- 
 racter in many parts : we find ba- 
 luster shafts in abundance, quanti- 
 ties of Roman tiles, and other fea- 
 tures usually considered Saxon, but 
 there is not the slightest doubt that 
 the church was built from the foun- 
 dations after 1077, when the work 
 was commenced by Abbot Paul of 
 Caen. The materials of an older 
 church are used in it; they were 
 probably brought from old Verulam, 
 with the Roman bricks, which are 
 largely used in the construction. 
 
 The church of Wotton-Wawen, 
 
 Warwickshire, is of the Anglo-Saxon 
 style : a cell to the Benedictine 
 
 abbey of Conches, in Normandy, wa3 
 founded here about 1080, by Robert 
 de Tonei, standard-bearer to the 
 Conqueror. 
 
 The church of Daglingworth, Glou- 
 cestershire, has nearly all the Saxon 
 characteristics, excepting that the 
 masonry and workmanship are better 
 than any early Norman work, and 
 it cannot, in fact, have been built 
 before the time of Henry I. 
 
 
 24. Respond, from Gundulph’s 
 Crypt at Rochester, A.D. 1080. 
 
 e The present castle at Rochester is of a century later than the time of 
 Gundulph. It was rebuilt under Henry II. 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR . 
 
 39 
 
 It is customary to date the introduction of the Nor- 
 man style into England from the Norman Conquest, in 
 1066, although that important event had no immediate 
 effect on the style of Architecture, and perhaps the re- 
 mainder of the eleventh century may be considered as 
 a period of transition, just as the last quarter of each 
 of the three following centuries was a period of transi- 
 tion from one style to another ; and it may be well to 
 observe, that in all such periods, not only were build- 
 ings of a mixed character erected, but some buildings 
 were almost entirely in the old style, others altogether in 
 the new one : this has been called by Professor Willis 
 “an overlapping of the styles,” and generally lasts 
 from twenty to thirty years. In treating of the Nor- 
 man period we must bear in mind that Normandy was 
 then a province of the same kingdom, and that the in- 
 tercourse between Kent and Normandy was at least as 
 frequent and as easy as between Yorkshire and Devon- 
 shire ; so that although there are certain marked pro- 
 vincialisms, there is no real difference or priority of 
 style in one province over the other, after the Norman 
 power was fully established in England. It is cus- 
 tomary to point to the two great abbey churches at 
 Caen, founded and endowed by William and Matilda, 
 as models to be referred to, and as proving the great 
 advance of Normandy over England; but this is, in 
 a great degree, a mistake, arising from the common 
 error of confusing the date of the foundation of a mo- 
 nastery with that of the erection of the existing church : 
 a small part only of the church of St. Stephen at Caen 
 is of the time of the Conqueror, and a still smaller part 
 of that of the Holy Trinity, the present building of 
 
40 
 
 THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. 
 
 which is considerably later than the other. In both 
 of these fine churches, the vaults, and the upper parts 
 of the structure, are of the twelfth century. 
 
 In the church of St. Stephen there is work in the Norman 
 style of three distinct periods. The first, c. 1060, is almost en- 
 tirely concealed by the later additions and alterations, and can 
 only be seen by diligent search; it is wide-jointed, and these 
 wide joints of mortar are finished with care, project and over- 
 lap the stones slightly, even in parts where they never could 
 have been intended to be seen, thus shewing the custom of the 
 age when it was built. It agrees exactly with the work of the 
 time of Edward the Confessor at Westminster. All those parts 
 of the church, which are readily visible, and are usually known 
 by engravings, belong to the second and third periods, although 
 a large part of the fabric actually belongs to the first. The 
 aisles have been originally covered by wooden roofs only, and 
 the triforium gallery separated from the aisles below by a wooden 
 floor. At the second period, c. 1090, the aisles were vaulted 
 with simple groined vaults without ribs: to this period also 
 belong the lower part of the two western towers and the present 
 west front, which are built up against the original west front, 
 still existing behind them, separated by a straight joint quite 
 through the whole building: each of the present towers con- 
 sisting, in fact, of three sides only, the fourth being a part of the 
 original west front. The work of the second period is of fine- 
 jointed masonry, but very plain and early looking. 
 
 At the third period, c. 1160, the large vault over the central 
 space was introduced, cutting across the old clerestory windows, 
 the heads of which appear above the vault ; at this period also 
 the whole of the ornamentation of the interior was changed, 
 the inner surface of the wall being faced with a thin coat of 
 fresh ashlar, as may be distinctly seen in the clerestory gallery. 
 The triforium arcade is also quite different from that of the 
 second period, as is seen by comparing it with the one bay of 
 that work which exists in each of the western towers. The 
 cause of the great vault being sexpartite, and the clerestory 
 windows so irregular, probably is, that each alternate pier of 
 the original work was much more massive than the intermediate 
 ones, in order to carry transverse arches across the nave to 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR . 
 
 41 
 
 support the heavy timbers of the early roof, as in several of the 
 basilicas at Rome, in the church of Cerisy, near Bayeux, founded 
 by the father of the Conqueror, and in many buildings of later 
 date, such as the halls at Conway and Carnarvon, in North 
 Wales, and at Mayfield, in Sussex. At the Abbaie aux dames , 
 or church of the Holy Trinity, at Caen, there is work corre- 
 sponding to that of the second and third periods at the Abbaie 
 aux hommeSy or St. Stephen’s, but none that is visible belonging 
 to the first period ; the masonry is all fine-jointed, and the orna- 
 ments agree with the later parts of St. Stephen’s. This church 
 was originally consecrated in the same year that it was founded, 
 which makes it probable that the original structure was of 
 wood only. 
 
 The church of St. Nicholas at Caen is usually cited as an ex- 
 ample of very early Norman work, but its history is very doubt- 
 ful, and the work does not agree with other early work in the 
 same town : it is probably not earlier than 1100. 
 
 That portion of St. Stephen’s which really belongs to this time 
 agrees exactly with the work of the early Norman bishops in 
 England, and we find the same throughout the Norman period. 
 The abbey church at Cluny was the model most extensively 
 followed in the monastic churches, both here and in Normandy, 
 for a considerable period. Unfortunately, this model church 
 has been almost destroyed. 
 
 The abbey church at Jumieges deserves to be particularly 
 noticed, as it is a most interesting ruin, and was consecrated 
 the year after the Conquest; it is of extremely plain and early 
 Norman character, and the capitals are ornamented with 
 painted foliage of late Norman character; but there are rude 
 volutes under the plaster of the original early Norman style f . 
 
 The most important buildings of the time of the Con- 
 queror and of William Rufus were the Norman castles 
 or keep-towers, but most of these were rebuilt in the 
 following century. The earliest Norman keep existing 
 is the one built immediately after the Conquest, by 
 
 f See Jumieges, in Part II. of this Introduction; see also ante , 
 chapter ii. p. 26. 
 
42 THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD 
 
 Gundulph, at Mailing in Kent, miscalled St. Leonard's 
 tower (see No. 19). There are still some Norman 
 keeps of this period remaining, as London ; but Dover 
 
 25 Norman Keep, Newcastle-on-Tyne, founded A.D. 1080. 
 
 The battlement is not original. 
 
 and Rochester in Kent, Newcastle in Northumberland, 
 Appleby and Carlisle in Cumberland, Brougham in 
 Westmoreland, Richmond and Conisborough in York- 
 
WILLIAM TEE CONQUEROR. 
 
 43 
 
 shire, Porchester in Hampshire, Guildford in Surrey, 
 Goodrich in Herefordshire, Norwich and Castle Rising 
 in Norfolk, Hedingham and Colchester in Essex, are 
 later, and belong chiefly to the twelfth century ; but 
 most of them, if not all, were founded at this early 
 period. Rochester has been entirely rebuilt on another 
 site. From the uniformity of plan — a massive square 
 tower, wdth a square turret at each angle of small 
 projection, and a flat buttress up the centre of each 
 face — and the general plainness of the work, it requires 
 a careful examination of each of these buildings to 
 ascertain to which period it belongs. The only parts 
 where any ornament is to be found are usually the 
 
 
 26. Chapel in the White Tower, London, A.D. 1081. 
 Early Norman Arch and Window. 
 
44 
 
 THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. 
 
 entrance-doorway and staircase, and the chapel, and 
 these are commonly rather late Norman. There is 
 frequently a solid wall in the middle, dividing the 
 keep into two portions, with no communication in the 
 lower parts. The passages for communication be- 
 tween one part of the building and another are made 
 in the thickness of the walls &, the central part having 
 been divided by floors only, and not vaulted, in the 
 earlier examples. Groined stone vaults, of rough 
 stone, were introduced towards the end of the eleventh 
 century in castles as well as in churches; but rib- 
 vaulting of cut stone not before the twelfth. 
 
 The number of churches which were commenced in 
 the reign of the Conqueror and his successor was so 
 great, that it is impossible to notice them all : but few 
 of them were completed until after 1100; it was not, 
 indeed, until after 1080 that the country was suffi- 
 ciently settled for much building to be begun. 
 
 The chapel in the White Tower, London (see 20, 26), is one 
 of the best and most perfect examples of this period ; its cha- 
 racter is massive and plain, though the work is well executed. 
 Its plan is oblong, consisting of a nave with narrow aisles which 
 stand on the thickness of the walls : the walls have passages 
 in them also in the other parts; the nave has plain barrel- 
 vaults ; the pillars are short and thick, and most of the capitals 
 
 * These thick massive walls are in fact double walls with the interval 
 filled with rubble concrete, and passages left in them. The inner wall 
 usually carries the vault, the outer wall and buttresses serve to support 
 it, and to resist the side thrust of the vault and cross-arches. The walls 
 of the fortifications of Rome of the time of the Emperors of the third and 
 fourth centuries, and other walls of earlier date, have passages in them, 
 and a double facing, or outer and inner wall, often faced with very 
 fine brickwork, but with the mass of concrete or rubble between them. 
 The Normans appear to have taken the idea of their double walls from 
 these. 
 
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 45 
 
 are plain, but some have a little ornament carved upon the 
 abacus and capital, apparently some time after the construction 
 was completed, being within easy reach. 
 
 The nave and transepts of Ely were erected by Abbot Simeon, 
 brother of Bishop WaLkelyn. Part of the west front of Lincoln 
 was built by Bishop Remi (Remigius, or of Reims), between the 
 years 1085 and 1092 : the small portion which remains of this 
 work is a very valuable specimen of early Norman, the more so 
 that the insertion of later and richer Norman doorways by 
 Bishop Alexander, about fifty years afterwards, enables us to 
 compare early and late Norman work, while the jointing of 
 the masonry leaves no doubt of the fact that these doorways are 
 insertions, and therefore confirms the early date of the three 
 lofty arches under which they are inserted. A comparison of 
 the capitals and details of these two periods, thus placed in 
 juxtaposition, is extremely interesting h . The wide-jointing of 
 the masonry and the shallowness of the carving distinguish the 
 old work from the new. Several capitals of the later period are 
 inserted in the older work, as is shewn on careful examination 
 by the jointing of the masonry, and by the form of the capitals 
 themselves : the earlier capitals are short, and have volutes at 
 the angles, forming a sort of rude Ionic ; the later capitals are 
 more elongated, and have a sort of rude Corinthian, or Com- 
 posite foliage. 
 
 The crypt and transepts of Winchester Cathedral are of this 
 period, built by Bishop Walkelyn on a new site. 
 
 In the time of William Rufus the work so well begun 
 by the Norman bishops was carried on so vigorously, 
 that, before the close of this century, every one of the 
 Saxon cathedrals was undergoing the same process of 
 destruction to be rebuilt on a larger scale and in a 
 better manner. The portions which remain to us of 
 the work of this reign are the crypt of Worcester; the 
 crypt, the arches of the nave, and part of the transepts 
 of Gloucester; the choir and transepts of Durham; 
 
 An engraving of this front may be seen in the Vetusta Monumenta. 
 
46 
 
 THE EARLY NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 the nave and transepts of Christchurch in Hampshire ; 
 the choir and transepts of Norwich. 
 
 The history of Canterbury Cathedral has been so carefully 
 preserved, by contemporary records, and these have been so 
 thoroughly investigated by Professor Willis, and compared with 
 the existing structure, that we may almost put a date upon 
 every stone of this magnificent fabric ; it is therefore our best 
 and safest guide in the study of the architecture of that period 
 in England. The work in the older part of the crypt agrees 
 exactly with that at Lincoln, and the other early Norman works 
 above mentioned. The crypt is, however, not part of Lanfranc’s 
 work, for it is remarkable that his church was entirely pulled 
 down and rebuilt by his successor, St. Anselm, between 1096 
 and 1110, under the direction of Priors Ernulf and Conrad. 
 Even in the time of Gervase, writing in 1170, he says, “You 
 must know, however, good reader, that I never saw the choir of 
 Lanfranc, neither have I been able to meet with any description 
 of it : Eadmer indeed describes the old church, which before the 
 time of Lanfranc was constructed after the Roman manner ; he 
 also mentions, but does not describe, the work of Lanfranc, which 
 succeeded this old church, and the choir of Conrad, constructed 
 in the time of St. Anselm.” From this we may fairly conclude 
 that the work of Lanfranc was of very inferior character. 
 
 During the first fifteen or twenty years of the twelfth 
 century, and of the reign of Henry I., there was no per- 
 ceptible change of style ; the numerous great works 
 which had been begun during the preceding twenty 
 years were carried on, and many of them were com- 
 pleted. During this period we have accounts of the 
 dedications, — which shew that the work was sufficiently 
 forward for the choir to be used, — of Ely, Rochester, 
 "Winchester, Hereford, St. Alban’s, Gloucester, Durham, 
 Norwich, Canterbury, and some others. Several new 
 works were commenced also, as Tewkesbury Abbey, 
 St. Botolph’s, Colchester, St. Bartholomew’s, Smith- 
 field, the nave of Durham, the choir of Peterborough, 
 
WILLIAM RUFUS . 
 
 47 
 
 and Reading Abbey : but we do not find any difference 
 between the early parts of these and those which imme- 
 diately preceded them. 
 
 It may also be observed 
 that there is no dif- 
 ference whatever be- 
 tween those which were 
 built on the sites of the 
 Saxon cathedrals, and 
 those which were now 
 first erected on entirely 
 new sites. 
 
 Early in the twelfth cen- 
 tury occurred the fall of 
 the tower of Winchester 
 Cathedral, celebrated from 
 the peculiar circumstances 
 with which it was accom- 
 panied, which are thus 
 described by William of 
 Malmesbury, who was liv- 
 ing at the time : — “ A few 
 countrymen conveyed the 
 body [of the king, William 
 Rufus], placed on a cart, 
 to the cathedral of Win- 
 chester, the blood dripping 
 • from it all the way. Here 
 it was committed to the 
 ground within the tower , 
 attended by many of the 
 nobility, but lamented by 
 few. The next year the 
 tower fell; though I for- 
 bear to mention the different opinions on this subject, lest 
 I should seem to assent too readily to unsupported trifles ; more 
 
 27. Interior of IT. Transept, ‘Winchester, 
 A.D. 1079-1093. 
 
 Shewing a plain square-edged semicir- 
 cular arch, a groined vault without 
 ribs, shafts with cushion capitals, and 
 an ornamental arcade. 
 
48 
 
 TEE EARLY NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 especially that the building might have fallen through imper- 
 fect construction , even though he had never been buried there.” 
 That this was really the case, the building itself affords us 
 abundant evidence, and proves that even the Normans at this 
 
 28. Transept, Winchester Cathedral, A.D. 1079—1093. 
 
 A. Pier-arches. N.B. It may be noted that the pier-arches, triforium, 
 
 B. Triforium, or Blind-story. and clerestory, are all nearly of equal height, 
 
 C. Clearstory, or Clerestory. which is frequent in the Norman style, but not 
 
 afterwards. 
 
HENRY THE FIRST. 
 
 49 
 
 period were still bad masons, and very imperfectly acquainted 
 with the principles of construction. The tower which was re- 
 built soon after the fall is still standing, and the enormous 
 masses of masonry which were piled together to support it, and 
 prevent it from falling again, shew such an amazing waste of 
 labour and material as clearly to prove that it was the work 
 of very unskilful builders *. 
 
 This example (27, 28, 29) is valuable to us also in 
 anotherrespect: the 
 two transepts were 
 only partially in- 
 jured by the fall 
 of the tower; the 
 greater part of both 
 of them belongs to 
 the original work ; 
 the junction of the 
 old work and the 
 new can be dis- 
 tinctly traced ; and here we begin to find a difference 
 of character in the new work, and a mark by which 
 we can readily distinguish one from the other: the 
 joints between the stones in the old work are wide, 
 filled with a great thickness of mortar; in the new 
 work they are comparatively fine, often leaving room 
 for scarcely more than to pass a knife : the one is 
 called “ wide -jointed masonry,” the other “ fine-jointed 
 masonry,” and this is the best and safest distinction 
 between early and late Norman work or generally 
 between the eleventh and twelfth centuries ; the rule 
 is almost of universal application. In confirmation 
 of this we may cite another passage from William of 
 
 ▲ 11-0. A.U iOJO. 
 
 29. Winchester Cathedral, Transept. 
 
 ' See Wilh. Malm., vol. ii. p. 510, edit. Hardy. 
 £ 
 
50 
 
 TILE EARLY NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 Malmesbury, describing the work of his own time, and 
 what he had probably seen himself: — “He [Roger, 
 Bishop of Salisbury] was a prelate of great mind, and 
 spared no expense towards completing his designs, 
 especially in buildings ; which may be seen in other 
 places, but more particularly at Salisbury and at 
 Malmesbury, for there he erected extensive edifices at 
 vast cost, and with surpassing beauty, the courses of 
 stone being so correctly laid that the joint deceives the 
 eye , and leads it to imagine . that the whole wall is com- 
 posed of a single block.” The buildings here alluded 
 to were erected between 1115 and 1 139 k , this may 
 then fairly be considered as the turning-point between 
 early and late Norman work ; and here it will be 
 convenient to pause in our history, and describe the 
 characteristic features of early Norman work. It will 
 be desirable, in the first place, again to call in the 
 evidence of an eye-witness to the change, and this 
 we are fortunately able to do. Gervase the monk, 
 in his description of the reconstruction of Canterbury 
 Cathedral after the great fire, draws this contrast be- 
 tween the old and the new work : — 
 
 “ It has been stated that after the fire nearly all the old por- 
 tions of the choir were destroyed, and changed into somewhat 
 new and of a more noble fashion ; the difference between the 
 two works may now be enumerated. The pillars ot the old 
 and new work are alike in form and thickness, but different in 
 length : for the new pillars were elongated by almost twelve 
 feet. In the old capitals the work was plain, in the new ones 
 exquisite in sculpture. There the circuit of the choir had 
 
 k Wilhelm. Malmeeb., vol. ii. p. 637, edit. Hardy. Sherborne Castle, 
 Dorsetshire, is one of the well-authenticated buildings of Bishop Roger, 
 of which there are considerable ruins; the masonry is fine-jointed. 
 
HENRY THE FIRST. 
 
 51 
 
 twenty-two pillars, here are twenty-eight. There the arches 
 and everything else was plain, or sculptured with an axe and 
 not with a chisel (30) ; but here, almost throughout, is appro- 
 priate sculpture. No marble columns were there, but here are 
 innumerable ones. There in the circuit around the choir the 
 vaults were plain, but here they are arch-ribbed, and have key- 
 stones. There a wall set upon pillars divided the crosses [tran- 
 septs] from the choir, but here the crosses are separated from 
 
 30. Part of Arcade, Canterbury. 
 Shewing the junction of the old and new work. 
 
 the choir by no such partition, and converge together in one 
 key-stone, which is placed in the middle of the great vault, 
 which rests upon the four principal pillars. There, there was 
 a ceiling of wood decorated with excellent painting, but here is 
 a vault beautifully constructed of stone and light tufa. There 
 was a single triforium, but here are two in the choir, and a third 
 
52 
 
 TEE EARLY NORMAN STYLE . 
 
 in the aisle of the church. All which will be better understood 
 by inspection than by any description.” 
 
 It will at once be seen that although this is a de- 
 scription of a particular building, a great deal of it 
 is of general application. It is not probable that, if 
 the workmen employed on 
 the early Norman buildings 
 were accustomed to the free 
 use of the chisel, they would 
 have used the axe only in so 
 important a work as the glori- 
 ous choir of Prior Conrad, who 
 completed St. Anselm’s work. 
 
 Accordingly, we find in early 
 Norman work that the chisel 
 was very little used ; most of 
 the ornaments are such as can 
 be readily worked with the 
 axe, and whatever sculpture 
 there is appears to have been 
 executed afterwards, for it 
 was a general practice to exe- 
 cute sculpture after the stones 
 were placed, as is evident in 
 the early work at Westmin- 
 ster: some of the capitals in 
 the crypt of Canterbury are 
 only half finished to this day 
 (31), the work of carving 31 Crypti 0antOT ^,' A . D . m0 . 
 
 having probably gone on until Norman capital, With carving 
 . , , . . , commenced and left unfinished. 
 
 it was stopped by the great 
 
 fire. If the sculpture is early it is very rude, and 
 
HENRY THE FIRST. 
 
 53 
 
 the work is shallow. But shallowness of carving de- 
 pends partly on the nature of the material to be carved ; 
 from this cause buildings of a hard stone, such as 
 granite, often appear much older than they really are. 
 Baptismal fonts especially are frequently made of hard 
 stone or marble, which admit of shallow sculpture; 
 and rich Norman work cut shallow may be found as 
 late as the time of Henry II . 1 
 
 Although the roofs of the aisles at Canterbury had 
 been vaulted, the choir itself had a flat boarded ceiling, 
 painted like that still remaining at Peterborough. The 
 vault of the choir of the cathedral of Sens is also an 
 addition of later date than that of Canterbury. The 
 same change was made in many other churches of that 
 period. The builders of the early Norman period did 
 not venture to erect a vault over so large a space ; we 
 do not find any early vault over a space above twenty 
 feet wide, and few of so wide a span. Many of our 
 Norman cathedrals still have timber roofs over the 
 large spaces, and the aisles vaulted. In Normandy 
 vaults were more frequently used than in England, 
 even at this early period; and this was still more the 
 case in subsequent times, for the fine open timber 
 roofs for which some parts of England are distinguished 
 are unknown in Normandy, where almost every village 
 church is vaulted over. 
 
 1 There is reason to believe that the celebrated fonts of rich shallow 
 sculpture at East Meon, Winchester Cathedral, St. Michael’s Southampton, 
 and some others, in England, and in France in the diocese of Laon, are 
 as late as a.d. 1180, although looking much earlier, and long supposed to 
 have been of the Saxon period. There is also reason to believe that they 
 were imported from Flanders, where the material is found of which they 
 are all made, a sort of black marble. One of them is dated by an inscrip- 
 tion upon it, and they are all of the same character of sculpture. 
 
54 
 
 THE LATER NORMAN STYLE . 
 
 Here it may be well to mention, that down to the 
 early Norman period the eastern limb of a cruciform 
 church, or the chancel of a plain oblong plan, was 
 always short, rarely more than a single square, or at 
 the utmust two squares, in length, and was frequently 
 terminated by a round east end called an apse. Im- 
 mediately after this period the custom of lengthening 
 the eastern limb of the church became so general that 
 the original dimensions have been almost lost sight 
 of. The history of nearly every one of our cathedrals 
 gives the same result : first, the choir was lengthened 
 by the addition of a presbytery, and afterwards still 
 further by adding a lady-chapel, which did not come 
 into iashion until quite the end of the twelfth cen- 
 tury m . 
 
 In parish churches the same custom was imitated as 
 far as means would allow ; but in many instances the 
 ground-plans of these have never been altered. Cassing- 
 ton, in Oxfordshire, has an original Norman vaulted 
 chancel, just one square bay eastward of the tower ; at 
 Iffley a second bay has been added at a subsequent 
 period, but the original termination may be distinctly 
 traced; at Stewkley the original plan has been pre- 
 served. 
 
 Gervase and AVilliam of Malmesbury have furnished 
 us, as we have seen, with a clue by which to dis- 
 tinguish the work of the early Norman period from 
 that of a later age, namely, wide-jointed masonry 11 , 
 and shallow sculpture executed chiefly with the axe 
 
 m In large buildings, the west front, with the belfry towers, was com- 
 monly built next after the choir, the nave being often left till long 
 afterwards. 
 
 D See examples at the White Tower ( 20 ), and Winchester ( 29 )« 
 
ME EARLY NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 55 
 
 instead of the chisel. The best and safest test is the 
 wide-jointed masonry, where it is found ; but in some 
 cases the joints can hardly he said to be either wide 
 or fine; they are of a moderate width, and not of 
 marked character either way. 
 
 Thus early Norman work may generally be distin- 
 guished by being much plainer than late, but as plain 
 work is not always early, a few other characteristic 
 features may be mentioned. The arch is generally at 
 first not recessed at all, afterwards only once recessed, 
 and the edges are either square, or have a plain round 
 moulding cut upon them ; the zigzag ornament is used, 
 but not so abundantly as at a later period; the drip- 
 stone is frequently ornamented with what is called the 
 hatched moulding ; the billet is also used, but sparingly, 
 and perhaps not before 1100; it is found in the early 
 parts of Peterborough, but not in the later parts. The 
 head of the door is generally square with a round arch 
 over it, and the intermediate space under the arch, 
 called the tympanum, is either left plain, or ornamented 
 with shallow sculpture of rude character. 
 
 The windows are generally plain, small, round- 
 headed, and single lights, except the belfry windows; 
 small circular openings are also a common feature, as 
 in the clerestory 0 of Southwell Minster. Some of 
 the other distinctions between early and late Norman 
 work will be more conveniently pointed out under the 
 respective heads of Doorways, Windows, Arches, &c. 
 
 0 As the French antiquaries have adopted Rickman’s term of clerestories 
 from the old mode of spelling the word clear-story to distinguish it from 
 the blind-story , now called the triforium, it is perhaps better for us also 
 to retain the old mode of spelling in England. 
 
56 
 
 THE NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 Early Norman buildings were generally low, and the 
 walls have frequently been raised in the later Norman 
 period, as at Canterbury, where, as we have seen, the 
 side walls were raised about twelve feet. 
 
 We have now arrived at the period of those eich 
 Noeman chueches which may still be considered as 
 amongst the glories of our land. 
 
 It is very remarkable that so large a number of 
 buildings of the rich character which generally distin- 
 guishes this style should all have been built in about 
 half a century, from 1120 to 1170 or 1180; yet such is 
 clearly the case. The early Norman style has been 
 already described; the late or rich Norman is chiefly 
 characterized by the abundance of ornament and the 
 deep cutting, the absence of which is the chief charac- 
 teristic of the earlier period. 
 
 Before we proceed to describe it, a few of the buildings known 
 to have been erected at this time may be mentioned. 
 
 Peterborough Cathedral was begun from its foundations in 
 1117 by John de Seez, who formed the plan of the whole of it, 
 which was rigidly carried out by his successors, and it was con- 
 secrated in 1143 ; the work is very good, but not very rich. The 
 Norman tower at Bury St. Edmund’s was commenced in the 
 same year, 1117, and finished in 1130 ; the porch is an addition 
 about half a century later. The nave of Norwich was built 
 between 1122 and 1145 ; the work is still very plain, being in 
 continuation of the previous work. Castor Church, Northamp- 
 tonshire, bears an inscription recording its dedication in 1124 : 
 the tower is good, rich Norman work; the ornaments are the 
 hatched, the square billet, and the scollop, all of very simple 
 character, shallow, and easily worked. Furness Abbey was 
 founded in 1127, but very little of the original work remains. 
 In Canterbury Cathedral, the work of Prior Ernulf, under 
 St. Anselm, was completed in 1130, and part of Rochester, 
 
THE NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 57 
 
 where Ernulf had become bishop, in the same year; so that 
 we need not be surprised at finding more ornament in these 
 two cathedrals 
 than is quite con- 
 sistent with the 
 usual character 
 of early Norman 
 work, and the 
 same ornaments 
 repeated in both 
 these churches 
 (32). St. Martin’s 
 Priory at Dover 
 was founded in 
 1131 ; the refec- 
 tory is still stand- 
 ing, and is a good 
 example of plain 
 Norman work, 
 neither very 
 early nor very 
 late. 
 
 The Augusti- 
 nian priory of 
 Dunstable, in 
 Bedfordshire, was 
 also founded in 
 1131 ; the origi- 
 nal parts of the 
 west front and 
 of the nave are 
 remarkably fine and rich Norman work. 
 
 The Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx, in Yorkshire, was also 
 founded in 1131, by Walter Espee ; the original work is Norman, 
 with pointed arches ; we have not the date of dedication, but 
 the privileges granted by the Pope in 1160 would shew that the 
 buildings were then completed. Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, 
 also of this Order, was founded in 1132, by Thurston, Arch- 
 bishop of York; and buildings of the monastery, including half 
 of the oratory, or chapel, were burnt in 1140. The remains of 
 this great abbey are extensive, and include not only the church, 
 
 32. Arcade of Ernulf at Canterbury, A.D. 1110. 
 The same occurs at Rochester, a.d. 1120. 
 
 The two capitals were probably carved afterwards. 
 
58 
 
 THE NORMAN STYLE. 
 
 but considerable parts of the domestic buildings also ; parts of 
 them are pure Norman, other parts are of transitional and later 
 character. The church was re-founded in 1204, but part of the 
 nave certainly belongs to the original structure. The offices 
 are mentioned as building in 1139 p, at the expense of Alexander, 
 Bishop of Lincoln, and are pure Norman work. The eastern 
 part of the church, in which were nine altars, in imitation of 
 Durham, belongs to the thirteenth century. 
 
 St. Bartholomew’s Church in Smithfield was the church of 
 the Augustinian priory founded in 1123 by Bahere, the king’s 
 jester or minstrel, and he obtained a charter from the king in 
 1133, by which time it is probable that the buildings were in an 
 advanced state. It has been mentioned that three Greek 
 travellers of noble family were present at the foundation, and 
 foretold the future importance of the church «. They were 
 probably merchants from Byzantium, and it has been con- 
 jectured that they were consulted by the founder respecting the 
 plan and architectural character of the church. The aisle 
 round the apse remains in a very genuine state r , and agrees 
 with this period; it is of rather early Norman character, with 
 transverse arches, which are of the horse-shoe form. The upper 
 part of the choir is of later date than this aisle ; the central 
 tower is not square, and the arches are transitional, two being 
 round and two pointed, with mouldings and details of much 
 later character than those of the aisle ; the nave has been de- 
 stroyed, except one bay, and the vaults of the aisles have parts 
 of modern houses built upon them. 
 
 In the same year, 1133, Porchester Church, Hampshire (70), 
 was founded; the west front is a good example of the usual 
 character of this period. Buildwas Abbey, in Shropshire, was 
 founded in 1135 ; it is fine and rich Norman work. In the same 
 year Castle Acre Priory Church, in Norfolk, was commenced; it 
 is one of the best specimens of rich Norman work, and was 
 completed in 1148. St. Cross Church, near Winchester, was 
 founded in 1136; much of the early part is very plain, part of it 
 is transitional, but the work appears to have been suspended 
 for several years, probably for want of funds. In 1148, St. Au- 
 
 p Mon. Ang., vol. v. p. 299. •» Ibid., vol. vi. p. 294. 
 
 r This has, unfortunately, now been restored , and can no longer be 
 depended on. 
 
NORMAN DOORWAYS. 
 
 59 
 
 gustine’s Priory, Bristol, was founded; the gateway and the 
 chapter-house are fine examples of late, rich Norman work. 
 Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire, was removed to its present site in 
 1152, and the church finished in 1182 ; part of the work is good 
 Norman, and the later part transitional. Bayeux Cathedral, in 
 Normandy, was partly rebuilt between 1160 and 1170; the arches 
 of the nave, of this period, are of late and rich Norman work. 
 
 The Rich Doorways form one of the most import- 
 ant features of late JS orman work ; they are generally 
 
 33. West Doorway, Iffley Church, Oxfordshire, c. 1160. 
 
6o 
 
 NORMAN WINDOWS. 
 
 round-headed, very deeply recessed, and frequently 
 have shafts in the jambs. The tympanum is frequently 
 filled with rich sculpture, which becomes deeper and 
 better executed as the style advances. The mouldings 
 are numerous, but not of much variety in section, 
 consisting chiefly of round and quarter-round members, 
 but all preserving a general square outline. These 
 mouldings, however, as well as the jambs and shafts, 
 are frequently entirely overlaid with ornament, which, 
 
 though of a peculiar and somewhat rude character, 
 produces great richness of effect; and few features 
 
 34 . Part of South Doorway, Iffley Church, Oxon, c. 1160. 
 Shewing rich Norman Ornament. 
 
NORMAN WINDOWS. 
 
 6 1 
 
 of churches arc more generally admired than these rich 
 Norman doorways. 
 
 The Windows are in general long and rather narrow" 
 round-headed openings, but sometimes of two lights 
 divided by a shaft, included under one arch, more espe- 
 cially in belfries ; in rich buildings they are frequently 
 ornamented in the same manner as the doorways, with 
 recessed arches, zig-zag and other mouldings, as at 
 Iffley, Oxfordshire (36), and sometimes with sculpture; 
 other examples have shafts in the jambs carrying the 
 arch-mouldings, and others are quite plain. At Castle 
 Rising, Norfolk, is a very rich late example, with inter- 
 secting arcades on each side, ornamented chiefly with 
 the lozenge moulding (37). In Romsey Abbey, Hamp- 
 shire (35), Walt- 
 ham Abbey, Es- 
 sex, Christ Church 
 Cathedral, Oxford, 
 and very many 
 other examples, 
 the clerestory win- 
 dow has a smaller 
 blind arch on each 
 side of it, making 
 a triple opening 
 within to a single 
 wdndow ; and the 
 shafts of this tri- 
 ple opening are 
 made to carry small 
 shafts to the upper 
 arches. This is a common arrangement of Norman 
 
 35. Hornsey Abbey, Hants, c. 1180. 
 
6 : 
 
 NORMAN WINDOWS. 
 
NORMAN WINDOWS. 
 
 clerestory windows : at St. Stephen's, Caen, there is 
 only one sub-arch to each light instead of two, hut 
 this arises from 
 the arrangement 
 of the sexpartite 
 vaulting. 
 
 At Sutton Court- 
 ney, Berkshire 
 
 (38) , is a rare ex- 
 ample of the mould- 
 ings being carried 
 through, like part 
 of an intersecting 
 arcade. At St. 
 
 Maurice’s, York 
 
 (39) , is a two-light 
 window, with a 
 small round open- 
 ing in the head, the 
 earliest germ of 
 tracery; the cha- 38. Sutton Courtney, Berkshire, c. 1170. 
 
 racter of the shaft, with its capital and base, shews 
 this to be very late Norman. These two last examples 
 are interesting, as shewing some of the early steps to- 
 wards tracery. The fine circular windows with wheel- 
 like divisions belong to this period : Barfreston, in 
 Kent, is a good example. There was frequently one 
 in the centre of the west front, which was called the 
 oculus, or eye of the building. These large round 
 windows are much more common on the Continent 
 than in England. In Italy there are many fine ex- 
 amples, as at Toscanella, Perugia, and Assisi. The 
 
6 4 
 
 NORMAN PIERS. 
 
 French also appear to have always had a particular 
 fondness for this kind of window, which in the later 
 styles becomes the 
 magnificent rose- 
 window, so often 
 the glory of the 
 French churches. 
 
 Norman windows 
 are far less common 
 than the doorways, 
 haying frequently 
 been destroyed to 
 make room for those 
 of later styles; pro- 
 bably for the pur- 
 pose of introducing 
 the painted glass of 
 thoseperiods, which 
 
 did not suit well 39 . st . Maurice’s, York, c. 1180. 
 
 with the early win- Late Norman Window, with small circular 
 ^ opening in the head. 
 
 The Piers in the earlier period are either square 
 solid masses of masonry, or recessed at the angles (40), 
 in the same manner as the arches, or they are plain 
 round massive pillars, with frequently only an impost 
 of very simple character, but often with capitals. The 
 round pillars are sometimes ornamented with a kind of 
 fluting, as in the crypt at Canterbury, sometimes with 
 a rude and shallow zig-zag pattern, as at Waltham 
 Abbey, Durham, and Lindisfarne (42). 
 
 In the later period the pillars are in general not 
 
NORMAN ARCHES. 
 
 65 
 
 so massive as in the early part of the style, and are 
 frequently ornamented with small shafts; and these 
 as well as the pillars are sometimes banded, as at 
 St. Peter’s, Northampton (41). 
 
 40. St. Alban’s Abbey, A.D. 1080. 41. St. Peter’s, Northampton, c: 1160. 
 
 Early Norman Pier, recessed and Late Norman Pier, with twisted 
 square-edged. and banded shafts attached. 
 
 The Akches are generally roun d-headed : in early 
 work they are plain and square-edged, with or without 
 a recess at the angle ; sometimes doubly recessed, and 
 still square-edged, as in the early work at Westminster 
 (18), the White Tower, London (26), and the transept 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 NORMAN ARCHES. 
 
 of Winchester (27) ; sometimes moulded, with plain 
 round mouldings. In the later period they are more 
 richly moulded, than 
 in the early part of 
 the style (42) : the 
 chancel -arch espe- 
 cially is very much 
 enriched ; and the 
 western side, facing 
 the spectator when 
 looking towards the 
 altar, is generally 
 much more orna- 
 mented than the 
 .eastern side. The 
 chancel-arch at 
 Iffley is one of the 
 richest and best 
 examples : where 
 
 there is a central 
 tower, as in that 
 instance, both the 4 2 >Lindi8farnePri?]T)I)urliam>A>p 1094 _ 112 o. 
 
 tower-arches across Arch richly moulded, one pier with shafts at- 
 j. i , , tached, the other with zig-zag fluting. 
 
 the church are 
 
 usually ornamented in the same manner; the side- 
 arches, where there are transepts, are frequently much 
 plainer, and often pointed. Norman arches are not 
 unfrequently of the horse-shoe form, but the drawing- 
 in at the imposts is generally slight ; this sometimes 
 may arise from a settlement in the foundations only, 
 but arches and vaults are often evidently so built. 
 
 In the apse in the White Tower the arches are 
 
NORMAN ARCHES. 
 
 67 
 
 stilted to accommodate them to their position. The 
 arches of the triforium are generally wide and low j 
 sometimes they are divided by two sub-arches. 
 
 The form of the arch was at all periods dictated 
 partly by convenience, and is not to be relied on as 
 a guide to the date or style ; but' there was a prevail- 
 ing fashion, and that form was usually followed at 
 each period, unless there was some reason for changing 
 it, which is generally obvious if we look for it. To 
 judge of the age of any building we must look at the 
 general character of the work, and not seize upon 
 some particular feature to ground any rule upon. The 
 mouldings are generally the safest guide, but even 
 these sometimes require to be qualified by comparison 
 with other parts. 
 
 The small Arcades which are frequently used as 
 decorations of the walls, and for sedilia, have scarcely 
 any separate character; they are diminutives of the 
 larger arches, except that the shafts are smaller and 
 shorter in proportion : in rich work they are used both 
 inside and outside of the walls, and frequently on the 
 outside of the clerestory, as well as on the inside in 
 front of the blind-story, now called the triforium. 
 Intersecting arches occur in these arcades from a very 
 early period; and Rickman observes, that whoever 
 constructed them, constructed pointed arches; and he 
 adds, “ It appears as if the round and pointed arches 
 were for nearly a century used indisoriminately, as 
 was most consonant to the necessities of the work, 
 or the builder’s ideas.” At Canterbury, an orna- 
 
68 
 
 NORMAN ARCHES. 
 
 3p 
 
 mental arcade of intersecting arches ( 29 ) occurs both 
 on the inside and outside of the wall in St. Anselm’s 
 tower. The work is frequently quite as massive, and 
 in all other respects of as early character, with the 
 pointed arch as with the round one ; they occur in 
 Malmesbury Abbey Church ( 43 ), apparently in the 
 work of Roger 
 bishopofSalis- 
 bury a.d. 1115 
 —1139, with- 
 out any other 
 apparent dif- 
 ference of cha- 
 racterfromthe 
 rest of the 
 work. The 
 pointed arch, 
 taken byitself, 
 is therefore no 
 proof of the 
 changeofstyle, 
 nor even of 
 late work. 
 
 The obser- 
 vation of so 
 careful and ac- 
 curate an ob- 
 server as Rick- 
 man scarcely 43 ‘ Malmesbtir7 AWje y> Wiltshire, A.D. 1115 -39. 
 
 . " Pointed Arch with pure Norman mouldings and 
 
 requires, per- scolloped capitals. 
 
 haps, to be strengthened by additional examples ; but 
 
 as the early use of the pointed arch, long prior to any 
 
NORMAN ARCHES. 
 
 69 
 
 change of style, has not been generally observed, it 
 may be useful to mention a few more instances. The 
 Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, which is 
 chiefly the work of the Crusaders, soon after 1100, 
 has pointed arches in that part of it which they built r . 
 St. Cross Church, near Winchester, founded by Henry 
 de Blois in 1136, has pointed arches; and thetriforium 
 has intersecting arcades, with the intervals left open as 
 windows. To these may be added, Fountains Abbey, 
 Yorkshire, founded 
 in 1132: pointed 
 arches occur in the 
 early part of the 
 work, which is of 
 pure Norman cha- 
 racter, and appears 
 to have been built 
 before the fire in 
 1140; — and Kirk- 
 stall Abbey ( 44 ), 
 built between 1152 
 and 1182: here 
 
 the work is of 
 later character, 
 but still pure Nor- 
 man. All these 
 are previous to the 
 period of transi- 
 tion, and have 
 not transitional 
 mouldings. 44. Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire, 1152—1160. 
 
 r See Professor Willis’s History of the very curious and interesting church 
 of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 8vo., Lond. 1849. 
 
70 
 
 NORMAN CAPITALS. 
 
 Mr. Gaily Knight and the Duke of Serradifalco published in 1843 
 some valuable engravings of the churches in Sicily, built by the 
 Norman Count, afterwards King, Roger, between 1129 and 1140 : 
 these afford very curious examples of the mixture of Norman and 
 Saracenic work, which is only to be found, and could only be 
 found, in Sicily. The arches are pointed, and Mr. Gaily Knight 
 considered that this was the origin of the introduction of the 
 pointed arch into northern Europe : and there is an apparent 
 probability in the theory, on account of the frequent intercourse 
 between the Normans in Sicily and their countrymen in Nor- 
 mandy and - England. Some of the examples in England appear, 
 however, to.be of nearly as early date ; and in the south of France 
 the pointed arch was in common use before that time. 
 
 The churches in Palestine, built by the Crusaders during the 
 continuance of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1100 — 1187, have 
 pointed arches,- but no Gothic mouldings or ornaments; their 
 character is entirely that of French work of the same period, 
 and rather that of the south of France than the north • 
 
 The Capitals in early 
 work are either plain cubi- 
 cal masses with the lower 
 angles rounded off, forming 
 a sort of rude cushion shape, 
 as at Winchester (45), or 
 they have a sort of rude 
 volute, apparently in imita- 
 tion of the Iohic, cut upon 
 the angles ; and in the 
 centre of each face a plain 
 square block in the form of 
 the Tau cross is left pro- 
 jecting, as if to be after- 
 wards carved : this remark- 
 able feature is found in the 
 
 45. North Transept, Winchester, 
 A.D. 1079-93. 
 
 The Cushion Capital. 
 
 • See the excellent work of Count Melchior de Vogu£, Les Eglisea de la 
 Terre Sainte; 4to., Paris, 1860. 
 
NORMAN CAPITALS . 7 I 
 
 chapel of the White Tower, London (46), in the early 
 part of the crypt at 
 Canterbury, at St. 
 
 Nicholas, Caen, and 
 other early work, 
 but it has never 
 been observed in 
 lute work. 
 
 The scolloped 
 capital belongs to 
 rather a later pe- 
 riod than the plain 46. White Tower, London, A D. 1081. 
 Cushion or the rude Earl y Ca P ita l With rude volutes and the Tau. 
 
 Ionic, and does not occur before the time of Henry I. ; 
 as at Stourbridge (47), Malmesbury (43), and Kirkstall 
 (44). This form of capital was perhaps the most com- 
 mon of all in the first half of the twelfth century, and 
 continued in use to the end of the Norman style. 
 
 The capitals 
 were frequently 
 carved at a period 
 subsequent to 
 their erection, as 
 in the crypt at 
 Canterbury, 
 where some of 
 the capitals are 
 finished, others 
 half finished, 
 with two sides 47. Stourbridge, Cambridgeshire, c. llaO. 
 blank, and others Scolloped Cipital ' 
 
 not carved at all (SO.). In the early work at West- 
 
 'll 
 
7 2 
 
 NORMAN CAPITALS. 
 
 minster, before mentioned, this is equally evident. At 
 Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire, is the jamb of a Nor- 
 man doorway with the pattern for the sculptor scratched 
 upon it with the chisel, but never executed l . 
 
 In later Norman work the capitals are frequently 
 ornamented with foliage, animals, grouns of figures, &c., 
 in endless variety. 
 
 The abacus through- 
 out the style is the 
 most characteristic 
 member, and will 
 frequently distin- 
 guish a Norman 
 capital when other 
 parts are doubtful. 
 
 1 1 s section is a square 
 with the lower part 
 chamfered off, either 
 by a plain line or 
 a slight curve ; but 
 as the style ad- 
 vanced it had other 48. Wootten, Gloucestershire, 
 
 mouldings added Late and rich Norman Capital. 
 
 "48), and the whole are frequently so overlaid with 
 ornament that it is difficult to distinguish the section 
 (or profile) of its mouldings. 
 
 1 The terms “sculpture” or “carving” are not usually applied to the 
 mouldings, which are said to have been “ worked,” and these appear to have 
 been generally worked before they were placed ; for instance, the arch- 
 moulds at Iffley, as in almost all cases of zig-zag mouldings, are not con- 
 tinuous ; each stone appears to have been worked separately, and somewhat 
 clumsily fitted together. 
 
NORMAN BASES. 
 
 73 
 
 The Bases are at first very simple, consisting merely 
 of a quarter-round moulding; then of two quarter- 
 rounds, or two and a chamfer; or else of a round, or 
 a chamfer and a quarter-round (49) : as the style ad- 
 vanced they became more enriched, and the number 
 of members more 
 numerous ; the 
 earlier examples re- 
 semble the Tuscau, 
 the later appear to 
 be imitated from the 
 Attic base. They 
 always follow the 
 form of the shaft or 
 pillar, and stand 
 upon a square ped- 
 estal or plinth; the 
 angles of this square 
 plinth being frequently 
 filled up with some 
 ornament, called foot- 
 ornaments, or base orna- 
 ments (50) : these in- 
 crease in richness and 
 boldness as the style 
 advances, and their use 
 was continued for some 
 time in the subsequent 
 
 S ^ e * 50 . St Cross, Winchester, c. 1180. 
 
 49 . North Transept, Winchester, A.D. 1 079- 
 Early Norman Base. 
 
 Late Norman Base and Foot-ornament. 
 
 The Niches, or Tabernacles, are small shallow 
 recesses with round arches, frequently much enriched ; 
 
74 
 
 NORMAN NICHES. 
 
 they are chiefly placed over the doorways, and gene- 
 rally retain the figures which they were constructed 
 to receive. These figures being executed in low relief 
 upon the surface of the stone, were less liable to injury 
 than the figures of the later styles, which are carved 
 on separate stones and inserted. The most usual figure 
 is that of Christ (51), distinguished by the cruciform 
 
 51. Leigh, Worcestershire, c. 1100L 
 Tabernacle with figure of Christ, under a moulded arch, with shafts 
 having the cushion capital and the plain Norman abacus. 
 
 nimbus. The sculpture is at first very shallow, but 
 becomes deeper as the style advances. 
 
 The Mouldings have been already mentioned in 
 describing the doorways, where they are most abun- 
 
NORMAN MOULDINGS. 
 
 75 
 
 dantly used; they are, however, freely employed on 
 all other arches, whether the pier -arches, or over 
 windows, wall arcades, &c., and frequently also a 3 
 horizontal strings or tablets. One of the most usual 
 and characteristic Norman strings exactly resembles 
 the abacus of the capital, or the impost of the pier, 
 with a hollow chamfer under it (52); another is merely 
 chamfered off 
 above an dbelow 
 
 (53), forming a 
 semi -hexagonal 
 projection. Nor- 
 man ornaments 
 
 52. St. Alban’s Abbey, Hertfordshire, c. 1080 
 Norman Chamfer. 
 
 53. Westminster Hall, c. 1097. 
 
 are of endless 
 variety; the 
 most common 
 is the chevron, 
 or zig-zag (54), 
 and this is used 
 more and more 
 abundantly as 
 the work gets 
 later; itisfouDd 
 at all periods, 
 even in Roman 
 work of the 
 third century, 
 and probably 
 earlier, but in 
 all early work it 
 is used sparingly, and the profusion with which it is 
 used in late work is one of the most ready marks by 
 
 54. Andover, Hants., c. 1150. 
 Chevron, or zig-zag, with Beads. 
 
76 
 
 NORMAN MOULDINGS. 
 
 which to distinguish that the work is late. The 
 sunk star (55) is a very fa- 
 vourite ornament through- 
 out the style ; it occurs 
 on the abacus of the capi- 
 tals in the chapel of the 
 White Tower, London, 55. Herringfleet, Suffolk, c. 1100. 
 and at Herringfleet, Suf- The star, 
 
 folk, and it seems to have been the forerunner of the 
 tooth -ornament. The billet (56, 58) is used in the 
 early part of Peter- 
 borough, but dis- 
 continued in the 
 later work, and does 
 not often occur in 
 late work. The 
 
 beak-head, the cat’s- Ka „ . , ... v . ,, on 
 
 56. Malmesbury Abbey. Wiltshire, c. 1130. 
 
 head, the small The Billet, 
 
 medallions with figures, and the signs of the zodiac, 
 all belong to the later Norman period. In the later 
 Norman mouldings a mixture of Byzantine character 
 is seen on the ornaments, as. at Durham. 
 
 57, Durham Cathedral. 
 Abacus and String. 
 
 Sculptured ornament made great progress during the 
 twelfth century. We have seen by the testimony of 
 Gervase that the chisel was not used in the “ glorious 
 
NORM AN SCULPTURE. 
 
 77 
 
 choir of Con- 
 rad” at Can- 
 terbury, which 
 was built be- 
 tween 1096 
 and 1130, and 
 an examina- 
 tion of the old Calmer, Kent, c. 1120. 
 
 . The BiUet and Lozenge. 
 
 work proves 
 
 the exactness of his statement ; all the sculptured 
 ornament on the old work is shallow, and such as 
 could very well be executed with the axe, which is 
 not a bad tool in the hands of a skilful workman, and 
 is still commonly used in many parts of England and 
 France. On comparing this early work at Canterbury 
 with other early Norman buildings, it is plain that they 
 all had their ornaments executed in the same manner : 
 the chisel is only required for deep-cutting and espe- 
 cially under-cutting, and that we do not find on any 
 buildings of ascertained date before 1120. The chisel 
 was used for carving in stone in Italy and the south of 
 France at an earlier period, but not in Normandy or 
 the north of France much earlier than in England. 
 After this usage was introduced, the workmen seem to 
 have gloried in it, and revelled in it, and the profusion 
 of rich Norman sculptured ornament in the latter half 
 of the twelfth century is quite wonderful. 
 
 A remarkable instance of this profusion of Norman ornament 
 occurs in the ruins of the small church of Shobdon, in Hereford- 
 shire (59), built about 1150, by Oliver de Merlemond, seneschal 
 to Hugh Mortimer, of which a minute history is preserved and 
 printed in the Monasticon u , in the original Norman-French of 
 
 “ Mon. Ang., xol. vi. p. 345. 
 
NORMAN SCULPTURE . 
 
 73 
 
 the period. It appears 
 that the founder went on 
 a pil grimage to the shrine 
 of St. James of Compos- 
 tella, in Spain, during the 
 progress of the work, and 
 on his return was hospi- 
 tably entertained in the 
 monastery of St. Victor 
 at Paris, with which he 
 was so much pleased, that 
 when his church was 
 completed he sent for two 
 monks from that monas- 
 tery to serve it. The un- 
 usual richness of the 
 work makes it a fair con- 
 jecture that he brought 
 home with him from his 
 travels either drawings 
 or a remembrance of 
 what he had seen, and 
 applied this knowledge 
 to his new building. It 
 would be a curious matter 
 of research to ascertain 
 where he found it: the 
 monastery of St. Victor 
 has been entirely de- 59. Shobdon Church, Herefordshire, c. 1150. 
 stroyed, but very similar Shewing very rich Norman Sculpture, 
 work may be found in Anjou and Poitou of the same period, 
 and it is probable that he would go through the English pro- 
 vinces in the west of France on his way to Spain. Similar rich 
 work occurs in the west front of Chartres, and in many other 
 buildings in different parts of France, but their exact dates 
 have not been investigated. 
 
 The Coebel-tables (60) are at first very plain, con- 
 sisting merely of square blocks at intervals, carrying 
 the beam on flat stones which support the roof, or with 
 

 NORMAN CORBEL-TABLES. 79 
 
 small arcs be- 
 tween them, or 
 merely rude 
 triangles, like 
 the Anglo- 
 Saxon arches ; 
 and these are 
 sometim es 
 continued in late work, as at Iffley, but in general, in 
 late work the corbels are carved, and the small arcs 
 more or less enriched. 
 
 60. St Peter’s-in-the-East, Oxford, c. 1150. 
 
 61. Sherborne Castle, A.D. 1115—1139. 
 Shewing an early Norman Vault groined without ribs. 
 
8o 
 
 NORMAN VAULTS. 
 
 The earliest Norm ah Vaults are quite plain, and 
 of the barrel form, as in the chapel of the White Tower, 
 London. In the next stage they have flat transverse 
 arches only ; they are then groined, but still without 
 ribs: these plain groined vaults without ribs, over 
 aisles or other narrow spaces, are often contempora- 
 neous with the barrel vaults, and generally belong to 
 the latter half of the eleventh century, or the begin- 
 ning of the twelfth, as at Sherborne Castle (61), built 
 by Roger, bishop of Salisbury, a.d. 1115 — 1139; at 
 a later period the ribs are introduced, at first square, 
 
 b’Z. Peterbor ough Cathedral, A.D. 1117 — il43. 
 Norman Vault with arch-ribs and groin-ribs. 
 
NORMAN VAULTS. 
 
 8 I 
 
 then plain half-rounds, then moulded, as in Peter- 
 borough Cathedral ( 62 ), a.d. 1117 — 1143, and they 
 gradually change their form until they almost imper- 
 ceptibly assume the character of Early English work x . 
 
 The Norman architects did not venture to throw 
 a vault over a wide space until very near the end of 
 the style, and various contrivances were necessary for 
 vaulting over spaces of unequal width, such as stilted 
 arches, and horse-shoe arches, (see Peterborough, 62 ,) 
 before the difficulty was solved by the use of the 
 pointed arch. 
 
 63. Penmon Church, Anglesey. 
 
 Norman central Tower. 
 
 * There is a very good series of ribs shewing their progressive changes, 
 in the aisles of Oxford Cathedral. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 NORMAN CENTRAL TOWER. 
 
 Norman Central Towers are very low and massive, 
 seldom rising more than a square above the roof, some- 
 times not so much, the ridge of the original roof, as 
 shewn by the weather-table on tbe face of the tower, 
 being only just below the parapet. (See Penmon. 63 .) 
 These towers w r ere intended to be, and without doubt 
 originally were, covered by low wooden pyramidal roofs, 
 resembling in appearance 
 those which we find in 
 some parts of Normandy 
 of the same period, there 
 executed in stone, on ac- 
 count of the abundance of 
 the material, the facility 
 with which it is worked, 
 and the skill of the work- 
 men. 
 
 When the towers are not 
 placed over the centre of 
 the church, but at the west 
 end, it is remarkable that 
 the later Norman towers are 
 more massive and not so 
 lofty as the early ones, as 
 at Lincoln, Jarrow, &c., 
 already described (p. 36). 
 
 They are comparatively low 
 and heavy, sometimes di- 
 minishing by stages, and 64. Bishop’s Cleeve, Gloucestershire, 
 having buttresses of little Norman Turret, with panelling, and 
 projection on the lower pyramidal Spire. 
 
 parts. The belfry, or upper story, has frequently been 
 
NORMAN ROUND TOWERS. 
 
 83 
 
 added in late Norman times upon the earlier towers. 
 The belfry windows are generally double, and divided 
 by a shaft. 
 
 Early Norman Turrets are very rarely to be met 
 with, but there are good examples at St. Alban’s; at 
 a later period they are frequent as stair- turrets, but 
 have generally lost the original roof or capping : some- 
 times, as at Iffley, and Christchurch, Hampshire, they 
 die into the tower below the corbel-table ; in other in- 
 stances, as at Bishop’s Cleeve (64) and Bredon, they are 
 carried up above the parapet and terminate in pinnacles ; 
 they are sometimes round 
 and sometimes square. 
 
 The Round Towers which 
 are so abundant in Norfolk 
 and Suffolk (65) are fre- 
 quently of the Norman 
 period ; some may be earlier, 
 and others are certainly 
 later ; they are often so en- 
 tirely devoid of all orna- 
 ment or character, that it 
 is impossible to say to what 
 age they belong. The towers 
 themselves are built of flint, 
 and are built round to suit 
 the material, and to save 
 the expense of the stone 05, Little Saxham, Suffolk, 
 quoins for the corners which Round Tower, 
 
 are necessary for square towers, and which often may 
 
8 4 
 
 NORMAN BUTTRESSES. 
 
 not have been easy to procure in districts where build- 
 ing-stone has all to be imported. The same cause ac- 
 counts for the frequent and long- continued use in the 
 same districts of flat bricks or tiles for turning the 
 arches over the doors and windows, which are either of 
 Roman manufacture, or an imitation of the same form. 
 
 The Buttresses of this style were at first merely flat 
 projections (66) wholly devoid of ornament, and these 
 
 66. Iffley, Oxfordshire. 67. Glastonbury Abbey, c. 1180. 
 
 Flat Norman Buttress. 
 
 are sometimes continued in late work ; but in general, 
 in late work there is a recess at the angle, in which 
 
NORMAN BUTTRESSES. 
 
 85 
 
 a small shaft is inserted ; the strings are sometimes con- 
 tinued round the buttresses and sometimes stop short at 
 them, but in the latter case the buttresses have gene- 
 
 68. St. Margaret-at-Cliffe, Kent, c. 1130. 
 
 A Shallow Porch with pediment. 
 
 rally been added to strengthen the wall after it was 
 erected, and are not part of the original worky. In 
 
 y In France the buttresses of this period are sometimes formed into half- 
 rounds, or pilasters, on the outside of the wall, with capitals, as at St.Remi 
 at Rheims. At St. Peter’s, Northampton, an example occurs in late Nor- 
 man work of a round buttress, like half of a clustered pillar attached to the 
 wall, but such examples are very rare in England. 
 
86 
 
 NORMAN PORCHES. 
 
 late Norman buildings the buttresses are sometimes 
 square, and consequently have a much greater pro- 
 jection than the early flat buttresses. 
 
 Norman Porches have in general very little projec- 
 tion, sometimes only a few inches, but the thickness of 
 the wall allows the doorways to be deeply recessed; 
 they are sometimes terminated by a gable, or pediment, 
 as at St. Margaret-at-Cliffe, Kent (68), where the pro- 
 jection is so slight that it may be called either a door- 
 way with a pediment over it, or a shallow porch. More 
 frequently the projection ends in a plain set-off, in which 
 case the appearance is that of a doorway set in a broad 
 flat buttress. There are, however, a few porches which 
 have as great a projection as those of the succeeding 
 styles, and the sides of these are usually ornamented 
 with arcades.: the outer archway is of the same cha- 
 racter as other doorways. At Sherborne and at South- 
 well Minster there are good examples of these porches. 
 
 The Apse (69) has been already mentioned as a cha- 
 racteristic of the Norman style. In England it is more 
 frequently used in early than in late work, and is found 
 at the east ends of the chancel and its aisles, and on the 
 east side of the transepts; being, in fact, the places 
 for altars, which were afterwards continued in the same 
 situations, but either merely under windows in a flat 
 wall, or under arched recesses which frequently remain 
 in the transept wall, and are sometimes erroneously de- 
 scribed as doorways. In the Norman style the apse was 
 not used at the west end, nor at the north and south 
 ends of the transepts, as it was in the other Romanesque 
 styles, the Lombardic, or Pisan, and the Byzantine. 
 
NORMAN APSE. 
 
 8 7 
 
 The apse was, however, much more commonly used in 
 England than would now be supposed from the appear- 
 ance of our churches; this arises from the custom 
 which has been mentioned of lengthening the churches 
 
 69. Romsey Abbey, Hants., c. 1160. 
 Interior of a Norman Apse. 
 
 eastwards, which commenced in the latter half of the 
 twelfth century, and was carried on vigorously in the 
 thirteenth. The arch opening to the apse over the altar, 
 (called the arch of triumph,) was commonly enriched in 
 the same manner as the chancel-arch. 
 
 The Eeonts, particularly the west fronts of Norman 
 
88 
 
 NORMAN FRONTS. 
 
 churches, are frequently of very fine composition, having 
 generally deeply-recessed doorways, windows, and ar- 
 cades, all covered with a profusion of ornament in the 
 later period. Porchester Church, Hampshire (70), is 
 
 70. Porchester Church, Hampshire, A.D. 1133. 
 
 Norman West Front. 
 
 a good example of a small and rather plain country 
 church of this style. The east fronts much resemble 
 the west, except in wanting the doorways. The tran- 
 sept-ends are also frequently \ety fine. 
 
 The general effect of a rich Norman church is very 
 gorgeous, hut it has a sort of barbaric splendour, far 
 
NORMAN FRONTS. 
 
 89 
 
 removed from the chasteness and delicacy of the style 
 which succeeded it. 
 
 Houses of the twelfth century, or Norman style, are rare, but 
 we have several examples remaining. At Lincoln there are 
 two ; one, on the hill, called the Jew’s House, the other, in the 
 lower town, was the house of St. Mary’s Guild ; and at Boothby 
 Pagnel, in Lincolnshire, is a manor-house of this style : at 
 Southampton are ruins of two houses, one called the King’s 
 House, formerly the custom-house, the other in a low part of 
 the town, attached to the remains of the town wall ; at Minster, 
 in the isle of Thanet, and at thp’ Priory of Christchurch, in 
 Hampshire, are houses which have belonged to monastic esta- 
 blishments; at Warnford, in the same county, are the founda- 
 tions of a hall of this period ; and in Farnham Castle, also in 
 Hampshire, part of the great Norman hall remains, now con- 
 verted into the servants’ hall. At Appleton and Sutton Court- 
 ney, in Berkshire, are remains of manor-houses of this period ; 
 at Canterbury there are considerable remains of the monastic 
 buildings of this century, among which is a fine external stair- 
 case with open arcades on each side ; at Fountains Abbey, York- 
 shire, there are extensive remains of the domestic buildings, in- 
 cluding the kitchen and offices, of pure Norman style ; at Bury 
 St. Edmund’s, Suffolk, the house called Moyses’ Hall, now used 
 as the Bridewell, was probably the house of a wealthy Jew in the 
 middle of the twelfth century; there is also another Norman 
 house in that town; at Yate, in Gloucestershire, is a small 
 house of this period, tolerably perfect, now forming the wing 
 of a larger house of the time of Henry VIII. 
 
The Change of Style. 
 
 We have seen that during the half-century which 
 intervened between 1125 and 1175 an immense num- 
 ber of churches were built or rebuilt in England, and 
 that the art of building consequently made rapid pro- 
 gress, the work becoming every year better executed, 
 more highly finished, and of lighter character, it being 
 one of the characteristics of a good workman not to 
 waste his material. In the early Norman period the 
 masonry was very bad, and, to make the work secure, 
 great masses of material were used ; but at the period 
 to which we have now arrived the masonry is as good 
 as at any subsequent period, and the workmen were 
 fast discovering the various modes of economizing their 
 material. This practice, in combination with other 
 causes, tended greatly to introduce the change of style, 
 and to facilitate its ready and rapid adoption, in the 
 generality of cases, when introduced. The custom of 
 vaulting over large spaces, which was now being com- 
 monly adopted, and the difficulty of vaulting over 
 spaces of unequal span, also without doubt contributed 
 largely to the use of the pointed arch a . 
 
 In the vtork at Fountains Abbey already mentioned, 
 the aisles are vaulted, and the width of the aisle being 
 greater than the space between the pillars, it follows 
 
 1 This view was clearly brought out by Dr. Whewell in his ingenious and 
 clever essay on the Churches of Germany (Cambridge 1842, third edition); 
 and although the churches near the Rhine, from which his examples arc 
 taken, are of a subsequent date, the principle remains the same. Professor 
 Willis also, in his excellent work on the churches of Italy (1835), had further 
 illustrated the same principle. 
 
THE CHANGE OF STYLE. 
 
 91 
 
 that each compartment, or bay, of the vault was not 
 square, but oblong ; the greater length being across the 
 aisle, where we have the semicircular arch or arch -ribs 
 to carry the vault, the narrower space being from pillar 
 to pillar towards the choir : we have there the pointed 
 arch, and thus we have a succession of semicircular 
 arches down the length of the aisle, and a range of 
 pointed arches towards the choir: and the same on 
 each side. But although this may account for the use 
 of the pointed arch, it is still quite distinct from the 
 Gothic style ; we have it at Fountains in pure Norman 
 work half-a-century before we have the same arrange- 
 ment again at Canterbury, in the work of "William of 
 Sens after the fire. Here, however, we have not only 
 the pointed arch, but it is accompanied by a general 
 change of style, — all the accessories are undergoing 
 a rapid change. The mouldings, the ornaments, the 
 sculpture, and all other details are of a more highly 
 finished and a lighter style. 
 
 The introduction of Byzantine or Oriental ornamentation by 
 the Crusaders after their return from the East, had a very 
 marked influence, and contributed greatly to the change of 
 style in England and France. This change began to creep 
 in as early as the end of the eleventh century, as at Carcassonne, 
 where one of the earliest carved capitals is formed of palm- 
 leaves, and this was executed before a.d. 1100. This new orna- 
 mentation was often added to buildings previously constructed, 
 without rebuilding them, especially in France, as at Bernay in 
 Normandy, S. Remi, Rheims, or Reims, and many other instances. 
 This Byzantine or Oriental ornament did not come into general 
 use until the latter half of the twelfth century. A school of Greek 
 or Oriental sculptors appears to have been formed at Toulouse 
 and in Aquitaine at an earlier period, and to have gradually spread 
 northwards. There is no sculpture, properly so called, — that is, 
 
92 
 
 THE CHANGE OF STYLE , 
 
 no under-cutting requiring the skilful use of the chisel, — until 
 late in the twelfth century. 
 
 The ornaments in late Norman work and in the period of 
 transition often partake very much of a Greek or Byzantine or 
 Oriental character. The foliage is frequently quite Greek, and 
 other features may readily be seen not to be of the usual English 
 or French type, (which at this period are very much alike). The 
 excellent work of the Count de Vogue on the Churches of Syria b , 
 shews distinctly that these ornaments were brought to Europe 
 by the Crusaders on their return, in the middle and latter half 
 of the twelfth century. The Greek character of what we call 
 late Norman ornament has been frequently noticed. The Count 
 also brought to Europe a valuable collection of drawings and 
 photographs from Syria, chiefly from churches of the eighth 
 and ninth centuries, in places deserted ever since the Christian 
 population were annihilated in the Mahomedan invasion, and 
 therefore entirely unaltered. Many other churches also remain 
 in Syria, just as they were left at the time of the Crusaders; 
 many of the details of those churches, of which engravings are 
 published in this work, are identical with those introduced into 
 Europe at that period by the returning Crusaders. 
 
 The union of this Oriental character with the Romanesque 
 led by successive steps to the full development of the Gothic 
 style. But this was also much influenced by the local schools 
 of workmen, who acquired great skill by practice at home, 
 though they were willing to receive fresh ideas from foreign 
 countries. It was a development at home, with new ideas 
 grafted upon it. Each great monastery and each cathedral 
 chapter had its own gang or school of workmen rivalling each 
 other, and eager to catch new ideas to surpass its rivals. 
 
 It happens fortunately that just at this principal turning-point 
 in the history of architecture a most valuable record has been 
 preserved to us, by an eye-witness, of the progress of the great 
 work at Canterbury, year by year from the time of the fire to the 
 completion of the work. William of Sens was appointed by the 
 monks to restore the choir after the great fire in 1174, not 
 because he was in advance of the English architects in style, 
 
 b This valuable work appeared in Paris, Vol. I. 1865, Vol. II. 1866. 4to. 
 
OR THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 
 
 93 
 
 but because he promised to preserve more of the old building 
 than they did, and the monks wished to preserve as much as 
 possible of the “ Glorious Choir of Conrad.” The researches of 
 Professor Willis have enabled us to verify Gervase’s description 
 by the existing fabric, and to mark out with certainty the work 
 of each year. The progressive change in the character of the 
 work is very remarkable. At first it is almost pure Norman, 
 though late ; this is the work of the first year, 1175, and before 
 its completion in 1184 it has gradually changed into almost 
 pure Early English ( 71 ). In the beginning of the fourth year 
 from the commencement of the work, that is, in 1179, the scaf- 
 folding gave way under the architect, William of Sens, who fell 
 from the height of fifty feet; but, though much injured, he was 
 not killed, and he continued for some months to direct the 
 works from his bed, with the help of a young monk whom he 
 had selected for the purpose, and who afterwards carried on 
 the work on his own responsibility, with the help of such ad- 
 vice and instructions as he had received from the master. The 
 successor was called * William the Englishman.’ The change 
 of style became more rapid after this period, but there does not 
 seem ground for supposing that it would have been otherwise, 
 had William of Sens been able himself to complete the work he 
 had so well begun. Much of the credit, however, must belong 
 to his successor, who is described by Gervase as “ William by 
 name, English by nation, small in body, but in workmanship of 
 many kinds acute and honest.” As was frequently the case, 
 the pupil was in advance of his master ; but William of Sens 
 was much restricted by the necessity of making his choir cor- 
 respond with the old work preserved in the aisles, whereas his 
 successor was freed from this restraint, the old work not ex- 
 tending to the eastern chapel, or corona ; and in the transepts, 
 which were out of sight from the choir, the newer style was 
 more freely adopted. 
 
 There are many striking points of resemblance in the Cathe- 
 dral of Sens to that of Canterbury ; there is also a remarkable 
 coincidence in the history of the two cathedrals, Sens having 
 been damaged and the roof burnt by a great fire in 1184, the 
 very year that Canterbury was finished. This involved the 
 necessity of rebuilding the central vault and clerestory, which 
 are at least half a century later than the aisles and arcades. 
 
 A considerable part of the cathedral of Lisieux, in Normandy, 
 
94 
 
 CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL . 
 
 71. Canterbury Cathedral. 
 
CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL. 
 
 95 
 
 Exterior and Interior Elevations of the Compartments of the Choir, shew- 
 ing the changes between a.d. 1096—1130; and 1175 — 1178. A similar 
 change took place in nearly all the large churches of Europe about the 
 same periods. 
 
 A B. Pillar of old work. 
 
 C. Triforium passage, or Clerestory 
 Gallery, in old work. 
 
 D. Arch of old work. 
 
 E. Window of Crypt. 
 
 F. Window of Aisle. 
 
 G. Window of Triforium in new work. 
 LL. Clerestory Window of old work. 
 MM. Clerestory Window of new work. 
 
 a b. Pillar of new work. 
 c. String-course. 
 d e. Tabling of new work. 
 ef. Eaves of old work. 
 g. Roof of Aisle. 
 
 h i. Tabling under the new Clere- 
 story. 
 
 i k. Top of the old Wall. 
 
 For these illustrations, and some others, I am indebted to Professor 
 Willis’s “History of Canterbury.” Any one wishing to understand the 
 subject thoroughly must study that work for himself. 
 
 is of very similar character to Sens and Canterbury, and quite 
 as much advanced in style, with pointed arches and transitional 
 mouldings: it is also of the same date as Sens, 1143 — 1182 c . 
 It was built by Arnulf, who was bishop forty years ; and the 
 part which belongs to this period comprises the western part 
 of the choir and the transepts, with the exceptions of the cen- 
 tral vault and clerestory, which, as at Sens, have been added or 
 rebuilt aoout half-a-century later. The church at Lisieux was 
 completed by Bishop Jordan du Hommet, 1197 — 1214, and to 
 this period belong the eastern part of the choir, with the apse, 
 and probably the clerestory and central vault. The arches in 
 the early part of the choir are obtusely pointed and not re- 
 cessed, but with mouldings on the angles ; the capitals are of 
 rude Corinthian, and the bases have foot-ornaments. In the 
 later parts we have lancet windows and Gothic mouldings, and 
 the round abacus is used, as in England. 
 
 The Hospital of St. John, at Angers, built by King Henry the 
 Second, 1177 — 1184, is a very remarkable specimen of trans- 
 itional work; the arches and the vaulting are pure Gothic, 
 while the windows are still round-headed and Romanesque. 
 
 Vide Robertus de Monte, apud Gall. Christ , vol. il. fol. 649. 
 
9 6 
 
 THE CHANGE OF STYLE, 
 
 The choir of the cathedral of Poictiers, with its square east 
 end, also built by Henry the Second, about the same time, is 
 very similar in style — advanced transition. 
 
 Canterbury, as has been pointed out, is the earliest and the 
 best-authenticated example of the change of style in England 
 which we possess, and it enables us to fix a precise date to this 
 great change ; it serves as a type for very many others which 
 were being carried on simultaneously, or soon after. The con- 
 trast drawn by Gervase between the old church and the new 
 one has been already quoted in describing the earlier Norman 
 work, and need not 
 here be repeated. It 
 will be sufficient to 
 say that the masonry 
 and the sculpture in 
 the new work are 
 both excellent, and 
 that the peculiar or- 
 nament known by 
 the name of the 
 ‘tooth-ornament’ 
 occurs abundantly 
 in the new work : 
 the mouldings, es- 
 pecially of the bases, 
 are almost of pure 
 Early English cha- 
 racter. 
 
 The hall of Oak- 
 ham Castle, Rutland- 
 shire (72), built by 
 Walkelin de Ferrers, 
 between 1165 and 
 1191, is an excellent 
 specimen of trans- 
 itional work. It 
 retains a great deal 
 of the Norman cha- 
 racter, but late and 
 rich : the capitals are very similar to some of those at Canter- 
 bury, and more like French work than the usual English cha- 
 
 72. Oakham Castle, Rutlandshire. 
 Transitional Capital. 
 
OR TEE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 
 
 97 
 
 racter; the tooth-ornament is freely introduced; the windows 
 are round-headed within and pointed without, with good shafts 
 in the jambs, and the tooth-ornament down each side of the 
 shafts. 
 
 St. Frideswide Church, now Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, 
 is a fine example of late Norman and transitional work of early 
 character. It was consecrated in 1180, and was probably build- 
 ing for about twenty years previously : the confirmation, by 
 Pope Hadrian IV. (Breakspeare, the only English Pope), of the 
 charters granting the Saxon monastery of St. Frideswide to the 
 Norman monks was not obtained until 1158, and it is not pro- 
 bable that they began to rebuild their church until their pro- 
 perty was secured. The Prior at this period was Robert of 
 Cricklade, called Canutus, a man of considerable eminence, 
 some of whose writings were in existence in the time of Leland. 
 Under his superintendence the church was entirely rebuilt from 
 the foundations, and without doubt on a larger scale than be- 
 fore, as the Saxon church does not appear to have been de- 
 stroyed until this period. The design of the present structure 
 is very remarkable ; the lofty arched recesses, which are carried 
 up over the actual arches and the triforium, giving the idea of 
 a subsequent work carried over the older work; but an ex- 
 amination of the construction shews that this is not the case, 
 that it was all built at one time, and that none of it is earlier 
 than about 1160. Precisely the same design occurs in a part of 
 Romsey Abbey Church, Hampshire, and very similar ones may 
 be seen in other places' 1 : lofty arched recesses occur in Dun- 
 stable Priory Church, Bedfordshire, where Perpendicular win- 
 dows have been inserted in the triforium, but the original 
 design was the same. 
 
 At Christ Church, Oxford, the central tower is not square, the 
 nave and choir being wider than the transepts, and consequently 
 the east and west arches are round-headed, while the north and 
 south are pointed: this would not in itself be any proof of 
 transition, but the whole character of the work is late, though 
 very rich and good, and the clerestory windows of the nave are 
 
 d This design, with the half-capital below in the aisles, and the other 
 half-capital above in the nave or choir, is common in Italy, in Italian 
 Gothic of various periods; it occurs in the great church of S. Petronio, 
 at Bologna, even in Renaissance work, but it is rare in England. 
 
 H 
 
THE CHANGE OF STYLE, 
 
 98 
 
 pointed, withont any necessity for it, which is then a mark of 
 transition. The east end of this remarkable church was care- 
 fully and conscientiously restored in 1871-72, by G. G. Scott, 
 R.A., for the Dean and Chapter. Fragments of the old work 
 were found in the walls, which had been rebuilt in the four- 
 teenth century, and enough remained to leave no doubt about 
 the original design, which was faithfully carried out. This 
 design, which is a large circular window with two round-headed 
 windows under it, is very rare in England, and not common 
 anywhere ; the effect of it is very good. On the exterior there 
 are turrets at the angles, with arcades of transitional character, 
 some of the arches of which are round, others pointed. The 
 windows of the choir are round-headed. 
 
 The remains of Byland Abbey, Yorkshire, afford a good ex- 
 ample of this transition at the same period as Canterbury. The 
 abbey had been founded in 1143, but the site originally granted 
 was inconvenient, and it had been twice removed, now for the 
 third time : “ The monks having cleared a large tract of wood- 
 land and drained the marshes, removed again on the eve of All 
 Saints, in the year of grace 1177, in the twenty-third year of 
 King Henry the Second, a little more to the eastward, where 
 this abbey, dedicated to the blessed Virgin Mary, at length was 
 settled, having a noble church and monastery e .” It is an ex- 
 cellent specimen of transitional work : the lower windows are 
 round-headed, the upper ones lancet-shaped; the arches are 
 pointed, the mouldings of these and of their capitals and bases 
 very bold and good, approaching very nearly to pure Early 
 English ; the pillars are clustered, and clustered vaulting-shafts 
 are introduced. 
 
 St. Giles’s Church, Oxford, of the time of St. Hugh, bishop of 
 Lincoln, who inducted a vicar to it in 1200, is a good specimen 
 of very late transition ; and here one of those anomalies which 
 have been mentioned occurs — the nave-arches are pointed, but 
 rather wide and obtuse than otherwise ; across the south aisle 
 is a very acute arch, for the obvious reason that the aisle is 
 very narrow. 
 
 The Temple Church, London, is a well-known example of 
 transitional work ; the date of its dedication in 1185 is recorded 
 
 e Register of the Abbey, quoted by Burton, and in the Mon. Ang., 
 vol. v. p. 343. 
 
OR THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 
 
 99 
 
 in a contemporary inscription over the west doorway; this 
 applies to the round church only, the arches of which are 
 pointed, but the work in other respects is more Norman than 
 Early English. 
 
 The galilee of Durham Cathedral, built between 1180 and 
 1197, by Bishop Hugh de Puiset, or Pusey, is an excellent ex- 
 ample of transitional work of a different kind ; here all the 
 work is of the very latest character that can be called Norman, 
 yet all the arches are semicircular. 
 
 The small church of Clee, near Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, has 
 an incised inscription in the south-west pillar of the nave re- 
 cording the consecration of the church by Hugh, bishop of 
 Lincoln, in 1192. This pillar is of pure Norman work, and 
 rather early in the style, probably about 1120, judging from the 
 style as compared with other buildings; and this has been often 
 cited as a proof of the late continuance of the Norman style, 
 and that Bishop Hugh could not have built the pure Early 
 English work at Lincoln. But on examination it is clear that 
 the small square stone on which the inscription is cut, is in 
 serted in the earlier Norman pier, a hole having been made to 
 receive it : both the material and the jointing of the masonry 
 prove this distinctly. The parts of the church to which the 
 inscription refers are the choir and transepts, which have been 
 rebuilt in a style very similar to Bishop Hugh’s work at Lin- 
 coln, but a little earlier, while the old Norman nave has been 
 retained. The details of the work of this period at Clee, bear 
 a great resemblance to those of the choir of St. Hugh at Lincoln, 
 although not quite so far advanced in style ; at Clee there are 
 still some slight remains of the Norman; at Lincoln they have 
 quite disappeared, and the work is pure Early English. 
 
 • A very valuable foreign example may here be referred to, 
 which bears considerable resemblance to the galilee at Durham, 
 — the church of St. Mary at Toscanella, in Italy, consecrated in 
 1206, as recorded on a contemporary inscription still preserved 
 on part of the building : the arches are all semicircular, but the 
 tooth-ornament occurs ; the capitals are very similar to those 
 at Canterbury and Oakham, and all the details are of tran- 
 sitional character. In Italy, generally, the round arch and the 
 Romanesque style continued in use throughout the thirteenth 
 century, with a few exceptions. 
 
100 
 
 THE CHANGE OF STYLE. 
 
 The greater part of the churches near the Rhine are of this 
 period, as has been ably shewn by M. de Lassaulx f ; the Roman- 
 esque character is preserved in those churches down to about 
 1220, or even 1250, a period subsequent to some of our finest 
 Early English work, such as Bishop Hugh’s work at Lincoln, 
 Bishop Lucy’s at Winchester, Bishop Joceline’s at Wells, and 
 contemporacy with Salisbury Cathedral. 
 
 The choir of the church of Notre Dame in Paris was com- 
 menced by Bishop Maurice de Sully in 1163, and completed 
 before 1185 ; the west front and the nave are later ; it is a fine 
 example of transitional work, with massive round pillars and 
 pointed arches; the capitals are very similar to those of Can- 
 terbury. It should be noticed that these plain round pillars 
 with capitals in imitation of the Roman Composite continued 
 in use in France for a very long period, not only throughout 
 the thirteenth century, as at Chartres and at Amiens, but in 
 later work also ; and the same idea seems to be continued even 
 in the Flamboyant work of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
 turies, while in England we never find them after the twelfth 
 century. The square abacus also is continued in France in 
 all the styles, while with us it is a mark of Norman or tran- 
 sitional work. 
 
 The choir of the church of St. Germain des Pres at Paris, 
 and the cathedral of Mantes, were built at the same time, and 
 are of the same character with Notre Dame. 
 
 Parts of the church of St. Remi at Rheims, and the cathedrals 
 of Laon and Noyon, are very fine examples of transitional work. 
 A great number of churches in the country round Soissons, 
 called the “ Soissonais,” are of this character. The cathedral 
 of Soissons itself almost belongs to it, though late, and amount- 
 ing nearly to pure Early French work. The choir was finished 
 in 1212, as recorded in a contemporary inscription; but the 
 south transept belongs to an earlier building, 1168 — 1175; it 
 has an apse, and the work is very similar to the eastern part 
 of Canterbury. 
 
 4 See his Notes on the Churches near the Rhine, translated and appended 
 to the third edition of Dr. Whewell’s Essay. Cambridge, 1842. 
 
CHAPTER IY. 
 
 The Early English Style. 
 
 Richard I. John. Henry III. a.d. 1189 — 1272. 
 
 HE great rapidity with which a decided change 
 
 in the style and character of the work was taking 
 place at this period, would appear almost incredible if 
 it were not proved by so many instances, and especially 
 by the well-authenticated account of Canterbury. After 
 carefully noticing the great change which took place 
 there during the ten years that the work was in pro- 
 gress, we shall not be much surprised to find some 
 examples of pure Gothic work in the following ten 
 
 Canterbury was completed in 1184, and in 1185 St. Hugh of 
 Grenoble, commonly called St. Hugh of Burgundy, was ap- 
 pointed bishop of Lincoln, and immediately began to rebuild 
 his cathedral; or in the words of Godwin, quoting apparently 
 from some contemporary record, “ His church of Lincoln he 
 caused to be new built from the foundation ; a great and memo- 
 rable worke, and not possible to be performed by him without 
 infinite helpe. . . . He died at London on November 17th, in the 
 year 1200. . . . His body was presently conveyed to Lincolne . . . 
 and buried in the body of the east part of the church, above the 
 high aulter*.” It is therefore plain that this portion of the 
 building was completed, and a careful examination enables us 
 to distinguish clearly the work completed in the time of Bishop 
 Hugh, which comprises the choir and the eastern transept, 
 with its chapels. The vaults of St. Hugh’s choir, and of both 
 the transepts, were introduced subsequent to the fall of the 
 tower. 
 
 years. 
 
 a Godwin’s “Catalogue of the Bishops,” 4to. Lond. 1601, p. 237. The 
 Magna Vita S. Hugoms is evidently the authority for what Godwin states. 
 
102 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 The schools of the north of Lincolnshire, and the south of 
 Yorkshire, appear to have been little in advance of any others 
 in Europe at that period. St. Hugh’s choir of Lincoln Cathe- 
 dral is the earliest building of the pure Gothic style, free from 
 any mixture of the Romanesque, that has been hitherto found 
 in Europe or in the world. The Oriental styles are not Gothic, 
 though they helped to lead to it. The French Gothic has a 
 strong mixture of the Romanesque with it down to a later 
 period than the choir of Lincoln. St. Hugh of Lincoln cer- 
 tainly did not bring the Gothic style with him from his own 
 country, Dauphiny, or from the Grande Chartreuse where he 
 was educated, for nothing of the kind existed there at that 
 period. Grenoble (the place from which St. Hugh was brought 
 to England) and its neighbourhood was quite half-a-century 
 behind England in the character of its buildings, in the time 
 of Henry II. of England and of Anjou, in whose time and in 
 whose dominions this style was developed. 
 
 Care must be taken to distinguish exactly what parts of Lin- 
 coln Cathedral are really of the time of St. Hugh of Grenoble, 
 that is, of the last ten years of the twelfth century, a.d. 1192 — 
 1200 ; these consist of the outer walls of “ St. Hugh’s choir,” 
 with the small internal wall-arcade in the aisles which belong 
 to it, the eastern transept, with the apsidal chapels on the 
 eastern side of it, and one bay on the eastern side of the great 
 transept, on each side of the west end of the choir. But this 
 choir and the aisles had originally wooden roofs and flat ceilings, 
 like Peterborough The proof of this is that lancet-windows 
 remain in the wall above the vault in the eastern transept, 
 shewing clearly that the vault was introduced afterwards at 
 a lower level. All the vaults have been introduced in the same 
 manner, without disturbing the great outer timber roof. This 
 has caused some irregularities in the vault of the choir, the 
 central line of which is not horizontal, but was made to fit the 
 roof. The level of the vault of the great transept cuts off nearly 
 half of the circular window at the north end. These vaults 
 shew no marks of the falling of the central tower ; they were, 
 therefore, introduced after that time. The probable date of 
 them is about a.d. 1240, and of the northern circular window 
 about 1220. We know from the Bishop’s registers that great 
 works were going on at both these dates, under Bishops Hugh 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 103 
 
 Walys or De Wells, and Grostete. The outer walls of the aisles of 
 St. Hugh's choir have been thickened within, and a second wall- 
 arcade introduced in such a manner as not to hide the original 
 one. There is a straight vertical joint in the thickness of the 
 wall, and the back of the second arcade is quite flat, not worked 
 at all. The vaults of the choir and aisles were introduced after 
 this second arcade. The vaulting-shafts carry the vaults of the 
 aisles, and belong to the third period, and this accounts for 
 the three shafts in front of each other, which have so long been 
 a puzzle to the architectural student. 
 
 These observations are the results of a careful examination 
 of the construction , made in 1872, with the help of the clerk of 
 the works. The fabric has been going on for half a century 
 or more, and these changes of plan were made without any 
 change of the mouldings or details, which is contrary to the 
 usual theory, and perhaps to the usual practice. In the trifo- 
 rium gallery the original flat buttresses remain against the wall 
 of the choir, with arches built across the gallery to support the 
 central vault, and on the exterior the original flat buttresses also 
 remain, with square buttresses built against them alternately, 
 to support the thrust of the arches within, so that the thrust 
 of the central vault is carried down to the ground with much 
 ingenuity. The piers between the choir and the aisles have 
 been cased, to strengthen them on the outer side towards the 
 aisle ; the capitals remain, with their beautiful foliage towards 
 the choir, but are cut away in the aisles. The outer side of 
 each of the piers now belongs either to the Decorated or to the 
 Perpendicular period, perhaps replacing an earlier casing. The 
 vault of the chapter-house has been added in the same manner, 
 and the enormous flying buttresses have been built up against 
 the walls to support it, not built into the wall, but merely 
 against it. 
 
 The central tower fell down in 1237, not long after it was built, 
 and was restored in the same style with so much care that the 
 junctions of the work can only be seen by careful examination. 
 The nave is a subsequent work, continued in the same style by 
 Hugh de Wells and Grostete, and the presbytery eastward of 
 the choir is still later [a.d. 1260], and in a later style. This 
 agrees with the recorded history of the building, and therefore 
 leaves no doubt of the genuineness of the work ascribed to 
 
104 
 
 TJ1E EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 St. Hugh. Nothing can well exceed the freedom, delicacy, and 
 beauty of this work ; the original arcade, of the time of St. Hugh, 
 is of the same free and beautiful style as the additions of his 
 successors. The foliage of the capitals is exquisitely beautiful, 
 and though distinguished techni- 
 cally by the name of stiff-leaf fo- 
 liage, because there are stiff stalks 
 to the leaves, rising from the ring of 
 the capital, the leaves themselves 
 curl over in the most graceful man- 
 ner, with a freedom and elegance 
 not exceeded at any period. The 
 mouldings are also as bold and as 
 deep as possible, and there is not 
 a vestige of Norman character re- 
 maining in any part of the work. 
 
 The crockets arranged vertically 
 one over the other behind the de- 
 tached marble shafts of the pillars 
 (73), are a remarkable and not a 
 common feature, which seems to 
 have been in use for a few years 
 only; it occurs also in the west 
 front of Wells Cathedral, the work 
 of Bishop Jocelyn, a few years 
 after this at Lincoln ; or perhaps 
 under him, of Hugh de Wells, who 
 had been archdeacon of Wells be- 
 fore he became bishop of Lincoln. 
 
 After he became bishop he acted 
 with Jocelyn, Bishop of Wells, as 
 stated by Godwin, who says “He 
 (Jocelyn) also and Hugh, Bishop 
 of Lincoln, laying their purses to- 
 gether, founded the hospital of St. John in Wells.” 
 
 The cathedral of Grenoble, which is of the twelfth century, 
 is poor and low, and has nothing whatever to correspond with 
 the work of St. Hugh at Lincoln ; the cathedral of Vienne, 
 the ancient capital of the province of Dauphiny, in which 
 Grenoble is situated, has some very fine work, but quite of 
 
 73. Lincoln Cathedral, A.D. 
 1190—1200. 
 
 Pillar of Choir. 
 
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. 
 
 105 
 
 74. Lincoln Cathedral, c. 1220. 
 Circular Window, end of North Transept. 
 
 a different character from Lincoln, and is of later date; the 
 cathedral of Lyons, now the chief city of the province, has also 
 some fine work, and a remarkable series of windows exhibiting 
 progressive changes in plate-tracery; and the fluted pilasters in 
 imitation of Roman work which are used in that cathedral and 
 
io6 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 many other churches of that district, as at Cluny, at the end of 
 the twelfth century, are supposed by some persons to have 
 given the idea of the clustered shafts at Lincoln ; but if so, the 
 progress was wonderfully rapid : the exact date of the work at 
 Lyons has not been ascertained. At Dijon, the capital of the 
 French duchy of Burgundy at a later period, there is work very 
 like Lincoln, especially in the church of Notre Dame; but the 
 date of this is a.d. 1220 — 1230, thirty years later than the cor- 
 responding work at Lincoln, and there was no connection be- 
 tween Dijon and the kingdom of Burgundy, a fief of the German 
 empire, in which Grenoble was situated. 
 
 St. Hugh has long had the reputation of having been a great 
 builder of churches, and it is recorded that he assisted in the 
 work of his cathedral with his own hands, probably in order to 
 excite the enthusiasm of the people ; but it appears that he was 
 not the architect of his cathedral 6 . The name of the architect, 
 “constructor ecclesiae,” was Geoffrey de Noyers. A family of 
 that name had been settled in Lincolnshire for more than a cen- 
 tury before the time of St. Hugh, and as the work is of a dis- 
 tinctly Lincolnshire type, the architect was probably a Lincoln- 
 shire man. The first place at which St. Hugh was located in 
 England by Henry II. was the Carthusian priory of Witham in 
 Somersetshire. A church or chapel of that priory remains, 
 now the parish church, and is of a Somersetshire type, not at 
 all more advanced than other churches of that neighbourhood 
 at the same time, and although transitional, much more Ro- 
 manesque than Gothic. The castle of Avallon on the borders 
 of Savoy, between Grenoble and Chambery, where St. Hugh 
 was born, and the small church of his cell at St. Marcellin on 
 his father’s estate on the brow of the mountain, near the castle, 
 
 b See the “ Metrical Life of St. Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln,” written about 
 1230, and published at Lincoln in 1860, very carefully edited by the Rev. J. 
 F. Dimock. See also the “ Gentleman’s Migazine” for November and De- 
 cember, 1860, and Archceolngia , vol. xxxii. The MS. of the Magna Vita 
 S.Hugonis was written by his domestic chaplain; the original MS., in the 
 Bodleian Library, contains the passage relating to the architect, “ Gaufridus 
 de Noyers.” The Magna Vita was published in 1865, in the series of the 
 Master of the Rolls, and also admirably edited by Mr. Dimock. The “Me- 
 trical Life” is a popular abridgement of the Magna Vita. 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 107 
 
 are buildings of the twelfth century ; the castle is in ruins, and 
 of the church little besides the tower is genuine work of the 
 time of St. Hugh. But both of these are rude and barbarous 
 Romanesque structures, more like Anglo-Saxon work in England 
 than like Lincoln, to which they have not the slightest approach. 
 The buildings of the Grande Chartreuse, at the time St. Hugh 
 was there, were of wood only, and these were entirely carried 
 away by an avalanche a few years afterwards. The Grande 
 Chartreuse is high up in the Alps, almost within sight of the 
 castle of Avallon. 
 
 Simultaneously with this glorious work of St. Hugh of 
 Lincoln, we have the presbytery at Winchester, the work 
 of Bishop Godfrey de Lucy, 1195—1205. This work, though 
 perhaps not quite so exuberant as that of St. Hugh, is scarcely 
 inferior to it. A part of Beverley Minster is also of very simi- 
 lar character (75). 
 
 75. Beverley Minster. 
 Triforium with double Arcade. 
 
 Possibly the double arcade there originated in the same man- 
 ner as that at Lincoln, in St. Hugh’s choir, from the necessity 
 for thickening the wall to make it to carry a stone vault, and 
 at the same time, a reluctance to hide the arcade in the original 
 wall. The trefoiled arcade looks later than the original obtusely 
 
io8 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 pointed or semicircular one, and at Lincoln they are clearly of 
 two periods, though still in the same style. 
 
 At the same period, but continuing later, we have Glasgow 
 Cathedral, the work commenced by Bishop Joceline in 1195 : he 
 was buried in the crypt, which proves the completion of that 
 part of the work, one of the finest crypts in existence. 
 
 The beautiful galilee, or large western porch, of Ely is also of 
 this period, commenced in 1198, and finished in 1215, by Bishop 
 Eustace. Nothing can exceed the richness, freedom, and beauty 
 of that work; it is one of the finest porches in the world. 
 Here, also, the work is distinguished by the double arcades 
 which we have noticed at Lincoln, again possibly from the 
 same cause, to carry a vault of stone introduced afterwards. 
 
 The choir and transepts of Rochester Cathedral were also 
 building soon after this time, and are a very beautiful and 
 remarkable example of Early English. The architect was 
 William de Hoo, first sacristan, then prior, and there is some 
 reason to believe that he is the same person as William the 
 young Englishman, who assisted William of Sens after his fall 
 from the scaffold at Canterbury, and completed the work there. 
 A young man at Canterbury in 1185, able to carry on and com- 
 plete such a work, may very well have become the architect on 
 his own account of the daughter church of Rochester in 1201 — 
 1227, and there is great resemblance in style between Rochester 
 and the later work at Canterbury. 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral is usually considered as the type of the 
 Early English style, from the circumstance of its being less 
 mixed than any other building of the same importance. It was 
 commenced in 1220 on a new site, by Bishop Richard Poore, 
 who died in 1237, and was buried in the choir, which was there- 
 fore completed at that time. The church was finished by 
 Bishop Giles de Bridport, and consecrated in 1258. 
 
 The nave and the glorious west front of Wells Cathedral 
 belong also to this period, 1206 — 1239, as recorded by contem- 
 porary authorities, thus translated by Bishop Godwin : — “ More- 
 over in building he (Bishop Joceline de Welles) bestowed ines- 
 timable sums of money. He built a stately chappell in his palace 
 at Welles®, and another at Owky (Wokey) d , as also many other 
 
 e The existing chapel of the Bishop’s Palace is of the time of Edward I. 
 or II. Part of the palace is of this date. The word houses is used by 
 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 109 
 
 edifices in the same houses; and lastly, the church of Welles 
 itselfe being now ready to fall to the ground, notwithstanding 
 the great cost bestowed upon it by Bishop Robert, he pulled 
 downe the greater part of it, to witte , all the west ende, built 
 it anew from the very foundation, and hallowed or dedicated it 
 October 23, 1239. ” It is evident from the construction that the 
 west front is earlier than the nave; but there is some doubt 
 whether Bishop Godwin has correctly applied the passage that 
 he quotes. Perhaps by “all the west ende” he intended to 
 include the nave, which can hardly be later than that date, 
 yet it is certainly later than the west front. It was usual to 
 build the west front immediately after the choir, and leave the 
 nave to be filled in afterwards. 
 
 It is scarcely possible to overrate the value and importance 
 of the extraordinary series of sculptures with which the west 
 front of Wells Cathedral is enriched; they are superior to any 
 others known of the same period in any part of Europe'. 
 
 The chapter-houso at Christ Church, Oxford, the choir of 
 Worcester Cathedral, a considerable part of Fountains Abbey, 
 the choir of Rochester, the south transept of York, the presby- 
 tery of Ely, the nine altars of Durham at the east end, and 
 the same part of Fountains Abbey, the choir of the Temple 
 Church, London, and the nave of Lincoln, are amongst the 
 well-known examples of this period, the first half of the thir- 
 teenth century. 
 
 In the year 1245, King Henry the Third, “ being mindful of 
 the devotion which he had towards St. Edward the Confessor, 
 ordered the church of St. Peter at Westminster to be enlarged, 
 and the eastern part of the walls, with the tower and transepts, 
 being pulled down, he began to rebuild them in a more elegant 
 style, having first collected at his own charges the most subtle 
 artificers, both English and foreign.” The portions of the 
 church built by Henry the Third are the choir and apse, the 
 
 Godwin in the sense of establishments and monastery, and a college is 
 often called a house. 
 d Part of the Palace of Wokey remains. 
 
 * See Cockerell’s “Sculptures of Wells Cathedral,” 4to., 1851, and the 
 admirable series of photographs of them published by the Architectural 
 Photographic Association. 
 
I 10 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 transepts, the first bay only of the nave, and part of the cloister. 
 This work is of the richest character, but still pure Early 
 English, though with a slight mixture of Early French cha- 
 racter, especially in the buttresses. The surface of the wall is 
 covered with diaper-work, the triforium arcade is double, and 
 has foliated circles of bar-tracery in the head. The points of 
 the cusps are flowered, and the outer moulding of the arch 
 is enriched with foliage resembling crockets (76). 
 
 76. Westminster Abbey, A.D. 1250. 
 
 Triforium Arcade, shewing the surface of wall covered with diaper orna- 
 ment, arch mouldings enriched with foliage, tub-arches foliated, coupled 
 shafts having moulded capitals, a foliated circle in the head with orna- 
 mented cusps. 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 I I I 
 
 The north transept of York Minster (77) was built between 
 1250 and 1260, by 
 John the Roman, 
 treasurer of the 
 church, or rather 
 probably by the 
 chapter of which he 
 was treasurer and 
 paymaster, and so 
 his name became 
 attached to it, more 
 especi ally as he 
 afterwards became 
 Archbishop of York. 
 
 The records of the 
 cathedral clearly 
 prove that it was the 
 regular practice of 
 the chapter to keep 
 a gang of workmen 
 in their pay as part 
 of the establish- 
 ment ; the number 
 varied from twenty 
 to fifty, and the 
 same families were 
 usually continued 77. York Minster, A.D. 1250. 
 
 generation after ge- North Transept, shewing clustered pillars ■with 
 neration : to their stilted bases, capitals with stiff-leaf foliage, and 
 
 ,. ", , , mouldings, enriched with the tooth-ornament, 
 
 continued labour, al- 
 ways doing something every year, we are indebted for the 
 whole of that glorious fabric. This practice was by no means 
 peculiar to York, but appears to have been the usual custom. 
 We are, however, indebted to Mr. Browne for first printing the 
 documents in the case of York f . 
 
 The small church of Skelton, in Yorkshire, was also built by 
 
 f See Browne’s “History of York Minster,” 2 vols. 4to., York, 1847. 
 These Fabric Rolls have since been printed, and more carefully edited, 
 by Mr. Raine, for the Surtees Society, in 8vo., Durham, 1858. 
 
I 12 
 
 TEE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 John the Koman, in 1247. It is an excellent example of a small 
 church cf this style. 
 
 The beautiful Lady -chapel of Wells Cathedral was com- 
 menced by Bishop Bitton in 1248: he died in 1264, and was 
 buried in it. The style corresponds with that of the Angel- 
 choir, at the east end of Lincoln, of the same period. 
 
 The chapter-house at Salisbury is of nearly the same period, 
 and very similar style. The chapter-house of York is of rather 
 later style, and probably of the time of Edward I. 
 
 The presbytery of Lincoln Cathedral was built between 1256 
 and 1282, in which latter year the relics of St. Hugh were trans- 
 lated to the new building, which is of the richest character, and 
 approaches very nearly to the following style. The windows 
 have foliated circles in the head, and actual tracery. 
 
 Having now completed an outline of the history of the prin- 
 cipal known buildings of the Early English style, it remains 
 only to describe its characteristic features. 
 
 There is a marked distinction in the construction of Gothic 
 vaults in England and France from the earliest period. In 
 England, from the earliest period, each stone is cut to fit its 
 place, in France the stones are cut square or rather oblong, as 
 in the walls, and only wedged out by the thickness of the mortar 
 at the back in the joints. The English system is far more scien- 
 tific, but also far more costly ; the French system is infinitely 
 more economical of labour, and consequently of expense. From 
 this cause stone vaults are far more common in France than in 
 E ngland ; and from this cause also fan-tracery vaulting is peculiar 
 to England, and it begins, in principle, as early as in the cloister 
 of Lincoln, c. a.d. 1220, where the vault is of wood, but the spring- 
 ings are of stone, and cut to fit the ribs of the wooden vault. 
 
 “ Early English Buildings are readily distinguished 
 from those of the Norman period by their comparative 
 lightness, their long, narrow, lancet-shaped, pointed 
 windows e, their boldly projecting buttresses and pin- 
 
 k This characteristic applies only to the early part of the style, from 
 a.d. 1190 to about a.d. 1220 or 1230, after that time circles in the head of 
 the windows of two or more lights came in, and the circles became foliated 
 by about a.d. 1230, and from that time to 1260 or 1270, when the Decorated 
 style began to come into fashion. 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STILE 
 
 [To face p. 112. 
 
 Rushden, Northants, A.D. 1260. 
 Sedilia, Piscina, and Window of Chancel. 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. I I 3 
 
 nacles, and the acute pitch of the roof. Internally, 
 we have pointed arches supported on slender and lofty 
 pillars, which are frequently formed of a number of 
 shafts connected at intervals by bands. One of these 
 shafts is frequently carried up to the springing of the 
 roof, where it ramifies in various directions to form the 
 ribs of the vaulting, which have now lost the heavi- 
 ness of the Norman period and are become light 
 and elegant. The whole character of the building is 
 changed, and instead of the heavy masses and hori- 
 zontal lines of the Norman style, we have light and 
 graceful forms and vertical lines. , ’ 
 
 The rapidity with which the change of style took 
 place has been pointed out, and the complete character 
 of the change, which was developed as fully in some of 
 the earliest buildings of the new style as in the latest. 
 New ideas and a new life seem to have been given to 
 architecture, and the builders appear to have revelled 
 in it even to exuberance and excess, and it was neces- 
 sary afterwards, in some degree, to soften down and 
 subdue it. At no period has “ the principle of verti- 
 cally’ J been so far carried out as in the Early English 
 style, and even in some of the earliest examples of it. 
 Probably the fall of St. Hugh’s tower at Lincoln, 
 a.d. 1237, and some other similar occurrences, taught 
 the necessity of greater caution. 
 
 One of the chief characteristics of the Early English 
 style consists in the Mouldings, which differ essentially 
 from those of the Norman ; for while those consisted 
 chiefly of squares with round mouldings on the angles, 
 
 1 
 
I 14 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 or with the angles chamfered off, in the Early English 
 they are chiefly bold rounds, with equally bold and 
 deeply cut hollows, which produce a strong effect of 
 
 78. Haseley, Oxfordshire, c. 1220. 
 
 Suite of Mouldings, shewing rounds and hollows, the pear-shaped mould- 
 ing and the use of the tooth-ornament in a hollow moulding. 
 
 light and shade (78). In many of the earlier examples 
 the square profile of the recessed Norman arch is re- 
 tained, and the mouldings are cut chiefly on the angles, 
 as in the nave of ^Milton Church, Oxfordshire (79); but 
 as the style advances this squareness is lost, and the 
 mouldings appear to be cut on a chamfer, or sloping 
 
EARLY ENGLISH MOULDINGS. 
 
 i ; 
 
 surface, and none of the plain square masonry remains, 
 the whole being 
 worked up into rich 
 suites of mouldings, 
 separated only by 
 deep hollows. In 
 the later examples 
 a peculiar moulding 
 called the roll* 1 
 moulding (80), is 
 used; and it was 
 still more used in 
 the succeeding, or 
 Decorated style, and 
 is often considered 
 one of the marks of 
 that style. The fil- 
 let was now used 
 profusely on the 
 rounds ; one, two, 
 or sometimes three 
 fillets being cut on 
 a single moulding, 
 as in the choir of 
 
 the Temple Church, 80. Temple Church, London, A.D. 1240. 
 
 London (81) thus Shewing the pear-shaped moulding, and an 
 ' early variety of the roll -moulding, with 
 
 giving a very differ- dee P hollows between. 
 
 ent though still beautiful character to them ; but this 
 
 always shews a tendency to transition to the next style. 
 
 79. Nave of Milton Church, Oxon. 
 Arch-mouldings. 
 
 i s 
 
 h Sometimes called the scroll moulding, but roll is the correct term, from 
 the close resemblance to a roll of parchment with the edge overlapping. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH MOULDINGS. 
 
 I 1 6 
 
 The natural use and the profusion of mouldings in 
 the English buildings of the thirteenth century is con- 
 sidered as one of the proofs of the English origin of 
 the Gothic style. The French imitated it rapidly, but 
 in a cheaper manner, and their buildings are, on the 
 whole, not quite equal to ours, that is, taking into 
 account both exterior and interior. The profuse suites 
 
 81. Temple Church, London, A.D. 1240. 
 
 A suite of mouldings from the choir, shewing the use of fillets. 
 
 of mouldings so common in English doorways and 
 arches, are almost unknown in France : some things 
 they developed more rapidly than we did, but in the 
 mouldings they were behind us. 
 
 Throughout the Early English period there is an 
 ornament used in the hollow mouldings which is as 
 characteristic of this style as the zigzag is of the 
 Norman ; this consists of a small pyramid, more or 
 less acute, cut into four leaves or petals meeting in 
 the point but separate below. When very acute, and 
 seen in profile, it may be imagined to have somewhat 
 the appearance of a row of dogs’ -teeth, and from this it 
 has been called the “ dog-tooth ornament,” or by some 
 
EARLY ENGLISH MOULDINGS. I 1 7 
 
 the shark’s-tooth ornament, more commonly the “ tooth- 
 ornament, ” (82). It is used with the greatest pro- 
 
 82. York Cathedral, A.D. 1240. 
 
 Mouldings from the north transept, shewing the tooth-ornament. 
 
 fusion on arches, between clustered shafts, on the 
 architraves and jambs of doors, windows, piscinas, and 
 indeed in every place where such ornament can be 
 introduced. It is very characteristic of this style, for 
 though in the Norman we find an approach to it, and 
 in the Decorated various modifications of it, still the 
 genuine tooth -ornament may be considered to belong 
 exclusively to the Early English. 
 
 The ornaments so well known by the name of 
 Crockets were first introduced in this style. The name 
 is taken from the shepherd's crook, adopted by the 
 bishops as emblematical of their office, and called in 
 French crochets. They occur at Lincoln, in St. Hugh’s 
 
I I 8 EARLY ENGLISH CROCKETS. 
 
 work, the earliest, the purest, and best example of this 
 style, and are there used in the unusual position of 
 a vertical line between the 
 detached shafts of Purbeck 
 marble (83). They are 
 found in the same position 
 also in the rich and beauti- 
 ful work of the west front 
 of 'Wells, which is the 
 example following most 
 closely on Lincoln both in 
 historical date and in 
 style'. Afterwards they 
 were used entirely on 
 the outside of pediments, 
 or in similar situations, 
 projecting from the face 
 of the work or the outer 
 
 surface of the moulding, 
 
 . _ ... 83. York Cathedral, A.D. 1255. 
 
 as in the very beautiful Crockets from the tomb of Archbishop 
 tomb of Archbishop Walter Walter Gre 7- 
 
 Grey (83), in York Cathedral ; and they continued in 
 use in the subsequent styles, although their form and 
 character gradually change with the style. In the 
 Early English they are formed of the conventional 
 foliage, with the usual knobs or lobes on the surface 
 of the leaf; in the Decorated they are copied from 
 natural foliage ; in the Perpendicular they are square, 
 stiff, and flat. 
 
 * Probably both are the work of Hugh de Wells, first Archdeacon of 
 Wells, and then Bishop of Lincoln, as has been said. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH FOLIAGE. 
 
 I 19 
 
 Another peculiarity consists of the Foliage, which 
 differs considerably from the Norman : in the latter it 
 has more or less, the appearance of being imitated from 
 that of the Classic orders, while in this it is entirely 
 original. Its essential form seems to be that of a 
 trefoil leaf, but this is varied in such a number of 
 ways that the greatest variety is produced. It is used 
 in cornices, the bosses of groining, the mouldings of 
 windows and doorways, and various other places, but 
 particularly in capitals, to which it gives a peculiar 
 and distinctive charac- 
 ter. The foliage of these 
 capitals is technically 
 called “ Stiff- leaf foli- 
 age,” but this alludes 
 only to the stiff stem or 
 stalk of the leaf, which 
 rises from the ring of 
 the capital; the foliage 
 itself is frequently as far 
 removed from stiffness 
 as any can be, as for in- 
 stance in the capitals of 
 Lincoln (84). The stiff 
 stalk is, however, a ready 
 mark to distinguish the 
 Early English capital 84. Lincoln Cathedral, A.D. 1220. 
 
 frnm nf fho Rim- North Transept, shewing the moulded 
 
 irom tnat or tne sue abacus, stiff-leaf foliage, and the tooth- 
 
 ceeding style. ornament used between the shafts. 
 
 We must bear in mind, however, that foliage is by 
 no means an essential feature of the Early English 
 
120 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS, 
 
 style; many of our finest buildings 
 minster Abbey (85), 
 have their capitals 
 formed of a plain bell 
 reversed, with mould- 
 ings round the abacus, 
 like rings put upon it, 
 and round the neck. 
 
 such as West- 
 
 85. Westminster Abbey, A.D. 1250. 
 Moulded capital. 
 
 It must be acknow- 
 ledged that the use of 
 foliage, as at Lincoln, 
 does give greater rich- 
 ness of effect to the 
 building. The origin of 
 this foliage has been 
 much discussed; it seems 
 most probable that it 
 was derived by gradual 
 changes from the Clas- 
 sical orders, chiefly from 
 the Ionic volute ; and 
 Sir Gilbert Scott, in his Lectures, has shewn that he can trace 
 it, by successive steps, from Byzantium through the south 
 of France, beginning with Carcassone. Byzantine foliage was 
 also introduced, with other ornaments, by the Crusaders, in 
 various countries, on their return from Syria, in the latter 
 half of the twelfth century. 
 
 Mr. Skidmore of Coventry, an ingenious and clever worker in 
 metal, has endeavoured to prove that it is derived and copied 
 from metal ornament, chiefly of gold, which was used at an 
 earlier period, as is recorded at Glastonbury, built by St. Dunstan 
 in 942, when the fabric was of wood plated with gold: this 
 wooden church is mentioned again in King Cnut’s charter in 
 1032; and it probably existed until it was destroyed by fire 
 near the end of the twelfth century. It is certain that no 
 vestige of early Norman masonry or stone sculpture has been 
 
EARLY ENGLISH ABACUS . 
 
 I 2 I 
 
 found there — nothing earlier than 1185, the date of the fire ; at 
 which time St. Joseph’s Chapel was commenced, but hardly 
 finished, and this is of the transitional style of that period. 
 Early Norman masonry is in general so massive and substantial 
 that it is difficult to destroy all traces of it. If it could be 
 proved that the wooden church at Glastonbury, with its gold 
 ornaments, and probably other similar examples of rich shrines 
 of the saints, existed as late as the time of St. Hugh of Lincoln, 
 it would give considerable plausibility to Mr. Skidmore’s theory. 
 It should be observed that those people who were particularly 
 skilful in working the precious metals, as the Anglo-Saxons and 
 the Spaniards, made no use of sculpture in stone at the same 
 period. In Spain, the rich ornamental work in stone of the 
 sixteenth century is called Pluteresque , or metallic, the forms 
 of the stone-carving being evidently imitated from the orna- 
 mental work in metal which was in common use at that period, 
 and of which specimens are frequently met with in modern 
 collections of articles of vertit. 
 
 In pure Early English work the Abacus is cir- 
 cular \ and consists, in the earlier examples, simply 
 of two rounds, the upper one the largest, with a hollow 
 between them (86); 
 but in later ex- 
 amples the mouM- 
 ings are frequently 
 
 increased in num- 86. Lincoln Cathedral, A.D. 1220. 
 
 her, and filleted. Abacus with round and hollow moulding. 
 
 k The general use of this feature is peculiar to England and Normandy ; 
 even in the best early French work, of the Royal Domain, the abacus is 
 generally square ; and as there can be no doubt that the round abacus is 
 more consistent with pure Gothic work, the square one belonging more 
 properly to the Classic styles, this circumstance is a strong argument in 
 favour of the greater purity of English Gothic. Generally, also, the 
 mouldings are much more numerous and much richer in English work 
 than in foreign work of the same period, as has been said. 
 
122 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH BASES. 
 
 The Bases generally consist of two rounds, the 
 lower one the largest, both frequently filleted, with 
 a deep hollow between placed horizontally ( 87 ); but in 
 
 87. Lincoln Cathedral, A.D. 1220. 
 
 Base, with a double set of mouldings, shewing the deep hollow which holds 
 water, peculiar to this style, and a clustered pillar of round and pear- 
 shaped shafts. 
 
 later examples this hollow is not found, its place being 
 filled up with another round moulding. 
 
 The Pillars are of various forms — round or octa- 
 gonal in small and plain churches, and these not un- 
 frequently alternate ; in richer work they are usually 
 clustered ; but the pillar most characteristic of the 
 style is the one with detached shafts (88), which are 
 generally of Purbeck marble, frequently very long and 
 slender, and only connected with the central shaft by 
 the capital and base, with or without one or two 
 
EARLY ENGLISH PILLARS. 
 
 I 2 3 
 
 bands at intervals. These bands are sometimes rings 
 of copper gilt, as in the choir of Worcester Cathedral, 
 and were sometimes necessary for holding together 
 the slender shafts of Purbeck marble. 
 
 88. Salisbury Cathe- 
 dral, A.D. 1220—1237. 
 Clustered pillar with 
 detached shafts. 
 
 89. Westminster Abbey, A.D. 1245. 
 Arch, north transept. 
 
 The Aeches are frequently, but not always, acutely 
 pointed, and in the more important buildings are gene- 
 rally richly moulded, as in Westminster Abbey (89), 
 
124 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH WINDOWS. 
 
 either with or without the tooth -ornament, as the 
 arches at York Minster (77). It has been already 
 observed that the form of the arch is never a safe 
 guide to the date or style of a building— it depended 
 much more on convenience than anything else; the 
 mouldings are the most safe guide : for instance, the 
 arches of the nave of Westminster Abbey are of the 
 same form as those of the choir and transepts, yet 
 they were built by Sir Richard Whittington 1 , (better 
 known by the story of his cat), in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, and their mouldings belong distinctly to that 
 period. In plain parish churches the arches are fre- 
 quently without mouldings, merely recessed and cham- 
 fered; the only character being in the capitals and 
 bases, or perhaps in the hood-moulds, though these also 
 are sometimes wanting. 
 
 The Windows in the earlier examples are plain, 
 lancet-shaped, and generally narrow; sometimes they 
 are richly moulded within and without (90), but 
 frequently have nothing but a plain chamfer outside 
 and a wide splay within : by means of this splay two 
 or three windows which are completely separate on 
 the outside are made to form one composition within, 
 and two, three, or more lancets are sometimes included 
 under one hood-mould on the outside (91). When 
 there are three the middle one is generally the highest, 
 
 1 Pat. 1 Hen. V., pp. 4 and 5. The Royal commission of Henry V. to 
 Sir Richard Whittington to rebuild the nave, is printed by Mr. Lysons in 
 the Appendix to “The Model Merchant of the Middle Ages,” 8vo., Glou- 
 cester, I860. Whittington appears to have advanced the money on the 
 royal bonds, which he is said to have afterwards burnt, as a proof of his 
 great wealth and generosity. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH WINDOWS. 
 
 125 
 
 90. Polehrook, Northants, c. 1220. 
 
 Shewing the triple lancet with shafts, and the arches richly moulded. 
 
 or there is a trefoil or quat refoil above : the spaces 
 between these becoming afterwards pierced, led to the 
 introduction of tracery. 
 
126 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH WINDOWS. 
 
 Square-headed windows are not at all uncommon 
 in this style, more es- 
 pecially in castles and 
 houses; but they fre- 
 quently occur also in 
 churches, as in the chan- 
 cel of the small church 
 of Cowley, near Oxford. 
 
 Sometimes, when the 
 central openingis square- 
 headed, there is an arch 
 or a dripstone in the 
 form of an arch over it, 
 with the space or tym- 
 panum filled up with 
 ornament, as at King- 
 stead, Northants (92). 
 
 But this arch over the 
 square head is frequent- 
 ly wanting, and these 
 simple square - headed 
 
 windows of the thir- A triplet, or triple lancet window, under 
 . , . ... an arch or dripstone, with the eyes solid. 
 
 teenth century, which 
 
 are very common, especially in castles, are often mis- 
 taken for Perpendicular work of the fifteenth. 
 
 91. Warmington, Northamptonshire, 
 C. 1230. 
 
 The origin of tracery may be carried back even to 
 the Norman period; from the time that two lights 
 were combined under one arch, a space was left be- 
 tween the heads of the lights and the arch, which was 
 an eyesore that the architect tried to get rid of in the 
 best way that he could. Thus at Sutton Courtney, in 
 
ORIGIN OF TRACERY. 12 J 
 
 Berkshire (38), in a window of the tower, which is 
 late Norman work, the 
 mouldings of the sub- 
 arches are continued 
 and carried across each 
 other on the flat sur- 
 face in the head of the 
 window : if the spaces 
 between these mould- 
 ings were pierced, we 
 should have tracery. 
 
 At St. Maurice’s 
 Church, York, in the 
 west front, is a Nor- 
 man window of two 
 lights of the usual 
 form, with a small 
 round opening through 
 the head, under the 
 dripstone which sup- 
 plies the place of the 
 connecting arch over 
 them(39)c Inthetri- 
 
 forium arcade of the 92 . Ringstead, Northants. 
 
 choir of Peterborough Square-beaded window. 
 
 Cathedral, a.d. 1145, one of the compartments has 
 plate-tracery of the same kind. In the tower of St. 
 Giles’s, Oxford, is a transitional Norman window of 
 two lights, with a small lancet-shaped opening in the 
 head, under the enclosing arch. 
 
 In the Early English style we have, in the later 
 examples, tracery in the heads of the windows, but it 
 
128 
 
 ORIGIN OF TRACERY. 
 
 lit 
 
 is almost invariably in the form of circles, either plain 
 or foliated (93), and is __ 
 
 constructed in a different 
 manner from genuine De- 
 corated tracery. At first 
 the windows have merely 
 openings pierced through 
 the solid masonry of the 
 head" 1 , the solid portions 
 thus left gradually be- 
 coming smaller and the 
 openings larger, until the 
 solid parts are reduced 
 to nearly the same thick- 
 ness as the mullions ; 
 but they are not moulded, 
 and do not form con- 
 tinuations of the mullions 
 until we arrive at real 
 Decorated tracery. 
 
 At Linchmere, Sussex, 
 a two-light Early English 
 window of very early cha- 
 racter has a large circular opening in the head, cut 
 through the plain stone without any mouldings; at the 
 Deanery, Lincoln, is a window of the same form, but 
 well moulded, and having capitals to the shafts and to 
 
 93 . Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxon, c. 1240. 
 
 Shewing a window of two lights with a 
 quatrefoil in the head of plate-tracery, 
 and a dripstone terminated by the 
 c h aracteristic ornament called a mask, 
 or a buckle. 
 
 m This kind of tracery is called by Professor Willis plate tracery ; being, 
 in fact, a plate of stone pierced with holes : it is extensively used in Early 
 French work. The more usual kind of tracery is called by Professor Willis 
 bar tracery, to distinguish it from the earlier kind. These terms are so 
 expressive and convenient that they are now generally adopted. 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. I2g 
 
 the mullions n . At Woodstock, Oxfordshire, a window 
 on the south side 
 
 is of the same 
 form, with a qua- 
 trefoil introduced 
 in the circle, and 
 the heads of the 
 lower lights tre- 
 foiled. At More ton 
 Pinckney, North- 
 amptonshire, 
 
 again, is the same 
 form, but mould- 
 ed, and the soliii 
 surface reduced 
 so as to form ac- 
 tual tracery. At 
 Solihull, War- 
 wickshire, is the 
 same form en- 
 riched with 
 mouldings and 
 cusps (94); at 
 Ast on -le- Walls the same form, with the opening 
 larger: at Middleton Cheney, Oxfordshire, the same 
 form ; but the solid masonry is so much reduced as to 
 form mere mullions, and this is actual tracery, though 
 without cusps. 
 
 At Glapthorn, Northamptonshire, and at Ashfordby, 
 
 94. Solihull, Waiwicksnire, c. 1260. 
 
 An early example of bar- tracery -with orna- 
 mented cusps. 
 
 “ See “ Glossary of Architecture,” fourth edition, Oxford, 1860. Plates 
 230, 231, and 233. 
 
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PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 131 
 
 heads of quite as advanced a character. In the tran- 
 sept of Salisbury Cathedral, built between 1220 and 
 
 96. Wimborne Minster, Dorset, c. 1220. 
 Shewing an early stage of plate-tracery. 
 
 1250, is a good example of a window of four lancet- 
 lights, with dripstone mouldings connecting them into 
 one window of two divisions, each of two lights, with 
 an open quatrefoil in the head, and a larger foliated 
 
i3 2 
 
 PROGRESS OF TRACERY . 
 
 97. Castle Hall, Winchester, built A.D. 1222— 1235 p. 
 
 The window (inserted about 1260) has plate-tracery, consisting of a qua- 
 trefoil in the head, and the two lights have trefoil heads and transoms. 
 
 p Sir Edward Smirke has shewn from the accounts published in the Win- 
 chester volumes of the Archaeological Institute, 8vo., 1845, that this hall 
 was huilt between 1222 and 1235, but the original windows were lancets 
 only, as may be seen on the northern side, where some of the jambs re- 
 main in the wall. The windows of two lights with an open quatrefoil in 
 the head, are part of an alteration half a century later. The first person 
 to call my attention to this was my lamented friend, M. Felix Verneith, 
 author of the excellent history of S. Front de Perigueux, and the other 
 Byzantine churches of Perigord. He visited the hall with me in 1851, and 
 he was one of the eminent French archaeologists who went with me to see 
 Lincoln Cathedral, and who pronounced without hesitation that there is 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 133 
 
 opening in the general head above : it is only ne- 
 cessary to reduce the quantity of solid masonry to 
 
 make this a good geometrical window. Windows of 
 two lights, with a pierced quatrefoil in the head, are, 
 
 no French work there, but that the date I gave to it was impossible. At 
 that time the exact history of each part of that very important building 
 had not been made out, and I supposed the circular window at the north 
 end to have been part of St. Hugh’s work, which it clearly is not. It was 
 this window also that M. Viollet-ie-Duc said could not be earlier than 1220, 
 and he was right. The thorough examination of this building that has 
 now been made removes all the difficulty. 
 
134 
 
 PRO GUESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 in fact, abundant in good Early English work of the 
 second period o. The triforium arcade in the choir and 
 transept of Westminster Abbey (76), built between 
 1245 and 1260, is a very rich example, with a double 
 plane of ornament ; the sub-arches are trefoiled, and in 
 the head there are foliated circles with ornamented 
 cusps ; the whole of the surface is enriched with diaper. 
 The presbytery at Lin- 
 coln, built between 
 1256 and 1282, is one 
 of the richest examples 
 of the Early English 
 style in its latest form, 
 approaching very closely 
 to the Decorated. The 
 chapter-house at West- 
 minster, which was 
 building in 1245, and 
 the chapter-house and 
 cloisters at Salisbury, 
 built between 1250 and 
 1260, are of similar 
 style, though not so 
 rich. 
 
 At Stone Church, 
 
 Kent (99), is a win- 
 dow of two trefoil- gg stone 0 ^^, Kent, c. 1240. 
 headed openings with 
 
 a quatrefoil in the head; these are moulded, and 
 
 1 Each of the styles must naturally be divided into three periods,— 
 early,— middle,— and late. 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 35 
 
 getting nearer to bar tracery. This window also 
 shews what is called a double plane of ornament, the 
 inner plane being much lighter and more enriched than 
 the outer one. A very similar window occurs in the 
 north aisle of St. Giles’ Church, Oxford, which is at- 
 
 tributed to St. Hugh of Lincoln, who instituted a vicar 
 to it in the year 1200, but it is probably later than 
 that time. 
 
 At Strixton, Northamptonshire, is a triple lancet- 
 window at the east end, with a quatrefoil opening, and 
 
 100 . East Window, Raunds, Northamptonshire, c. 1260. 
 
 This window shews actual bar-tracery, but without cusps, excepting to 
 the lower lights, which are trefoil -headed. 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 also three sunk quatrefoil panels in the gable (118.) 
 These sunk panels are not uncommon in Early Eng- 
 lish work, and it is only necessary to draw them a 
 little more closely together to enclose them under one 
 arch, and pierce them to form good tracery. This is 
 done in the next class, as at Eaunds, Northampton- 
 shire (100), and Ac- 
 ton Burnell, Shrop- 
 shire : here we have 
 windows of three 
 lights, of four lights, 
 and of six lights, 
 with plain circles 
 in the head, richly 
 moulded. Many 
 windows of this class 
 originally had cusps, 
 which have been cut 
 out, and this is said 
 to have been the 
 case at Eaunds : the 
 early cusps were so 
 constructed that 
 they might be re- 
 moved without leav- 
 ing any distinct 
 marks, and their 
 absence would not 
 he noticed if they 
 were not known to have been there; this is not the 
 case in real Decorated tracery, — but this class belongs 
 to rather a later period than we have yet arrived at. 
 
 101. Irthlingborough, Northamptonshire, 
 c. 1280. 
 
 Shewing five lancet windows under one arch, 
 and the spandrels pierced, forming what 
 are popularly called the eyes of the window. 
 
PROG RUSS OF TRACERY. 
 
 I 37 
 
 There are good specimens of the sunk panels before 
 mentioned at Thornton Abbey, Lincolnshire, and the 
 west window of Raunds ; both these are rich speci- 
 mens, and only require the panels to be pierced to 
 form good and elegant tracery. 
 
 Another class of windows in which the same gradual 
 approach to tracery may be noticed, consists of three 
 or more lancet-lights under one arch, the points of the 
 sub-arches touching the enclosing arch; the spandrels 
 at first solid, as at 
 Oundle, Northamp- 
 tonshire, afterwards 
 pierced as at Irth- 
 lingborough (101) : 
 the subsequent ad- 
 dition of cusps makes 
 this form into a pure 
 Decorated window. 
 
 In some instances 
 the side-lights are 
 lower than the centre 
 lights, and have open- 
 ings over them, as at 
 Tewkesbury, Glou- 
 cestershire. 
 
 Another class has 
 the mullions carried 
 on through the head 
 of the window, and 102. St. Mary-le-Wigford, Lincoln, c. 1260. 
 
 Shewing the mullions crossing in the head. 
 
 intersecting each 
 
 other : there are examples of this form in Early English 
 work, late in the style, as at St. Mary-le-Wigford, 
 
133 
 
 PROG BISS OF TRACERT. 
 
 Lincoln (102), and it continued to be used throughout 
 the Decorated period ; an imitation of it is very com- 
 mon in comparatively modem work. When the spaces 
 are foliated, as at Dorchester (103', it forms a good 
 Decorated window : there is a curious early example 
 
 103. Dorchester, Oxfordshire, c. 1275. 
 
 of this form, in which the intersecting arches are 
 struck from the same centres as the window-head, and 
 with trefoils introduced in the openings, at Rushden, 
 Northamptonshire. 
 
 Circular windows also afford a fine series of the gra- 
 

 
 
 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 . - . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PROGRESS OF WINDOW TRACERY [ To face p. 139 . 
 
 Peterborough. Cathedral, A.D. 1240. 
 
 This is a very beautiful example of rich Early English work of 
 the best period, about the middle of the thirteenth century, a little 
 more advanced than the one from Beverley. Such very rich examples 
 as these are not common : the sculpture of the foliage ornament is 
 beautifully executed. Although such exquisite examples cannot be 
 expected to be found very often ; yet at the same period we frequently 
 find attempts at it, even in comparatively poor parish churches. 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 I 39 
 
 dual approach to tracery ; there are many fine Norman 
 specimens filled with a sort of wheel pattern, as at 
 Barfreston in Kent. At St. James’s Church, Bristol, is 
 a good example of a somewhat different kind, still 
 more resembling tracery. The beautiful Early English 
 circular window at Peterborough is almost of the same 
 general pattern as the Norman one at Barfreston. The 
 glorious window in the 
 
 IT' 
 
 north transept of Lin- 
 coln, c. 1220 (74), is 
 of somewhat later cha- 
 racter, and though not 
 strictly corresponding 
 with the definition of 
 tracery, can hardly be 
 distinguished from it r . 
 The natural successors 
 to these are the splendid 
 Decorated circular win- 
 
 104. Beverley Minster, c. 1220. 
 
 A . This shews a rather unusual form of win- 
 
 dows ( 104 ), Commonly dow, with the abundant use of the tooth- 
 n . , , . ornament. 
 
 called marigold - win- 
 dows, and Catherine-wheel windows, and rose -win- 
 dows, which are the glory of so many of the foreign 
 cathedrals, and of which we have many fine examples 
 at home, as in Westminster Abbey, the south transept 
 of Lincoln, Boynton in Wiltshire, Cheltenham, &c. 
 
 The series of small windows in gables and in clere- 
 stories must not be overlooked; they are sometimes 
 foliated circles, of which a good example occurs at 
 
 r It is a fine example of plate-tracery as distinguished from bar-tracery, 
 according to Professor Willis’s definitions. 
 
140 
 
 PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 Hargrave, Northamptonshire, with the points of the 
 cusps formed into a round 
 moulding, or bowtell 
 
 (105) ; sometimes trefoils 
 or spherical triangles, of 
 which we have a very 
 rich example in the south 
 transept of Westminster 
 Abbey, where the sphe- 
 rical triangle is made to 
 inclose a foliated circle 
 
 (106) : the same gradual 105. Hargrave, Horthamptonslilre, 
 
 progress towards regular A quatrefoil opening enclosed in a cir- 
 , . , cular panel, the points of the cusps 
 
 tracery may be noticed ornamented, 
 in these as in the other classes. 
 
 Cusps form so 
 important a part 
 of tracery, that it 
 is almost necessary 
 to point out their 
 succession and va- 
 riety also. They 
 may be found oc- 
 casionally, though 
 rarely, in Norman 
 
 work. In the ^ 
 
 Early English pe- 106. Westminster Abbey, A.D. 1250. 
 riod they are ahun- s P herica l window inclosing a foliated circle. 
 
 dant, and frequently ornamented with sculpture, or 
 foliage, or heads : but they are attached to the lower 
 surface or soffit of the mullion, or tracery bar (107), 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. I4I 
 
 and do not seem to grow out of it, and form part of it, 
 in the same manner as they do 
 in Decorated work. 
 
 We have thus endeavoured 
 to point out some of the prin- 
 cipal ways by which tracery 
 was arrived at, and to shew 
 that the progress was so gra- 
 dual, step by step, without any 
 hiatus, that there is no ne- 
 cessity to look abroad for any 
 specimens to fill up gaps in 
 the series. The same steps seem to have been taken 
 simultaneously in foreign countries, or we may have 
 copied particular forms, but there is no evidence that 
 we borrowed the whole system from them. The usual 
 test of the importation of a new style is a decided 
 leap from one style to another, and this was clearly 
 not the case with the introduction of tracery into 
 England. 
 
 The origin of tracery has been much discussed, and it is com- 
 monly asserted that the French and the Germans had con- 
 siderably the start of England in this particular and important 
 part of Gothic architecture, if not in the whole style. This is, 
 however, by no means a settled point, but one fairly open to 
 further investigation. It has been already observed, in speak- 
 ing of the change from the Romanesque styles to the earliest 
 Gothic, that its progress was very nearly simultaneous in Eng- 
 land and in the northern parts of Europe. It is difficult to 
 obtain accurate dates of the precise parts of any building even 
 in England, and still more difficult in foreign countries; win- 
 dows are often inserted, and the tracery of windows is not un- 
 frequently of a different age from the arch and jambs; it there- 
 fore requires more careful investigation than we have yet had 
 applied to this subject before it can be decided satisfactorily. 
 
42 
 
 PROGRESS OF TRACER ! , 
 
 A kind of tracery is however used in the Romanesque style in 
 the Rhine churches of Germany, apparently before it was used 
 either in France or England. 
 
 Like all other parts of Gothic architecture, tracery appears to 
 have grown gradually and naturally from the necessity of sup- 
 plying a want that was felt. 
 
 The Chapter-house at Westminster, as has been mentioned, 
 has windows with foliated circles in the head of actual bar- 
 tracery ; and the date of these windows has been ascertained, 
 by the building accounts preserved in the Public Record-office, 
 to be about 1245. This is the same date as the celebrated Sainte 
 Chapelle in Paris, which is commonly cited as the earliest ex- 
 ample of actual tracery, considered as the climax of perfect 
 Gothic. The windows in the apse of the Cathedral of Rheims 
 are of the same character, and are usually supposed to be con- 
 siderably earlier ; but Wilars de Honecort, an architect of Pi- 
 cardy, who was living at the same time that Rheims was build- 
 ing, has left us a sketch of this apse as it was intended to be by 
 his friend the original architect of that magnificent church, and 
 it is evident that those windows containing tracery are an 
 alteration of the original plan, and consequently of rather later 
 date, which brings them to the same period with the other ex- 
 amples s . The monks entered the choir of Rheims in 1241. 
 
 The progress in the two countries was so nearly simultaneous 
 that it is often difficult to say which had the priority ; but in 
 the question of tracery the priority is generally given to France, 
 and in lancet windows and light clustered pillars to the English. 
 In general, the actual date has much more to do with the style 
 than the particular country or province ; although both these 
 have an influence, it is altogether subordinate to the date. 
 When the style of any building is very much in advance of 
 other buildings of the period to which it is assigned, we may 
 generally conclude that the date is wrong, or that the church 
 has been silently rebuilt at a subsequent period, as is the case 
 in hundreds of instances. The date of foundation only proves 
 that there can be nothing earlier than that date, but is no proof 
 that the building has not been entirely reconstructed at a sub- 
 
 a See the Sketch-Book of Wilars de Honecort, edited by Professor Willis, 
 4to., 1860, pi. lix., p. 209. 
 
PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 143 
 
 sequent period, or that it was completed immediately after the 
 foundation. Amiens Cathedral, begun in 1220, was not com- 
 pleted until 1288. The church of St. Francis at Assissi, in Italy, 
 founded in 1228, has tracery in the windows, and this has been 
 considered by some persons as the earliest example; but on 
 examination of the building it is evident that the side-chapels 
 of the lower church are additions, probably of the following 
 century, and that the windows of the upper church were in- 
 serted at the same time as these lower chapels were built. Part 
 of the original triforium gallery remains, both at the east and 
 west ends, and is cut through by the present windows. The 
 beautiful paintings with which the walls and the jambs of the 
 windows are covered are evidently original, and are in the style 
 of the fourteenth century. The small church of St. Clara, in 
 the same town, was built by the same architect after the large 
 church was completed, and has not been altered: it has single 
 lancet windows. 
 
 Cologne Cathedral is also cited as an early example of geome- 
 trical tracery ; but although the foundations were laid in 1248, 
 it was not consecrated until 1327, and the tracery of the win- 
 dows is likely to have been one of the latest parts of the work : 
 the style of this church is evidently French, and there is no 
 probability that either Italy or Germany had any priority of 
 style. The real question is between the Royal Domain of 
 France and England, including the English provinces: well- 
 informed German antiquaries who have studied this interesting 
 question, give the priority of style to Paris and St. Denis ; a com- 
 parison of authenticated dates makes this rather doubtful, or at 
 least shews that if Suger, at St. Denis, was the inventor, as is 
 said, of the principles which led to the Gothic style, his example 
 was very speedily followed, and not at all confined to the Royal 
 Domain. 
 
 It would not be difficult to form a series of French examples 
 similar to the English series we have given above, shewing the 
 origin and gradual progress of tracery without any hiatus in 
 that country also. The steps would be somewhat different, and 
 the forms arrived at not precisely the same, for there is almost 
 always a difference between French tracery and English tracery, 
 and there is no reason to suppose that one country copied the 
 other exactly. A simultaneous progress was going on in both 
 
144 
 
 PROGRESS OF TRACERY. 
 
 countries, and though it is probable that the English architects 
 took many ideas from the French, it is evident that they 
 adapted them and moulded them to suit their own style, and 
 did not crudely copy portions of French buildings and stick 
 them on to English ones. The styles of the two countries were 
 distinct at all periods, and the English had developed a style of 
 their own ; and although they made free use of any new inven- 
 tions or discoveries on the Continent, they grafted them on to 
 their own work, so that they appeared to grow naturally out of 
 it. Whether the same gradual, uninterrupted progress can be 
 traced in any other country besides France and England, is 
 a question which has not yet been sufficiently investigated for 
 a decisive answer to be given to it. 
 
 It is certain that there is a much greater variety of tracery 
 in England than in any foreign country. In France the same 
 patterns are constantly repeated, and those patterns would, in 
 England, belong to an earlier period. These patterns, chiefly 
 trefoils and quatrefoils, continued in use in France for a century 
 later than in England, in the style which corresponds to our 
 Decorated, and then they run off into the other extreme, and to 
 the wild flowing, flame-like lines of the Flamboyant style, which 
 corresponds to our Perpendicular in date, and is chiefly of the 
 sixteenth century. In Germany and Belgium there is more 
 doubt on this point ; some of their tracery seems very early, per- 
 haps earlier than ours; this subject has never been thoroughly 
 worked out. It is singular that the best modern architects 
 generally fail in the attempt to produce good Gothic tracery, 
 while in all other respects they have succeeded in thoroughly 
 good imitation of the old work, and even rival it in design. 
 
 The Doorways are generally pointed or trefoiled, 
 but sometimes round-headed, and in small doorways 
 frequently flat-headed, with the angles corbelled in 
 the form called the square -headed trefoil, or the 
 shouldered arch. 
 
 This form of opening is frequently called the Car- 
 narvon arch, from its being so generally used in that 
 castle; but it is often of earlier date, though it also 
 
EARLY ENGLISH DOORWAYS. I 45 
 
 continued in use for a long period. The rather happy 
 name of the ‘ shouldered arch ’ was given to it ; strictly 
 speaking, it is not an arch at all, and the shouldered 
 lintel, or the corbelled lintel, would perhaps be more 
 correct. 
 
 108. Lutton, Huntingdonshire, c. 1200. 
 
 The round- arched dooorways may readily be distin- 
 guished by their mouldings ; they are commonly early 
 in the style, but by no means always so : segmental 
 arches also occur, though rarely. The larger doorways 
 are generally deeply recessed and richly moulded, and 
 in the best examples both the arches and jambs are 
 enriched with the tooth - ornament and foliage ; the 
 
 L 
 
I46 EARLY ENGLISH DOORWAYS. 
 
 jambs have likewise shafts with sculptured capitals. 
 They are sometimes double. 
 
 The west doorway of St. Cross Church, near Win- 
 
 109. St. Cross, Hampshire, c. 1250. 
 
 Doorway, shewing an obtuse arch richly moulded, with a dripstone ter- 
 minated by corbels of foliage, and with the tooth-ornament : two sub- 
 arches trefoiled, with a quatrefoil in the head. 
 
 Chester (109), is double, with two trefoil-headed open- 
 ings under one obtuse arch, and a pierced quatrefoil in 
 the head, bearing considerable resemblance to the win- 
 dows of the King’s Hall, Winchester (97), and is pro- 
 bably of the same date. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH PORCHES. 
 
 H 7 
 
 The Porches are frequently shallow, but there are 
 many fine porches of the usual projection ; these have 
 sometimes very lofty gables, as at Barnack, North- 
 amptonshire (110). The outer doorways are often 
 
 110 . Barnack, Northamptonshire, c. 1250. 
 
 much enriched with mouldings and shafts of great 
 depth, and the walls are ornamented on the inside 
 with arcades and tracery. 
 
148 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH VAULTS. 
 
 The Vaults are distinguished from the Norman by 
 their greater boldness, and from succeeding styles 
 by their greater simplicity, as at Salisbury (111). 
 
 111. Salisbury Cathedral, c. 1240. 
 
 Early English vault, groined, with moulded ribs on the groins only. 
 
 In the earlier examples there are ribs on the angles 
 of the groins only; at a later period the vaulting 
 becomes more complicated, as at "Westminster. There 
 is a longitudinal rib, and a cross rib along the ridge 
 of the cross vaults, and frequently also an interme- 
 
EARLY ENGLISH VAULTS. 1 49 
 
 diate rib on the surface of the vault. The bosses 
 (112) are rare at first, 
 more abundant after- 
 wards : they are gene- 
 rally well worked and 
 enriched with foliage. 
 
 Early English vaults 
 are sometimes of wood 
 only, as in York Min- 
 ster, and at "Warming- 
 ton, Northampton- 
 shire, and the clois- 112. Lincoln Cathedral, c. 1220. 
 ters at Lincoln. A Boss, north aisle of nave, 
 
 vault is, in fact, a ceiling, having always an outer 
 roof over it ; and there is no necessity for its 
 being of stone, although it is obviously better 
 that it should usually be so, as a security against 
 fire, which was the chief motive for the intro- 
 duction of stone vaults. The rather incorrect use 
 of the word ‘ roof 9 by Mr. Rickman, as applied to 
 vaults, has led to some confusion of ideas on this 
 subject. 
 
 The Buttresses, instead of being, as in the last 
 style, mere strips of masonry slightly projecting from 
 the wall, have now a very bold projection, and gene- 
 rally diminish upwards by stages, terminating either 
 in a pedimental head, or gable, or in a plain sloping 
 set-off, as at Beaulieu, Hampshire (113). The angles 
 are frequently broadly chamfered, and sometimes orna- 
 mented with shafts, either solid or detached. 
 
 The pinnacles terminating the buttresses are at 
 
150 EARLY ENGLISH BUTTRESSES. 
 
 first sometimes square, as at Bishop’s Cleeve, Glou- 
 cestershire (64), 
 which is of tran- 
 sitional Norman 
 character: they are 
 not very numerous 
 in the Early Eng- 
 lish style, and often 
 consist merely of 
 an octagonal shaft 
 with a pyramidal 
 capping ; after- 
 wards, particularly 
 in large buildings, 
 they are either 
 round or octagonal, 
 with shafts at the 
 angles, sometimes 
 
 113. Beaulieu. Hampshire, supporting small 
 c. A.D.1260. “ , 
 
 arches, and termi- 114 Peterborough 
 
 nating in a plain conical capping end- Cath ' edral,A ' D ' 1238 ' 
 
 ing in a bunch of foliage or other ornament as a finial, 
 
 as at Peterborough (114). 
 
 The Plying Buttress now becomes a prominent 
 feature in large buildings. It is often found in Nor- 
 man work, but concealed under the roof of the tri- 
 forium, as at Durham, Winchester, and many other 
 fine Norman buildings ; but in this style it is carried 
 up higher, and is altogether external, spanning over 
 the roof of the aisle, and carrying the weight and 
 consequent thrust of the vault over the central space 
 
EARLY ENGLISH BUTTRESSES. 
 
 151 
 
 obliquely down to the external buttresses, and so to 
 the ground, as at Hartlepool, Durham (115). There 
 is a very fine example of a com- 
 pound flying buttress at West- 
 minster Abbey, which supports 
 the vaults of the choir, the tri- 
 forium, and the aisles, and car- 
 ries the thrust of the whole 
 over the cloister to the ground. 
 
 But they did not become com- 
 mon until after this period. 
 
 There is a marked difference 
 between the flying buttresses 
 of English buildings and those 
 of Erench work of the same 
 time ; the English are far more 
 elegant : large Erench build- 
 ings often appear as if they 
 were surrounded by a scaffold- 
 ing of stone. 
 
 
 
 115. Hartlepool, Durham, 
 c. 1220. 
 
 Flying buttress, the short pin- 
 nacle and the set-off both 
 terminated by coping. 
 
 The Corbel - Tables some- 
 times consist, as in the earlier 
 period, merely of blocks sup- 
 porting a straight, projecting 
 course of stone which carries the front of the parapet 
 (116) ; but more commonly, especially as the style 
 advanced, small trefoil arches are introduced between 
 the corbels, and these become more enriched and less 
 bold, as at Hotley Abbey, Bucks (117), until, in the 
 succeeding style, this feature is altogether merged in 
 the cornice mouldings. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH CORBEL-TABLES. 
 
 The Fronts of Early English buildings before the 
 introduction of tracery, and consequently before the 
 
 
 116. Beverley Minster, c. 1220. 
 
 The corbels have the ornament called a buckle or mask ; the horizontal pro- 
 jecting table, or tablet, carried by the corbels, has the tooth-ornament. 
 
 117. Notley Abbey, Bucks, c. 1250. 
 Trefoiled corbel-table. 
 
 use of large windows, have a very peculiar appearance, 
 very different from those of the preceding or succeeding 
 styles. In small churches a common arrangement is to 
 have either three lancet windows, or two with a but- 
 tress between them; but in both cases there is fre- 
 quently over them a quatrefoil or small circular window 
 foliated, or sunk panels of the same form, but not 
 
EARLY ENGLISH FRONTS. I 53 
 
 pierced as windows. In large buildings there are fre- 
 quently two or three tiers of lancet windows, and 
 a rich circular window in the gable above. Many 
 
 118 . Strixton, Northamptonshire, c. 1220. 
 
 Shewing a gable-end with corner buttresses, a triplet with a string- 
 course under it, and over it a quatrefoil opening with three sunk 
 panels quatrefoiled. 
 
154 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH FRONTS. 
 
 small parish churches of this style have east or west 
 fronts deserving attention; in the east front there is 
 most frequently a triplet of lancet lights, and the same 
 arrangement is usual in the fronts of the north and 
 south transepts, and at the west end also, when there 
 is no tower. Sometimes the lancets are small, and 
 have a small window over them in the gable, as at 
 Strixton, Northamptonshire (118), which also has the 
 sunk panels, and is a valuable specimen of plain 
 Early English work throughout. In later examples 
 the window is usually of three or more lights, sepa- 
 rated only by mullions, with circles in the head, either 
 with or without foliation, as at Raunds, Northamp- 
 tonshire, and Acton Burnell, Shropshire. The west 
 front of Nun Monkton Church, Yorkshire, affords a 
 very singular example of the combination of a small 
 tower with the west gable, over a fine triplet. The 
 west front of Durston Church, Northamptonshire, is 
 a good plain example with a triplet. 
 
 The East End is almost invariably square in Early 
 English work, although we have a few examples of 
 the apsidal termination, generally a half-octagon, or 
 half-hexagon, as in Westminster Abbey, and several 
 other large churches. In the small parish churches 
 this form is very rare : an example occurs at Tidmarsh, 
 near Pangbourne, Berks, an elegant little structure, 
 the roof of which has been carefully restored. On the 
 Continent the apsidal form is almost universal at this 
 period; but this is only one of many variations be- 
 tween English and foreign Gothic. 
 
EARLY ENGLISH TOWERS. 
 
 155 
 
 Early English Towers are in general more lofty 
 than the Norman, and are readily distinguished by 
 their buttresses, which have a greater projection. In 
 the earlier examples an arcade is frequently carried 
 round the upper story, some of the arches of which 
 are pierced for windows : but in later buildings the 
 windows are more often double, and are frequently 
 very fine compositions. The tower generally termi- 
 
 119. Ringstead Church, Northants., c. 1260. 
 
 Shewing a broach spire with the squinches visible connecting the angles 
 of the square tower with the octagonal spire, and three tiers of spire- 
 lights. The weather-moulding of the original roof is visible above 
 the present roof. 
 
156 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 nates in a Spiee, which in some districts, especially in 
 Northamptonshire, does not rise from within a parapet, 
 but is of the form usually called a broach spire ( 119 ), 
 of which there are several varieties. In other dis- 
 tricts the towers are terminated by original parapets ; 
 these probably had wooden spires rising within the 
 parapet, which occasionally but rarely remain, and 
 are a good feature, as at Uton, Somerset. Pinnacles 
 are sometimes inserted at the angles, and produce 
 a very good effect. 
 
 The general appearance of Early English buildings 
 is magnificent and rich, rather from the number of 
 parts than from the details. In those buildings where 
 very long windows are used there is a grandeur arising 
 from the height of the divisions; in the smaller 
 buildings there is much simplicity of appearance, but 
 the work all appears well designed and carefully 
 executed. 
 
 Houses and castles of the Early English style are quite as 
 rare as those of the Norman, or perhaps more so. By far the 
 finest example is the Bishop’s Palace at Wells, built by Bishop 
 Jocelyne, 1205 — 1242. The lower story, or ground-floor, of this 
 is vaulted, and was used chiefly for cellars and store-rooms, 
 the dwelling apartments being on the first floor, as was the 
 usual custom of the period. The windows in the ground floor 
 are single lancets ; those in the upper floor are very fine, of two 
 lights, trefoiled, with a quatrefoil in the head, and marble shafts 
 in the jambs. The King’s Hall at Winchester has been already 
 mentioned; it is of about the same period, 1222 — 1235. The 
 remains of Somerton Castle, Lincolnshire, belong also to the 
 earlier division of this style: the only parts perfect are the 
 round towers at the comers, in one of which is a vaulted cham- 
 ber with a central pillar, like a small chapter-house. Of Windsor 
 Castle of the time of Henry in. we have part of the curtain- 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 15 7 
 
 wall and two round towers, in one of which is a vaulted cham- 
 ber, probably the prison. There are similar chambers in some 
 of the round corner towers or bastions in the Tower of London, 
 and a remarkably perfect one, also a prison chamber, in Lin- 
 coln Castle, called Cobbe’s Hall, also of the time of Henry III. 
 There are some small remains of the manor-house of Cogges, 
 Oxfordshire, including two good windows of about this period, 
 probably built by Walter Grey, Archbishop of York, who gave 
 the manor to his nephew, Grey of Rotherfield. 
 
 120. Window at the west end of the Hall of the King’s Palace at Winchester, 
 A.D. 1222—1235. 
 
 The remains of the manor-house at Cottesford, Oxfordshire, 
 and of a small house at Sutton Courtney, Berkshire, are a little 
 earlier than Cogges. Those of the parsonage-house at West 
 Tarring and the manor-house at Crowhurst, Sussex, and the 
 archdeacon’s house at Peterborough, appear to belong also to 
 the first half of the thirteenth century. Of the later division of 
 
i 5 8 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 this style, or the latter half of the thirteenth century, but before 
 the Edwardian castles, we have some fine and interesting ex- 
 amples. Aydon Hall or Castle, Northumberland, is rather a for- 
 tified manor-house than a castle. Stoke Say Castle, in Shrop- 
 shire, is another of the same kind, and with the hall perfect. 
 Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk, is another very interesting and 
 perfect example, and the more remarkable as being of brick, 
 and the bricks of the form and size now used, not large and flat 
 like the Roman bricks or tiles which continued to be used in 
 the twelfth century. Woodcroft Castle, Northamptonshire, is 
 a very remarkable and foreign-looking building of this period. 
 There are remains of houses of this style at Acton Burnell, 
 Shropshire; Godmersham, Kent; Longthorp, Northampton- 
 shire; Charney, Berkshire ; West Dean, Sussex; and Oakham, 
 Rutland, called Flore’s House. There are also considerable 
 remains of monastic buildings of this style. 
 
 The most celebrated and best examples of the Early English 
 style have already been referred to in describing the different 
 parts, beginning with Canterbury, a.d. 1284, when the style was 
 not quite fully developed. The next historical example to this 
 is the choir and transepts of the small parish Church of Clee, in 
 Lincolnshire, at the mouth of the Humber, which is important, 
 because there is a contemporary inscription stating that it was 
 dedicated in 1192 by Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln, (St. Hugh of 
 Grenoble). This inscription could apply only to those parts 
 of the church of Clee which are earlier in style, but only a little 
 earlier, than St. Hugh’s choir. The original parts of Lincoln 
 are the earliest, and still one of the best, examples ; and it has 
 been mentioned that care must be taken to distinguish the 
 parts that are really of the time of St. Hugh of Grenoble, that 
 is, before the year 1200, from the later parts, though there is 
 little difference in style ; this is important historically in the 
 controversy with France, as to which country had the priority. 
 
 Nearly simultaneous with St. Hugh’s choir we have the work 
 of the time of Bishop Godfrey de Lucy at Winchester, con- 
 sisting of the Presbytery and Lady-chapel, a part of the great 
 Abbey Church of St. Alban’s, consisting of the western doorway, 
 and part of the porch, and the western end of the nave. The 
 Galilee porch at Ely, the work of Bishop Eustace, 1198 — 1200, 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STILE. 
 
 \Toface p. 159. 
 
 This is a good example of the vaulting of the Early English style, 
 at its best period, just before the change into the Decorated. 
 
 Cathedral, Chester, South Aisle of Choir, A.D. 1284. 
 
THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 159 
 
 bears a striking resemblance to Lincoln ; there is also a parish 
 church at Ely of the same character. A considerable part of 
 Worcester Cathedral was built between 1203 and 1218, con- 
 sisting of the choir and presbytery with the aisles, which are 
 fine Early English work, and, though much restored from the 
 bad quality of the stone, the restoration has been carefully 
 executed. The choir and transepts of Fountains Abbey, York- 
 shire, were built between 1205 and 1212 by Abbot John of 
 York. The choir and transepts of Rochester Cathedral, built 
 by the sacristan William de Hoo, is another fine and elegant 
 example, with some peculiarities. Salisbury Cathedral is usually 
 referred to as the type par eminence of the style, because the 
 later additions have been destroyed, so as to leave only, as 
 we have it, a more perfect whole, all of this style, and it belongs 
 to the period when the style was fully established, that is, from 
 1220 to 1260. The choir and transepts of Westminster Abbey 
 (commenced in 1245, and suspended also about 1261) are another 
 admirable example of the Early English style, with a slight 
 admixture of the Early French in the buttresses, which partake 
 of the scaffolding character of the French buttresses. The west 
 front of Wells Cathedral is the richest example of the kind any- 
 where ; it is entirely covered with successive bands of sculpture, 
 and the niches or canopies are worked with all the character- 
 istic details of the style. It is also an early example, the work of 
 Bishop Jocelyne, a.d. 1213 — 1229. The work was considered by 
 Professor Cockerell as superior to any similar work on the Con- 
 tinent ; he was well acquainted with Italy, which has nothing 
 to compare with it of the same period. The French work in the 
 porches, both at Amiens and Rheims, is later. 
 
 The cruciform plan, which had been introduced in the Norman 
 period, was continued in the Early English, in which were fre- 
 quently added chapels for altars on the east side of the transept, 
 as in Lincoln, and at the east end of the choir in the nine altars 
 at Durham, 1242 — 1290. Ashburn Church, Derbyshire, which 
 is dated a.d. 1241 by an inscription in brass let into one of the 
 columns, is a fine parish church of this style. Parish churches 
 of this style and of this period are very common in some parts 
 of the country, as in Kent, Northamptonshire, and Yorkshire; 
 but it is not easy to ascertain their dates exactly, excepting by 
 
6o 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE. 
 
 the principle of comparison with the cathedrals and great mo. 
 nastic churches, which are always dated historically. The north 
 transept of York Minster is a well-known example, and Skelton 
 Church is a small parish church built by the same person. 
 The presbytery of Ely Cathedral, built by Bishop Hugh 
 Northwold, 1235 — 1252, is another very marked and rich 
 example, also the choir of the Temple Church in London, 
 consecrated in 1240. 
 
CHAPTEE, Y. 
 
 The Decorated Style. 
 
 Edward I., II., and HE. a.d. 1272 — 1377. 
 
 rpHE change from the Early English to the Decorated style 
 was so very gradual, that it is impossible to draw any line 
 where one style ceases and the other begins. Some persons, 
 indeed, deny that it is a distinct style at all ; but whatever may 
 be the case as a matter of abstract theory, or on philosophical 
 principles, all are agreed that as a matter of practical conve- 
 nience the distinction is useful and necessary. It has its own 
 very characteristic features; the windows, doorways, buttresses, 
 mouldings, and sculpture are all different from those of either 
 the preceding or the following style. On the other hand, some 
 have proposed to divide this style into two — the geometrical 
 style, and the flowing style; but here the distinction is not 
 sufficiently broad to constitute two distinct styles, although, 
 as sub-divisions of the same style, these terms were used by 
 Rickman himself, and are useful. But these two divisions are 
 so frequently contemporaneous, and run into each other so 
 continually, that it is almost impossible to separate them in 
 practice: the windows may indeed be distinguished, though 
 even in these we often find windows with geometrical tracery 
 and others with flowing tracery side by side in the same build- 
 ing, with the same mouldings and details, and evidently built 
 at the same time ; and no distinction can be drawn in doorways 
 and buttresses. It is better, therefore, to continue to use the 
 received division of styles, and the received names for them. 
 We must always bear in mind that each style is naturally sub- 
 divided into early, middle, and late, and that the early is often 
 mixed with the previous style, the later with the subsequent 
 one. There is no broad line of distinction and of division in 
 medieval buildings, it was one continual progress or decline; 
 the divisions are arbitrary, but very convenient in practice. 
 
 The Decorated Style is distinguished by its large 
 windows divided by mullions, and the tracery either 
 
 u 
 
62 
 
 DECORATED WINDOWS. 
 
 in flowing lines, or forming circles, trefoils, and other 
 geometrical figures, and not running perpendicularly ; 
 its ornaments are numerous and very delicately carved, 
 more strictly faithful to nature and more essentially 
 parts of the structure than in any other style. In 
 small country churches, however, there are perhaps 
 more very plain churches of this style than of any 
 other; still the windows have the essential decoration 
 of tracery. The ornament is also part of the con- 
 struction, a point in which it differs from the other 
 styles; an Early English cusp may he inserted or 
 omitted in the tracery, a Decorated one cannot. 
 
 Decorated tracery is usually divided into three 
 general classes — geometrical, flowing, and flamboyant; 
 the variety is so great, that many subdivisions may 
 be made, but they were all used simultaneously for 
 a considerable period 4 . 
 
 The earliest Decorated windows have geometrical 
 tracery ; Exeter Cathedral is, perhaps, on the whole, 
 the best typical example of the early part of this 
 style b . The fabric rolls are preserved, and it is now 
 evident that the existing windows are, for the most 
 part, of the time of Dishop Quivil, from 1279 to 1291. 
 The windows all have geometrical patterns, and some 
 
 * See the excellent work of Mr. E. A. Freeman, on Window Tracery, in 
 which he gives several hundred varieties carefully drawn and systemati- 
 cally arranged. 8vo., Oxford, 1851. There is no similar work for the 
 Continent. 
 
 b They have been carefully examined and applied by Archdeacon 
 Freeman, one of the Canons of the Cathedral, who has studied it 
 carefully for years. His history of it forms an excellent continuation 
 of Professor Willis’s admirable “Architectural History of Canterbury 
 Cathedral.” 
 
DECORATED WINDOWS . 
 
 l &3 
 
 of these are identical with those of Merton College 
 Chapel, Oxford (121) c . There can be little doubt that 
 the east window and the 
 side walls and windows 
 
 of this choir must have 
 been completed before 
 1290. The sacristy, to 
 which the bursars’ rolls 
 give the positive date of 
 1307, is certainly twenty 
 years later in character 
 than the choir. The 
 tower-arches were not 
 erected until 1330, and 
 the transept was not com- 
 pleted until 1424, the 
 tower not till 1450 ; these 
 were built by the col- 
 lege, the design for the 
 nave and aisles being 
 abandoned. 
 
 121. Merton Collese Chapel, Oxford, 
 A.D. 1230—1290. 
 
 Shewing geometrical tracery. 
 
 The chapter-house at York 
 (122), with the passage to it, 
 is a fine example, the exact date of which is still disputed, but 
 
 c The date of 1277 has long been assigned to this, because the work has 
 evidently been left unfinished for a long period, and this was supposed 
 to have been caused by the sudden death of the founder, Walter de Merton, 
 who was drowned in that year ; and the mention in the bursars’ rolls of 
 a few shillings for a temporary altar about that time is supposed to agree 
 with this. The choir of the chapel was not paid for by the college, and 
 it is now considered that this was built between 1280 and 1290, and paid 
 for by the executors of the founder. 
 
164 
 
 DECORA TED WIND 0 WS. 
 
 it is probably between 1260 and 1280. The chapter-house of 
 Southwell is another 
 rich xample. As a 
 general rule, it may 
 be observed that the 
 buildings of the time 
 of Edward the First 
 have geometrical 
 tracery in the win- 
 dows and panelling, 
 and are of early De- 
 corated character : 
 the Eleanor crosses 
 and the tomb of 
 Queen Eleanor at 
 Westminster, are a- 
 mong the best ex- 
 amples of this style ; 
 they were all exe- 
 cuted between 1291 
 and 1294, as appears 
 by the builders’ ac- 
 counts, which are 
 still extant, and 
 were carefully edited 
 by Mr. Hudson Tur- 
 ner, and printed at 
 the expense of Mr. Beriah Botfield, for the Roxburgh Club. 
 The names of the builders and sculptors shew that they 
 were almost entirely natives, and not foreigners, as has been 
 often asserted. One name only, William Torel, has been sup- 
 posed to be the same as William Torelli, the Florentine, a 
 painter who was employed at the same time on some other 
 works in England, but there is no evidence of this being the 
 case ; while other names, as Alexander of Abingdon, “ the ima- 
 gineur,” or sculptor, William the Irishman, Richard and 
 Roger of Crundale, in Kent, sufficiently prove the employment 
 of natives. 
 
 As additional examples of this style may be mentioned the 
 hall of Acton Burnell Castle, Shropshire, built by Bishop Bur- 
 
 122. Passage to the Chapter-house, York, 
 c. 1260—1280. 
 
 Shewing geometrical tracery. 
 
DECORATED W IX DOWS. 
 
 165 
 
 nell, between 1274 and 1292 ; and the rains of his magrifcent 
 banqueting- hall in the bishop's palace at Wells : St- BtheEbert's 
 gate-hoose and pars of the cathedral at Norwich, rebuilt after 
 the riots in 1275, and re - consecrated by Bishop Middleton 
 in 1278. The chapter-house of Wells was built in the time of 
 Bishop William de March ia. 1292 — 1312. The nave of York 
 was commenced in 1291 and continued wntil 1340. the same 
 style being adhered to : the windows have geometrical tracery. 
 
 The work of Prior Henry de E stria, at Canterbury, in 1304-5. 
 belongs also to this style. An instance of the use of geometrical 
 tracery at a later period occurs at Canterbury, in St. Anselm s 
 Chapel, the contract lor which lu>. 1336 is extant. 
 
 Many windows of this style, especially in the time 
 
 of Edward L, have 
 the rear arch orna- 
 mented with cusps, 
 with a hollow space 
 over the head of 
 the window in the 
 thickness of the 
 wall, between the 
 rear arch and the 
 outer arch, as at 
 Piddington, Ox- 
 fordshire 123}. 
 This feature was 
 not continued in 
 the Perpendicular 
 style, when the 
 arch usually has 
 a wide and flat 
 shallow moulding 
 only. 
 
 123. , Cxhrismm- c. l&C- 
 
 Sbevnvj 4 cuspucc rear irca. 
 
DECORATED WINDOWS. 
 
 1 66 
 
 Windows with flowing tracery, and those with reti- 
 culated, or net-like forms (124), are in general some- 
 what later than the 
 geometrical pat- 
 terns; at least, they 
 do not seem to have 
 been introduced 
 quite so early ; but 
 they are very fre- 
 quently contempo- 
 raneous, and both 
 classes may often 
 be found side by 
 side in the same 
 building, evidently 
 erected at the same 
 time. An early in- 
 stance of this occurs 
 at Stoke Golding, 
 in Leicestershire, 
 built between 1275 
 
 , 124. St. Mary Magdalen Church,Oxford,c. 1320. 
 
 an Cl lJ JU, as ap- Shewing flowing tracery with cusps, of the 
 
 pears by an inscrip- variety called rcticulated « or net * likc - 
 tion still remaining: the windows have mostly geo- 
 metrical tracery, but several have flowing d . Several 
 churches in Northamptonshire have windows with 
 tracery alternately geometrical and flowing. The same 
 mixture occurs in the glorious churches of Selby Ab- 
 bey, Yorkshire, and St. Mary’s, Beverley. Bray Church, 
 
 d Good engravings of this church are published in Wealc’s Quarterly 
 Tapers. London, 1843-45, 4 vols. 4to. 
 
DECORATED WINDOWS. 
 
 67 
 
 Berkshire, rebuilt between 1293 and 1300, also pre- 
 sents the same mixture. In some instances windows 
 with geometrical tracery have the mouldings and the 
 mullions covered with the ball -flower ornament in 
 great profusion, even to excess: these examples occur 
 chiefly in Herefordshire, as at Leominster ( 125 ) ; and 
 in Gloucestershire, as in the south aisle of the nave 
 of the Cathedral at Gloucester : they are for the most 
 part, if not entirely, of the time of Edward II. 
 
 There is a very fine window, with reticulated tracery 
 and richly moul ded, 
 in the south wall 
 of the cloisters at 
 Westminster. Ho 
 rule whatever is 
 followed in the 
 form of the arch 
 over windows in 
 this style ; some 
 are very obtuse, 
 others very acute, 
 and the ogee arch 
 is not uncommon. 
 
 The inner arch, or 
 rear arch, is also 
 frequently of a dif- 
 ferent shape and 
 proportions to the 
 outer one : there is 
 
 also frequently, as 125. Leominster, Herefordshire, c. 1320. 
 
 1 Shewing the profusion of the ball-flower. 
 
 we have seen 
 
 ( 123 ), a series of open cusps hanging from it, called 
 hanging foliation; this is an elegant feature of the 
 
1 68 
 
 DECORATED WINDOWS. 
 
 Decorated style. It is more common in some parts 
 of the country than in others : this feature seems to 
 have taken the place of the inner plane of decoration, 
 with tracery and shafts, of the Early English style, 
 as at Stone, Kent (99) ; and it disappears altogether 
 in the succeeding style. 
 
 Square-headed windows are very common in this 
 style in many parts of the country, especially in 
 Leicestershire and in Oxfordshire, as at Dorchester 
 (126). This form of window is so convenient that it 
 was never entirely 
 discontinued, though 
 more commonly used 
 in houses and castles 
 than in churches. 
 
 Windows with a flat 
 segmental arch are 
 also frequently used 
 in this style, as at 
 Over, Cambridge- 
 shire (127) ; and the 
 dripstone, or project- 
 ing moulding over 
 the window to throw 
 off the wet, is some- 
 times omitted, espe- 
 cially in domestic 
 work. Circular win- 
 dows are also a fine 
 feature of this style, 
 chiefly used at the 
 ends of the transepts in large churches, or at the 
 west end in small ones. A rare instance of an east 
 
 126. Dorchester, Oxfordshire, c. 1330. 
 Square-headed. 
 
DECORATED WINDOWS. [To face p. 169. 
 
 Dorchester Abbey Churcli, Oxon. 
 The Jesse Window. 
 
DECORATED WINDOWS. 1 69 
 
 window of this form occurs at "Westwell, Oxford- 
 
 127. Over, Cambridgeshire, c. 1320. 
 Segmental-headed. 
 
 shire. Occasionally they are used in side-chapels, as 
 at Cheltenham (128). 
 
 The splendid rose-windows which are the glory of so 
 many of the French cathedrals belong generally to this 
 style, although they are also continued in the Flam- 
 boyant. In England they belong entirely to the Deco- 
 rated style, and are never continued in the Perpen- 
 dicular. The window at the end of the south transept 
 of Lincoln is a very fine example : the one at the end 
 of the south transept of Westminster Abbey is also 
 
170 
 
 DECORATED WINDOWS. 
 
 still a fine example, although it has been badly re- 
 stored. Mr. Scott found the exact pattern of it in 
 
 128. St. Mary’s, Cheltenham, c. 13^0. 
 
 its original state on one of the tiles in the chapter- 
 house e . 
 
 Clerestory windows of this style are often small, and 
 either circular with quatrefoil cusps, or trefoils or 
 
 • See Scott’s “Gleanings from Westminster Abbey,” 8vo., 1863, for 
 engravings of the window and the tile. 
 
DECORATED WINDOWS. 
 
 1/1 
 
 quatrefoils; or the 
 spherical triangle 
 with cusps, which 
 forms an elegant 
 window, as at Cran- 
 ford St. Andrew, 
 
 Northamptonshire 
 (129). The clever 
 manner in which 
 these windows are 
 splayed within, and 
 
 especially below, 
 
 , ,, 1 129. Cranford St. Andrew, Northants, c. 1320. 
 
 to throw dowu the Clerestory window of the form called 
 light, should be no- a spherical triaT, e le - 
 
 ticed (130). 
 
 Flamboyant tracery, and 
 the forms approaching to 
 it, generally indicate a late 
 date. We have no in- 
 stance of real Flamboyant 
 work in this country, al- 
 though forms of tracery 
 approaching to it are not 
 uncommon ; the mould- 
 ings are never of the true 
 Flamboyant f charac- 
 ter, which is quite distinct 
 both from the Decorated 
 
 and the Perpendicular; 130 . Bamn Segrave, Northampton- 
 it coincided in time with shire, c. 1320. 
 
 f Flamboyant mouldings are much exaggerated, and some look like 
 a caricature of our Decorated mouldings. 
 
DECORATED MOULDINGS . 
 
 1/2 
 
 the latter, and therefore does not properly belong to 
 our present subject. 
 
 The Mouldings of this style differ from the Early 
 English chiefly in hav- 
 ing the rounds and 
 hollows not so deeply 
 
 
 C'r 
 
 V i - ’ 
 
 131. Bray, Berkshire, c. 1300. 
 The scroll and the quarter-round. 
 
 cut, and more gene- 
 rally filleted : the roll- 
 moulding, and the 
 quarter round ( 131 ), 
 are very much used; 
 the abacus of the 
 capital is in general 
 a roll or filleted round, 
 and the base is formed 
 of round mouldings without the deep hollow : as the 
 style advances, the mouldings become, generally, more 
 shallow and feeble. The roll-mould- 
 ing ( 132 ) is perhaps the most charac- 
 teristic of the style, though it is used 
 occasionally in Early English work 
 also. A bold quarter-round is fre- 
 quently used on arches without any 
 other; the plain chamfer is used in all styles, but in 
 Decorated work it is frequently sunk so as to leave 
 a small square edge at each angle, thus varying the 
 light and shade, and giving a precision to the angles 
 of the chamfer which has a very good effect, as at 
 Finedon, Northants ( 133 ). In late examples this is 
 varied by a gentle swelling in the middle, forming 
 a kind of shallow ogee moulding. The ornamental 
 
 132. Chacombe, 
 Northants. 
 
 The roll-moulding. 
 
DECORATED ORNAMENTS. 1/3 
 
 sculptures in the hollow mouldings are numerous, but 
 there are two which 
 require more par- 
 ticular notice ; they 
 are nearly as charac- 
 teristic of the Deco- 
 rated style as the zig- 
 zag is of the Norman, 
 or the tooth-ornament 
 of the Early English. 
 
 The first is the ball- 
 flower (134), which 
 is a globular flower 
 half opened, and shew- 1^3. Northamptonshire, c. 1340. 
 
 • j v • n The sunk chamfer and the hollow. 
 
 ing, within, a small 
 
 round ball. It is used with the utmost profusion in 
 the mouldings of windows, door- 
 ways, canopies, cornices, arches, 
 
 &c., generally with good effect, 
 but sometimes in such excess as 
 almost to destroy the effect of 
 the mouldings, as at Gloucester 
 Cathedral, Leominster (125), 
 
 Ledbury, Herefordshire, and 134 . ball-flower. 
 Grantham, Lincolnshire, but at 
 
 the same time it gives great richness to the general 
 effect of the windows. The ball-flowers are sometimes 
 placed at intervals, and connected by a stem with or 
 without foliage (127). 
 
 The ocher ornament is the four-leaved flower (135). 
 This has a raised centre, and four petals cut in high 
 relief ; it is frequently much varied, but may be dis- 
 
174 
 
 DECORATED ORNAMENTS. 
 
 tinguished by its being cut distinctly into four petals, 
 and by its boldness : it is some- 
 times used abundantly, though 
 not quite so profusely as the 
 ball- flower. In some instances 
 the centre is sunk instead of 
 being raised. 
 
 The battlement as an orna- 135. The four-leaved flower, 
 mental feature in the interior of buildings is frequently 
 used in this style, although it is more common in the 
 Perpendicular. Decorated battlements may generally 
 be distinguished by the horizontal moulding being cut 
 off at each opening, and not continued vertically down 
 the sides of it, as is usual in the later styles; and 
 this applies to the 
 actual battlement on 
 the parapet, as well 
 as to the merely 
 ornamental battle- 
 meut in the inte- 
 rior. It occurs on 
 the top of a screen, 
 or of a piscina or 
 other niche; also 
 on the transom, and 
 sometimes on the 
 sill of a window ; in 
 all which situations 
 it is more common 
 
 and more conspicu- „ „„ _ t x _ 4V . , 
 
 1 136. Winchester Cathedral. 
 
 OUS in the Perpen- Oak-leaf foliage with acorns. 
 
 dicular style. 
 
DECORATED PILLARS. 
 
 *75 
 
 The foliage in this style is more faithfully copied 
 from nature than in any other: the Tine-leaf, the 
 maple, and the oak with the acorn (136), are the most 
 usual. The surface of the wall is often covered with 
 flat foliage, arranged in small squares called diaper- 
 work, which is believed to have originated in an imi- 
 tation of the rich hangings then in general use, and 
 which bore the same name. These diaper patterns (137) 
 were originally coloured in imitation of the silks from 
 which they were copied, 
 and which at an early 
 period came from the East, 
 though they were after- 
 wards imitated by the 
 European manufacturers 
 in Belgium and France, 
 particularly at Ypres and 
 llheims. This kind of 
 ornament was used in the 
 Early English style, as in 
 the choir of "Westminster 
 Abbey, but it more com- 
 monly belongs to the Decorated style. 
 
 The Pillars have no longer detached shafts, and 
 the capitals are ornamented with foliage of a different 
 character from that which preceded it (138), as has 
 been mentioned. The flat surfaces in niches and monu- 
 ments, on screens, and in other situations, are covered 
 with delicately carved patterns, called diaper- work, 
 representing foliage and flowers; among which are 
 introduced birds and insects, and sometimes dogs or 
 
DECORATED PILLARS. 
 
 i /'6 
 
 other animals, all executed with much care and ac- 
 curacy, and proving that the art- 
 ists of that time drew largely 
 from nature, the fountain-head 
 of all perfection in art, to which 
 all who are not content to be 
 mere copyists of their predeces- 
 sors must apply themselves. In 
 some recent instances of the re- 
 vival of the Decorated style, the 
 foliage has been sculptured from 
 nature with great success. The 
 sculpture of the human figure in 
 the early Decorated period is re- 
 markable for the ease and chaste- 
 ness of the attitudes, and the free 
 and graceful, though at the same 
 time rich, folds of the drapeiy. 
 
 Few figures can surpass in sim- 
 plicity and beauty the effigy of 
 Queen Eleanor in Westminster 
 Abbey, and those on the crosses 
 
 erected to her memory are almost 138 - Exetfr Cathedral, 
 
 c. 1300. 
 
 equally fine, especially those on clustered pillar, with 
 the Northampton cross (139); moulded caps and bases. 
 
 those at Waltham have been mutilated and restored. 
 The cross at Geddington is perhaps the most perfect 
 of those which remain. This is not mentioned in the 
 executors’ accounts, but probably only because that 
 part of the accounts has been lost ; it is as plainly 
 a memorial cross to Queen Eleanor as either of the 
 others. 
 
 
DECORATED DOORWAYS. 
 
 1 77 
 
 The Doorways of this style are frequently large, 
 and very richly sculp- 
 tured; but in small 
 churches they are as fre- 
 quently plain, and have 
 merely a dripstone over 
 them, the roll -moulding 
 often terminated by two 
 small heads, which are 
 generally a king and a 
 bishop, as at Kislingbury, 
 
 Northamptonshire ( 140 ) ; 
 this is the case also with 
 the windows. It is often 
 not easy to distinguish the 
 plain doorways of this 
 style from those of the 
 preceding one, but in ge- 
 neral they are not so 
 deeply recessed, and there 
 is a slight difference in 
 the look, even where there 
 are no mouldings to dis- 
 tinguish them. A few door- 
 ways of this style are 
 double, but this is not a 
 common arrangement in 
 
 England When there 139. Open Niche, with Canopy and 
 ° * Pinnacles, and Figure of Queen 
 
 are shafts in the iambs Eleanor, from her Monumental 
 , Cross at Northampton, A.D. 1294. 
 they are worked on the 
 
 same stone as part of the suite of mouldings, and not 
 inserted as separate shafts of stone or marble, as in 
 
 N 
 
78 
 
 DECORATED DOORWAYS. 
 
 the Early English. The wooden doors are sometimes 
 ornamented with 
 panelling of a 
 better description 
 than that which 
 is common in the 
 next style; they 
 were originally 
 painted in colours 
 like the interior 
 of the churches, 
 and often have 
 ornamental iron- 
 work upon them ; 
 even the nail- 
 heads are made 
 ornamental. In 
 richer buildings 
 there is frequent- 
 ly a canopy over “ k " ^ 
 
 the doorway, with 140. Kislingbury, Northamptonshire, c. 1350. 
 
 i , , This doorway has the dripstone terminated by 
 
 CrOCKetS and a the heads of a king and a bishop, and the mould- 
 
 finial, these gen- ^ filled with balUflowers and foliage, 
 erally have the ogee arch, and sometimes there are 
 niches or tabernacles on each side. 
 
 The Poeches are sometimes shallow, as at Rushden, 
 Northamptonshire; others have a very hold projection, 
 with windows or open arcades at the sides, and some- 
 times, though rarely, with a room over : there are also 
 many fine timber porches of this style, distinguished 
 by the mouldings and barge - boards, as at Aldham, 
 
DECORATED DOORWAY. 
 
 I To face p. 178. 
 
 Irthlingborough, Northants. 
 
 Part of the work of Pyel, A.D. 1300—80. 
 
 West Doorway, with Niches for Images above, 
 and Stoups for holy water below. 
 
DECORATED PORCHES. 
 
 79 
 
 Essex (141). These wooden porches are common 
 in some districts, as in Herefordshire, and rare in 
 others. There are good examples at Binfield and 
 Long Wittenham, Berkshire, although that is not 
 one of the districts in which they are commonly 
 met with. 
 
 
 141. Decorated wooden Porch, Aldham, Essex, c. 1350. 
 
 The Abches do not differ very materially in general 
 effect from the Early English, but are distinguished 
 by the mouldings and capitals as before described, as 
 
8o 
 
 DECORATED ARCHES. 
 
 in Selby Abbey, Yorkshire ( 142 ). The ogee arch is 
 frequently used in small arcades and in the heads of 
 windows. The 
 dripstones or hood- 
 moulds are gene- 
 rally supported by 
 heads, and are fre- 
 quently enriched 
 with crockets and 
 finials. The arch- 
 mouldings are fre- 
 quently continued 
 down the pillars, 
 or die into them 
 without being 
 stopped by capi- 
 tals or . impost- 
 mouldings. 
 
 The arcades 
 which ornament 
 the walls in rich 
 buildings, and 
 those over the se- 
 dilia, are very cha- 
 racteristic features 
 of the style. In 
 some instances the 
 sedilia, or seats for 
 the officiating clergy by the side of the altar, have pro- 
 jecting canopies over them, (as at Dorchester, Oxon, 
 and at Lichfield Cathedral,) forming perfect taber- 
 
 142. Selby Abbey Church, Yorkshire, c. 1320. 
 Decorated arches. 
 
DECORATED ARCH. 
 
 [To face p. 180. 
 
 Dorchester Abbey Church, Oxon., c. A.D. 1300. 
 
 South Side of Chancel, -with Piscina, Wooden Screen, and Stalls, 
 and Window of Chantry Chapel. 
 
DECORATED ARCADE. 
 
 [To face p. 181. 
 
 Sedilia, Chesterton, Oxon., c. A.D. 1326. 
 
 The Ball-flower Ornament is considered as peculiarly a distinguish- 
 ing mark of the Decorated style, and this is an excellent example 
 of the application of it. In some districts the use of it is carried 
 to excess, especially in Herefordshire; and in Gloucester Cathedral: 
 it generally indicates the time of Edward II. 
 

 DECORATED ARCADES. I 8 I 
 
 nacles, as if for images; more commonly they have 
 canopies on the same plane with the seats, ornamented 
 
 143. Decorated Arcade, Beverley Minster, c. 1350. 
 
 Arcade shewing ogee arches richly moulded and ornamented with crockets 
 and finials, cusps with their eyes enriched with foliage, and shafts with 
 capitals of foliage and moulded bases. 
 
 with crockets and bunches of foliage for finials, as in 
 Beverley Minster (143), with pinnacles between. 
 
102 
 
 DECORATED PISCINAS. 
 
 The Piscinas, or water-drains, and niches, or taber- 
 nacles for images, are often very rich, with canopies 
 and open tracery. They 
 form one of the chief 
 beauties of this style. 
 
 The pediment, or 
 straight- sided canopy, 
 is much used in this style 
 over doors, sedilia, pis- 
 cinas, and monuments. 
 
 A rich example occurs 
 in Pyfield Church, Berk- 
 shire, where the pedi- 
 ment is crocheted, and 
 is placed under a square 
 head with a battlement 
 carried by pinnacles, and 
 the spandrels filled up 
 with foliated circles en- 
 closing shields (144). 1 44. Decorated Piscina, Fyfield, 
 
 Berkshire, c. 1300. 
 
 Piscina shewing geometrical tracery, 
 1 HE (jrROINED itoOFS, with a crocketed pediment and pin- 
 Tr i . , . nacles, and a battlement. 
 
 on Vaults, are distin- 
 guished from those of the preceding style chiefly by 
 an additional number of ribs, and by the natural 
 foliage on the bosses. Many fine examples of these 
 remain, as in the Cathedral of Exeter, and at York 
 in the chapter-house; at Norwich in the cloisters; at 
 Chester 6 the vault is of wood, with stone springers. 
 
 »c The wooden groined vaults of Chester Cathedral were carefully re- 
 stored in 1871-72, with excellent effect and in very good taste. 
 
DECORATED SEDILIA. 
 
 [To face p. 182. 
 
 '• v * ■ I'k ISj / ,j. Ut iJ ' \ rj J lr ' 1 1 
 
 Dorchester Ahhey Church, Oxon. 
 
 Decorated Sedilia and Piscina, with small Window at the back of each, c. A.D. 1370. 
 
 These small windows under the canopies are believed to be quite 
 unique. They have the original painted glass in them. The name 
 of Sedilia, or Seats, is given to the seats for the priest, deacon, and 
 sub-deacon when officiating at the altar. 
 
DECORATED ROOFS. 
 
 [To face p. 183 . 
 
 Westminster, Chapel of St. Blaise, A.D. 1320. 
 
 It is customary to call a vault a roof: it would be more correct 
 to call it a ceiling. The name of Vault is commonly applied to 
 subterranean chambers. 
 
DECORATED ROOFS. I 83 
 
 There are a few instances of stone roofs of this style 
 over narrow spaces of very high pitch, supported by 
 open-work, as if in imitation of wood-work, as on the 
 vestry of Willingham, Cambridgeshire, and the porch 
 of Middleton Cheney, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Timber Roofs of this period are comparatively scarce, 
 although they are more common than is usually sup- 
 
 posed ; but it is lamentable to observe how fast they 
 are disappearing : that of the hall of the abbey of 
 Great Malvern, the finest example that existed in this 
 country, or probably in any other, was wantonly de- 
 stroyed : it was a wooden ceiling, with an outer roof. 
 
 145 . Decorated Roof, Sparsholt, Berkshire, c. 1350. 
 
DECORATED ROOFS. 
 
 184 
 
 Bradenstoke Priory, or Clack Abbey, near Chippen- 
 ham, in Wiltshire, is, or was, a fine example. The 
 timber roofs of churches of this style are not generally 
 so fine as those of halls. There are, however, many 
 very good specimens of Decorated roofs remaining in 
 churches, as at Adderbury, Oxfordshire, Raunds, North- 
 amptonshire, and several others in that neighbourhood. 
 
 It should be observed that what are called open 
 limber roofs are, very frequently, inner roofs or ceil- 
 ings for ornament only, with a plain substantial outer 
 roof over them, as at Sparsholt, Berkshire [145). 
 These inner roofs or wooden ceil- 
 ings, are sometimes of precisely 
 the same form as stone vaults, 
 which are, in fact, ceilings of an- 
 other kind. The wooden vaults 
 of Warmington and the cloisters of 
 Lincoln have been already men ** 
 tioned ; those of the nave of York 
 Minster and Winchester Cathe- 
 dral are also of wood only. The 
 hideous fashion of plain, flat, 
 white plaster ceilings which pre- 
 vailed during the last century, 
 and by which so many fine roofs 
 were destroyed, has caused, by 
 a very natural reaction, a strong 
 prejudice against ceilings of any 
 kind , but this is going from one 
 extreme to the other, and is 
 equally erroneous the other wav. 146. Over, Cambridgeshire. 
 Ceilings are very useful and often 
 necessary, and the proper thing upp ' r 
 
DECORATED ROOFS. I 85 
 
 to be considered is how best to make them ornamental 
 also, as they were formerly. 
 
 The Buttresses in this style have great variety of 
 forms and of degrees of richness. Sometimes they are 
 quite plain, or merely have the angles chamfered off, 
 and terminated by a slope, 
 either under the cornice, or 
 passing through it, as at Beau- 
 lieu, Hampshire. In other 
 instances the buttress termi- 
 nates in a pediment or gablet, 
 as at Over, Cambridgeshire 
 (146), either with or without 
 crockets and a finial, according 
 to the richness of the building. 
 
 Over each buttress there is 
 frequently a gurgoyle, or orna- 
 mental water- spout, as at Over. 
 
 They usually have pediments, 
 and are frequently enriched 
 on the face with niches and 
 canopies, and often terminate 
 in pinnacles, as at Gadsby, 
 
 Leicestershire (147). In large 
 buildings there are fine arch- 
 buttresses spanning over the 
 aisles, as at Howden. There 
 are sometimes also groups of 
 pinnacles round the base of the spire in this style, which 
 have a very rich effect, as at St. Mary’s, Oxford. 
 
 These groups of pinnacles are among the most orna- 
 mental features of the style ; those at the east end of 
 
 c> 
 
 147. Gadsby, Leicestershire, 
 c. 1350. 
 
 Comer buttress -with canopies 
 and pinnacle. 
 
DECORATED FONTS. 
 
 1 86 
 
 Howden are among the most celebrated. The but- 
 tresses of this style are almost invariably divided into 
 stages with a set-off between each, and sometimes have 
 a succession of niches with crocketed canopies over 
 them, which originally had images in them also. Our 
 eyes are so much accustomed to empty niches in this 
 country that they do not offend us, but an empty 
 niche is in fact an unmeaning thing, a niche was 
 originally intended to contain an image, and the 
 canopy over it was to protect the head of the image. 
 
 148. Decorated Font, Bloxham, Oxfordshire. 
 Font with panelling in imitation of windows. 
 
 The Fonts of this style are less common than those 
 of the other styles, but still there are many varieties 
 of them : the most common type is octagonal, with shal- 
 low panelling resembling the tracery of windows ( 148 ). 
 But there are many which display great beauty both 
 
DECORATED FRONTS. 
 
 87 
 
 of design and execution. They are frequently cup- 
 shaped, with both the basin and the stem enriched 
 with panelling, and sometimes the sides of the basin 
 have a kind of canopies attached to them, overhanging, 
 as if over images placed round the stem under them, 
 which is sometimes the case; although, contrary to 
 the general rule, canopies are sometimes found on 
 fonts in situations where there could have been 
 no images. 
 
 The East Eeont of a church of this style most com- 
 monly consists of one large window at the end of the 
 choir, flanked by tall buttresses, and a smaller one at 
 the end of each aisle ; the west front usually has the 
 same arrangement, with the addition of a doorway, or 
 doorways, under the central window. The east ends 
 of Carlisle and Selby, and the west end of Howden, 
 are among the finest examples. On the Continent the 
 large rose- window is almost always a principal feature 
 of the west front; with us it is comparatively rare, 
 and more often found in the transept ends than at the 
 west end. The south fronts of Howden and Selby are 
 also fine examples of the arrangement of the side of 
 a large building of this style, with large windows both 
 to the aisle and the clerestory, separated by buttresses 
 with pinnacles. The interior of the choir at Selby is 
 one of the finest examples of the general effect of a De- 
 corated interior, and on a smaller scale the choirs of 
 Hull, and of Dorchester, Oxfordshire, are good ex- 
 amples. Lichfield Cathedral has the great advantage 
 of having its three spires perfect, and on this account 
 perhaps gives us the best idea of the effect intended to 
 
88 
 
 THE DECORATED STYLE. 
 
 be produced by the exterior of a perfect church of this 
 style: there can be no doubt that the same arrange- 
 ment was contemplated in many other instances. 
 
 The lantern of Ely and the nave of York must not 
 be omitted in this mention of some of the leading ex- 
 amples of the Decorated style, the general character of 
 which is thus ably summed up by Mr. Rickman : — 
 
 “The General Appearance of Decorated buildings 
 is at once simple and magnificent; simple from the 
 small number of parts, and magnificent from the size 
 of the windows, and the easy flow of the lines of tra- 
 cery. In the interior of large buildings we find great 
 breadth, and an enlargement of the clerestory win- 
 dows, with a corresponding diminution of the trifo- 
 rium, which is now rather a part of the clerestory 
 opening than a distinct member of the division. The 
 roofing, from the increased richness of the groining, 
 becomes an object of more attention. On the whole, 
 the nave of York, from the uncommon grandeur and 
 simplicity of the design, is certainly the finest ex- 
 ample ; ornament is nowhere spared, yet there is 
 a simplicity which is peculiarly pleasing.” 
 
 The remains of castles of the Edwardian period, or the Deco- 
 rated style, are very numerous and very fine, more especially 
 those begun by Edward I., and completed in the time of 
 Edward II., in Wales, and the borders: such as Conway, Car- 
 narvon, Beaumaris, and Harlech in North Wales; Pembroke, 
 Carew, and Manorbeer in South Wales. These are among the 
 most important monuments of medieval architecture that we 
 have remaining, and are almost equally valuable for their do- 
 mestic arrangements as for their strictly military defences. 
 There are many castles of this type also in other parts of 
 England and on the borders of Scotland, such as Alnwick, Bam- 
 
THE DECORATED STYLE. 
 
 189 
 
 borough, Prudhoe, Baby, Brougham, Ludlow, and Warwick. 
 There are several castles of this class, also built or commenced 
 by Edward I., in Guienne h ; and the castle of the celebrated 
 John Chandos, the great captain of the English army under 
 Edward in., is nearly perfect at St. Sauveur, in the Cotentin, 
 Normandy. This is remarkable for having no pointed arches, 
 all are either square-headed or segmental. Houses of this style 
 are still numerous, though they are fast disappearing before 
 modern improvements. They are generally fortified, and are 
 commonly called castles, but the house during this period was 
 gradually becoming more and more distinct from the fortress, 
 and though surrounded by a moat and walls for defence, the 
 buildings themselves, that were inhabited, had often very little 
 of a military character. The hall, with its fine lofty windows, 
 is often mistaken for a chapel, but the seat in the sill of each 
 window will always distinguish a domestic window from a 
 church or chapel window. Some of the most perfect houses 
 of this period that we have remaining are Markenfield Hall, 
 Yorkshire ; Stoke Say, Shropshire ; Penshurst, Kent ; Sutton 
 Courtney, Berkshire. Some fine halls of this style have stone 
 arches to carry the timbers of the roof, as at Mayfield and 
 Conway; others have wooden arches only, with narrow aisles 
 between the wooden pillars and the walls, as at Nursted. In 
 England we have very few town-houses of this period, while 
 on the Continent town-houses are more common than country 
 ones : the towns were strongly fortified, and dwelling-houses 
 could be built safely within the walls, while in country dis- 
 tricts strong fortresses were necessary. For an account and 
 engravings of them we must refer to the second volume of the 
 “Domestic Architecture of the Middle Ages 
 
 h See La Guienne Anglaise, par Leo Drouyn. 4to., Bordeaux, 1861. 
 * 8 vo., Oxford, 1853. 
 
The Transition from Decorated to Perpendicular. 
 
 Richard II. and the latter part of Edward TTT . 
 
 From c. 1360 to 1399. 
 
 Having now traced the gradual development of Gothic archi- 
 tecture, from the rudest Romanesque to its perfection in the 
 Decorated style, it only remains to trace its decline, which, 
 though not equally gradual, was much more so than is com- 
 monly supposed. Up to the time of its perfection the pro- 
 gress appears to have been nearly simultaneous throughout the 
 northern part of Europe, with some exceptions; but during 
 the period of its decline, chiefly the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries, it assumed a different form in each country, so dis- 
 tinct one from the other as to require a different name, and to 
 be fairly considered as a distinct style. To call the Perpen- 
 dicular style of England by the same name as the Flamboyant 
 style of France, Germany, and the Low Countries, can only 
 cause needless confusion; and the received names for these 
 styles are so expressive of their general character that it would 
 not be easy to improve upon them. 
 
 The transition from the Decorated to the Perpendicular style 
 has been less generally noticed than the earlier transitions; 
 but though less apparent at first sight, it may be as clearly 
 traced, and examples of it are almost equally numerous : they 
 occur in most parts of the country, though more common in 
 some districts than in others, especially in Norfolk. 
 
 Professor Willis has demonstrated that this change began to 
 shew itself, in the choir and transepts of Gloucester Cathedral, 
 before the middle of the fourteenth century k . The panelling 
 and the window tracery have so much the appearance of the 
 Perpendicular style that they have been commonly supposed to 
 have been rebuilt or altered at a late period; but the vaulting 
 and the mouldings are pure Decorated, and the painted glass 
 
 k It is acknowledged by the best-informed French Archaeologists, that 
 in each succeeding change of style after the first, England was always in 
 advance of France for some years, often for a long interval. 
 
THE TRANSITION. I 9 I 
 
 of the fourteenth century is evidently made for the places 
 which it occupies in the heads of the windows of Perpen- 
 dicular tracery : it must therefore be considered as the earliest 
 known example of this great change of style. In this work 
 of alteration the walls and arches of the Norman church were 
 not rebuilt, but cased with panelling over the inner surface, so 
 as to give the effect of the latter style to the interior. The 
 work was begun as early as 1337, and carried on for a number 
 of years. The funds were procured by offerings at the tomb 
 of King Edward II., who, as is well known, was buried in this 
 
 149. Edington, Wilts., A.D. 1361. 
 
 Elevation of the West Front, shewing the transition from the Decorated 
 to the Perpendicular style. 
 
 church, the body having been removed from Berkeley Castle 
 for that purpose by the Abbot Thokey. 
 
 It has been ascertained by Archdeacon Freeman, at Exeter, 
 
192 
 
 THE TRANSITION. 
 
 by a careful comparison of the building with the fabric rolls, 
 that the greater part of that fine Cathedral was also altered 
 from the Norman to the Decorated style without rebuilding. 
 
 Ottery St. Mary Church, Devonshire, a few miles from 
 Exeter, was building at the same time as the Cathedral, in 
 the reigns of Edward I. and II., and yet the older fashion of 
 lancet-shaped windows is retained throughout, although all 
 the mouldings belong to the Decorated style. 
 
 The cloisters of Windsor and the buildings surrounding them 
 were built between 1350 and 1356, as appears by the builder’s 
 accounts still extant in the Public Records. The style is Per- 
 pendicular, but with Decorated mouldings, or at least a mixture 
 of them. The vault of the porch under the iErary or treasury, 
 and the doorway to it, are among the richest pieces of work of 
 this period. It was originally the porch of the chapter-house 
 of the Order of the Garter. 
 
 Sir G. G. Scott, in his “ Gleanings from Westminster Abbey,” 
 has also shewn that part of the cloisters, and some other work 
 recorded to have been built by Abbot Litlington, 1362 — 1386, 
 are in a style of transition, belonging rather to the Perpen- 
 dicular than the Decorated. 
 
 One of the earliest authenticated examples of this transition 
 is the church of Edington, Wiltshire (149), built by William de 
 Edington, Bishop of Winchester: the first stone was laid in 
 1352, and the church was dedicated in 1361. It is a fine cruci- 
 form church, all of uniform character, and that character is nei- 
 ther Decorated nor Perpendicular, but a very remarkable mix- 
 ture of the two styles throughout. The tracery of the windows 
 looks at first sight like Decorated, but on looking more closely 
 the introduction of Perpendicular features is very evident. The 
 west doorway has the segmental arch common in Decorated 
 work ; over this is the usual square label of the Perpendicular, 
 and under the arch is Perpendicular panelling over the heads 
 of the two doors : the same curious mixture is observable in the 
 mouldings, and in all the details. This example is the more 
 valuable from the circumstance that it was Bishop Edington 
 who commenced the alteration of Winchester Cathedral into 
 the Perpendicular style; he died in 1366, and the work was 
 continued by William of Wykeham, who mentions in his will 
 that Edington had finished the west end, with two windows 
 
TRANSITION FROM DECORATED TO PERPENDICULAR. 
 
 DECORATED ROOFS. [To face p. 193. 
 
 Westminster, Gateway of Abbot Litlington, A.D. 1376—86. 
 
 The change had hardly begun in this instance ; hut during the time 
 of Litlington it made rapid progress. 
 
FROM DECORATED TO PERPENDICULAR. 1 93 
 
 on the north side and one on the south : the change in the cha- 
 racter of the work is very distinctly marked. Bishop Eding- 
 ton’s work at Winchester was executed at a later period than that 
 at Edington, and, as might be expected, the new idea is more 
 fully developed ; but on a comparison between the west window 
 of Winchester and the east window of Edington, it will at once 
 be seen that the principle of construction is the same ; there is 
 a central division carried up to the head of the window, and 
 sub-arches springing from it on each side : it may be observed 
 that whenever this arrangement of the sub-arches occurs in 
 Decorated work, it is a sign that the work is late in the style. 
 Before the death of Bishop Edington the great principles of the 
 Perpendicular style were fully established. These chiefly con- 
 sist of the Perpendicular lines through the head of the window, 
 and in covering the surface of the wall with panelling of the 
 same kind. These features are as distinctly marked at Win- 
 chester as in any subsequent building, or as they well could be. 
 
 The next great work of Wykeham was New College Chapel, 
 Oxford, certainly one of the earliest, perhaps the first, building 
 erected from the foundations entirely in the Perpendicular style ; 
 and a finer specimen of the style does not exist. The first stone 
 was laid in 1380, and it was dedicated in 1386. 
 
 Winchester College, built immediately after New College, is 
 of precisely the same character with it, as might have been ex- 
 pected : they are both excellent specimens for the study of the 
 Perpendicular style. 
 
 Another very remarkable and valuable example of the tran- 
 sition from Decorated to Perpendicular is the choir of York 
 Minster, commenced by Archbishop John de Thoresby in 1361, 
 and completed in 1408; the general appearance of this mag- 
 nificent work is Perpendicular, but there is great mixture in all 
 the details (153). The chancel of St. Mary’s Church at Warwick, 
 rebuilt by Thomas Beauchamp, second Earl of Warwick, be- 
 tween 1370 and 1391, has more of the Perpendicular, being 
 covered with panelling like Winchester, but the mouldings are 
 quite of mixed character. King’s Sutton Church, Northampton- 
 shire, deserves notice as a specimen of this transition. 
 
 The nave and western transepts of Canterbury Cathedral were 
 rebuilt between 1378 and 1411, but the Perpendicular style was 
 then so fully established that there are scarcely any signs of 
 
 0 
 
194 
 
 THE TRANSITION. 
 
 transition. Chipping-Camden Church, Gloucestershire, was re- 
 built by William Greville, a rich wool-stapler, who is buried in 
 the chancel with his wife, and there is a fine brass to their 
 memory ; he died in 1401. This church is almost entirely of 
 transitional character. The glorious chapter-house of Howden, 
 and Gisburne Priory Church, in Yorkshire, are of this period, 
 and very fine examples of early Perpendicular work. The roof 
 and the casing of the walls of Westminster Hall belong also to 
 the close of this century, 1397-99. The gatehouse of Thornton 
 Abbey, Lincolnshire, is another splendid example of this tran- 
 sition. The cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral are decided Per- 
 pendicular in the fan-tracery of the vaults, but are partly of 
 earlier date and character. 
 
 Houses and castles of the time of Richard II. are rather nu- 
 merous and fine, and have frequently such a mixture of the 
 Decorated and Perpendicular styles that it is difficult to say to 
 which they belong. This is the case with a part of Warwick 
 Castle, of Donnington Castle, Berkshire, Wardour Castle, Wilt- 
 shire, and Wressel Castle, Yorkshire; and Bolton Castle, in the 
 more northern part of Yorkshire, is another fine example, and 
 remarkably perfect. It is a very lofty and fine building, rather 
 a fortified house than a castle intended for military purposes ; 
 there are two courts, and all the towers are perfect, or nearly 
 so. It belongs to the time of Richard II. Dartington Hall, 
 Devonshire, near Totnes, is another remarkable example of 
 this period and character; it is a manor-house not fortified, 
 with extensive farm-buildings attached to it. All the original 
 windows are of four lights, with arches of the form called the 
 shouldered-arch, which has been adopted in the modern Gothic 
 front of Balliol College, Oxford. The original parts of the 
 Vicar’s Close at Wells are of the same character and period; 
 the remains of the Vicar’s Close at Lincoln are in part also of 
 this character, one house is earlier, more decidedly Edwardian, 
 and remarkably perfect. Most of these buildings are well known 
 and have often been described, but are sometimes said to belong 
 to the one style and sometimes to the other, this important 
 transitional period having been very commonly overlooked. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Perpendicular Style. 
 
 Kichard H. to Henry VHI. a.d. 1377 to 1547. 
 
 TTAVING thus taken a rapid historical survey of the 
 A introduction of the Perpendicular style, it remains 
 to describe its characteristic features. The broad dis- 
 tinction of the Perpendicular style lies in the form of 
 the tracery in the head of the windows ; and in fully 
 developed examples the distinction is sufficiently ob- 
 vious. We have no longer the head of the window 
 filled with the gracefully flowing lines of the Decorated 
 tracery, but their place is supplied by the rigid lines 
 of the mull ions, which are carried through to the archi- 
 trave mouldings, the spaces between being frequently 
 divided and subdivided by similar Perpendicular lines ; 
 so that Perpendicularity is so clearly the characteristic 
 of these windows, that no other word could have been 
 found which would at once so well express the predo- 
 minating feature. The same character prevails through- 
 out the buildings of this period : the whole surface of 
 a building, including its buttresses, parapets, base- 
 ments, and every part of the flat surface, is covered 
 with panelling, in which the Perpendicular line clearly 
 predominates; and to such an excess is this carried 
 that the windows frequently appear to be only open- 
 ings in the panel- work. This is particularly apparent 
 in the interior of the west end of Winchester Cathedral, 
 and the exterior of the Divinity School, Oxford; the 
 towers of Boston in Lincolnshire, and Evesham in Wor- 
 cestershire, are also fine examples of exterior panelling. 
 
PERPENDICULAR WINDOWS. 
 
 Panelling, indeed, now forms an important feature 
 of the style; for though it was used in the earlier 
 styles, it was not to the same extent, and was of very 
 different character, the plain surfaces in those styles 
 being relieved chiefly by diaper-work. 
 
 In the earlier or transitional examples we find, as 
 has been mentioned, a mixture of the two styles. The 
 general form of the tracery is frequently Decorated, 
 but the lines of the mullions are carried through them, 
 and perpendicular lines in various ways introduced. 
 A very common form of 
 transition is the changing 
 of the flowing lines of 
 a two - light Decorated 
 window into a straight- 
 sided figure by the in- 
 troduction of perpen- 
 dicular lines from the 
 points of the sub-arclies, 
 as at Haseley, Oxford- 
 shire. Sometimes we 
 have Decorated mould- 
 ings, with Perpendicular 
 tracery, but frequently 
 the features of both 
 styles are intimately 
 blended, and produce 
 a very good effect. 
 
 The Windows of New 
 College and the ante- 150. New College, Oxford, A.D. 1386. 
 
 . . lr ^ Showing Perpendicular tracery, with 
 
 cnapel 01 Merton (Jol- 6ub-arches aud a transom, the heads 
 
 lege, Oxford, afford per- 
 
 of the lights cinquefoiled. 
 
PERPENDICULA R WIND 0 WS. 
 
 97 
 
 haps as fine examples as are to be found of early and 
 perfect Perpendicular. They are both what is called 
 sub-arcuated, but in New College (150) the window is 
 of four lights, and 
 the sub-arches 
 rise from the 
 centre muiiion ; 
 while in Merton 
 (151), which is of 
 three lights, the 
 mullions are car- 
 ried up to the 
 architrave, and 
 the side lights 
 only are sub- 
 arcuated. Both 
 these forms are 
 very frequent. In 
 many later ex- 
 amples these sub- 
 arches are entirely 
 disused, and all 
 
 the mullions are 151 . Merton College Chapel, Oxford, A.D. 1424. 
 
 Carried through Anoth er variety of Perpendicular tracery, the heads 
 ® of the lower lights are multifoiled. 
 
 the transom; this 
 
 is the case at New College: but it was afterwards 
 used to excess, so as greatly to injure the effect of 
 the windows. In the later examples the arches of 
 the windows are much lower than they were in 
 the earlier period, and the four-centred arch, which 
 began now to be extensively used, was gradually de- 
 pressed, until all beauty of proportion was lost, the 
 
198 
 
 PER PEND1CULA R WIXD 0 WS. 
 
 arches being little more than two straight lines rounded 
 at the angle of junction with the jambs. These late 
 windows had frequently great width in proportion to 
 their height (152), and were placed so near together 
 
 that the strength 
 
 of the building 
 entirely depend- 
 ed on the but- 
 tresses. These 
 windows having 
 all been origi- 
 nally filled with 
 painted glass, we 
 have rarely an 
 opportunity of 
 judging of the 
 proper effect of 
 them; the glare 
 of light which 
 we now com- 
 plain of having 
 been caused by 
 the destruction 
 of that material, 
 which was in- 
 tended to soften and partially to exclude it. The church 
 of Fairford, in Gloucestershire, affords a rare instance 
 of the painted glass having been preserved in all the 
 windows, and the effect is solemn and calm — very far 
 from glaring ; and it is remarkable that they impede 
 the light so little that a book may be read in any part 
 of the church, which is seldom the case with modern 
 
 152 . Swinbrook, Oxfordshire, c. 1500. 
 Perpendicular tracery fully carried out. 
 
PERPEND TCULA R WIN DO WS. 
 
 199 
 
 painted glass. The clerestories also are frequently al- 
 most a sheet of glass merely divided by lighter or 
 heavier mullions, thus offering a complete contrast to 
 the small and distant openings so frequently found in 
 Early English and Decorated work. Square-headed, 
 segmental, and other flat-arched windows, are frequent 
 in this style. In rich churches there is sometimes 
 a double plane of tracery, the one ghized, the other 
 not. In the choir of York (153) the inner one is 
 glazed. The 
 east window 
 of the nave of 
 Chipping- Nor- 
 ton Church, Ox- 
 fordshire, over 
 the chancel- 
 arch, is a fine 
 specimen of this 
 kind of win- 
 dow: in this 
 instance the 
 outer plane is 
 glazed. 
 
 A little later 
 in the style, one 
 of the best ex- 
 amples that is 
 
 an v where to be 153. Clerestory choir, York Cathedral, 
 
 an) wnere to oe a.d. 1361 - 1408 . 
 
 found is the 
 
 ante -chapel and tower of Merton College, Oxford. 
 The very slow and gradual manner in which this 
 chapel was built has been already mentioned: the 
 
200 
 
 PERPENDIC ULA R DOORWA YR. 
 
 fine tower-arches, and the lower part of the walls, 
 especially in the south transept, belong to an earlier 
 period, but the windows and the north doorway 
 (154) are of this period; and there are few finer 
 
 ^ v v. 
 
 i 
 
 154. Merton College Chapel. 
 
 North doorway, a.d. 1424. 
 
 specimens of the style than the north end of this 
 transept: it was re-dedicated in 1424, but the tower 
 was not built until 1450. 
 
 The Doorways are frequently very rich, but 
 have generally one prevailing form, which is a de- 
 
From a Drawing by Fichot (as restored), with the Porch of Jean Gaussel, A.D. K35. 
 
PERPEND1CUL AR DOORWA YS. 
 
 201 
 
 pressed arch within a square frame, and over this 
 a label (155). 
 
 The label- moulding is frequently filled with foliage. 
 
 155. Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire, A.D. 1440. 
 Deep hollow mouldings, and foliated aisles in the spandrels. 
 
 and the space round the arch panelled; the jambs 
 ornamented with shafts, and the spandrels filled with 
 shields and foliage. 
 
 The Towers in this style are frequently extremely 
 rich and elaborately ornamented, having four or five 
 stories of large windows with rich canopies, pinnacles, 
 and tabernacles ; double buttresses at the angles, and 
 rich deep open parapets, with pinnacles and crocketed 
 
202 
 
 PERPENDICULAR TOWERS. 
 
 turrets at the corners, having small flying or hang- 
 ing pinnacles attached. These very gorgeous towers 
 are chiefly found in 
 Somersetshire, as at 
 Wrington, Taunton, 
 
 Brislington (156), &c. 
 
 There are, however, 
 few which, for beauty 
 of proportion and 
 chasteness of compo- 
 sition, can rival that 
 of Magdalen College, 
 
 Oxford. The lower 
 stories are extremely 
 plain, all the orna- 
 ment being reserved 
 for the belfry win- 
 dows, the parapet, 
 and pinnacles. By 
 thisjudiciousarrange- 
 ment the eye takes in 
 the whole subject at 
 once, thus giving to 
 
 it a solemnity and a 
 
 J 156. Brislington, Somersetshire, c. 1500. 
 
 repose which are not Sh ew j n g the diagonal corner buttresses and 
 
 attained bv the more stair - turret, with the open parapet and 
 J ' pinnacles. 
 
 gorgeous specimens 
 
 before referred to. This tower was originally intended 
 to stand alone, as a campanile, or belfry -tower ; the 
 buildings which have been erected on two sides of it 
 are of a subsequent period. 
 
PERPENDICULAR PORCHES. 203 
 
 The Porches are in general very fine, and highly 
 enriched with panel-work (157'), buttresses, and pin- 
 
 157. All Saints, Stamford, Lincolnshire, c. 1550. 
 Porch with ogee crocketed canopy and pinnacles. 
 
 nacles ; open parapets, windows, and tabernacles with 
 figures, flanking the window or the outer arch, and 
 
204 
 
 PERPENDICULAR PORCHES. 
 
 in the interior a richly- groined vault. Very fine ex- 
 amples of these porches are found in Norfolk, Somerset- 
 shire, Devonshire, and Dorsetshire. 
 
 158. Bicester, Oxfordshire, c. 1420. 
 
 In later examples we find ornament used to such 
 an excess as completely to overpower the features of 
 a building ; no large space is left on which the eye can 
 rest, hut every portion is occupied with panelling or 
 other ornament. An example of this may be seen in 
 the exterior of Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, which has 
 more the appearance of a piece of wood -carving than of 
 a building of stone; but in the interior of the same 
 building this very richness has a wonderfully fine effect. 
 The light and elegant style of vaulting known as fan- 
 tracerv (159), which is peculiar to this style, with its 
 
PERPENDICULAR MOULDINGS. 
 
 205 
 
 delicate pendants and lace-like ornaments, harmonizes 
 finely with the elaborate ornament of the tabernacle- 
 work below. 
 
 159. Cloisters, Gloucester Cathedral. 
 Fan-tracery vault. 
 
 The Mouldings of this style differ much from the 
 preceding ones. They are in general more shallow; 
 that is, they have more breadth and less depth than 
 the earlier ones. Those in most use are a wide and 
 shallow moulding, used in the jambs of windows and 
 doorways ; a shallow ogee ; a round, or boutell ; a fillet, 
 
20 6 
 
 PERPENDICULAR MOULDINGS. 
 
 a kind of hollow quarter-round, and a double ogee 
 (160). The wide 
 moulding of cornices 
 is filled up at inter- 
 vals with large pa- 
 terae, which replace 
 th e four-leaved flower 
 and the hall-flower of 
 the Decorated style ; 
 or with heads, gro- 
 tesque figures, or ani- 
 mals and foliage. 
 
 These are frequently inferior both in conception and 
 execution to the earlier styles. 
 
 There is an ornament which was introduced in this 
 
 160. St. Mary’s. Oxford, A.D. 1488. 
 
 Shewing the double ogee, hollows, and 
 square fillets. 
 
 style, and which 
 is very charac- 
 teristic. This 
 is called the 
 “ Tudor flower” 
 
 (161), not be- 
 cause it was 
 introduced in 
 the time of the 
 Tudors, hut be- 
 cause it was so much used at that period. It generally 
 consists of some modification of the fleur-de-lis, alter- 
 nately with a small trefoil or ball, and is much used 
 as a crest for screens, on fonts, niches, capitals, and in 
 almost all places where such ornament can be used. 
 The foliage of this style is frequently very beautiful : 
 
 161. Henry the Seventh's Chapel 
 Tudor-flower ornament. 
 
PERPENDICULAR ORNAMENTS. 20 7 
 
 in Devonshire the foliage of the capitals is peculiar, 
 often resembling a 
 wreath of flowers 
 twisted round the 
 top of the pillar 
 (162); and this 
 may probably have 
 been the idea of 
 the sculptors, as 
 the custom of de- 
 corating churches 
 with flowers at 
 certain seasons is 
 a very ancient one ; 
 it is probable also 
 that the sculpture 102 , stoke-in-Teignhead, Devonshire, c. 1480. 
 was originally CO Capital, with the Devonshire foiiage. 
 
 loured after nature. 
 
 There is comparatively a squareness about the Perpen- 
 dicular foliage which takes from 
 the freshness and beauty which 
 distinguished that of the Decorated 
 style. Indeed, the use of square 
 and angular forms is one of the 
 characteristics of the style ; we 
 have square panels, square foliage, 
 square crockets (163) and finials, 
 square forms in the windows, — 
 caused by the introduction of so 
 many transoms, — and an approach 163, Soll g|^ Warwic *- 
 to squareness in the depressed and square crocket, 
 low pitch of the roofs in late examples. 
 
208 
 
 PERPENDICULAR ROOFS. 
 
 The Buttresses are frequently panelled (164) ; they 
 are not pedimented, but their set-offs are finished with 
 a plain slope, and they are often 
 terminated by a pinnacle rising 
 above the parapet. Flying but- 
 tresses or arch -buttresses are com- 
 mon in this style. 
 
 The splendid Open Timber 
 Hoofs (165), which are the glory 
 of the eastern counties, belong 
 almost entirely to this style; the. 
 screens and lofts across the chan- 
 cel-arch, often across the aisles 
 and the tower-arch also a , and 
 the richly carved bench-ends for 
 which the West of England is so 
 justly celebrated, also belong to 
 it; in fact, nearly the whole of 
 the medieval wood-work which 
 we have remaining is of this 
 style, and this material appears 
 to be peculiarly adapted for it. 
 
 It may reasonably be doubted 
 whether the modern attempts 164 . mvtoitySchMli0lf(mli 
 revive the wood- work of the Nor- c * 1450 * 
 
 man and Early English styles are Panelled buttresses. 
 
 » In Norfolk there are several fine examples remaining of galleries and 
 screens, commonly called roodlofts, being used at the west end of the church 
 also, under the tower, and across the tower-arch ; and this in churches where 
 the roodloft, properly so called, still remains across the chancel-arch, so that 
 there is a qua si -roodloft at each end of the nave. There is no doubt that 
 
PERPENDICULAR ROOFS. 
 
 [To face p. 209. 
 
 St. Stephen’s, Norwich. 
 
 Perpendicular Open Timber-roof, A.D. 1520. 
 
 A fine example of the rich timber-roofs, or ceilings, for which the 
 county of Norfolk is celebrated. These fine Open Timber-roofs, or 
 ceilings, are found chiefly in the eastern and western counties, with 
 other fine woodwork. 
 
PERPENDICULAR ROOFS 
 
 209 
 
 not altogether a mistake. Nothing can well exceed 
 the richness and beauty of the Perpendicular wood- 
 
 165. St. Michael’s, Coventry, c. 1500. 
 
 Shewing a panelled inner roof, or ceiling, with arched tie-beams. 
 
 work, and it is easy to imagine that a church of the 
 twelfth or thirteenth century has been newly furnished 
 in the fifteenth or sixteenth. We have, however, some 
 
 this custom prevailed in many other counties also, but the western loft has 
 generally been destroyed in consequence of the barbarous custom of block- 
 ing up the tower-arch, which is often the finest feature in the church. 
 
 P 
 
210 PERPENDICULAR HOUSES AND CASTLES. 
 
 very beautiful examples of Decorated wood -work in 
 screens, and stalls with their canopies, as at Win- 
 
 166. George Inn, Glastonbury, Somersetshire. 
 
 Chester; there are also a few wooden tombs of that 
 period. 
 
PERPENDICULAR HOUSES AND CASTLES. 21 I 
 
 The Redcliffe Church, Bristol, the west front and south porch 
 of Gloucester Cathedral, and part of the choir of St. Alban’s 
 Abbey Church, with the tomb of Abbot Wheathampstead, are 
 also of this period, and good specimens of the style. Within 
 the next twenty years we have a crowd of examples, which it. is 
 not necessary to enumerate. 
 
 But a few more specimens of the later period of this style can 
 hardly be passed over, such as St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, 
 King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, and Henry the Seventh’s 
 Chapel, Westminster ; and of the very latest before the change 
 of style, Bath Abbey Church, the Savoy Chapel, in the Strand, 
 London, with its very beautiful panelled ceiling, and Whiston 
 Church, Northants. 
 
 Castles and houses of this style are numerous, and many of 
 them very fine; the fortifications gradually disappear, or are 
 used more for show than for use. Several of the colleges of 
 Oxford and Cambridge are fine examples of this style, par- 
 taking very much of the character of a large manor-house of 
 this period, with many of the old offices and customs retained. 
 All Souls and Magdalen, Oxford, may be especially mentioned ; 
 the quadrangle and chapel of All Souls, with the fine reredos 
 discovered in 1872, are valuable examples ; the cloistered court 
 of Magdalen, with its chapel and hall and founder’s chambers; 
 Wolsey’s Halls at Christ Church and at Hampton Court, are 
 celebrated. These English buildings of the Perpendicular style 
 have a bold and grand character of their own, quite distinct 
 from any foreign style; the French chateaux of the same 
 period are often very pretty and elegant buildings, but they 
 belong to quite a different class, and can hardly be compared 
 to the English gentleman’s mansion or nobleman’s palace of 
 the time of Richard II., and those even of the Tudor era need 
 not fear the comparison. No one can look at such buildings as 
 Penshurst, Hurstmonceaux, Chalfield, Cowdray, or Thornbury, 
 without acknowledging that there is much to admire in them. 
 It is too much the fashion at present to run down the Perpen- 
 dicular style because it is exclusively English, and the dilettanti 
 of the day can admire nothing but what is Venetian, or at least 
 foreign ; they wilfully shut their eyes to the merits of the works 
 of our own ancestors. 
 
The Renaissance. 
 
 After the time of Henry the Seventh the style loses 
 its purity; indeed, at that time we find Italian fea- 
 tures introduced, though sparingly, among the true 
 Gothic, and these become more numerous in the reign 
 of his successor. In foreign countries the Classical or 
 Pagan styles were revived at an earlier period than 
 with us. The Prench call it the style of the “ Re- 
 naissance.’’ The Elizabethan style is a singular mix- 
 ture of Gothic and Italian details; it is almost con- 
 fined to domestic buildings, hut may occasionally be 
 found in additions and alterations of churches, as at 
 Sunningwell, Berkshire. 
 
 In the time of James the First a strenuous effort 
 was made to revive the Gothic style, more especially" 
 in Oxford, and although the details are poor and 
 clumsy imitations, the general effect is frequently 
 very good. 
 
 Of this period the Schools are a good example, espe- 
 cially the vaulted room called the “Pig Market,” 
 Lincoln College Chapel is also a very favourable speci- 
 men of Jacobean Gothic, as it is often called. The 
 choir of Wadham College Chapel is another very re- 
 markable example, the design and details of which are 
 so good that it would appear incredible that it could 
 be of this period, but for the fact that the weekly ac- 
 counts kept by the clerk of the works for the foundress 
 are preserved among the records of the college, and 
 leave no room for doubt on the subject. It is still 
 
JACOBEAN GOTHIC. 
 
 213 
 
 more extraordinary that the windows of the hall and 
 ante-chapel were erected at the same time,, week by 
 week, by another gang of men : the inferiority of taste 
 displayed in them would make them appear at least 
 fifty years later. At first sight it would appear im- 
 possible that these two buildings, so very different in 
 style, can be of the same period, but we must remem- 
 ber that there was always “ an overlapping of the 
 styles.” Some people would build in the old-fashioned 
 way, and others in the new-fashioned way, so that for 
 the space of perhaps five-and-twenty years a building 
 may be in the style of the fathers or of the sons. The 
 old-fashioned style went out of use gradually, not 
 suddenly; this is the case now, and it has always 
 been so. 
 
 The east window of Jesus College Chapel, Oxford, 
 as seen from the Turl, might very well be supposed to 
 be the work of the fifteenth century, if we judged by 
 the design only. Oriel College Chapel, erected at the 
 same time, is in very inferior taste. Specimens of 
 fan-tracery vaulting of this period are numerous in 
 Oxford, chiefly over the entrance porch or gateway of 
 the colleges ; but by far the most elegant and remark- 
 able example is the vault over the staircase to the hall 
 of Christ Church : this was built about 1640, as ap- 
 pears from the evidence of Antony Wood, who was 
 living at the time, and from the royal arms in the 
 vault having Scotland quartered in them. The ele- 
 gance of the design of this vault springing from the 
 slender pillar in the centre is much and justly admired, 
 but an examination of the details of the work shews 
 that it is extremely shallow and poor ; it is an evidence 
 
214 
 
 THE DEBASED GOTHIC. 
 
 of how much may be done by good design even with 
 bad detail. 
 
 In London, the hall of the Archbishop’s Palace at 
 Lambeth, and Middle Temple hall, copied at Lincoln’s 
 Inn in 1860, may be mentioned as good examples of 
 this imitation. 
 
 Another attempt at the revival of Gothic was made 
 in the time of Charles the Second; it was still less 
 successful in the details, but even then many of the 
 designs were good. There are many towers of this 
 period of very good proportions, though of very clumsy 
 details. The towers of Westminster Abbey may per- 
 haps be cited a§ an instance, for although the detail is 
 wretchedly bad, the general effect at a distance is good. 
 
 It is remarkable also that the chancels built at this 
 period are as large and deep as those of any earlier 
 period ; for instance, the chancel of Islip, Oxfordshire, 
 built by the celebrated Dr. South a . The idea of the 
 divines of this period, under whose directions these 
 churches were built, appears to have been that the 
 chancel was the place for the celebration of the Holy 
 Communion, and should bear the same proportion to 
 the body of the church as the number of communi- 
 cants to the whole congregation. These churches were 
 also usually furnished with credence-tables b , and lec- 
 terns, many of which remain. 
 
 • This historical example was unfortunately destroyed in 1860 (?), by 
 whatis falsely called restoration, which usually means the total destruc- 
 tion of every original feature and the substitution of the wretched improve - 
 ment of some modern architect, who entirely despises and ignores the his- 
 tory of his art. 
 
 b So called from the Italian credenza , a side-hoard. 
 
THE REVIVAL OF GOTHIC. 
 
 215 
 
 Even during the eighteenth century, when every 
 kind of taste was at the lowest possible ebb, the people 
 seem to have still retained a lingering wish for the 
 imitation of Gothic or Christian forms, and many rude 
 attempts may be seen in our country churches: and 
 although the architects and builders considered it ne- 
 cessary to repress this taste, and make everything in 
 the pseudo-Grecian or Pagan style, still the love for 
 the Gothic would peep out here and there. The spire 
 is essentially a Gothic feature, unknown to Classical 
 art ; yet many spires were rebuilt, and even new ones 
 built, during this period. The spire of All Saints’ 
 Church, Oxford a fine example c , was built from the 
 designs of Dean Aldrich, soon after 1700, and notwith- 
 standing the purely Italian character of the building, 
 there is a sort of Gothic tracery in the tower windows. 
 The same curious and evidently unintentional mixture 
 may be observed in the tower windows of the church 
 of St. Clement Danes, Strand, which are of a common 
 Gothic form. 
 
 Towards the close of that century arose the school 
 of Horace Walpole and Batty Langley, which, however 
 ridiculous it may appear to us now, served to keep 
 alive the taste for Gothic forms, and paved the way 
 for the revival which has taken so glorious a start in 
 our own day, and to the improved character of which 
 “ The Oxford Society for Promoting the Study of Gothic 
 Architecture” materially contributed, by acting on the 
 minds both of the architects and of their patrons, and 
 
 c This elegant and interesting spire was taken down in 1873, and rebuilt, 
 being much out of repair and supposed to be dangerous. 
 
216 
 
 THE REVIVAL OF GOTHIC. 
 
 enforcing upon them the necessity for the careful study 
 of ancient examples d . 
 
 d The Oxford Architectural Society, established in 1839, was the earliest 
 in the field, the Cambridge Camden Society was very nearly simultaneous 
 with it, and the idea was rapidly taken up and followed subsequently in 
 numerous other places; still it is only just to give Oxford the credit of 
 having originated the movement. Upon the whole, this movement has 
 done much good, although accompanied by much evil, occasioned by the 
 exuberant zeal of young men eagerly setting about the “restoration” of 
 their churches before they knew the proper mode of doing it, and before 
 either architects or workmen were prepared for the work. In consequence 
 of this unfortunate haste, many valuable specimens of ancient art nave 
 been irreparably destroyed, instead of being carefully preserved as models 
 for future ages. At the time that the movement for the revival of the old 
 English architecture began, it was almost impossible to get workmen to 
 execute the details of it with any tolerable accuracy, all the prejudices 
 of their education in their trade were against it. Much credit is due to 
 Mr. Blore for his perseverance in establishing a school of workmen. This 
 idea was afterwards taken up by others, and more recently the Architec- 
 tural Museum was formed to supply the workmen with models, chiefly 
 by the support of Mr. A. J. B. Beresford-Hope, M.P., who had been one 
 of the leaders of the Cambridge Camden Society. 
 
 The Oxford Society in 1860 changed its title to the “ Oxford Architec- 
 tural and Historical Society.” The object of this change is to connect the 
 study of architecture with that of history, which now forms part of the 
 course of study pursued at the University. It is obvious, on a very little 
 consideration, that the architecture of every people is an essential part of 
 its history, although it has hitherto been entirely neglected by historians. 
 As the Oxford Society is now und^r the patronage of the Professors of 
 Modern History and of Ecclesiastical History, we may venture to expect 
 that this long neglect will be remedied, and that the history of architecture 
 will form a regular part of the studies of the University. 
 
PART II. 
 
 ON THE FOREIGN STYLES. 
 
 T'HE close connection which has always existed between 
 England and the Continent of Europe, and the habit of 
 travelling for which the English people were distinguished 
 from a very early period, could not fail to have considerable 
 influence on their architecture, and it is in vain to contend for 
 an exclusively English and isolated character for it. A great 
 deal of the detail was developed and worked out at home, but 
 new ideas were continually imported from abroad. The English 
 Gothic is as thoroughly national as that of any other country ; 
 perhaps, from our insular position, it is even more distinct and 
 independent than that of any other people. Still the influence 
 of each age, the changes of each successive generation, par- 
 ticipate in a certain general character everywhere throughout 
 the civilised world. The style of the thirteenth century is dis- 
 tinctly marked above and through all national or provincial 
 distinctions ; these are all subordinate to the great principles of 
 the epoch. The early period at which Englishmen began to 
 travel is curiously illustrated by the fact recorded by Florence 
 of Worcester, that in the year 1031 King Canute went to Rome 
 and made some fresh arrangements with the Pope for the treat- 
 ment of the English bishops when they went to Rome to receive 
 their palls: he also took the opportunity of the chief princes 
 of Europe being assembled there, especially Conrad, Emperor 
 of Germany, and Rodolph, King of Burgundy, to make treaties 
 with them to allow a free and unmolested passage to and from 
 Rome through their dominions, for English travellers, whether 
 ecclesiastics or merchants. These treaties appear to have been 
 faithfully carried out, and to have led to the established custom 
 of protection for travellers which generally prevailed through- 
 out the Middle Ages ; and perhaps to the system of passports, 
 which were at first a real protection to the traveller, though 
 they degenerated into a mere formality. 
 
 These frequent journeys of the most highly educated classes 
 
218 
 
 ON THE FOREIGN STYLES . 
 
 to Rome had a very beneficial effect on the arts, and especially 
 on architecture. It was not merely what the bishops or mer- 
 chants saw in Rome itself, but what they and their suite saw 
 on their passage to and fro. Whatever was passing in any part 
 of Europe, whatever new inventions were discovered in any 
 place, were sure to be speedily known and seen by these Eng- 
 lish travellers, and brought home for the benefit of their own 
 country. Some went by one line, others by a different one. 
 During the eleventh and twelfth centuries one great line of 
 traffic was through the English provinces in the west of France, 
 by Narbonne and the Mediterranean to Rome. Normandy was 
 practically part of England from 1066. Anjou, Poitou, and 
 Guienne, or Aquitaine, were added by Henry II. about 1150, 
 and in this manner about a third of what now constitutes 
 France was then part of the English dominions, and could not 
 but exercise great influence upon art in England during the 
 latter half of the twelfth century, the exact period of the great 
 change of style. Another line was through Burgundy and by 
 the Rhone to Marseilles. A third line was by the Rhine and 
 the Alps, but this was only passable at certain seasons, and not 
 much frequented. That the custom of carrying a sketch-book 
 in the pocket and bringing home sketches of all novelties in art 
 prevailed from an early period, we have proof in the very re- 
 markable Sketch-book of Wilars de Honecort*, an architect of 
 Picardy in the first half of the thirteenth century, which has 
 been preserved, and has been published and admirably illus- 
 trated by M. Lassus and Professor Willis b . There is no reason 
 to suppose that Wilars was at all singular in this practice, and 
 as the English architects had in this manner a much greater 
 range of observation than those of other countries, the result to 
 be naturally expected is greater perfection in their art, and to 
 this they really attained. 
 
 » “ Album de Yillars de Honecort, architecte du XIII. si£cle manuscrit 
 public en facsimile, annot# par J. B. A. Lassus.” Paris, 1858, 4to. 
 
 b “ Facsimile of the Sketch-book of Wilars de Honecort, an architect of 
 the thirteenth century, illustrated by Commentaries. &c., by M. J. B. A. 
 Lassus, Translated, Edited, and Augmented, with many new Articles and 
 Notes, and with the Remarks of M. J. Quicherat, Professor of Archaeology 
 at the Ecole des Chartes, at Paris; by the Rev. R. Willis, Jacksonian 
 Professor, Cambridge.” London, 1859, 4to. • 
 
THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 219 
 
 The Gothic of England is more perfect, more pure, more 
 systematic, better proportioned, more consistent than that of 
 any other country. The exteriors in particular are more at- 
 tended to, and better proportions preserved in them. The plan 
 and the limits of this work do not allow of entering into this 
 question in detail, but while tracing the gradual development 
 of Gothic Architecture in England, we must bear in mind that 
 our architects could never be ignorant of what was going on in 
 any part of the continent of Europe, and never failed to avail 
 themselves of such knowledge. Yet they never servilely copied 
 any other country ; they adapted the new features to their own 
 style; there is no hiatus, no jump in English Gothic; the pro- 
 gress is always steady, gradual, almost imperceptible ; it takes 
 a generation to bring about the change from one style to an- 
 other. They never stuck on pretty bits from France or Italy 
 to their English buildings ; they knew how to make use of the 
 novelties that were brought home to them, and to assimilate 
 and dovetail them into their own work. 
 
 It would be desirable to complete this sketch of the history 
 of Gothic architecture in England by a similar outline of its 
 progress in other parts of Europe, and a comparison of the 
 dates of each successive change in England and on the Con- 
 tinent 6 . Unfortunately, the materials for such comparison are 
 
 0 The works of M. De Caumont afford much valuable information for the 
 study of French architecture, but he has himself found reason to change 
 his opinion in many instances respecting the dates of particular buildings, 
 and at the meeting of the “Socidte Fran^aise pour la Conservation des 
 Monumens,” held at Rennes in August, 1849, he publicly acknowledged 
 that the greater part of the buildings usually assigned by French anti- 
 quaries to the eleventh century are really of the twelfth, and that the 
 period of transition, which he had formerly described as comprising the 
 whole of the twelfth century, ought strictly to be confined to the latter 
 half of it. This change of opinion was acquiesced in by nearly all the 
 leading antiquaries of France who were present at the meeting. This 
 agreement with the opinions of the English antiquaries will greatly pro- 
 mote further researches, but at present very little has been done towards 
 a systematic comparison of the architecture of France and England. The 
 French antiquaries know English architecture by engravings only, espe- 
 cially the works of the elder Pugin, who, having also published a work on 
 Normandv, was well known there, and his works had great influence at the 
 beginning of this revival. M. De Caumont himself had scarcely seen any- 
 
220 
 
 THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 not at present provided; the subject has not yet been suf- 
 ficiently investigated: the exact dates of the different parts 
 of the principal continental buildings have not been ascer- 
 tained with sufficient accuracy. It is clear that the progress 
 was not quite simultaneous, but which country or which pro- 
 vince has the priority of date has not yet been settled. The 
 variations between the different provinces of France are almost 
 as great as those between France and England ; for, in fact, 
 each province was almost an independent kingdom at the time 
 when these buildings were erected, and some of them had never 
 been even nominally subject to the French crown. Each had 
 an architectural style of its own, and a careful observer may 
 readily mark out the different provinces by the existing build- 
 ings. Not only is the style of the western quite distinct from 
 that of the eastern provinces, which might naturally be ex- 
 pected from their having so little communication with each 
 other at the time these buildings were erected, but even those 
 which border on each other, and where more frequent com- 
 munication between the people might have been expected, 
 have also each a distinct character. For instance, the Domaine 
 
 thing of England, and the French antiquaries in general know very little 
 of English Gothic by personal inspection, and are not disposed to admit 
 its superiority in any respect, although the entire absence of Classical or 
 Italian details does certainly prove it to be a more pure Gothic style. 
 
 After the publication of the first edition of this work I had many oppor- 
 tunities of meeting the principal antiquaries of France, and of discussing 
 these interesting questions with them, both at their annual meetings in 
 some provincial town, and at the “Congr^s des Deputes des Societ6s 
 Savantes,” which was held at Paris in the spring of each year. M. De Cau- 
 mont has paid me the compliment of printing in the Bulletin Monumental 
 a little memoir on the “ Comparative Progress of Architecture in England 
 and France in the Middle Ages,” read at the meeting in Paris in 1860, and 
 I was glad to find that there was so little difference of opinion between 
 us; on all the main points we are entirely agreed. To M. Viollet-le-Duc 
 I am also greatly indebted for the opportunities he has afforded me of 
 conversing with him on these subjects whenever I have been in Paris, 
 and of accompanying him to Sens and S. Denis, where he clearly pointed 
 out to me the different changes which the buildings have undergone, the 
 most important of which I have mentioned. To him 1 am also indebted 
 for the information respecting the different mode of construction employed 
 in English and French vaulting at all periods, a sure mark of a distinct 
 school of art. 
 
THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 221 
 
 Royal, the Duchy of Burgundy, and the County of Champagne 
 have each so marked a character, that the line of demarcation 
 between one province and another may be clearly traced by the 
 buildings still remaining. 
 
 M. De Caumont, one of the highest authorities, and one of 
 the most careful observers of his day, says d that the Roman- 
 esque styles, as distinct from the Gothic, continued in use 
 until the end of the thirteenth century, not only in the Rhine 
 provinces, but also in Lorraine, the Lyonnais, (or neighbour- 
 hood of Lyons, the ancient province of Vienne,) and in the 
 south of France generally. I should hardly have ventured to 
 assert so much as this, but there is no doubt that some pro- 
 vinces were much behind others. 
 
 Normandy, in the twelfth century, was an English province ; 
 the difference in style between that and other districts, even 
 in the north of France, and joining on to it, was far more 
 marked than between Normandy and England; even the very 
 plans of the churches are quite distinct. In England and in 
 Normandy we have long narrow naves, with side aisles, also 
 generally narrow in the earlier buildings. In Anjou and Poitou 
 the style of that period is called by the French antiquaries the 
 “ Plantagenet style,” and correctly, as matter of history; but 
 the name has not been adopted by English writers, and we 
 have no similar buildings in England. Neither in Normandy 
 nor in England was the central space, whether choir or nave, 
 vaulted over before the middle of that century. The vaults 
 over the central space of the abbey churches at Caen are ad- 
 ditions to the original building, almost a century later. At 
 Sens, also, the central vaults were added after the great fire 
 in 1184, that is, just after Canterbury was finished. In Nor- 
 mandy the round abacus of the capitals is common : it is rarely 
 found in any other part of France, and yet it is almost a neces- 
 
 d See De Caumont, Abecedaire ou Rudiment d * Archeologie , 1850, p. 183. 
 I gladly take the opportunity of recommending this very useful and in- 
 teresting book, of which several editions have been published. The author 
 died in 1873, after a long and most useful course ; he had been a writer 
 on Archaeology for forty years ; he was the founder of the “ Soci£t6 
 Fra^aise d’ Archeologie pour la Conservation et la Description des Monu- 
 mens Nationaux,” and began the publication of the Bulletin Monumental 
 in 1834, a most valuable periodical, still contmued. 
 
222 
 
 THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 sary feature of the Gothic style. The plain round, moulded 
 capitals also occur, though not so frequently as in England. 
 Detached shafts to the jambs of windows or doorways are 
 common in both. Windows of two lights and of three lights, 
 separated by mullions, and without tracery at first, are also 
 both English and Norman. In an architectural point of view, 
 Normandy may be considered as a part of England, from the 
 time of the Conquest to that of King John, that is, during 
 the whole period of the Anglo-Norman style. 
 
 Brittany was subject to English influence at a later period. 
 The river Loire was a great line of division in the style of 
 buildings on either side of it. In the English province of 
 Guienne, which was a part of Aquitaine, there is a singular 
 variation of style. In the English cities founded in the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries, with certain privileges to freemen, 
 from which they are called villes f ranches , we often have 
 a good deal of English character in the architecture. Guienne 
 was attached to the crown of England under Henry II. by 
 hereditary right of his mother, and it continued to belong to 
 it for two or three centuries, during which it has been called 
 by good local antiquaries, La Guienne Anglaise ; but the Eng- 
 lish influence on the architecture was comparatively small. 
 In a considerable part of Aquitaine the Byzantine style had 
 been introduced by a colony of Greek or Byzantine merchants, 
 in the province of Perigord, of which Perigueux was the capital. 
 S. Front, at Perigueux, was a distinctly Byzantine church, and 
 there are many others in the same province. The Byzantine 
 influence extends over a large part of the south of France or 
 Aquitaine, which had retained the Roman civilization longer 
 than any other part of Europe ; we find it extending as far 
 as Agen, where the cathedral church of S. Caprais e is almost 
 Byzantine, and it may fairly be said to have extended to the 
 Pyrenees. It extended also to the north as far as Fontevrault, 
 where the great abbey church was vaulted over in a series of 
 cupolas or domes of the Byzantine fashion. 
 
 My lamented friend, M. Felix de Verneilh, published a most 
 
 e A plan and section of the cathedral of S. Caprais, at Agen, has been 
 published in the Bulletin Monumental for 1873, and clearly shews its 
 Byzantine character. 
 
THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 223 
 
 valuable work on the Byzantine architecture in France f ; and 
 he went to the east to examine and compare other Byzantine 
 buildings. He was one of the best archaeologists in Europe, 
 and his works are of permanent value; he died young, — too 
 young for the cause of archaeology or history. His favourite 
 church of S. Front de Perigueux has been entirely rebuilt, but 
 on the old plan, and the old church copied as faithfully as mo- 
 dern ideas would permit. The present church is a rebuilding 
 of the nineteenth century, and therefore is deprived of its value 
 in the history of art, but his excellent drawings were made 
 from the original structure. 
 
 In the lower part of the mountains of the Pyrenees there are 
 many churches of early Romanesque character, some of them 
 partaking of the character which, in England, is Anglo-Saxon ; 
 but the history of these churches has never been well in- 
 vestigated, or the dates ascertained. Mid-wall shafts of belfry 
 windows are a feature that prevail everywhere, and are in 
 themselves no proof of early date anywhere but in England, 
 where they were not used after the Norman style came into 
 general use; but in Aquitaine, or in Italy, and on the Rhine, 
 and in other parts of Germany they are of all periods. In that 
 part of the kingdom of Burgundy, of which Grenoble was the 
 capital, which now forms the south-east corner of France, 
 the architecture is extremely rude, down to the end of the 
 twelfth century, and was always behind the rest of France 
 and of Europe from its remote situation. 
 
 In the great diocese of Lyons, originally of Vienne in Dau- 
 phiny, which included a considerable part of the banks of the 
 Rhone and the Saone, a peculiarity was observed by M. de 
 Caumont and the Society of which he was the leader. The 
 fluted columns , in imitation of the Roman Ionic, continued 
 to be used down to the thirteenth century, where they are 
 found in the apse of the cathedral of Lyons itself. This is 
 attributed to the copying of a Roman building at Orange, 
 which has served as a type for the whole of the province, 
 when the general revival of building was begun in the eleventh 
 century. Further in the north-east, the Duchy of Burgundy, 
 
 f “ L' Architecture Byzantine en France , S. Front de Perigueux et les 
 £glises en coupole de l’Aquitaine, par M. Felix de Vemeilh.” Paris, 
 1851, 4to. 
 
224 
 
 THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 of which Dijon was the capital, has some very beautiful work 
 of the thirteenth century, such as Notre Dame at Dijon ; but it 
 is rather after than before similar work in England, as has been 
 said. The architecture of Picardy, and of French Flanders, is 
 some of the finest in France ; and as there was constant com- 
 munication with Normandy and England, it is often difficult 
 to tell which had the priority. The diocese of Laon is very 
 remarkable in many ways, and has a peculiarity in the general 
 use of the square east end of the church, which is usually an 
 English feature only. 
 
 Our space does not permit us to enter into details respecting 
 any of the provinces of France, many of which were, as we 
 have said, independent states at the time that such medieval 
 buildings were erected. There is an excellent list of the histo- 
 rical monuments of France in the last volume of the very valu- 
 able Dictionnaire Baisonne de V Architecture Frangaise , du 
 xi e au xvi e Siecle, par M. Viollet-le-Duc, Architecte, Paris, 1868. 
 This excellent systematic catalogue, with the details, itself 
 occupies a whole volume of considerably larger size than this 
 pocket companion. 
 
 It is still the custom of most writers on architecture in France 
 to attribute to the eleventh century e that large class of build- 
 ings which we are accustomed to call Norman, and which we 
 know to be of the twelfth century. But this is, in fact, an 
 error of the same kind as our fathers fell into when they called 
 all these buildings Saxon. There are undoubtedly many build- 
 ings in France of the eleventh century of well-ascertained date, 
 such as the crypt, the apse, and the transepts of the cathedral 
 of Nevers, — this church was founded in 1028, — and part of the 
 
 e In all countries it is very common to call the century by the same 
 name as the figures that represent it in printing; thus 1120 or 1150 are 
 frequently called the eleventh century : this is of course seen to be an 
 error when people think about it, but few take the trouble to think, and 
 this error may be frequently heard in good society in all countries, more 
 especially perhaps in Italy, where the name of the Cinque Cento style is 
 commonly given to buildings of the sixteenth century, from 1500 to 1600 
 (the first ten being always understood in Italian). But this error is not 
 by any means confined to Italy. In 1872, one of the best antiquaries of 
 Laon, in Picardy, told me that his church was of the twelfth century; 
 and when I asked him what part of it, he replied about 1240. 
 
THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 225 
 
 crypt of the cathedral at Auxerre, founded in 1005 ; and at 
 Cerisy le foret a considerable portion of the original structure, 
 founded in 1032, still remains ; both of these buildings may be 
 mentioned as types of the eleventh century, allowing for certain 
 modifications. But the character of the work in these buildings 
 is altogether different, and evidently earlier. 
 
 In many instances the actual construction of the walls of 
 the original building of the eleventh century remains when 
 the whole of the ornamentation, and consequently the appear- 
 ance of the work, has been 
 changed in the twelfth. Care- 
 ful examination is required to 
 ascertain this, and to distin- 
 guish the changes that have 
 been made, but this may be 
 done by a careful study of 
 each example. The abbey 
 church of Bernay, in Nor- 
 mandy, now a market-hall, is 
 a good example of this change 
 of ornamentation. S. Remi, 
 at Rheims (or Reims), is an- 
 other, and in this the original 
 plain capitals are covered over 
 with stucco in which orna- 
 mented foliage is worked. 
 
 This is also the case at Ju- 
 mieges, where an early capi- 
 tal with the rude Ionic volutes 
 of the eleventh century has 
 been plastered over and paint- 
 ed towards the end of the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 At Moissac the celebrated 
 cloisters have been entirely altered in a similar manner ; the 
 square piers with their shallow carving in marble, and the 
 main fabric, belong to the date of 1100, recorded by an in- 
 scription on one of them, but the light elegant twin shafts, 
 with their beautifully sculptured capitals, are a century later. 
 The same is the case in the very fine abbey church at Toulouse, 
 
 Q 
 
 167. Abbey of Jumieges, Normandy. 
 
 Capital of pilaster painted on plaster, 
 upon an earlier stone capital. 
 
226 
 
 THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 as may be seen in the wall of the apse behind the altar, and in 
 other parts. In England and other countries the carving was 
 very frequently executed long after the building was erected, 
 and larger windows were often inserted in the place of the ori- 
 ginal small and narrow ones. Capitals were generally carved 
 after they were placed, and when convenient ; mouldings, on 
 the other hand, were worked before they were placed. 
 
 Normandy. — It has been already pointed out (pp. 40, 41) that 
 little remains visible of the original work at the two great abbeys 
 at Caen, and it is not until near the end of the eleventh century 
 that we find any of those large and fine churches of the type 
 which belongs to the twelfth. The church of S. Stephen at 
 Nevers, consecrated in 1097, is still in the style of the eleventh 
 rather than of the twelfth. The vaults of the nave and choir are 
 plain barrel-vaults ; those of the aisles are groined without ribs, 
 and without even the dividing arches between the bays, which 
 came in before ribs. The magnificent church of Vezelay, 
 which is referred, even by so high an authority as M. Viollet- 
 le-Duc, to the eleventh century, is distinctly of a later cha- 
 racter than S. Stephen at Nevers, and scarcely any portion of 
 the existing building really belongs to that period. This church 
 was dedicated in 1104, under the Abbot Arnald, who had built 
 it, as is distinctly recorded h . But according to the usual cus- 
 tom of that age, the choir would naturally be dedicated as soon 
 as it was ready for divine service, without waiting for the nave, 
 or vestibule, as it was then called, which was often not built 
 until long afterwards. In this instance it was built very soon 
 after the choir, and belongs to the first half of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. But the choir was entirely rebuilt about a century after 
 the original one, of which the only portions remaining are 
 a small part of the crypt and the two eastern piers of the nave ; 
 these are of the same kind of masonry as we find at Nevers, 
 Auxerre, &c., and quite distinct from the rest of the work in 
 the nave or choir. The very rich western doorways with 
 shallow porches over them, are of the latter part of the twelfth, 
 and the rest of the narthex was added in the beginning of the 
 thirteenth. 
 
 h Gallia Christiana , vol. iv. p. 922, ed. Paris, 1656. 
 
THE FRENCH STYLES . 
 
 227 
 
 The usual custom to build in wood in Normandy in the first 
 half of the eleventh century, is well shewn by the fact before- 
 mentioned, that M. De Caumont and a party of good French 
 archaeologists examined the sites of all the castles of the 
 Norman barons who went over to England with William the 
 Conqueror, in order to ascertain the construction of stone walls 
 of that period, that is, in the first half of the eleventh century, 
 To their surprise they found no masonry at all in any of them ; 
 there were fine earthworks in all of them, the wooden buildings 
 had disappeared 1 . There is one exception to this, but it is 
 just one of those exceptions which prove the rule. The castle 
 of Plessis was built about the middle of the eleventh century, 
 of stone, and was conquered by William before the time of the 
 Conquest of England. But the construction is of rough stone 
 and herring-bone work, as in so many other buildings of the 
 eleventh century, ard not of cut stone. 
 
 The nature of the building-materials employed in the con- 
 struction of each country, or each district, had necessarily con- 
 siderable influence in the architecture. The excellent build- 
 ing-stones found in that part of Normandy called Calvados, 
 usually called Caen stone, because the chief quarries of it are 
 near Caen, was known at a very early period, and was no 
 doubt one of the principal causes of Normandy being in ad- 
 vance of other provinces when the great revival of building in 
 stone began, in the eleventh century. But this excellent stone 
 is not found in all parts of Normandy, and the difficulty of 
 transport by land from one part to another was the same there 
 as in other countries ; water-carriage was always so much the 
 cheapest, that the best buildings are generally on the banks 
 of navigable rivers, and it was more easy to send Caen stone 
 across the channel with the tide, and up the rivers in England, 
 than to send it to other parts of France, or even to other parts 
 of Normandy by land. W'alls faced with flints, cut or split, 
 which are common in some parts of England, (especially in the 
 low countries and chalk districts where stone is scarce,) are 
 seldom found in France ; there is an example at Bee, where it 
 is used in the form of patterns and inscriptions, but this is the 
 only one that has been observed. At a later period in some 
 
 ■ See De Caumont, Abecedaire d ’ Archeologie Militaire, pp. 292—300. 
 
228 
 
 THE TRANSITION IN FRANCE. 
 
 districts, flint facings are frequently used in squares, alternately 
 with black and white stone, like a chess-board, and called 
 checquers, in the same manner as in some parts of England. 
 
 The difference of provincial character is almost as great in 
 the .Romanesque buildings of the twelfth century as in the 
 Gothic buildings of a later period : they differ both in details 
 and in plan. For instance, in the province of Anjou the Ro- 
 manesque churches have usually no aisles ; the nave and choir 
 are extremely wide, and divided into square or oblong bays by 
 very massive arch-ribs, which are square in section, and either 
 semicircular or segmental : to resist the thrust of these arches, 
 instead of the usual flying buttresses, are solid square masses of 
 masonry, which are in fact parts of the wall carried out at right 
 angles, having the cornice and strings, or other ornaments, 
 carried round them. The vaults, instead of the usual barrel or 
 groined vault, are domical over each compartment ; but these 
 domes are low, and not raised into cupolas, as in Byzantine 
 work, and do not interfere with the external roof, except in 
 some instances at the intersection of the transepts, where a 
 lantern with a cupola is introduced. This remarkable plan 
 prevails in nearly all the churches of Angers and the province 
 of Anjou. 
 
 Paris. — There are more medieval buildings remaining in 
 Paris than either the English visitors, or the Parisians them- 
 selves, are generally aware of. A few of them are indeed well 
 known and celebrated, such as the Cathedral of Notre Dame 
 for the period of Transition and the Early French style, and 
 the Sainte Chapelle for the Decorated style. These have been 
 already mentioned, but there are several others deserving of 
 the attention of students, and the distinction between English 
 and French Gothic can be seen in Paris as well as any where •>. 
 Of the Roman period we have the remains of the thermce, 
 which are of considerable interest, and different from any 
 Roman remains in England. 
 
 Of the eleventh and twelfth centuries: — the old church of 
 
 j Visitors to Paris should take care to provide themselves with the 
 excellent guide-book of M. F. de Guilbermy, entitled Description Arche- 
 ologique des Monumens de Paris, published by Bance ; a second edition 
 in 1856. 
 
THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 22 9 
 
 Mont-Martre (if it is not destroyed) has an apse and the greater 
 part of the church of this period; the aisles have stone arches 
 across to carry the roof instead of wooden principal beams, and 
 it is (or was in 1870) a curious little church in many respects. 
 The church of S. Julien le Pauvre, near Notre Dame, has been 
 converted into the chapel of the hospital of the Hotel Dieu, and 
 thus has been preserved after having long been desecrated. It 
 is of the latter part of the twelfth century, and of transitional 
 character, with an apse and a good vault, and richly-carved 
 capitals. The church of S. Germain des pros is the remnant 
 of what was once a very large and important monastery. 
 
 The church of the 
 Priory of S. Martin des 
 Champs (168), now the 
 “ Conservatoire des Arts 
 et Metiers,” is a very 
 remarkable one, not ge- 
 nerally understood, and 
 not often seen by English 
 travellers: the apse is 
 probably of the eleventh 
 century, and very cu- 
 rious, with alterations 
 and additions of the 
 twelfth, when the choir 
 was rebuilt ; and the 
 nave is of the thirteenth, 
 with windows very cha- 
 racteristic of the early 
 French style. 
 
 The very light and 
 elegant Refectory of the 
 same priory, is unri- 
 valled for the slender- 
 ness of the columns 
 which carry the vault, 
 it is of the thirteenth 
 century. The remains 
 of this Priory have been preserved by having been used for 
 
 168. S. Martin des Champs, Pans, c. 125o. 
 
 a Public Library and a museum of patents. 
 
 Of the fourteenth century we have portions of the cathedral 
 
230 
 
 THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 of Notre Dame — the apsidal chapels, and the fine stone screen 
 that encloses the choir with its rich sculpture. The chapel of 
 the college of Beauvais, of the latter part of that century, has 
 been preserved and brought to light. Of the fifteenth century 
 —the church of S. Germain 1’ Auxerrois, although too much re- 
 stored and altered, still retains the fine porch of Jean Gaussel, 
 built in 1435, and a fine example of the Flamboyant style. 
 S. Severin is also practically of this period and style, though 
 mixed with remains of other periods. Of the sixteenth century 
 — S. Nicholas des Champs is chiefly remarkable for its great 
 length ; it has sixteen bays in length, and double side-aisles, 
 with chapels in addition, but it belongs to the latest Gothic. 
 S. Merry is also late Flamboyant, with a subterranean chapel 
 or crypt. S. Medard and S. Etienne du Mont, in the abbey 
 of S. Genevieve, is Flamboyant, with a classical front added. 
 The vault is remarkably lofty, and it has preserved the rood- 
 loft, which is very rich and curious ; there is also a magnificent 
 organ-case of carved wood full of figures, and the windows re- 
 tain some fine painted glass of the seventeenth century. The 
 church of S. Jacques de la Boucherie, was destroyed in 1797, 
 with the exception of the tower, the upper part of which is 
 a fine example of the Flamboyant style. This was entirely 
 enclosed by modern houses, until Napoleon III. had them 
 all cleared away, and the fine tower now stands detached in 
 a public garden. 
 
 The Hotel de Cluny is a fine mansion of the sixteenth 
 century, built almost entirely by Jacques d’Amboise, who was 
 Abbot of Cluny and Bishop of Clermont. It has been used 
 as a Museum of Antiquities, and the whole house is carefully 
 preserved, and is itself quite a museum. It now forms one of 
 the most interesting sights of Paris. Of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, there are some remarkable and fine churches in Paris, 
 which retain the Gothic plan of construction, combined with 
 classical details. S.Gervais, rebuilt by Louis XIII. in 1616, 
 and S. Eustaclie, are the two finest examples; the latter forms 
 one side of the great market-place, and is on an enormous scale, 
 318ft. long, and 132ft. wide, and lofty in proportion; but the 
 original design for the upper part was never completed, the 
 expense of the work was so great that funds could not be raised 
 for the purpose. It was commenced in 1532, and the works 
 were carried on until 1641. 
 
FRA NCE — A NO ERS. 
 
 231 
 
 The theory of the Parisian architects is that the first germ 
 of Gothic architecture is to be found at S. Denis, in the work 
 of the Abbe Suger, a.d. 1140 — 1144 ; that it was rapidly devel- 
 oped in the Domaine Royal, and brought to perfection under 
 Philip Augustus in the beginning of the thirteenth century ; and 
 henceforward was imposed as a badge of sovereignty upon the 
 other provinces as they were brought into subjection to the 
 Royal Domain. This theory appears to me a very doubtful one, 
 and it requires to be better supported by examples of authentic 
 date than has hitherto been done. It may be true of a certain 
 part of France; but similar progress was going on simultane- 
 ously in Normandy and in England. The cathedral of Lisieux 
 was building at the same time as Sens, and the original parts k 
 of both are so much alike that we might well suppose them to 
 be the work of the same architect, William, who afterwards 
 built Canterbury ; but we have no evidence of this, and the re- 
 semblance probably arises only from their being of the same 
 date; but then Lisieux is just as much advanced in style as 
 Sens. In both these instances the- central vault and clerestory 
 have been rebuilt afterwards, and at Lisieux the apse belongs 
 also to the later work. The nave of the church at Lisieux was 
 built under Bishop Arnulf, a Norman who was forty years 
 bishop, and was finished in 1182, when he resigned the bishopric 
 and retired to the abbey of S. Victor at Paris * 1 . 
 
 The great period of transition in the Royal Domain of France 
 was the time of Philip Augustus, 1179 — 1223, though it began 
 in the previous reign under the government of the Abbe Suger ; 
 in the English provinces, and in England itself, during the 
 time of Henry II., 1154 — 1189: the new style was fully es- 
 tablished under Richard I., 1190 — 1200. In both countries the 
 examples built during the period of this change of style are so 
 numerous and so fine that it is difficult to say which has the 
 preference: but the French churches have the advantage in 
 their greater height, the more general use of vaulting, and the 
 use of the apse, which afforded an excellent field for the display 
 
 k The nave-arcades of Lisieux have been restored, but not the clerestory, 
 which is original. 
 
 1 See Oallia Christiana , vol. i. p. 649, and Robertus de Monte, Chron. 
 Ann., 1182. 
 
232 
 
 THE FRENCH STYLES. 
 
 of the genius of the architects in the management of the lofty 
 and narrow arches and the complicated vaulting which this 
 form required. The Duchy of Burgundy is often cited as being 
 in advance of other parts of France at that period, and it cer- 
 tainly has some of the finest examples of transitional churches. 
 Dijon is full of fine medieval buildings; the elegant church 
 of Notre Dame has been mentioned in comparison with Lincoln. 
 Vezelay has also been mentioned : the choir, built in 1190 — 1195, 
 is a very fine example of the transition. The Cistercian abbey 
 church of La Charity sur Loire is another magnificent church 
 of this style; it was founded in 1133 m , but the church was 
 not completed before 1175 — 1180, which brings it to the same 
 period as Sens, Lisieux, and Canterbury. 
 
 In Soissons and its neighbourhood, or the district called the 
 Soissonnais, nearly all the churches are of the character of 
 transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic, and some of the 
 most learned of the French antiquaries consider that this dis- 
 trict was the birthplace of Gothic architecture. It is to be re- 
 gretted that they have not more carefully investigated the 
 history of these churches. The only one of which the date 
 seems to be ascertained with confidence is the Cathedral of 
 Soissons, which has been already mentioned as finished in 1212, 
 thirty years after Canterbury; and yet it is very little more 
 advanced in style, except in the particular feature of plate- 
 tracery. On the other hand, the south transept of Soissons, 
 which is lower than the rest of the building, and evidently 
 belongs to an earlier structure, is itself of transitional cha- 
 racter; it is said to have been built between 1168 and 1175. 
 Several other churches of the neighbourhood are of similar 
 character to this transept. 
 
 The hall of the public Hospital at Angers (169) has been 
 already mentioned at p. 95, but it appears to form so important 
 a link of connection between the architecture of England and 
 that of Anjou, as to require some further notice. It was built 
 by King Henry II., begun in 1177, and opened by him in state 
 with much ceremony in 1184, the same year that the choir of 
 Canterbury was completed : the mouldings and details are 
 almost pure Gothic, although the windows are round-headed; 
 
 Gallia Christiana , vol. iv. p. 217. 
 
FRANCE — ANGERS. 
 
 233 
 
 the vaulting is very remarkable as a transition between the 
 domical vaults of Anjou and the Early English vault. During 
 
 169. Hall of the Hospital at Angers, A.D. 1177-1184. 
 
 the time that this hospital was building, Henry IT. held his 
 court at Angers, which necessarily assembled the nobles and 
 
234 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 prelates from Normandy in the north to Guienne in the south, 
 together with those from England; and a better opportunity 
 for the spread of the new fashion could hardly have been de- 
 vised. During the same period Anjou was afflicted with a sore 
 famine, and England undertook to feed the people of this pro- 
 vince for six months ; large quantities of corn were sent over 
 for this purpose, and the large public granary, or barn, attached 
 to this hospital was in all probability erected on that occasion : 
 it is in the style of transition, a little earlier than the hall 0 . 
 
 It has been mentioned that the churches built by the Cru- 
 saders in Palestine are generally very much in the French style 
 of the same period. The cathedral of Bethlehem in France, in 
 the county of Nevers, was built by the Crusaders after their 
 return from Palestine, according to the will of the Count of 
 Nevers, who had founded a cathedral at Bethlehem in Pales- 
 tine, and died there, but foreseeing the probability that the 
 Crusaders would be driven out of that country, made a proviso 
 that in such case his establishment should be transferred to his 
 estate in France. A small cathedral, or church, was built there 
 accordingly, and endowed with means sufficient to support 
 a bishop and chapter; this establishment was sanctioned by 
 the Pope, and continued to exist until the great French Revo- 
 lution of 1792. The church is still entire, excepting the west 
 front, although desecrated: the style of this church is pure 
 early French Gothic, without a vestige of Oriental character 
 about it. 
 
 The nave of the church of S. Nicholas at Blois, 1186 — 1210, 
 is of decidedly transitional character, with a fine west window 
 of plate-tracery, which has some resemblance to one at Lincoln, 
 but with no Gothic details; the rest of the work is of far less 
 advanced character than Lincoln. 
 
 The provinces of Auvergne and Yelay have quite a distinct 
 character of their own. The cathedral of Le Puy in Velay is 
 one of the most remarkable churches in Europe ; the lower part 
 of the east wall is of late Roman work, built of fragments of 
 earlier Roman buildings, but the domical vaults and the greater 
 part of the church belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
 
 " See the Gentleman’s Magazine, 1859, vol. ccvi. p. 284, and the autho- 
 rities there cited: 1. The Charter of foundation of the Hospital; 2. Ex- 
 tract from Gallia Christiana ; 3. Extract from Radulphus de Diceto. 
 
THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 235 
 
 Most of the other churches of this very remarkable district be- 
 long to the same period : they bear more resemblance to those 
 of Perigord than to any other part of France, but seem rather to 
 be following a common type than copied one from the other. 
 There is little doubt that when the history of these buildings is 
 properly investigated, their apparent anomalies will be found 
 to confirm, rather than to disturb, the general history of archi- 
 tecture ; and it is probable that the clue to these variations will 
 be found in the ecclesiastical history of these provinces. We 
 know from early Christian history that the French Church was 
 of Oriental origin, and it seems evident that the different dio- 
 ceses long maintained a considerable degree of independence, 
 and some of them kept up a friendly intercourse with the 
 Eastern Church, so long as the Greek Emperor at Byzantium 
 continued to command the commerce of the Mediterranean, 
 which was until the middle of the eleventh century 0 ; previous 
 to that time Venice was a subordinate city of the great Empire, 
 to the commerce of which it succeeded. There were two main 
 lines of commerce through France from the east at that period; 
 one ascending the Rhone from Marseilles by Avignon, Vienne, 
 and Lyons, and branching off in various directions, as to Gre- 
 noble and Geneva eastward, to Le Puy and Auvergne west- 
 ward; the other from Narbonne to Perigueux, Limoges, and 
 Poitiers, branching off to Cahors, Augouleme, &c. As usual, 
 commerce, civilization, and religion travelled together and 
 assisted each other. Oriental influences may be traced by 
 these channels in various ways, of which the architecture is 
 one only, although an important one: various local customs 
 are continued; Oriental tissues and reliquaries are still pre- 
 served in the treasuries of the churches in obscure places : the 
 distinct uses in the liturgies of different dioceses, each with its 
 own breviary, have also in some instances continued almost to 
 our own day. This connection with the East was more kept up 
 in some dioceses than in others, and the architecture is now 
 perhaps the best record of this connection, but other records 
 are not wanting : Bishop Peter I. of Le Puy was consecrated at 
 Ravenna in 1043, on his return from Palestine ; Greek priests 
 are recorded to have resided for a long period at Angouleme in 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries : the street of the Venetians 
 
 See Gibbon’s Roman Empire, chap, liii 
 
236 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 at Limoges lias been mentioned. This Oriental influence, how- 
 ever, was not uniform in its effects, and was much modified 
 by local circumstances: the style of Auvergne, with its long 
 nave and its barrel-vault, and the segmental vaults to the aisles, 
 the dome over the central space, and semi-dome vaults to the 
 apsidal chapels, is almost confined to that district. The chapel 
 of S. Michael, over the great western porch, or narthex, may 
 perhaps be considered as another of the peculiarities ; although 
 it occurs occasionally in many other places, as at Tournus, 
 S. Benoit sur Loire, and in Switzerland at Komainmotier. But 
 they are rare with us, and more common in Auvergne than 
 anywhere else. 
 
 The use of tiles inlaid in stone in the face of the wall, for 
 ornament, is another characteristic of Auvergne, though it is 
 used also at Lyons and Vienne*; the use of different-coloured 
 stones for external ornament is another feature, very natural in 
 this volcanic district, where the variety of material close at 
 hand is so great ; it is more remarkable that they did not use it 
 for internal ornament, but conformed to the medieval usage of 
 a coat of plaster as a ground for painting upon, and trusted 
 almost entirely to painting and gilding for internal ornament, 
 as in other places. 
 
 The Early French style differs in many respects 
 from the Early English, although agreeing with it in 
 general character. 
 
 Their churches are generally on a larger scale than 
 ours, and are particularly distinguished by much greater 
 height : this seems to have been the chief object of 
 ambition of the French architects ; each strove to make 
 his central vault more lofty than his predecessors, until 
 this was carried to such excess that every idea of pro- 
 portion in the other parts of the building was sacrificed 
 
 p It has been found occasionally in Normandy in early buildings, but 
 very rarely, and the fragments are now chiefly preserved in museums, as 
 at Caen ; the examples mentioned by M. De Caumont are at S. Sauveur 
 sur Rille, S. Taurin d’Evreux, and the nave of Bayeux Cathedral. 
 
236* 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 The West Front, A.D. 1218-1235. 
 
 (The Towers had originally wooden spires.) 
 
EARLY FRENCH BUTTRESSES. 
 
 237 
 
 to it, and the enormous flying- buttresses which were 
 necessary to carry these vaults became perfect scaffold- 
 ings of stone, whilst the towers could scarcely be car- 
 ried above the level of the roof**. The larger French 
 churches also have very frequently double aisles, which 
 are a rare feature in England ; and as they require the 
 flying -buttresses to be double also, with an upright 
 pinnacle standing up between the divisions, these add 
 considerably to the appearance of stone scaffolding on 
 the exterior. 
 
 At S Denis, almost the only parts remaining of the 
 time of Suger are the crypt and the apsidal chapels : 
 the whole of the interior of the choir, with the clere- 
 story and vault, were rebuilt about a century after- 
 wards ; and the flying-buttresses, which rise from the 
 walls between the apsidal chapels to carry the vault 
 of the choir, belong also to the later period. They 
 have the double arches, and serve well to shew the dif- 
 ference between French and English flying-buttresses. 
 
 At Beauvais, which is the most lofty choir in Europe, 
 the original magnificent design seems to have been 
 carefully and very gradually carried out, the piers and 
 arches being of the thirteenth century, while the clere- 
 story and vault are of the fourteenth. The central 
 tower has evidently fallen down, and in so doing has 
 destroyed the north-east pier and the arch adjoining to 
 it; and these parts were not rebuilt until the fifteenth 
 
 q Although the English cathedrals are longer than the French or any 
 others, they do not appear so large, from the -want of height. Their first 
 effect is less striking, but they grow upon the mind, and seem to develope 
 themselves more, and perhaps they produce the impression of religious 
 awe and reverence more than any others. 
 
23 * 
 
 EARLY TREXCH BUTTRESSES. 
 
 centurv. having the mouldings and details of the Flam- 
 boyant style. But no such change of mouldings and 
 
 170. S- Iteiis, Parti, c- 1240. 
 
 Shevraz tie French Sjmz-ixitrress vim rvo arehes, one orer the other. 
 
 details occurs in the piers and arches of the apse, they 
 are all alike, all apparently built at the same time, and 
 the arches have no appearance of having been altered. 
 
 The apsidal form of the east end is almost universal 
 in France, and adds considerably to the striking effect 
 of the interior. The whole of this division of the 
 
EARLY FRENCH PILLARS . 
 
 239 
 
 church has a character of great elevation, produced or 
 added to by the elongation of its component parts: 
 the arches are lofty and narrow, generally stilted ; the 
 small arches of the triforium- arcade are also drawn 
 closer together, and elongated in the same manner; 
 the windows are long and narrow, usually lancet- 
 shaped, and single lights, even though all the side 
 windows are of two lights. The vault often partakes 
 of the same character, the cells being deep and narrow, 
 comprising only one window in width, and springing 
 from near the bottom of it. In other instances, how- 
 ever, the vault is of a different character, each bay 
 comprising two or more windows. 
 
 Early French Pillars are usually plain, round, 
 clumsy columns, with capitals of Classical character, 
 generally an imitation of the Corinthian or Composite, 
 and with the square abacus; the bases have square 
 plinths with ornaments on the angles, exactly like 
 those which are common in England in transitional 
 Norman -work, but are not found afterwards; the pil- 
 lars altogether are of the same character, closely re- 
 sembling those of Canterbury Cathedral and Oakham 
 Castle. The beautiful clustered pillars of the Early 
 English style are not unknown, but comparatively 
 seldom used in France; and when used are heavier 
 than the English examples. 
 
 Another class of pillars common in France, espe- 
 cially in the apse, is rare in England, although it is 
 used at Canterbury; this consists of two shafts, or 
 small columns, coupled together transversely to the 
 wall, carrying a long impost through its thickness; 
 
240 
 
 EARLY FRENCH ARCHES. 
 
 these twin shafts are often very close together, but 
 sometimes have an interval between them. Coupled 
 shafts of this kind were used at Ravenna, round the 
 tomb of Theodoric, and are common in Italy, especially 
 in cloisters ; and the same fashion prevails in the south 
 of France, which imitated Italy in many things : good 
 examples occur at Arles and Moissac, and they are 
 very common, perhaps more so than single shafts in 
 that situation. 
 
 Early French Arches have almost invariably a 
 square soffit, wdth or without a boutell on the angle, 
 and seldom have any other mouldings. The form of 
 the arch depends entirely on its situation : those of the 
 apse are narrow, and usually stilted. The small arcades 
 along the side walls and those of the triforium, differ 
 little from similar arcades in England, except that the 
 shafts have almost always the square abacus. But 
 the double arcades, one before the other, with the 
 arches alternate, such as we find at Lincoln, Beverley, 
 the galilee porch at Ely, and in numerous other ex- 
 amples in England, are found only in some parts of 
 France. 
 
 Early French Windows are either plain lancets, or 
 consist of two lights under one arch, and the head of 
 these is frequently pierced with a circular opening 
 (169), at first plain, afterwards foliated, but still cut 
 through the solid stone, and not formed of the mul- 
 lion-bars ; and there is a considerable interval of solid 
 stone between the heads of the lower lights and these 
 circular openings, as at Soissons, Chartres, Rheims, 
 Auxerre, Bourges, &c. At Chartres (171), Laon, and 
 
EARLY FRENCH WINDOWS . 
 
 2 4 I 
 
 in many other instances, the foliated circle is sur- 
 rounded by a number of small openings, in the 
 form of trefoils 
 or quatrefoils, still 
 pierced through the 
 solid stone, and not 
 formed of bars as 
 in the later kind 
 of tracery. As the 
 style advanced, the 
 thickness of the 
 intervening space 
 is gradually dimin- 
 ished, until in the 
 later examples of 
 this style we have 
 actual bar -tracery 
 
 (172) , but still 
 the early forms of 
 foliated circles 
 and trefoils are 
 preserved, as at 
 
 Amiens, Noyon 171. Chartres Cathedral, c. 1220. 
 
 (173) , and the Shewing a foliated circle of plate-tracery, sur- 
 0 • i. rru 11 j. rounded by small quatrefoils of the same, in 
 oainte nnapeiie at the head of a window of two lights. 
 
 Paris ; these bear 
 
 a close resemblance to the later specimens of the Early 
 English style, as the chapter-houses of Salisbury and 
 Wells, and the presbytery of Lincoln. The French 
 examples of this kind of tracery have probably the 
 priority of date by from ten to twenty years, and the 
 earlier kind of tracery, for distinction called by Pro- 
 
 E 
 
242 
 
 EARLY FRENCH WINDOWS. 
 
 fessor Willis plate-tracery, is abundantly used in France, 
 while it is comparatively rarely found in England. 
 
 Circular windows are much more commonly used in 
 France than in England, in all 
 the styles. In the Early French 
 style they are of the same 
 character as the circular open- 
 ing over the side windows at 
 Chartres. 
 
 The earlier windows are 
 usually entirely without mould- 
 ings, often not even splayed, 
 mere holes cut straight through 
 the stone wall ; even in the 
 later examples of this style 
 the mouldings are very few and 
 poor, and are often entirely 
 wanting. 
 
 It may be observed that 
 French windows in the aisles 
 are generally higher from the 
 ground than English ones ; it 
 is rare for the sills to be low T 172 . Auxerre Cathedral, c. 1240. 
 enough for a person to look into sh ® win f a fohat< ;J cir cie with 
 
 ® r bar - tracery, the foliation 
 
 the church from the outside, within the cusps, in Eng- 
 lish work the cusps would 
 
 which in England is very com- be turned the other way. 
 monly the case : this appears to arise only from the 
 greater height of the French churches altogether. 
 
 Early French Mouldings are usually less bold and 
 less rich than the Early English, although some of the 
 arches of doorways of this style are very richly moulded; 
 
EARLY FRENCH MOULDINGS. 
 
 243 
 
 the window-arches are commonly without any : there 
 are generally mouldings round the edges of the bay in 
 which the window 
 is placed, but at 
 an interval of a 
 foot or two from 
 the window, and 
 connected rather 
 with the vault and 
 the vaulting- shafts 
 than with the win- 
 dow. The ribs 
 have commonly 
 but few mould- 
 ings ; the arch-ribs 
 are almost always 
 square in section, 
 and often quite 
 plain. The cornice 
 is usually filled 
 with foliage of the 
 stiff - leaf charac- 
 ter, or sometimes 
 a kind of crockets ; 
 in other instances, 17S - 1,07011 CatMra1 ' c ' 1250 ' 
 
 of a character resembling the Greek foliage used in 
 England chiefly in late Norman work. 
 
 Early Erench Doorways are generally larger and 
 finer than the Early English, and more enriched with 
 sculpture, having large figures in the jambs, and smaller 
 ones upon the arches, with canopies and corbels. They 
 
244 EARLY FRENCH CAPITALS . 
 
 are usually protected by porches, which are either 
 shallow, and almost form part of the doorways, as at 
 Amiens, or have a bold projection, as at Chartres. 
 
 There are usually three doorways at the west end, 
 and when they have porches in this situation, these 
 have not in general much projection, in order that they 
 may not interfere with the general effect of the west 
 front. There are also sometimes three doorways at 
 the end of each transept, and here the porches are 
 generally a more prominent feature, and much en- 
 riched with sculpture. The two porches, with the 
 doorways, at the north and south ends of the transept 
 of Chartres, are the richest parts of the building; but 
 this is an exceptional instance. Amongst the sculp- 
 tures are figures of the donors or principal benefac- 
 tors ; and as these 
 figures are repeat- 
 ed in the painted 
 glass above, with 
 their armorial 
 bearings, they are 
 identified as per- 
 sons living be- 
 tween 1250 and 
 1280. 
 
 Early French 
 Capitals have 
 almost always the 
 square abacus, 
 and w hen not of 
 the Corinthian 
 
 174. Soissons Cathedral, A.D. 1212. 
 
EARLY FRENCH BASES AND ORNAMENTS. 245 
 
 character they are ornamented with foliage of very 
 similar character to the Early English, called stiff- leaf 
 foliage (174), but the work is in general not so highly 
 finished, nor so elegant and graceful. The moulded 
 capitals, bell-shaped without foliage, which are so 
 common in Early English work, are scarcely found 
 at all in France. 
 
 Early French Bases are either of the character 
 which in England is transitional Norman, or they are 
 nearly the same as the Early English, with the deep 
 hollow to hold water. In some instances the plinth is 
 ornamented with f uting, or otherwise enriched. 
 
 Early French Ornaments differ much from the 
 Early English, except the foliage, which is of nearly 
 the same character, though generally not so highly 
 finished, and less elegant. The tooth-ornament, which 
 in England is so abundantly used as to be rarely want- 
 ing in a building of this period, is rarely found in the 
 Royal Domain of France. An ornament closely ap- 
 proaching to it is found in transitional work, as it is 
 also in England, but the true tooth-ornament with 
 undercutting, which is one of its chief characteristics, 
 is found only in some parts of France, and does not 
 occur in some of the finest buildings of this style, 
 where we should naturally expect to find it; and 
 when used at all, it is very sparingly. Its place is 
 supplied either by crockets or by foliage ; and in the 
 hood -moulds of windows, the hollow mouldings of 
 canopies, &c., an ornament not found in England is 
 freely used ; it sometimes bears a resemblance to the 
 ball-flower, but is in general more like a rose. 
 
246 
 
 EARLY FRENCH TOWERS. 
 
 Early French Buttresses are generally very mas- 
 sive and bold ; in the earlier examples quite plain, but 
 in later ones enriched with shafts and pinnacles, and 
 often with figures under canopies on the face of them. 
 From the great height of the vaults to be supported, 
 the flying-buttresses often consist of two, sometimes 
 of three arches, one above the other, and under each 
 arch there is usually a detached shaft near the face of 
 the wall, but separated from it by a passage (170) ; the 
 
 lower arch is also fre- 
 quently filled up v ith an 
 arcade of small arches, or 
 a range of small shafts. 
 Each of the large separate 
 buttresses is often quite 
 a fine structure. 
 
 Early French Towers 
 do not greatly differ from 
 the Early English, but the 
 belfry windows are fre- 
 quently much more elon- 
 gated, often forming a trip- 
 let of long narrow lancets 
 (175 r ) ; and these are fre- 
 quently well moulded, 
 even when the windows 
 of the church are entirely 
 
 175. Mortain, Normandy, c. 1250. 
 
 r The example here given is perhaps rather an exceptional one than 
 what is usual, but for that very reason it indicates more clearly the idea, 
 and shews the marked difference in the recesses between an English and 
 a French belfry-tower of the same period. 
 
EARLY FRENCH TOWERS. 
 
 247 
 
 
 without mouldings. These towers are frequently- 
 placed at the angles of the west front and of the 
 two transept fronts, but seldom rise much above the 
 level of the roof, because they are often left un- 
 
 176. Versainville, c. 1250. 
 Tower with saddle-back roof. 
 
 finished. They are sometimes terminated by square 
 pyramids hardly amounting to spires, but these belong 
 generally to the earlier period ; short octagonal spires 
 of wood, covered with slate or shingles, are sometimes 
 
248 EARLY FRENCH TOWERS, 
 
 used, and round or conical spires, which are generally 
 placed on an octagonal belfry- story \ In small village 
 churches the tower is often in the centre, and fre- 
 quently terminated by a high-pitched roof, with two 
 gables, commonly called a saddle-back roof : this kind 
 of roof is very common in some parts of France, espe- 
 cially in the Cotentin and other districts of Normandy. 
 These sometimes have a stair- turret in the centre of 
 one of the sides, of a semi-hexagonal form, corbelled 
 out at the top to form a square, and carry a similar 
 roof to the tower itself, as at Yersainville (176). In 
 the Cotentin, an octagonal tower often has the angles 
 corbelled out to carry the square base of a saddle-back 
 roof, the effect of which is extremely picturesque, but 
 the antiquity of these roofs is somewhat doubtful: in 
 some instances the roof is considerably later than the 
 tower ; in fact, this fashion seems to have continued in 
 that district quite to the last century, along with ridge- 
 crest tiles and other medieval customs. 
 
 Early French spires differ considerably from the 
 English type. They are generally octagonal, with 
 a small round moulding on the angle. Some of the 
 finest examples are St. Stephen’s at Caen, the old one 
 at Chartres, and that of Yendome, all belonging to 
 the early Gothic. Openings are pierced at intervals, 
 sometimes merely small round holes, sometimes tre- 
 foils or quatrefoils; and at intervals between these 
 openings are bands of ornament cut upon the surface, 
 most commonly in the form of wooden shingles, as at 
 
 • For more full information respecting the church towers of France, see 
 the article Clocher in the admirable Dictionnaire of M. Viollet-le-Duc. 
 
EARLY FRENCH FRONTS. 249 
 
 St. Peter’s at Caen (177), the actual 
 a.d. 1308 ; but its style is that of the 
 thirteenth century. At a somewhat 
 later period there are also very com- 
 monly crockets on the angles of the 
 spire, sometimes large, more often 
 small, and at more rare intervals 
 than is the case in England, where 
 crockets are used; hut in English 
 work they are not so frequently 
 used. There are several very fine 
 Early French spires in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Caen; but perhaps the 
 most remarkable in France is that 
 of the Kreisker Church at S. Pol de 
 Leon, in Brittany: from its enor- 
 mous height, and the consequent 
 great projection of the buttresses, 
 the whole church seems built as a 
 support to the spire. 
 
 date of which is 
 
 ^ ^ 177. St. Peter’s, Caen. 
 
 The West Fronts of Early French 
 
 churches are generally very fine, though it is rare to 
 find one perfect. The design is generally the same, 
 or there is at least a great general resemblance : the 
 principal features are three large doorways, usually 
 very much enriched with sculpture: over the central 
 doorway is a large window, which generally has 
 a foliated circle in the upper part of it, and over this 
 the gable, crocketed, sometimes with sculpture on the 
 face of it, and a small figure on the finial. On each 
 side are the flanking towers, which, if perfect; are 
 
250 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE . 
 
 terminated by spires ; in the larger buildings and wide 
 fronts these towers are outside of the aisles, and conse- 
 quently clear of the side doorways; more commonly 
 they are over the west end of the aisles, and conse- 
 quently the doorways form part of the towers. In the 
 earlier examples the windows of the towers are simple 
 lancets ; as the style advances they become united and 
 more enriched, and the belfry windows elongated to 
 an extent never found in England : under these is 
 often a small circular window with plate -tracery 
 pierced through the stone in simple forms. 
 
 The central division in the earlier examples usually 
 has three lancet windows with a large circular win- 
 dow of plate-tracery over them; in later examples the 
 whole of these openings are drawn together, and form 
 one large window, the spaces between being gradually 
 diminished until we have actual bar-tracery. These 
 later examples approach very nearly to the Decorated 
 style, but the mouldings, and the character of the 
 foliage and sculpture, mark them as still belonging to 
 the Early French style. In small churches there are 
 frequently three lancet windows only at the west end. 
 
 Having now compared the principal points of difference be- 
 tween the Early French and the Early English style, it becomes 
 necessary to refer to a few examples, and compare them on 
 historical grounds, for which purpose it will be most convenient 
 to follow the chronological arrangement. 
 
 One of the earliest examples of the Early French style is 
 Soissons, the choir of which was finished in 1212, as shewn by 
 the evidence of a contemporary inscription in one of the side- 
 chapels. The nave is somewhat later, but is continued in exactly 
 the same style. There are still some vestiges of the Romanesque 
 style throughout this church, and though it can hardly be called 
 a transitional building, it is clearly one of the earliest examples 
 
THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 251 
 
 of the new style. It bears considerable resemblance to the 
 choir of Canterbury, the large arches and pillars being quite of 
 the same character. The triforium arcade consists of small, 
 narrow pointed arches, with capitals of the usual character, 
 stiff-leaf foliage, and square abacus. The windows of the apse 
 and aisles are lancet-shaped; those of the clerestory have fo- 
 liated circles in the head, pierced through the solid wall without 
 any mouldings, but slightly chamfered on the exterior. 
 
 The next example in character, and probably in actual date, 
 is Chartres, the nave of which is nearly as massive as Norman 
 work, although the effect of heaviness is removed by the enor- 
 mous height. The church was destroyed by fire in 1194, and 
 the present fabric was commenced soon afterwards. The only 
 portions remaining of the earlier fabric are the crypts, and part 
 of the west front, comprising the lower part of both the towers, 
 and the whole of the southern one, which has the date of 1164 
 cut on the soffit of a window-arch near the top ; these parts of 
 the work, with the fine western doorways, are of transitional 
 character. It is probable that the choir was less damaged by 
 the fire than the other parts, as, contrary to the usual practice, 
 the nave of the present building is the earliest, and is more 
 massive than the choir : it probably dates from about 1200 to 
 1230. The windows (171) have foliated circles in the head, or 
 rather over them, of very early character, and entirely of plate- 
 tracery. The very rich doorways and porches at the ends of 
 the transepts, which are perhaps the finest in France, were 
 executed between 1250 and 1280. The choir is of nearly the 
 same date; it was dedicated in 1260. The buttresses of this 
 eastern part are considerably lighter than those of the nave, 
 which are amazingly heavy and massive, as if the workmen 
 were still afraid to trust them to support the vault at so great 
 a height *. 
 
 * The dates of the different parts of Chartres Cathedral are given on the 
 authority of the Abb£ Bulteau, a very learned and inteliigent antiquary, 
 who has for several years carefully investigated the history of his cathedral, 
 and has amassed considerable materials tor a new work on the subject, in- 
 cluding the iconography, which is highly interesting, and which no one 
 could illustrate more satisfactorily than himsell. [His description of the 
 Cathedral of Chartres was published in 1850, after this note had appeared 
 in our first edition. J 
 
252 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 Simultaneously with these, that is, during the first half of 
 the thirteenth century, an immense number of great works 
 were being carried on in France, and to this period belong the 
 greater part of their finest cathedrals. The limits of this work 
 will allow of only a very brief selection. 
 
 Rheims Cathedral was commenced in 1211, and the canons 
 took possession of the choir in 1241 u , but the church was not 
 finished until near the end of the fifteenth century. The nave 
 is of three periods, although the original style is exceedingly 
 well imitated. Probably, as at Cologne, the west front was 
 begun soon after the choir, and a great part of it belongs to the 
 latter half of the thirteenth century. In 1295 a fresh effort was 
 made to raise money by an appeal to the charity of the faithful 
 towards the completion of the church, which, however, was not 
 finished in 1430, according to Dom. Mariot. The church was 
 much injured by a fire in 1481, which destroyed the five towers 
 of the transepts ; and the fury of it was so great that the bells 
 were all melted, and the molten lead ran in the streets, but the 
 vault saved the greater part of the church. 
 
 This is one of the most magnificent of the many fine 
 churches of France ; the character is not so heavy as that of 
 Chartres, but the style is very similar. The end of the south 
 transept is part of the original work ; it has three lancet win- 
 dows, moulded, and with shafts in the jambs; over these are 
 three small round windows foliated, and in the gable a rose- 
 window of plate-tracery of early character. The large rose- 
 windows at the end of the north transept and at the west end 
 are Flamboyant work, inserted in the repairs after the fire. 
 The greater part of the building is, however, of the richest and 
 finest Early French character. 
 
 Amiens Cathedral was founded in 1220, and the canons en- 
 tered the choir in 1244 ; there is the date of 1248 in the painted 
 glass of ore of the windows of the apse. These windows have 
 foliated circles of bar-tracery very similar to those of the chap- 
 ter-house of Salisbury and other English examples of about ten 
 
 u The work was probably interrupted by the violent quarrels between the 
 Archbishop and the citizens of Rheims : one of the charges against the 
 citizens mentioned in the excommunication by Pope Gregory IX., in 1235, 
 is that of using for their fortifications tombstones, and stones prepared for 
 the fabric of the great church. Oall. Christ ., vol. i. p. 525. 
 
THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 253 
 
 years later. The tomb of Bishop De Coucy, who died in 1257, 
 is placed under an arched recess in the wall of the north aisle 
 of the choir, and seems part of the original work. The side- 
 chapels with their windows are subsequent insertions, and the 
 three large rose-windows are all of the fifteenth century. The 
 great height and beautiful proportions of the interior of this 
 church make it one of the most striking and effective in Europe. 
 The western doorways and porches are quite a museum of the 
 finest sculpture of the thirteenth century ; but the upper part 
 of them appears to have been tampered with, as the arms of 
 Canon Dumas, about 1510, occur in the point of the gable of the 
 great porch. 
 
 The cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris belongs partly to this 
 period. The choir has been already mentioned as transitional 
 work; it was built by Bishop Maurice de Sully, who died in 
 1196; but the nave and transepts are later, and about the same 
 age as the west front, which was commenced in 1218, and 
 finished in 1235. The character of all this part is good Early 
 French, and the circular window of the west front has plate- 
 tracery only. The side-chapels were added between 1240 and 
 1250 ; the windows of these have foliated circles of bar-tracery : 
 at the same time all the windows of the clerestory of the nave 
 and choir were enlarged, probably in order to introduce the 
 new fashion of mullions and bar-tracery. The north and south 
 porches are a little later : there is an inscription on the base of 
 the south doorway recording its commencement in 1257. Some 
 of the chapels round the choir are of this period, others of the 
 early part of the fourteenth century. The stone screen round 
 the choir, with its beautiful sculptures, was finished in 1351, as 
 recorded by another inscription*. 
 
 The chapel of the Seminary of Bayeux, built between 1206 
 and 1231, by Bishop Robert des Ableges, is so entirely in the 
 English style, and so unlike other French buildings of the same 
 
 1 We are indebted to M Viollet-le-Duc, the archi'ect of the church of 
 Notre Dame, and one of the best-informed antiquaries of France, for this 
 valuable information respecting the precise dates of the different parts of 
 the building. [Since this note was published, he has completed his great 
 work the Dictionnaire de V Architecture, in ten volumes, octavo, (Paris, 
 1868,) which has placed him in the foremost rank among the architectural 
 antiquaries of his time.] 
 
254 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 period, that it would appear to have been certainly built by an 
 English architect. The windows are all lancet-shaped and 
 moulded, and the ribs are also moulded in the English fashion. 
 It is a remarkably elegant little building, but more like a part 
 of Salisbury than of Rheims or Chartres. The east end is 
 square, but in the interior the vaulting is so arranged as to give 
 very much the effect of a double apse. 
 
 The choir of the church of St. Peter at Lisieux, in Normandy, 
 built between 1226 and 1267, is a remarkably good and pure 
 specimen of the transition and of the Early French style. 
 The pillars are of the usual massive character, with the Co- 
 rinthianized capitals, very similar to Sens and Canterbury. 
 The triforium is panelled, and some of the panels have trefoils 
 and quatrefoils pierced through them ; the shafts have capitals 
 of stiff-leaf foliage; the clerestory windows are lancets, re- 
 cessed, with shafts and moulded, but very flat and square in 
 section. The aisle windows are couplets of two lancet lights, 
 with a panel in the head, and a foliated circle with a boss in 
 the centre, but not pierced. There is a fine Early French 
 central lantern open to the church. The apse is a little later 
 than the rest of the work, and the Lady-chapel is an addition 
 of the fourteenth century, and fine Decorated work. 
 
 M. Vitet in his Monographie de Notre Dame de Noyon, folio, 
 1845, and M. Viollet-le-Duc, following him, consider it probable 
 that the cathedral of Noyon was commenced about 1150, by 
 Bishop Baldwin of Boulogne, the friend of Suger. He is re- 
 corded to have collected money for the rebuilding, but the work 
 was evidently carrying on under Bishop Stephen of Nemours 
 (1188 — 1222), as appears from incidental notices collected in the 
 Gallia Christiana r. But the style, though still transitional, is 
 considerably in advance of S. Denis, and in the absence of any 
 positive evidence as to the date, it seems more probable that 
 the Early French part is twenty or thirty years later. 
 
 The cathedral of Laon is considered by M. Viollet-le-Duc to 
 be of the beginning of the thirteenth century, and the reasons 
 he gives for assigning it to this date appear conclusive. The 
 style is early Gothic, but very heavy, and with considerable 
 remains of the transitional character; the east end is square, 
 
 7 Gallia Christiana , vol iiL p. 818. 
 
THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 255 
 
 which is very unusual in France, though common in England 
 at that period. The bishops of Laon had considerable inter- 
 course with England, which seems naturally to account for 
 the adoption of this English plan, but the French architects do 
 not allow this. 
 
 Rodulphus de Warnavilla, or Venneville, who was Bishop of 
 Laon from 1182 to 1193, had previously been Archdeacon and 
 Treasurer of Rouen, Treasurer of York, and Chancellor of Eng- 
 land. The rebuilding of the cathedral must have been carried 
 on in his time, because it is stated in the epitaph of his pre- 
 decessor Arnulf, that he was buried in the old church and 
 translated to the new one *. He had begun the new cathedral 
 and palace, but retired from the episcopate in 1182 to the 
 abbey of S. Victor, near Paris, where he also erected fine build- 
 ings; that abbey has been entirely destroyed, but we may 
 judge what its buildings were from those of Noyon. Warnavilla 
 was probably more engaged in his buildings than in politics, as 
 Lord Campbell, in his “Lives of the Chancellors,” says that 
 little is known of his proceedings as Chancellor in England. 
 
 Many of the country churches round Laon have also square 
 east ends, after the English fashion ; they are chiefly imitated 
 from the cathedral church, though some of them would appear 
 earlier. They are a very interesting set of churches of the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries, several of which are well 
 worthy of careful examination. An English traveller in France 
 may, with advantage, spend a week at Laon, and make ex- 
 cursions in the neighbourhood; a few may be specially men- 
 tioned : — 
 
 Bruy&res sous Laon is a fine church of transitional cha- 
 racter, c. 1200, cruciform in plan, with aisles to the nave, and 
 chapels on each side of the choir. The exterior is unusually 
 rich with carved capitals and cornices; the interior is more 
 plain, but very good ; the arches are pointed, square-edged, the 
 windows round-headed, the vaults of the choir and apse are 
 original, with the clerestory, that of the nave is Flamboyant 
 work of the seventeenth century. The tower is over the chapel 
 on the north side of the choir, the west front is quite plain Ro- 
 manesque, with a remarkable porch, partly of wood, with stone 
 
 * Gallia Christiana, voi. ii. p. 649. 
 
256 
 
 THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 pillars at the angles. The doorways have richly-carved Early 
 French capitals, and good iron-work on the door. 
 
 Vorges is another remarkable church of this period; the 
 west front has a fine rose -window, the doorway is richly 
 moulded and has shafts. The church has been fortified, and 
 there are remains of these fortifications in the transept; the 
 east end is square, with plain transitional work with three 
 windows. The aisles are wide, with flat ceilings, and arches 
 across to carry them. There is a very bold transitional mould- 
 ing under the window, used as a string-course. 
 
 Nouvion-le-vieux is another remarkable church of the same 
 style, late Romanesque, is transitional and cruciform in plan, 
 with a tower on the south side, richly ornamented. 
 
 The Sainte Chapelle at Paris, built between 1245 and 1257, 
 from the design and under the direction of Pierre deMontereau, 
 is one of the most beautiful pieces of work of its time, and is 
 considered by some of the best French antiquaries to be in ad- 
 vance of most other buildings in France of the same period. 
 The windows have foliated circles in the head very similar to 
 the chapter-house at Salisbury. The very rich character of the 
 building causes it to be frequently considered as belonging to 
 the Decorated style, but the character of the foliage and the 
 mouldings shew it to belong to the Early French style, although 
 the later division of it, as shewn by the use of tracery: this 
 kind of tracery in England does not belong to the Decorated 
 style, it is contemporary with lancet windows and regular 
 Early English mouldings; although it shews a building to be 
 late in the style, and approaching to the Decorated. This is 
 the same in France as in England, excepting that such tracery 
 is there used a few years earlier than it is in England. 
 
 The very beautiful Lady-chapel of S. Germer in Picardy, 
 near Beauvais, is evidently a copy of the Sainte Chapelle in 
 Paris, at least of the upper chapel, for there is no second chapel 
 under the principal one, as in Paris. This chapel has lately 
 been very carefully restored, and those persons who object to 
 the colouring of the Sainte Chapelle as tawdry, may prefer 
 this, where the beautiful sculpture is free from colour. There 
 is no doubt that all these buildings were intended to be coloured 
 originally, as it was the fashion of the age when they were 
 built; but whether they look better without the colouring or 
 
THE EARLY FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 257 
 
 not, is a matter of taste which it is useless to dispute about. 
 The church to which this chapel is attached is itself a very 
 fine one, in the style of transition, apparently of the latter part 
 of the twelfth century ; but its date has not been ascertained, 
 and it has been ignorantly and absurdly given to the eleventh, 
 probably only from the usual blunder of naming the centuries 
 by the figures. 
 
 The common opinion is, that because at the end of the 
 eleventh century and the beginning of the twelfth, many 
 Norman priests and monks became bishops in England, the 
 same system was continued through the latter half of the 
 twelfth century ; on the contrary, there appears to have been 
 a reaction, and almost as many Englishmen became bishops in 
 France at that time as there had been Normans and French- 
 men made bishops in England during the previous century. 
 Several instances of tnis have already been mentioned, such as 
 the Bishop of Laon, who had been Chancellor of England 
 before he was made a bishop, and who appears to have had 
 a marked influence on the architecture of his diocese during 
 that important period of transition. 
 
 The number of Englishmen who were educated in the 
 Academy of Paris at that period, also shews the close connec- 
 tion between the two countries, and that the national jealousy 
 was of later growth, a natural consequence of the wars of the 
 thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, which partook 
 very much of the character of civil wars, for the combatants 
 had been in a large degree inhabitants of different provinces 
 of the same kingdom*. 
 
 a The following names of Englishmen of distinction educated in the 
 Academy of Paris at that time is curious and interesting : — 
 
 Gilbert Foliot, who became Bishop of London, and afterwards Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury from 1161—1189. 
 
 Robert de Corham, Abbot of St. Alban’s, 1151—1166, who rebuilt the 
 chapter-house, and part of the cloister with the lavatory. 
 
 Simon, first Prior and then Abbot of St. Alban’s, 1173 — 1188. 
 
 Walter Ridal, or Rydall, Archdeacon of Canterbury, and afterwards 
 Bishop of Ely, 1174 — 1189, (who rebuilt his cathedral). 
 
 S 
 
258 
 
 TEE DECORATED STTLE. 
 
 The Decorated Style lx France does not differ so 
 materially from the same style in England as to require 
 a separate description- There are comparatively few 
 large buildings of this style in F ranee ; it appears that 
 the greater part of their cathedrals were rebuilt in the 
 thirteenth century, or at least the rebuilding was com- 
 menced in the early part of that century, and continued 
 rigorously in imitation of the same style throughout 
 the fourteenth. In many instances, where the cathe- 
 dral itself is of earlier date, the chapels between the 
 buttresses with their large windows of the Decorated 
 style 178', were introduced in the fourteenth century, 
 or the latter part of the thirteenth. It is worthy of 
 notice that the ball-flower ornament, which is almost 
 as characteristic of the Decorated style in England as 
 the tooth -ornament is of the Early English, is also 
 rarely found in France, and then not in Decorated 
 work, but in transitional work of the end of the 
 twelfth century, and this more especially in Anjou 
 and Poitou. 
 
 There is not the same variety of patterns in the 
 tracery of the windows in France that there is in 
 England, where they are endless; in France trefoils 
 
 R*^o£*s E«=cc:->*Rc*er of Wirriek, brother to the Coca; 
 csr Eat! of WirwStk. Archbishop of Ejoso. 1154 — 11SA. 
 
 w tStr Gasscarce. s gg e ess Tg-ly Archdeoeo* of Oxford, Treasurer of 
 LhacvSh. i ad Archbishop cf Rrc«s. 1154— L5M. 
 
 Stechec Ltrrac. CnaceQor of the Unrerrfrr of Paris before 120S, 
 ifterwxros Arc&btshoo of Caarerbcrr. 1307—1523, who rebcilt the Arch- 
 besiop's pa_iee, uui was eee of the bus >ar=ed ae= of has trior. He 
 was the irst to cL’nie the Btbie is to charters, is aow recesrec.— 
 Txiff-nnsrxru P*.- uwu, «*-. A. C. E_ B^lfceo, toa. a. Purs, 166o, foao, 
 P- ; LZti ax cL pp, 42, 43L 
 
258 - 
 
 DECORATED FRENCH STYLE. 
 
 Paris— La Sainte Chapelle. 
 
 Built by Pierre de Montereau, A.D. 1245—1257, in the Royal Palace, 
 new the Law Courts or Palais de Justice. 
 

THE DECORATED STYLE. 
 
 259 
 
 or quatrefoils are almost universal, until the flowing 
 lines of the Flamboyant style were introduced. 
 
 178. Bayeux Cathedral, c. 1300. 
 A French Decorated window. 
 
 The Decorated style in France appears to have been 
 changed into the Flamboyant much more rapidly than 
 in England it gave way to the Perpendicular. Ex- 
 amples of pure Decorated tracery, either geometrical 
 or flowing, distinct alike from the foliated circles and 
 trefoils of the Early English and Early French, and 
 from the vagaries of the Flamboyant, seem to be com- 
 paratively rare in France. 
 
260 
 
 TEE FLAMBOYANT STYLE. 
 
 The Flamboyant Style is essentially different from 
 any of the English styles, and although obviously con- 
 temporaneous with the Perpendicular, has very few 
 features in common with it. 
 
 The varieties of Flamboyant work found in different 
 countries, and different provinces, are almost endless, 
 and would require a volume to describe them all. 
 The Flamboyant of France is very different from that 
 of Spain or of Belgium, of Holland or of Germany, 
 and no two of these are alike. 
 
 179. Harfleur, Normandy, c. 1500. 
 
 A French Flamboyant porch. 
 
 The Flamboyant of Bretagne is quite different from 
 that of other provinces of France. The tracery of the 
 
THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE. 
 
 26 1 
 
 180 . S. Saveur, Dinan, c. 1500. 
 
 A French Flamboyant window. 
 
 lhe windows are of course the chief marks of the 
 style, and are readily distinguished by the waving, 
 
 windows is frequently formed in such a manner as to 
 introduce a large fleur-de-lis conspicuously in the head 
 of the window ; in other instances the outline of a heart 
 is similarly introduced, and sometimes the heraldic de- 
 vice of the family who built the church is formed in 
 the tracery. 
 
 
262 
 
 TEE FLAMBOYANT STYLE. 
 
 flame-like character of the tracery (180). The clere- 
 story windows of this style are generally large and 
 important; and the back of the triforium being com- 
 monly glazed also, makes that appear a continuation 
 of the clerestory windows. 
 
 The Doobways of this style are generally very rich ; 
 the actual doors have usually flat heads, with an en- 
 riched arch, or canopy, or shallow porch over them ; 
 and the space which in the earlier styles forms the 
 tympanum, and is filled with sculpture, is usually 
 occupied by a window in Flamboyant work, as at 
 Harfleur, Normandy (179). 
 
 Mr. Rickman ob- 
 
 serves. 
 
 in describing 
 
 this style, that “Its 
 essence seems to be 
 elaborate and minute 
 ornament, and this 
 continues until the 
 forms and combina- 
 tions are sadly de- 
 based, and a strange 
 mixture of Italia nism 
 jumbled with it.” 
 
 The arches of this 
 style vary exceedingly 
 in form; those over 
 doors and windows 
 are commonly nearly 
 flat, with the ends 
 only curved, and no point in the centre as at Harfleur 
 
 181. 8t. Lo, Normandy, c. 1450. 
 
 Shewing the arch -mouldings dying into 
 the round pillar without any capital or 
 impost. 
 
TEE FLAMBOYANT STYLE . 
 
 263 
 
 The mouldings of the pier-arches commonly die into 
 the pillars without any capitals, as at St. Lo, Nor- 
 mandy (181). 
 
 The crockets are a conspicuous feature, being large, 
 and distant from each other, when compared with 
 English examples. The effect of them is striking, 
 and generally very good. 
 
 The entire absence of battlements in French build- 
 ings, whether as parapets or merely for ornament, 
 as is so common in the English Perpendicular style, 
 is very remarkable b . 
 
 The mouldings of this style are a sort of caricature of 
 the earlier styles, 
 generally shallow ||i|j:il|jl| 
 
 and feeble, but 
 often much exag- 
 gerated (182). 
 
 The pillars are 
 sometimes fluted, 
 more often plain 
 rounds, with the 
 arch-mouldings 
 dying into them 
 without any capi- 
 tals, as at St. Lo (181) ; the bases are stilted, and 
 a good deal like the Perpendicular bases. Another 
 pillar which is very characteristic of this style con- 
 
 182. Villequier, Normandy, c. 1500. 
 Flamboyant mouldings. 
 
 b The only examples in France of the use of battlements as an ornament, 
 are believed to be at Dieppe, where the style is more English than French ; 
 and at Calais, where there is a small piece of it also on a builaing of 
 English character ; the absence of the four-centred arch, or Tudor arch, 
 is also remarkable. 
 
264 
 
 TEE FLAMBOYANT STYLE. 
 
 sists of a series of rounds and hollows, in a sort of 
 undulating line, without any fillets or other marked 
 division, as at Abbeville (183). 
 
 Rich open parapets and 
 gallery fronts are a strik- 
 ing feature of this style. 
 
 The panelling and iron- 
 work are also very rich 
 and characteristic. 
 
 The Flamboyant style 
 continued in use through- 
 out the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries, and part 
 of the seventeenth, though 
 getting gradually more 
 and more mixed with the 
 revived Classical details. 
 
 The singular mixture of 
 
 styles known by the name 183, Abbeville, c. 1450. 
 of the Renaissance often Section of a Flamboyant ptiur. 
 presents very pic- 
 turesque combi- 
 nations and strik- 
 ing effects; it is 
 generally superior 
 to the Elizabe- 
 than and Jacobean 
 styles, which cor- 
 respond to it in England. 
 
 It is remarkable that we have no satisfactory work on 
 foreign Gothic architecture as compared with English at the 
 same periods. So long ago as 1817 Mr. Rickman observed, 
 
 jT 
 
 184. S.Gervaise, Falaise. 
 
 Open parapet. 
 
264* THE LATE FLAMBOYANT AND RENAISSANCE STYLE. 
 
 Built by David, A.D. 1532—1552, under Jean de la Basse. 
 
ON FRENCH GOTHIC. 
 
 265 
 
 “ That in every instance which had come under my notice of 
 buildings on the Continent, a mixture more or less exact or 
 remote, according to circumstances, of Italian composition in 
 some part or other, is present ; and that I had little doubt that 
 a very attentive examination of the continental buildings called 
 Gothic would enable an architect to lay down the regulations 
 of the French, Flemish, German, and Italian styles, which were 
 in use when the English flourished in England.” Subsequently, 
 in 1832, on his return from a tour in France, in which he was 
 accompanied by Dr. Whewell, he says, “ It is with great pleasure 
 I find myself enabled by this journey to go some way towards 
 this conclusion, with respect to that part of France at least 
 which was included in this tour.” But this included only a 
 part of Picardy and of Normandy. Dr. Whewell has also fa- 
 voured us with his valuable observations made on the same 
 tour, but confined to the same limits. 
 
 Professor Willis, in his very instructive work on the Gothic 
 churches of Italy, has also included a part of France. But un- 
 fortunately, neither of these learned writers and accurate ob- 
 servers has taken much pains to examine and authenticate the 
 dates of the buildings they describe. Mr. Gaily Knight’s in- 
 teresting Tour in Normandy supplies this deficiency to a great 
 extent, so far as regards the principal buildings of Normandy, 
 but leaves the other provinces of France untouched. The 
 Society of Antiquaries of London have done me the honour to 
 print, in the Archceologia, vols. xxxv., xxxvi., xxxvii., some 
 architectural tours of mine in the western or English pro- 
 vinces of France, which afford some information on the archi- 
 tectural peculiarities of those provinces % from which it seems 
 most probable that our English Gothic was chiefly derived. 
 But much still remains to be done before the English reader 
 can form any correct ideas on the subject. 
 
 c Further information respecting that province can be obtained from the 
 valuable work, entitled, La Guienne Mxhtaire pendant la Domination 
 Anglaise, par M. F. S. G. Drouyn, 1868, 4to. This work was originally 
 published under the title of La Guienne Anglaise , but the Prefect ob- 
 jected to that name, and insisted on its being altered. 
 
Italy — Rome. 
 
 In Italy, the architecture of the different provinces differs 
 quite as much as in France. The Gothic style was always an 
 exotic, and never became naturalized ; but the attempts of some 
 of the great Italian architects of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries to combine the Gothic style with the Dome, or central 
 large Cupola, produced very magnificent results, as at Florence 
 and Siena, and are worthy of most careful study and considera- 
 tion. There appears to be no reason why this combination 
 should not be carried out with great advantage ; the Dome has 
 no necessary or natural connection with the Classical styles d . 
 
 It has been shewn by the French Archaeological Society, of 
 which M. De Caumont was so long the leader, that the pro- 
 vincial character of the different provinces of ancient Gaul can 
 each be traced to some Roman building, which had served as 
 a type for that province when building in stone was revived. 
 That Society was established in 1830, and has always made 
 annual excursions to different parts of France, in the same 
 manner as the Archaeological Institute has done in England. 
 The members of that Society have, therefore, had every op- 
 portunity of verifying this fact, and recording examples in 
 their Bulletin Monumental , and it may fairly be considered as 
 established. 
 
 Rome, in the Middle Ages, was the capital of Western 
 Christendom; the bishops of the most distant dioceses had 
 to go to Rome for their palls, and each was accompanied by 
 chaplains. Either the Bishop himself, or his chaplain, was 
 very likely to be an architect, and in the early period Rome 
 was looked to for models. Some of the earliest buildings in 
 England, after the departure of the Romans, are expressly stated 
 to have been built “in the Roman manner.” Some think that 
 this only meant in stone and not wood ; but in any case Rome 
 
 * There is a good example of a Gothic dome at Valognes, in the Cotentin, 
 in Normandy : although it is of late date, and the details are bad, the gene- 
 ral effect is very good. 
 
ITALY — ROME. 
 
 267 
 
 was looked to for the type, and there is no doubt that the Gothic 
 style, much as it afterwards differed from the Roman type, was 
 in fact gradually developed from it. A more full account of the 
 architecture of Rome than of any other place seems, therefore, 
 to be called for in this Introduction, and as the architecture 
 of Rome is much more clearly understood by beginning with 
 the earliest buildings, the few pages that are necessary to ex- 
 plain those before the Christian era can hardly be considered 
 as out of place. 
 
 In Rome, so long the capital of the civilized world, we have 
 buildings of all periods, from 
 the Etruscan walls of the 
 time of the Kings of Rome, 
 some centuries before the 
 Christian era, to our own 
 day. The early walls are of 
 natural construction, con- 
 sisting of large oblong masses 
 of tufa or peperino from the 
 neighbouring cliffs, merely 
 split off and hammer-dressed, 
 and put together without 
 mortar or cement of any 
 kind. Some of these were 
 originally placed against a 
 bank of earth or agger , which 
 supported them, whilst the 
 walls kept up the bank of 
 earth, and made a strong 
 fortification. Others were 
 built against the face of the 
 cliffs of the low hills on 
 which the city of Rome was 
 built. These ancient walls, 
 usually called in Rome “the Walls of the Kings,” are com- 
 monly fifty feet high and twelve feet thick ; their large stones 
 
 « This portion is built against the scarped cliff of the Palatine Hill, at the 
 north-west corner ; it has brick walls of the time of the Early Empire built 
 upon it and against it, and is repaired with brick. 
 
268 
 
 ITALY ROME. 
 
 
 are each a ton weight, and they are placed alternately length- 
 wise and crosswise, like modern bricks in London. One object 
 of the walls thus placed was to keep up the loose earth in a ver- 
 tical position ; this is the case also in the Etruscan cities. This 
 mode of building may be called natural, as it depends entirely 
 on the nature of the stone employed and the manner in which 
 it splits naturally. In other instances of natural construction 
 of the same period, when the material is different, such as the 
 hard mountain-limestone, the stones are small and of various 
 shapes, ingeniously fitted together without mortar, as in the 
 natural cliffs or quarries. Buildings of natural construction 
 are of all periods : the natives of the same districts continue to 
 build in the same manner at the present time, and have always 
 done so ; it is the cheapest mode of building where these mate- 
 rials are found. The Etruscans and the primitive Komans 
 lived in wooden houses ; a house cannot well be built of stone or 
 brick without mortar, which had not then been brought into 
 use. Some of the tombs of the Etruscans bear decisive evi- 
 dence to the same fact ; although cut out of the solid rock, they 
 are cut in imitation of wood- 
 en beams and posts, as at 
 Veii. The same observa- 
 tions, as to natural construc- 
 tion and the absence of 
 cement or mortar, are said 
 to apply to Egypt, to Greece, 
 and to the East generally. 
 
 We do not find either sawn 
 stone or lime -mortar until 
 a later period. In the later 
 Etruscan work, the stone 
 appears to have been sawn 
 before tho use of lime-mortar 
 or cement, and these stones 
 are fitted together in the 
 most admirable manner. 
 
 The remains of the second 186. Wall of the Latins on the Aven- 
 Wall of Rome, which en- tine, with Arch Inserted. 
 
 closed the two hills in one City, (that is, the Palatine and the 
 Hill of Saturn, afterwards called the Capitoline Hill,) are of the 
 
ITALY ROME. 
 
 269 
 
 same construction, of large blocks of tufa cut with the saw. 
 A part of this was used for the eastern boundary of the Forum 
 of Augustus, and was much altered in the time of that Emperor. 
 A wall of travertine, of one-third its height and thickness, is 
 inserted into it at a right angle at the south end. There are 
 remains of another part of this second wall of Rome on the bank 
 of the Tiber, called the Pulchrum Littus, in which an opening 
 is left for the mouth of one branch of the small river Almo, now 
 used for the Marrana, or mill-stream. Another opening has 
 been made in this wall a little higher up the stream, for the 
 mouth of the Cloaca Maxima, with a triple arch of the Gabii 
 stone, (called Sperone,) inserted in the old wall of tufa. There 
 are remains of this second wall of Home also on the western 
 side of the Palatine Hill, at a low level, quite distinct from the 
 wall of Roma Quadrata on the summit, and of a different and 
 later construction. Part of it is in a garden behind the houses 
 of the Via dei Cerchi, and another part, with two towers, under 
 the church of S. Anastasia ; the towers are at one of the angles, 
 so much used by the Romans in their fortifications, and from 
 this point the wall went across to the Tiber, with the Pulchrum 
 Littus on the bank of it. 
 
 The earliest example in Rome of the use of stone cut with 
 the saw, is in the great public building originally called the 
 Capitolium, and now called the Mumcipio, which contains 
 the Tabularium, where the original construction is visible at 
 the west end. The date of this is probably second only to the 
 walls of Roma Quadrata on the Palatine, in which the stones 
 are not cut with the saw, and have very wide vertical joints. 
 
 The Cloaca Maxima is recorded to have been made by King 
 Ancus Martins, who also made the great prison of the Kings, 
 called the Mamertine Prison, part of which is of the same con- 
 struction as the second wall. 
 
 The third Wall of Rome is that of Servius Tullius, who en- 
 closed the seven hills inline city by connecting the old separate 
 fortifications into one whole. In his wall the stones are of the 
 same size as before, and are closely fitted together ; the con- 
 struction of his time is distinguished from the preceding walls 
 by the use of iron clamps to bind the stones together ; on the 
 surface the iron has rusted, split the stones, and fallen out, 
 leaving only the holes at the edges of the stones ; but in pulling 
 
270 
 
 ITALY ROME. 
 
 
 down part of the wall in 1871, (to enlarge the railway-station,) 
 a number of the old iron clamps were found in the middle of 
 the wall, where they could not fall out. This custom of using 
 iron clamps to bind the stones together continued for many 
 centuries in Rome, and the holes remain in many places. In 
 the wall of the Colosseum these had long been a puzzle, and 
 are now explained. 
 
 The fourth and last Wall of Rome is that of Aurelian, which 
 is for the most part faced with the brickwork of the third cen- 
 tury, where the original work remains. 
 
 The first use of lime-mortar is a very doubtful question, and 
 in early massive walls it is often difficult to distinguish whether 
 there is lime-mortar or not; clay was sometimes used as ce- 
 ment, and the filtration of water through the tufa often gives 
 the appearance of lime-mortar, when there is not really any. 
 There is certainly none in the walls of Roma Quadrata, on the 
 Palatine, of the first period. In the second period, the fine 
 jointing makes it difficult to see whether there is mortar or 
 not, but it would hardly be required. 
 
 Herodotus mentions slime as used before mortar, though con- 
 crete walls may have been of any period after lime-mortar was 
 once introduced, and they generally form the mass of all Roman 
 walls. What Vitruvius calls construction means the visible 
 construction, the surface of the wall only, and most writers on 
 architecture follow him in this respect; but massive concrete 
 walls are what really supported the vaults and the roofs, before 
 buttresses were introduced, and these walls are often built 
 hollow, to prevent the moisture from passing through them. 
 At first the small wedge-shaped pieces of tufa that were used to 
 make a smooth surface to the rough concrete walls were placed 
 in an irregular manner, called by Vitruvius Opus incertum ; but 
 they were soon cut into the diamond shape, and arranged regu- 
 larly, like the meshes of a net, and hence are called “ reticulated 
 work,” or “net-work,” Opus reticulation. The earliest exam- 
 ples of the use of lime-mortar in Rome, are commonly said to be 
 of the time of Sylla or Sulla the dictator, (c. 80 b.c.,) in the 
 Emporium, the house of Sallust, and the Muro Torto. When 
 lime-mortar was first used it was employed rather in profusion, 
 as in the Emporium. The joints were too wide, and were 
 much reduced when brick was introduced. Walls were some- 
 
ITALY — ROME. 
 
 271 
 
 times built of concrete in layers, as in the walls of the foun- 
 dation of a fort on the Aventine, near the Porta S. Paolo, or 
 Ostiense. 
 
 The brickwork of the Empire, especially of the first century 
 of the Christian era, is the finest brickwork in the world. The 
 bricks are thin and flat, of the shape which we call tiles : and 
 those intended for facing only are triangular, the angle being 
 built in with the concrete wall while it was wet, before it had 
 set, as was the case with the small tufa blocks before mentioned 
 as forming the smooth surface called Opus reticulatum ; con- 
 sequently it all became a solid mass, and as firm a wall as could 
 be built. The arches are formed of the thin bricks also, but 
 these are square, placed edgeways, and square pillars are often 
 built of these square tiles also. 
 
 As the Etruscans and the early Romans lived in wooden 
 houses, stone being only used for the fortifications, their tem- 
 ples were also usually of wood : the earliest introduction of 
 marble in Rome was of the time of Sylla, and travertine or the 
 stone from Tivoli was not used before that time. 
 
 Careful observation has shewn that, during the most im- 
 portant building age, the first three centuries of the Christian 
 era, and of the Roman empire, the age of a brick wall can be 
 ascertained by measurement, and by counting the number of 
 bricks or tiles to a foot, mortar included. The best period is 
 the time of Nero, or the middle of the first century ; the bricks 
 are then particularly well made, hard, and solid, and not more 
 than one inch thick, so that in the arches and in the more im- 
 portant parts of the wall ten bricks to a foot can be counted. 
 After that time the bricks become gradually thicker, and 
 more spongy. 
 
 Brick walls of each of the first four centuries of the Chris- 
 tian era can be readily distinguished by the thickness of the 
 bricks, and of the mortar between them, and by the quality 
 of the bricks themselves ; the earliest being the hardest and 
 the thinnest. The rule laid down from long and careful ob- 
 servation is as follows, (mortar included in each case) : — 
 
 First century. — Nine or ten to the foot, and the best con- 
 struction; very fine joints. 
 
 Second century. — Seven or eight to the foot, the construc- 
 tion nearly equally good. 
 
2/2 
 
 ITALY — ROME. 
 
 Third century. — Six, with still very good construction. 
 
 Fourth century. — Four, with bad and clumsy construction; 
 very wide joints. 
 
 These observations apply to Roman walls in the provinces, 
 equally as in Rome itself. The greater part of the Roman walls 
 in Britain are of the third or fourth century. 
 
 There are in Rome several curious examples of ancient Pagan 
 temples made into Christian churches, as the Pantheon, now 
 “ S. Maria ad Martyris ; ” the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, 
 now S. Lorenzo in Miranda ; and of Romulus, the son of Maxen- 
 tius, now SS. Cosmas and Damian. The three early temples of 
 the time of the Republic, in the Forum Olitorium, or vegetable 
 market, which stood close together, were made into one church, 
 called S. Nicholas in Carcere. They were not rebuilt, but the 
 old basements remain in the crypt, the columns in the walls, 
 and the cornices on the roof. 
 
 Several other temples were made into churches; these and 
 the ruins of the great basilicas or halls, are almost entirely 
 of the time of the Emperors. These splendid ruins after- 
 wards supplied abundant materials for the churches ready 
 worked, especially marble columns, with their capitals and 
 bases, and often their entablatures also, which were furnished 
 by the ruins of the temples, baths, and palaces of pagan Rome ; 
 and these naturally had a great and an injurious influence on 
 the architecture of Christian Rome. Necessity is the mother 
 of invention, and when there is no necessity for it we seldom 
 find it : the builders in Christian Rome had no occasion for it, 
 they had only to make use of the materials ready to their 
 hands, and copy the old mode of arranging them as well as 
 they could. 
 
 The churches are usually built of concrete, faced with brick, 
 from the time of Constantine downwards ; and there are none 
 before his time, except those made out of rooms in earlier 
 houses. They are often of the poorest and meanest descrip- 
 tion ; but the poverty and meanness of their construction is 
 concealed and disguised by the spoils of the ancients and the 
 rich decoration of the interior, especially the splendid mosaics. 
 The Gothic principle of displaying the construction and making 
 it ornamental was never adopted in Rome. The plain brick 
 walls of the aisles had small, plain, round-headed, or sometimes 
 
ITALY — ROME. 
 
 273 
 
 circular windows in them, and the brick wall of the clerestory 
 was carried upon a row of antique marble columns : at first 
 these had their horizontal entablatures of marble also; after- 
 wards small brick arches, semicircular or segmental, were in- 
 troduced from column to column to carry the wall above, but 
 these were for a long period concealed behind either a real 
 entablature or a sham one. The roofs are of wood, and in 
 general plain and ugly, though sometimes concealed by very 
 rich flat ceilings. This style of building continued until the 
 almost entire destruction of Rome in the ninth and tenth 
 centuries. 
 
 The earliest Anglo-Saxon belfries have very much the ap- 
 pearance of being copied from wooden towers, and this is not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - \ \' > 
 
 1 1 1* 
 
 h 1 
 
 1 Of- 
 
 1 A'Vs'- 
 
 1 Tv 
 
 
 187. Wooden Tower on a stone wall, from Trajan’s Column. 
 
 at all improbable. Wooden walls and wooden towers were 
 commonly used in fortifications at all periods ; they are repre- 
 sentations of wooden towers on the sculptures of Trajan’s 
 Column, at Rome. The stone construction, called long-and- 
 short work , is much more like the work of carpenters than of 
 masons. People accustomed to the use of wood only would 
 not at first know the proper manner of using stone. 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 ITALY — ROME . 
 
 Before the time of Constantine there was only one church 
 built as a church in Rome, this was S. Maria in Trastevere, 
 where a spring of petroleum , or mineral oil, had sprung up and 
 ran for a few years, as we now find to be common in volcanic 
 countries. This was attributed to a Christian miracle, and the 
 popular feeling in favour of building a church on the spot, was 
 too strong to be resisted by the Pagan authorities. But in 
 Rome itself, (the Trastevere is- like Southwark to London,) the 
 primitive Christians were only allowed to assemble in the 
 houses of the senators or nobles, or other wealthy Christians ; 
 and as their number increased rapidly, the largest room in the 
 house, the Basilica or great hall, was naturally used for that 
 purpose ; and this became consecrated by usage, and, after the 
 toleration of the Christians called “ The Peace of the Church,” 
 was generally consecrated as a church by the Pope or Bishop. 
 In times of persecution they retired to the underground cham- 
 bers which were usual in the Roman palaces, for use in the 
 summer. The only instance in which this old arrangement is 
 preserved in the old walls is in the house of Pudens, the 
 senator, where one end of the basilica, or great hall (with the 
 large hall-windows walled up), remains, of the time of the 
 Apostles ; and the subterranean church, admirably contrived to 
 avoid observation, is also preserved, although filled up with 
 earth by the pontifical authorities in their ignorance. The 
 upper church has been rebuilt in the sixteenth century, and 
 the wall of the old hall is now separated from the church by 
 one of the chambers of a nunnery; the high altar, with the 
 wall behind it, on which the mosaic picture is placed, is about 
 twenty feet within the old wall ; but the altar of the side-aisle, 
 rebuilt by Cardinal Wiseman, is against the old wall, not being 
 in a line with the high altar, but far beyond it. The church of 
 S. Silvester is in one of the chambers of the Thermae of Titus. 
 In the instance of S. Prisca, the original underground chambers 
 of the house of Priscilla, the wife of Domitian, are suffered to 
 remain in a neglected and ruinous state, and a medieval church 
 has been built near them on a higher level. All the primitive 
 churches were in palaces , and are always described in early 
 writings by names to indicate this ; St. John’s in the Lateran 
 (the original Basilica Constantiniana of the ecclesiastical 
 writers), St. Peter’s in the Vatican, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, 
 S. Maria in Domnica, &c. 
 
ITALY — ROME. 
 
 27 5 
 
 The recent excavations on the Palatine have brought to light 
 the entire ground-plan of the great Basilica Jovis, or state-hall ; 
 and as these basilicas or law-courts became the usual type for 
 the Christian churches of the fourth century, the old arrange- 
 ment was followed, as it had been found convenient : it thus 
 becomes important to see what that old arrangement was. 
 
 The Emperor sat on a throne in the centre of the apse, raised 
 on three steps against or upon the wall, and the senators or 
 nobles sat on raised seats round the apse. There were usually 
 three marble benches, one above the other, against the wall, 
 and the state-chair or throne in the centre. In the Basilica 
 Jovis the seats have been destroyed; they were probably of 
 wood only. Across the chord of the apse is a low screen of 
 pierced marble, about three feet high, a portion of which re- 
 mains in situ. Within this cancellus, or chancel-screen, but 
 under the throne, was an altar for taking oaths upon. The 
 position of the altar in a basilica was the opposite to a temple ; 
 in the basilica it stood at the bottom of a flight of steps inside 
 the building, in the pagan temple it stood on the top of a flight 
 of steps, and outside of the building. The emperor, as chief 
 magistrate, sat on the throne, and entirely overlooked the altar 
 and the people, excepting those in the galleries; and there were 
 galleries on both sides, as is seen by the remains. 
 
 Afterwards, when this arrangement was copied in the 
 churches, the bishop sat on the throne, and when he had to 
 officiate in the Communion Service, he descended the steps 
 of the throne, and stood behind the altar, officiating over it. 
 The altar was placed either at the west end, or no regard was 
 paid at all to the orientation. Several of the churches of Rome 
 stand north and south, but the altar at the west end was the 
 more usual plan. The bishop preached from the steps of the 
 throne behind and above the altar ; this is recorded of S. Chry- 
 sostom and of S. Gregory, and of the latter, one of the thrones 
 from which he preached is preserved behind the altar, in its 
 original place in the apse of SS. Nereo and Achilleo f . The 
 same old plan remains in the crypt of S. Alexius, on the Aven- 
 tine, of the eighth century. In S. Clement’s the lower church 
 
 f The sermon that he preached from this spot was afterwards engraved 
 upon the back of the marble seat or throne on which he sat. 
 
ITALY — iOMM. 
 
 276 
 
 is c i the eighth century. but the upper church, with the 
 raised choir. is of the twelfth, and this is the earliest example 
 of i nisei choir. 
 
 The application of the lire of Basiuca to the small burial- 
 chapels in the Catacombs is a mistake ; not one erf them will 
 h :-li acs? * v *r sixty people, few so many. They were ir- 
 trnkd for the nienl services and coanemoiaim services. 
 vr>i for rugrimages only, not far public worship in the 
 sense of the words. In all the primitive churches the altar 
 was st the west end. it was always low, often a stone coffin 
 only. The priest stood behind it and officiated ocer it. fumg 
 the people, be himself turning towards the east and locking 
 towards the rising m, as the well-known emblem of the resur- 
 rectixi. These primitive altars are preserved in a few in- 
 stances. bet their use is now restricted to the Pope alone, 
 a manifest abuse. Originally every Christian minister was 
 caZsei a Paw. an i this abuse, like many others in Borne, has 
 probably arisen more from. ignorance than deagn. 
 
 The am of building had begun to decline in Borne as early as 
 the time of Constantine : most of the buildings of the fourth 
 century are made up of fragments of earlier structures. Con- 
 stantine himself was very little in Borne, and both nothing 
 mere. His triumphal Arch is made up of fragments. He dii 
 not build a single church in Borne ; he allowed and perhaps 
 induced the Pope to consecrate the basilica or great hall in the 
 palaces previously used as places of assembly, and he endowed 
 nanisome-Ly the cathedral chapters which he attached to them. 
 In one instance, that of 5. Croce in Gerusakmme. originally 
 the prvt.onun. or hail of justice erf the Sesserian Palace, the 
 residence erf his mother 5. Helena, there is an apse of his time 
 aided at one end of the praetorinm or oblong halL of the second 
 century. In all the other great establishments founded in his 
 time after “ The Peace of the Church,'’ the kails or basilica - 
 were not rebuilt as churches until afterwards. During the few 
 months that he was in Rome there would have been no time 
 to do it, and 5. Croce is the only one that has any work of 
 that period. 
 
 From the fourth century to the tenth the art of building, 
 along with all the other ±re arts, steadily declined. A great 
 ef irt was made to revive the art in the time of Paschal I. and 
 
ITALY ROME. 
 
 277 
 
 Charlemagne, but it did not last. There are several churches 
 in Rome of that period which are a good imitation of the 
 ancient basilicas, such as S. Prassede, S. Maria in Domnica (in 
 the house of the lady), and others. Nearly all the churches in 
 Rome were repaired, restored, or rebuilt at that period, after 
 they had been damaged in the siege by the Lombards in the 
 seventh century. The construction is a good imitation of that 
 of the fourth century, faced with brick, the interior plastered 
 and ornamented either with fresco-painting or mosaics. They 
 are in general richly ornamented with mosaic pictures on the 
 apse or tribune, and the arch to it over the altar, called ‘ the 
 arch of triumph.’ At S. Prassede the subject of the mosaic 
 being the court of heaven, required more space, and is carried 
 on to a second arch also. This is the richest church for the 
 effect of mosaics in Rome, but as works of art they are of 
 a very inferior description, a rude imitation of the early mo- 
 saics. In the tenth century art of all kind had died out. The 
 only building of this period in Rome, part of the monastery 
 added to S. Croce, now the sacristy behind the apse, is one of 
 those exceptions which prove the rule, for the art of building 
 could not well have been reduced to a lower ebb than is shewn 
 in that building. The great revival of art, the true Renaissance 
 of Christian art, which began in the west of Europe early in 
 the eleventh century, did not reach Rome until the end of it, 
 and Christian art in Rome has always been a century behind 
 the rest of Europe ever since. 
 
 The time of Paschal II., a.d. 1100 — 1120, was almost as great 
 a building era as that of Paschal I. The damage done by the 
 Normans under Guiscard in their raid at the end of the 
 eleventh century (when they burnt the roofs of the churches, 
 and the wooden houses in a considerable part of Rome), was 
 repaired in the beginning of the twelfth. The present church 
 of S. Clement above ground belongs to that period, with the 
 exception of part of the walls of the fourth century, which have 
 been preserved; and the lower part, now the subterranean 
 church, belongs to earlier periods, with paintings for decora- 
 tion at various times, but chiefly of the eleventh century *, just 
 
 s They are the donation of Bena de Rapizia and his family, whose por- 
 traits as donors are painted under them, with their names. He was living 
 in 1080, and his signature to a charter of that date is extant. 
 
278 
 
 ITALY — ROME. 
 
 before the raid of the Normans, who damaged this church so 
 much that when it was rebuilt it was found expedient to 
 abandon the lower church altogether. Probably at this period 
 the level of the road was altered; the original road or street 
 was at the bottom of the fossa or trench of the old fortification ; 
 
 188. S. Clement. 
 
 The south aisle of the lower church, as first excavated 
 by Father Mullooly. 
 
 the entrance to the quadri-porticus, or cloister of the monastery 
 and church, is at a lower level than the present road, but not so 
 low as the original level, which was fifteen to twenty feet below 
 the surface. The great width of the nave of the early church 
 of S. Clement, as in several other instances, was found incon- 
 venient when large timber had become so much more expen- 
 sive, and this was reduced by dividing the width of the original 
 nave into a nave and aisle by introducing an arcade in the 
 upper church. The outer aisle of the original church (now 
 subterranean) was abandoned, the intervals between the co- 
 lumns on that side walled up with brick to support the outer 
 
ITALY ROME. 
 
 27 9 
 
 wall of the church above, and square brick piers introduced to 
 support the columns of the arcade above, thus making the new 
 nave about two-thirds of the width of the old one. The present 
 upper church was long considered one of the oldest churches 
 in Rome, but the excavations made by the side of it in 1859 
 brought to light the original columns, standing in their places, 
 about fifteen feet below the level of the floor of the present 
 church. It is true that the columns of the present church are 
 antique, which led to the idea that the church was the original 
 one, but the original columns, now buried, are also taken from 
 some ancient temple ; and, as we have observed, the supply of 
 these columns was inexhaustible. The apse is also ornamented 
 with mosaics, which were long supposed to be of the fifth or 
 sixth century, but are really of the twelfth and thirteenth. 
 At a still lower level, about ten or twelve feet below the founda- 
 tions of the old church, are the walls of a building of ancient 
 Rome on the site of which the church was built. 
 
 The city walls of Rome were much repaired also in the 
 twelfth century, as recorded on inscriptions, and in other 
 ways, and there are evident patches inserted in the old walls 
 and of very inferior construction. Many of the old churches 
 were also rebuilt at the same period, either altogether or in 
 part, on the old sites, and on the same plan as before. 
 
 It is probable that window-tracery, like many other things, 
 was introduced into Western Europe from Rome. There are 
 several windows of the time of the Early Empire remaining at 
 Rome, which are patterns cut out of a plate of marble, and not 
 intended to be glazed ; they are exactly the same as the panels 
 of a low screen, and seem to have been used indifferently for 
 either purpose. Some of these windows are still in their ori- 
 ginal places, as in the subterranean church of S. Silvester, 
 made, as has been said, in one of the chambers of the Thermae 
 of Trajan, adjoining to those of Titus; others are lying about 
 or placed against the wall in the same church. There are 
 others in the wall under the cloister of S. Croce, but as that 
 cloister is of the tenth century, these have been taken out 
 of their original places and used again. There is another in 
 the palace of the Caesars in part of the lower gallery of the 
 Circus Maximus. Another has been replaced by Signor Rosa 
 in the screen of the great Basilica of the Palace of the Caesars- 
 In the remains of that Basilica or law-court, the old arrange- 
 
28 o 
 
 ITALY— ROME. 
 
 ment can be seen, and it is identical with that of a church 
 of the basilican type, although this hall was never made into 
 a church. 
 
 Another kind of tracery which comes more near to the 
 Gothic type occurs in the church of S. Prassede, of the time 
 of Paschal I. and Charlemagne. It is in the chapel of S. Agnes, 
 over which the campanile has been built two or three centuries 
 afterwards, and the old chapel with its curious windows and 
 its fresco-paintings left in a great degree undisturbed. This 
 window-tracery is intended to be used with glass, and is made 
 of stucco, with the patterns cut out, and grooves for the 
 glass, some of which remains in it. The forms of this tracery 
 approach very near to Gothic, but are not the same. Another 
 kind of early tracery occurs in the windows of the clerestory 
 of S. Lorenzo fuori le Muri, and is visible from the outside only, 
 being concealed on the inside by modern plastering to make 
 the whole interior harmonize better with the Pagan style of 
 the modern restoration. This tracery consists of small circles 
 only; there are a few other examples of it in Rome in work 
 of the twelfth century or earlier. At Florence, and in some 
 other towns in Italy, thin slabs of marble are used instead 
 of glass, the object being more to keep out the glare of the 
 sun than to admit light. 
 
 The numerous campaniles, or belfries, of Rome are among 
 its most remarkable features, and they are nearly all so exactly 
 alike that it is extremely difficult to distinguish the period at 
 which each has been built. The origin of them is probably very 
 early ; there is a representation of a tower of this description 
 on an ivory tablet at Monza, apparently of the fourth century, 
 a cast of which was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries of 
 London by Mr. Alexander Nesbitt in 1860, and has since been 
 published by the Arundel Society. None of those now existing 
 are of so early a date ; they are all of the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, and some still later. The Italians have no invention, 
 but they are most admirable copyists, and the campaniles of 
 the Roman type (which were originally of the Pisan style, as is 
 shewn by the pater ce) prevail over a great part of Italy. These 
 campaniles are sometimes detached buildings standing quite 
 free from the church, but they are often connected with it by 
 a low structure, or by part of the aisle, and are sometimes 
 at the west end. 
 
ITALY — ROME. 
 
 281 
 
 Of the three hundred churches in Rome only one is Gothic — 
 that of the Minerva, and that is of the fifteenth century, and 
 very bad Gothic of the Italian type, with none of the lightness 
 and elegance of the northern styles. The church of S. Maria, 
 or Ara-Coeli, is in reality a fine Gothic church of the fifteenth 
 century, but has been so utterly spoiled by modern restora- 
 tion that it is almost impossible to recognise the fact without 
 careful study. 
 
 The ornamental Gothic details in Rome of the twelfth, thir- 
 teenth, and fourteenth centuries, such as canopies over altars 
 and tombs, are perhaps unrivalled anywhere. They are chiefly 
 the work of one family, the Cosmati* or family of Cosmas, of 
 whom three generations have been traced by their inscrip- 
 tions, coming originally from Anagni in the neighbourhood 
 of Rome. They appear to have visited England and France, 
 or to have had some connection with those countries. Their 
 forms are always those of the English or French Gothic, of 
 fifty years earlier, but enriched with bands or ribbons of their 
 own beautiful everlasting mosaics. They thus combined the 
 most beautiful architectural forms that the human hand has 
 ever executed or perhaps the human mind ever conceived, with 
 permanent ornament of a very elegant character. The ori- 
 ginals from which they copied were no doubt painted in dis- 
 temper colours, but they saw the fleeting nature of those 
 colours, and wished to perpetuate them. We are also indebted 
 to the same family for the greater part of the rich mosaic pave- 
 ments of Rome called Opus Alexandrinum. The pavement 
 of S. Maria Maggiore is recorded to have been laid down at 
 the expense of Cardinal Gonsalvi, whose beautiful tomb in the 
 same church is one of the best of this class, and there are other 
 dated examples of the same period. 
 
 Some of the churches of the Renaissance in Rome, of the 
 sixteenth century, have great merit, especially in the manage- 
 ment of the cupola, or dome. The modern churches are the 
 most hideous in Europe, overloaded with ornament of the most 
 sumptuous but the most tawdry description, and in the worst 
 possible taste. And the interiors of the old churches are spoiled 
 in the same detestable manner. 
 
282 
 
 ITALY — RA VENN A . 
 
 Ravenna. 
 
 The buildings of Ravenna are of the highest interest, and 
 may be said to form a connecting link between the Roman 
 and the medieval styles, but they can hardly be said to have 
 formed a provincial style. The basilicas are purely Roman, 
 in a more perfect and more genuine state than those of Rome 
 itself : their beautiful mosaics of the fifth and sixth centuries 
 are still perfect. The church of S. Vitale is one of the most 
 remarkable in Europe, and probably furnished ideas for circular 
 churches to many architects long afterwards, but no attempt 
 was made to copy it in its own province. The style is called 
 Byzantine, but it is rather too light for that style, and has more 
 of the Roman character. The tomb of Theodoric had originally 
 a small colonnade round the upper part of it, formed of twin 
 shafts, the details of which are very like those afterwards used 
 in the cloisters at Rome, Arles, &c. Many fragments of these 
 shafts, with their capitals and bases, are lying about in the 
 adjoining garden. The tomb of Gallia Placidia is externally 
 a small, plain brick chapel, in the form of a Greek cross ; in- 
 ternally, the walls and vaults, and the tomb itself, are covered 
 with the richest mosaics. 
 
 The brickwork of Ravenna is quite peculiar, neither Roman 
 nor medieval : many of the bricks, perhaps the greater part, 
 are flat, like the Roman bricks or tiles, and of about the same 
 proportions, separated by beds of mortar quite as thick as 
 themselves ; others are flat, but thicker in proportion than 
 Roman bricks; others, again, are square, and others oblong, 
 but much larger than modern bricks, and always separated by 
 thick beds of mortar. 
 
 The earliest campaniles known are those at Ravenna, but 
 these are of quite a different type from the Roman or any 
 other ; they are round, and built of brick , with numerous small 
 windows, the lower ones a single light only, the upper ones 
 in the belfry double. These were always without glass, and 
 some had the bells suspended in them on pivots. The massive 
 wooden framework for carrying bells was not introduced at 
 that early period. These towers are of the sixth century : 
 they are semi-detached, that is, each is connected with the 
 church by a low building only, forming a passage or cloister 
 
ITALY — FLORENCE. 
 
 283 
 
 leading to the vestry. They are usually on the side of the 
 choir, or near the altar end of the church. The only one that 
 is perfect is that of S. Apollinare in Classe, and may have 
 served also as a lighthouse for the port ; there are several 
 others more or less complete. 
 
 These round towers, or campaniles, of Ravenna seem to con- 
 stitute a provincial type ; they are almost universal in Ravenna 
 itself and the immediate neighbourhood, and some of them are 
 as early as the sixth century; but the type once fixed, it was 
 copied with the same accuracy as the tall, square campaniles 
 at Rome : the Ravenna type does not appear to have spread 
 into other parts of Italy. 
 
 The church of S. Mary at Toscanella, of the date of 1206, 
 has been already mentioned at p. 99, as a valuable example of 
 the transitional style in Italy. In the very rich west front 
 of this church, the tooth-ornament occurs rather abundantly, 
 and another ornament closely resembling the ball-flower. 
 
 The churches of Assissi have been already mentioned, and 
 the error respecting the tracery in the windows of the church 
 of S. Francis has been pointed out at p. 143. 
 
 Florence. 
 
 The principal buildings of Florence are generally as well 
 known to English people of the educated classes, as those of 
 London, often indeed better; for few people take the trouble 
 to study the Tower of London, the churches of St. Bartho- 
 lomew’s, Smithfield, or St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, or even the 
 Temple Church, the Savoy Chapel, or Westminster Abbey, 
 whereas all who go to Florence examine the buildings there, 
 by way of passing the time away, in fine weather. A few words 
 of comment upon them are therefore all that are requisite here, 
 and these may be made useful with reference to the Italian 
 styles generally. 
 
 The Duomo was founded in 1298, but only the foundations 
 belong to the thirteenth century, and it was a very long period 
 in construction ; it may be called a building of the fourteenth 
 century, but a great deal of it is really of the fifteenth and even 
 the sixteenth. The names of the celebrated artists employed 
 
284 
 
 1TAL Y FL ORENCE. 
 
 upon it sufficiently indicate the dates of the different parts. 
 Some of the details are by Lucca da Robbia. 
 
 Few buildings are better known by engravings or photo- 
 graphs than this magnificent duomo or cathedral, with its 
 grand dome or cupola and transept, with their apsidal chapels 
 and small subordinate cupolas. It is remarkable that the 
 eastern chapel or apse is considerably smaller than those of 
 the transeptal chapels. This probably arises from the necessity 
 of the construction, those chapels being employed to conceal 
 the enormous buttresses necessary to support the great central 
 dome or cupola. The nave is in reality long and large, but 
 the great height and width of the arches make it appear of 
 quite a moderate length and size. This is considered as one 
 of the merits of the Italian Gothic style, but it may well be 
 doubted whether it is in fact an advantage. 
 
 To make a building appear much smaller than it really is, 
 may be a proof of skill in the architect; but the English archi- 
 tects aimed at the opposite effect, to make it appear as large, 
 and especially as long, as they could, and the large number 
 of small narrow arches produces a wonderful effect of per- 
 spective, and gives an apparently endless length to many of 
 the English cathedrals. This appears to me to give them a 
 much finer effect to the eye, and to produce a more religious 
 impression on the mind, than the opposite extreme. In some 
 of the Italian churches, as in S. Maria Novella in Florence, 
 the arches of the east end towards the altar are smaller and 
 narrower than the others, the effect of which is still more to 
 shorten the church to the eye. Perhaps one object of this is 
 to fix the attention more exclusively on the high altar with 
 its fine screen. 
 
 The west front of this magnificent pile of building is still 
 left unfinished; but the campanile, by the side of it, shews 
 what it would be, if completed. So much black-and-white 
 panelling gives to English people too much of the effect of 
 Tunbridge-ware, and gives the idea of a fine toy, rather than 
 the solemnity of a cathedral church. There is also a great 
 deal of what to us appears like caricature in the details. The 
 tracery is all such as in England would be a century earlier. 
 The campanile is said to have been commenced in 1334, but 
 there is nothing visible of this period, nor even near to it ; the 
 
IT A L r — FL 0 FENCE. 28 5 
 
 height, which is 270 ft., gives an idea of the enormous scale 
 of this building. 
 
 The baptistery is more simple than the duomo on the ex- 
 terior, and perhaps produces a better general effect for that 
 reason. The bronze doors are celebrated all over the world, 
 and are unrivalled, though some others approach near to them. 
 They are another feature almost peculiar to Italy, though some 
 of them are said to have been made at Constantinople at an 
 earlier period. The interior of this fine building, with its 
 vaults and walls covered with mosaic pictures, is perhaps the 
 finest thing of the kind that we have any where. This re- 
 markable edifice is said to be on the site of the original cathe- 
 dral of the seventh century, but the rebuilding was commenced 
 in 1293, and the design considerably altered in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. The bronze doors were made by 
 Ghiberti; one is dated 1421, another 1452, probably the first 
 and the last. The elaborate altar-screen was commenced in 
 1366, but not finished until 1480. 
 
 Lombardy and the north of Italy are justly celebrated for the 
 baptisteries, they are quite a peculiarity of this part of Europe. 
 We have them elsewhere, but not to compare in magnificence 
 with these; nearly all the principal cities of Lombardy have 
 them, and all are well worth attention. Those of Pisa and of 
 Parma are among the most celebrated, and the best known, 
 but there are others equally fine. 
 
 There are some other fine churches in Florence, with cloisters, 
 chapter-house, and other monastic buildings. The palaces and 
 other public buildings are also very fine, and some of them as 
 early as the thirteenth century. One of the finest of these 
 palaces has been made into a public museum. The very tall 
 towers are another striking feature of the buildings of Florence. 
 
 S. Maria Novella is a fine example of the Italian Gothic 
 style of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The west front 
 is veneered with marble in panels, chiefly white with black 
 borders; the upper part is dated by an inscription upon the 
 cornice, 1470 ; the lower part is earlier, part of it is of the four- 
 teenth century. The foundation of this church was laid in 
 1279, but the work went on very gradually and slowly, and it 
 was not completed until that time. Probably the west front 
 was left till the last (as seems to have been usual in Italy). 
 
286 
 
 ITALY FLORENCE. 
 
 We have many instances of west fronts being still left un- 
 finished. The present one was finished in the style of the 
 fifteenth century in this part of Italy, which seems at first 
 sight incredible to English people. The campanile is of the 
 thirteenth, or early in the fourteenth, and is a fine tall tower 
 with panelling and windows with midwall shafts, a good deal 
 like the Pisan style, but not strictly belonging to it, which is 
 surmounted by a modern pyramidal spire. The nave is very 
 plain, but grand in its proportions, consisting of six bays, four 
 of which are forty feet square, with pilasters attached, tall in 
 the nave, short in the aisle, with half-caps in each (as in Eng- 
 land at Romsey, and at Christ Church, Oxford : this design is 
 rare in England, and common in Italy). This church has be- 
 longed to a great monastery, with an extraordinary number 
 of cloisters, several of which are preserved. The great one at 
 the west end is made into an open square, that on the south 
 side was rebuilt to widen the street leading from the railway 
 station, one large and two small ones in the west side are pre- 
 served; the style is late and not good. The chapter- house, 
 with the triple entrance to it, is good, and is of the fourteenth, 
 with trefoil arches and tracery of foliated circles. The walls 
 are painted in the style of Giotto, but after his time. The 
 paintings contain some good representations of buildings, a 
 fine church with a dome and tracery in the windows, and 
 a palace with towers, having conical roofs. These paintings 
 represent buildings then in a perfect state, since destroyed 
 and mutilated. The church has no apse, but has five chapels 
 on the east side of the transept ; the central one is much larger 
 than the others, and is in fact a lady -chapel, though sepa- 
 rated from the transept by the marble screen of the altar only : 
 it has a fine triple lancet-window, with coloured glass, and the 
 walls are painted. There are other painted chapels at the 
 ends of the transepts, but they are modern restorations ; one is 
 dated by an inscription, 1738, but this states it to be a restora- 
 tion of the chapel of the fourteenth century. The great cloister 
 is also dated by an inscription, 1650; the great monastery has 
 been turned into public offices, and this appears to have been 
 done in 1730, according to another inscription. 
 
 S. Croce is another remarkable church of a similar type to 
 S. Maria Novella, but the west front is a modern imitation 
 
ITALY — FLORENCE. 
 
 287 
 
 of the old style in white marble with black stripes for m i n g 
 panels. It was erected in 1857, under Pius IX. The church 
 was founded in 1295, and, as in other cases, the building went 
 on for more than a century, and the west front was left un- 
 finished. The plan is that of a Latin cross, with a very large 
 nave and transepts, no choir, but an apsidal-chapel at the east 
 end, and ten other chapels on the east side of the transepts, 
 and with a chapel at the end of each transept. The nave is 
 of seven bays, with long and lofty arches; the windows are 
 long and narrow, of two lights, with plain circles in the head, 
 and with transoms, also filled with painted glass. The clere- 
 story windows are similar to those in the aisle walls, only 
 shorter and without transoms. There are stone arches across 
 the aisle to carry the wooden roof, in the place of wooden prin- 
 cipals ; the roofs are plain and poor, as if intended to have been 
 temporary only. The refectory in the cloister, which connects 
 it with the church, is of the same style, which in England 
 would be of the thirteenth, and here is of the fourteenth. 
 The chapter -house has been rebuilt in the seventeenth or 
 eighteenth century. There are several fine tombs in the 
 church and in the portico, some of which are of the four- 
 teenth century. The belfry or campanile was rebuilt in 1847. 
 
 The well-known Orsan Michele is a very remarkable build- 
 ing, a large square massive structure of three stories high, with 
 the richest decorations on the exterior. It was originally built 
 as a public granary in 1284, but destroyed by fire, and rebuilt 
 in 1349, and converted into a church, dedicated to S. Michael; 
 but the ground-floor only, the two upper stories were made 
 into a Record-office. There are fine statues in niches at the 
 angles. 
 
 The churches of the Annunziata and of S. Mark have been 
 almost entirely rebuilt, and may now be considered as modern 
 buildings. 
 
 S. Miniato has been a very fine church, but its historical and 
 archaeological interest has been almost entirely destroyed by 
 modern alterations, miscalled restorations, and by turning it 
 into a public cemetery for wealthy people, who can afford to 
 spoil it. The remains of the monastery on which it stands have 
 also been modernized and spoiled, but the external walls and 
 distant effect remain good. The church was founded by Bishop 
 
288 
 
 ITALY FLORENCE. 
 
 Hildebrand in 1013, who afterwards became Pope, but there is 
 nothing of his time that remains visible ; the greater part of 
 the present fabric is of the fifteenth century and later, but the 
 plan is ancient and not very common, though more common in 
 Italy than elsewhere. The nave has a wooden roof, with stone 
 arches across nave and aisles to carry it; the west front is 
 of the black-and-white marble panelling, and modern. The 
 peculiarity consists in the east end, which is of two stories, 
 both open to the nave. The crypt is some feet below the level, 
 with two flights of steps down into it, and the choir is raised 
 several feet above the level of the nave, upon the vault of the 
 crypt. It was rebuilt in 1448; there are some fine mosaic pic- 
 tures and faded paintings. The tower was built in 1519, and is 
 not ornamental, though it is said to have been much esteemed 
 by Michael Angelo. 
 
 There are some other fine palaces in Florence, with remains 
 of their fortifications ; perhaps the finest is the one now made 
 into the museum before mentioned, which has the battle- 
 ments and machicoulis preserved or restored, and evident re- 
 mains of the hourds or wooden balconies; the holes for the 
 timbers, and corbels for the shutters hanging over the windows. 
 It was the Prsetorium, and was begun in 1255. 
 
 The Palazzo Vecchio, or Town-hall, has a very rude, vener- 
 able, and antique appearance on the exterior; but the interior 
 has some good work of the time of the Renaissance. The 
 corridors in the interior have the character of the fourteenth 
 century, and the upper story has been added, or totally re- 
 built with its machicoulis. The tower is remarkably tall, with 
 battlements and a gallery round the upper part, also totally 
 rebuilt with its machicoulis. It was commenced in 1298, but 
 the inner court of the palace is of 1550. The great council- 
 chamber was built in 1495 in the cinque-cento style. 
 
 The great Pitti Palace was originally begun in 1440, but 
 there is nothing now visible of that period ; it was rebuilt by 
 the Medici in the sixteenth century, and a large part is of the 
 eighteenth. 
 
 The Fermo Palace, at the foot of the principal bridge (occu- 
 pied for public offices), is another of the medieval castles of 
 the same type ; the battlements and machicoulis are imposing, 
 and the remains of the hourds are often puzzling to strangers. 
 
ITALY — PISA. 
 
 289 
 
 The picturesque palace or castle is a fine feature of the Flo- 
 rentine buildings. Another feature generally noticed consists 
 of the numerous loggias, a sort of fine porch on short ar- 
 cade, generally at the angle of a large open space, producing 
 a very fine effect. They are of several periods, some of them 
 very early. 
 
 There are some fine spires in Florence, perhaps the most 
 elegant is that of the Badia, near the Palazzo Yecchio, said 
 to have been built about 1330, but looking earlier. 
 
 Pisa. 
 
 The style usually called “ Lombardic,” is more correctly 
 called the “Pisan style,” although examples of it are found 
 in all parts of Lombardy, — in the campaniles and belfry- 
 towers of Rome, — and in the Rhine churches. It had its origin 
 in the Republic of Pisa, and the Pisans are justly proud of 
 having been the inventors of it. As exact dates are important 
 in these matters, a list of well-known examples is added in 
 a note •>, which should be taken in connection with those of 
 Lucca, which are better preserved, and less altered than those 
 of Pisa itself. The leaning-tower is one about which there can 
 
 h Buildings in Pisa, with Historical Dates: — 
 
 The Cathedral, 1067—1118. The central cupola or dome was destroyed 
 by fire in 1596, and rebuilt by the Medici, whose arms are carved upon the 
 arches, but they seem to have used the old materials. The nave has been 
 lengthened nearly one-half ; the foundations of the original west front 
 were seen under the modem pavement by M. Rehalt de Fleury, of Paris, 
 who has published a plan of it ; the vaults and clerestory added through- 
 out the building. The dates on the mosaic pictures of the eastern apse, 
 1290 and 1320, probably indicate the time when that part of the fabric was 
 completed. 
 
 The leaning tower, 1174—1350. It is eight storeys high, and the last date 
 is that of the upper storey only. 
 
 The Baptistery, 1153, 1278-1350 (?). 
 
 The Campo Santo, 1108—1178 (?), 1278—1463. 
 
 Church of S. Caterina, 1253. 
 
 Church of San Frediano, 1077 (?). 
 
 Church of S. M. della Spina, 1230 (?), 1323. 
 
 Church of S. Paolo, 1115. 
 
 There are considerable remains of the city walls of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, with towers at intervals. One of these, on the bank of the river, has 
 remarkably fine and bold machicoulis. 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 ITALY — PISA. 
 
 be no mistake ; the lower part of it, begun in 1174, has given 
 the character of the whole, although the upper storey (the 
 eighth) is said not to have been completed until 1350. On 
 the other hand, travellers are very apt to be misled by the 
 dates given in the guide-books to the Campo Santo, “ the Bap- 
 tistery,” and “the Cathedral.” The Campo Santo was begun 
 in 1188, but the actual work of this splendid cloister, as now 
 visible, is chiefly of the fourteenth century. 
 
 The Baptistery was begun in 1153, and although it was con- 
 secrated as completed in 1278, the greater part of what we now 
 see is also of the fourteenth century. The pulpit is of 1160. 
 
 The Cathedral was originally begun in 1067, and was conse- 
 crated by Gelasius II. in 1118, as recorded by the inscription 
 built into the west front, but built in as old materials, and as 
 an historical record of the previous building, to which the 
 present west front was added a century afterwards. The con- 
 struction of the side walls shews very clearly that the build- 
 ing has been raised to double the original height through- 
 out, and that the nave has been lengthened by more than 
 a third at the west end, so that the actual west front is 
 certainly not earlier than the thirteenth century. Several 
 other inscriptions, giving the dates for particular parts, are 
 also built in, and some of them are in their original places; 
 these are all of the thirteenth century. The interior is tho- 
 roughly modernized, and there are many inscriptions record- 
 ing when this was done; Gregory III., 1658, Clement VII., 
 1688, and the arms of the Medici, are carved on the key-stones 
 of the tower-arches. 
 
 The small church of St. Paul, which is said to have served 
 as a model for the duomo or cathedral, is in a more genuine 
 state, but even here the interior is much spoiled; and on the 
 exterior, the construction shews that the side wall has been 
 raised, and the west front added in the same manner as in the 
 cathedral, but at an earlier period, and that the west front is 
 also of the thirteenth century. The Pisan style was there- 
 fore contemporary with our Early English style, and with 
 the Early French style of the north of France, not with the 
 Romanesque style of France, or with our Anglo-Norman style. 
 
 The most marked feature of this style is the abundant use 
 of colonettes, or shafts in small arcades, both on the exterior 
 and in the interior. The other churches of Pisa, and those 
 
ITALY — LUCCA. 29 1 
 
 of Lucca and other towns within the territory of the medieval 
 Kepublic, are in the same style. 
 
 The pretty little chapel of La Spina at Pisa is well known 
 in England by engravings and photographs, but this must not 
 be confounded with the Pisan style, from which it is quite 
 distinct ; although the general effect is good and rich, it does 
 not bear much examination, being made up of the work oi 
 three periods. It was originally built in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury; the only part of that period which remains visible is 
 the west front, with the segmental arch over the doorway in- 
 serted at a later time : it was almost rebuilt in the fourteenth ; 
 the side windows and pinnacles are of that period : the east 
 end was rebuilt and added to in the fifteenth. It has been 
 again almost rebuilt in 1873, under the name of restoration, 
 having been much damaged by the great flood of the Arno 
 in 1872. Unfortunately restoration generally destroys the his- 
 torical value of a building. 
 
 Lucca. 
 
 This city belonged to the Kepublic of Pisa at the time that 
 most of the churches were built or rebuilt, and as the place 
 has always been poor when compared with Florence or Pisa, 
 the buildings are for the most part in a more genuine state. 
 Several of the churches were founded at an earlier period, and 
 travellers (here, as elsewhere) are commonly misled by their 
 guide-books, into the idea that the existing buildings belong 
 to the time of the foundation, which is very rarely the case ; 
 on the contrary, there is generally just enough of the original 
 fabric remaining to shew that the existing structure belongs 
 almost entirely to a much later period. The duomo , or cathe- 
 dral of S. Martin, was founded in 1060, and originally built in two 
 years, when the founder became Pope Alexander II. ; but of this 
 original structure there is nothing visible. The very fine west 
 front, with its grand porch in three arches below, and arcades, 
 with the detached colonnettes of the Pisan style above, was 
 built in 1204 — 1233, as dated by contemporary inscriptions on 
 the building itself. The sculptures over the doorways are 
 of that period; the labyrinth engraved on the south side is 
 of the same period. The north side of the church is of the 
 fourteenth century, with shallow panelling, and a fine example 
 
292 
 
 ITALY — LUCCA . 
 
 of the Italian Gothic. In the interior the pier-arches belong 
 to the same date as the western front ; the upper part, and the 
 eastern part, are all of the fourteenth. The apse is very fine, 
 with the detached colonnettes and horizontal cornices, but this 
 must belong to the later period. In Lucca, both the horizontal 
 cornice and the arcade are used, and both seem to be contem- 
 poraneous, though one is usually considered to belong to the 
 earlier Lombard style, and the other to the Pisan style, copied 
 in the Rhine churches. The construction does not bear out 
 this difference in Lucca. 
 
 S. Frediano is a very interesting church, and little altered 
 since the twelfth century; but there is nothing visible of an 
 earlier period. It was founded by the Lombard kings in 
 560 — 78, in honour of an Irish saint, but the only part of that 
 period that is visible is the foundation of the tower, for a few 
 feet from the ground, where the wide vertical joints indicate 
 an early period; but a horizontal moulding, or string, occurs 
 at about six feet from the ground, which belongs to the twelfth 
 century, and all above that line is of the latter period ; the 
 upper part is modernized. The tower, of very early founda- 
 tion, is oblong in plan, and this is the case with nearly all the 
 towers of Lucca. Both the apse and the west front are good 
 examples of the style of the twelfth and thirteenth century in 
 this district. The church contains a remarkably fine font, or 
 baptistery, a circular wall of marble, ten feet in diameter and 
 four feet high, well carved with a series of Scriptural subjects, 
 represented in a very singular manner, according to the ideas 
 of the time, and inscribed with the name of the artist, Robertus, 
 and the date, 1151. He must have been one of the best sculp- 
 tors of his time. 
 
 The choir of S. Michael was founded in 764, by Luitprandus, 
 but ther* is nothing visible of that period, it was almost en- 
 tirely rebuilt in the twelfth century ; the west front is dated 
 1188, and has recently been restored : it is a sham front, rising 
 high above the roof of the nave, as is common in Italy. The 
 tower on the side is original, and good work of the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 Lucca is full of churches of the twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
 turies, many of them neglected and desecrated. There are 
 also two fine palaces facing each other, one of which retains 
 
ITALY — LUCCA . 293 
 
 its tower; they are attributed to the sixteenth century, but 
 the architectural character looks much earlier. 
 
 The small elegant chapel or oratory of La Rosa must not be 
 forgotten ; the idea is said to have been taken from that of the 
 Spina at Pisa, but it is quite a different style and less altered, 
 it is dated by an inscription upon it, 1308 ; the windows have 
 flat tympana, filled with rich tracery. The inscription is 
 carved on a scroll held by a Madonna, attributed to Giovanni 
 de Pisa, placed at the angle, and supposed to indicate the date 
 when the building was completed; it was begun in the thir- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Lucca, after Pisa itself, is the best example of the style of 
 the Pisan Republic, to which the campaniles, or belfry -towers 
 of Rome, and the well-known apses with the light arcades in 
 the Rhine churches, also belong. The dates of the churches 
 in Lucca are unusually well preserved by inscriptions in situ , 
 and by good local histories, in which authentic documents are 
 cited. A chronological table of the churches of Lucca will 
 therefore be useful as a guide in other places, the construction 
 and details of which agree with these ; we therefore give a list 
 of them in a note ‘. 
 
 * Buildings in Lucca, dated by Inscriptions and by Authentic 
 Documents : — 
 
 a.d. 1109. S. Peter, rebuilt. Bertini Documenta, &c., tom. iv. p. 347. 
 a.d. 1151. S. Frediano, the font carved — 
 
 MILLE . CLT . ROBERTV8 . MAGIST . ITIMS . Operis. 
 
 The latter part of the inscription is damaged ; some read it la pidurn 
 a.d. 1167. SS. MM. Vincentius and Anasta>ius, the fa 9 ade— 
 
 UNDECIES CENTUM CVM SEXAGINTAQVE SEPT KM 
 TOST ANNOS CHRISTI TRISTIS CAPKLLA FUI8TI. 
 
 a.d. 1195. S. Micheletto, rebuilt. Ibid., p. 308. 
 a.d. 1200. S. Julia, in ruins and rebuilt. Ibid., p. 232. 
 a.d. 1203. S. Peter, the fapade added. Ibid., p. 347. 
 a.d. 1204. Fa 9 adeofS. Martin— 
 
 COND1DIT ELECTI TAM PULCRAS DEXTRA GUIDECTI, M CC IV. 
 
 a.d. 1223. S. Frediano. Campanile — 
 
 MAGISTER JOANNES PISANUS FECIT, A.D. 1223. 
 
 a.d. 1233. Porch of S. Martin (the Cathedral) — 
 
 HOC OPUS CF.PIT FIERI AB ELANATO ET ALDBRANDO OPERARIIS. 
 
 a.d. 1308—1320. The eastern part. All east of the nave. 
 
 a.d. 1308. Oratory of La Rosa, -with the Madonna of Giovanni di Pisa. 
 
2Q4 
 
 ITALY — VENICE. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 The Venetian style is, in like manner, confined to the terri- 
 tory of the medieval Republic of Venice, which included Verona 
 and other towns. Its peculiar character is well known: per- 
 haps a certain mixture of Oriental character and the frequent 
 use of the ogee arch may be considered as the most distinguish- 
 ing features. Most of the Venetian palaces and other buildings 
 of this style are of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and 
 its peculiar features do not appear to have been developed at 
 an earlier period. The peculiar dentil, or square billet orna- 
 ment, which is one of its most invariable marks, and is used 
 with singular profusion, is found in England only in Jacobean 
 work. 
 
 The beautiful palaces on the grand canal, with windows of 
 Decorated tracery that looks to English eyes naturally like 
 work of the fourteenth century, and with their elegant bal- 
 conies, are in reality very much later, and are only close 
 imitations of the old style. The Italians are always admirable 
 imitators, but have no invention ; they always endeavoured to 
 imitate the old Roman style throughout the Middle Ages, with 
 a few rare exceptions introduced by foreigners. An Italian 
 porch of the thirteenth or fourteenth century is frequently 
 a classical colonnade, very probably the columns being antique, 
 and the rest closely imitated. Examples of this kind are ex- 
 tremely common in churches in all parts of Italy, the Gothic 
 style never took root there. 
 
 The celebrated Doge’s palace, one of the finest domestic or 
 palatial buildings in the world, is not of the Venetian style, 
 excepting the upper part, which is of the sixteenth century, 
 when it was rebuilt after the great fire, and this is extremely 
 flat. The singularity of it is, that it is built of pink marble, 
 cut in imitation of bricks. The splendid porticoes, or arcades, 
 on which it rests, belong to the original building, but were 
 a long time in hand ; the greater part of the actual work, to- 
 wards the place or square, is of the fifteenth century, though 
 the earlier part, towards the lagune, is of the fourteenth. The 
 costumes of the figures in the beautifully-carved capitals are 
 chiefly of the fifteenth. A view of the palace, in its original 
 
ITALY — MILAN. 2% 
 
 state before the fire, is preserved in a manuscript in the 
 Bodleian Library k . 
 
 Milan. 
 
 The celebrated church of S. Ambrose is one that will natu- 
 rally attract the attention of any student of architecture who 
 •visits this city, and it is well deserving of careful study, but it 
 requires a separate work, and a number of plans and sections and 
 details to explain how much of it is really ancient ; it contains 
 work of several periods. The very rich and fine sarcophagus 
 (said to contain the ashes of Stilicho, c. a.d. 400) now stands 
 under the pulpit of the thirteenth century. It is one of the 
 finest Christian sarcophagi of the fourth century. This church 
 was rebuilt by Archbishop Anspertus, 868 — 881, and part of the 
 walls is of that period. The very rich altar, faced with gold 
 plates, was presented by Archbishop Angilbertus, about 835. 
 The chair of the Archbishop is also of great antiquity. 
 
 The fine pulpit under which the sarcophagus is placed bears 
 an inscription of the thirteenth century, stating that it was 
 made by the order of Gulielmus de Promo, who had caused 
 many other works to be done in this church. A great part of 
 the existing fabric is of his time, but with the old materials 
 preserved, including ancient marble columns and capitals. The 
 canopy over the altar (or baldachino) is a fine one of the thir- 
 teenth. The entrance-cloister, or quadri-porticus, is attributed 
 to the ninth century, and the original parts are probably of 
 that period, but it has been almost entirely rebuilt in the thir- 
 teenth. Various tombs and fragments of an earlier period are 
 built into the walls. 
 
 The church of S. Lorenzo is more curious than beautiful; 
 it stands behind a grand colonnade of Corinthian columns of 
 the third century, which belonged to the thermae of that 
 period, but have been supported by brickwork in the thir- 
 teenth. The church is made out of one of the great circular 
 
 [<See p. 298. 
 
 * This was kindly pointed out to me some years since by Mr. H. 0. Coxe, 
 the Librarian, and I had it engraved on wood by Orlando Jewitt. I am 
 now able to shew my readers the contrast between the old palace before 
 the fire in the sixteenth century, and the restoration of it. 
 
296 
 
 ITALY — VENICE. 
 
 
ITALY VENICE. 
 
 297 
 
 View of the Doge’s Palace and S. Mark’s in A.D. 1853. 
 
 From Original Drawings. 
 
ITALY — VERCELLI. 
 
 298 
 
 halls of the thermse (called a nymphaum). Two churches in 
 Rome were made out of halls in the thermae of Diocletian, but 
 those were not made into churches until the sixteenth century, 
 and this in Milan appears to have been made about the same 
 time. Under the large arches a curved sub-arcade is intro- 
 duced, as in S. Vitale at Ravenna, and at Aix-la-Chapelle, but 
 this is probably only an imitation. The exterior is enclosed by 
 houses, except the front, which is not ornamental ; and the in- 
 terior is so much modernized, that it has quite a modern look, 
 though it makes a fine lofty circular church. 
 
 Milan can perhaps hardly be said to have a style of its own; 
 and yet the abundant use of moulded brick, and its very supe- 
 rior quality, with the sparing use of stone dressings, give 
 a very fine character to the domestic buildings of this city : 
 but these features are not peculiar to it ; they prevail over the 
 whole of Lombardy. 
 
 The principal building of this kind in Milan is the great 
 public hospital, which has nine courts or quadrangles; only 
 the principal court and the front are of the splendid brick- 
 work or terra-cotta, which is quite unrivalled in its kind. 
 
 The cathedral of Milan is veneered with white marble, and 
 although, from its great extent, the effect on the whole is very 
 magnificent, yet in point of style it is undoubtedly very bad; 
 the open pierced parapet, standing out against the sky, has the 
 appearance of being cut out of card-board. The vaults have 
 ribs painted upon them, so cleverly that it is difficult to see 
 that they are only painted. 
 
 Vercelli. 
 
 S. Andrea at Vercelli is a very remarkable church ; it is a 
 mixture of the French Gothic of the thirteenth century with 
 the Pisan style of the same period. The effect of this union is 
 singular, but very effective ; the chief feature is the west front 
 or facade, which has two flanking towers, with a rose window 
 in the French style in the centre, and two small arcades of the 
 Pisan style in the upper part, with the light elegant detached 
 colonettes. The interior has been spoiled. There is a sort 
 of lantern-tower over the central space, and another tower 
 near the choir, which does not seem to belong to the original 
 design. 
 
 The church was begun in 1219 by a French architect, for 
 
ITALY — BOLOGNA , 
 
 2 99 
 
 Cardinal Guala di’ Birchieri, who had been Papal Legate in 
 England in the time of King John and Henry III., and who 
 held the living of Chesterton, near Cambridge, where there is 
 some very good Early English work that is probably of his 
 time, as he always had a taste for architecture. The interior 
 of S. Andrea appears to have had originally a good deal of the 
 light elegant Early French Gothic character. The campanile, 
 which is detached, was added in 1399. 
 
 The very fine cathedral of Genoa is a remarkable instance of 
 the successful use of old materials, although inscriptions state 
 correctly that the present church was built in 1300 — 1312 ; yet 
 all the doorways, the finest features of the church, are pre- 
 served from another building quite a century earlier, and in- 
 scriptions on some of the doors record this. The frequent use 
 of old materials, especially doorways, in rebuilding churches 
 has never been sufficiently attended to. 
 
 Bologna. 
 
 This is one of the most remarkable cities in Italy, and one at 
 which any student in history should make a halt to examine it. 
 Nowhere else can we see arcades and colonnades of three miles 
 long; and the celebrated leaning- towers are quite unique. The 
 fact of their leaning over so much out of the perpendicular 
 without falling is a proof of the strength with which they are 
 built, and the excellent mortar that was used; they also serve 
 to illustrate an interesting chapter of medieval architecture 
 and customs. There was once a tower to every house of im- 
 portance in Italy ; it was one of the marks of rank, but they 
 were also important means of defence. The artillery of those 
 days consisted of paving-stones, and whoever could throw them 
 from the greatest height had the most powerful castle. The 
 bottom or ground-floor of these towers, is frequently solid to 
 make a secure foundation, and to resist the battering-ram. 
 The entrance was frequently on the first floor, and the steps 
 drawn up, (as in the Irish round-towers,) and each succeeding 
 storey could be defended in the same manner. When they had 
 attained sufficient height, an arrangement was made to throw 
 out on all sides a wooden scaffold or balcony, called a hourd , 
 on which the defenders could stand, and from which they 
 could throw down large stones on the heads of assailants. Holes 
 through the wall on the level of the floor, to pass the poles through, 
 
300 
 
 ITALY — BOLOGNA. 
 
 remain, so that a hourd could be thrown out at any time 
 even now. 
 
 These leaning towers are of a tremendous height, each suc- 
 ceeding generation having carried them a storey higher, in 
 constant rivalry one with the other; he whose tower was the 
 highest had the command of the others. The two that lean in 
 different directions are higher than the others, and near to- 
 gether, but were separated by a street, and belonged to two 
 different families. There are remains of many other of these 
 towers in Bologna, and they are common in all parts of Italy. 
 
 The churches of Bologna are not particularly fine. The 
 largest church in the city is S. Petronia, a great work begun 
 on a most magnificent scale in the fifteenth century, but in the 
 old style of plan and construction, though the details belong to 
 the period of the Renaissance ; the nave only was completed, 
 and the transept commenced ; a small altar in the middle of 
 the nave serves the purpose of a choir. This arrangement was 
 intended to have been temporary only. The church is said to 
 have been commenced in 1390, and the work was abandoned in 
 1659. The length of the nave is 383 ft. ; the breadth, including 
 the large chapels between the buttresses, 156 ft.; the original 
 plan was for a church of 790 ft. long. The nave makes a lofty 
 and fine church; its columns have half capitals at different 
 levels, one for the vaults of the aisles, the others for that of 
 the nave, as is common in Italy. 
 
 The church of S. Dominic has a west doorway and some 
 other remains of a Gothic church of the thirteenth century ; 
 it has been thoroughly altered and modernized, both inside 
 and outside, and may now be considered a modern church. 
 
 S. Stephen. 
 
 The collection of seven churches which go by the general 
 name of S. Stephen, are curious and well worth careful study, 
 but it would be a long work, and would require many drawings, 
 plans, and sections to explain the different periods. It is built 
 on the site of a pagan temple, and the materials of it have been 
 freely used in the construction of this church or churches. 
 There are antique marble columns, capitals, and bases, not 
 always fitting into one another, and rarely, if ever, in their 
 original places. 
 
ITALY — LOMBARDY. 
 
 301 
 
 Tbe earliest church is the one called the Holy Sepulchre. 
 It is circular, with antique columns, some of these in twins, 
 or double columns, but one has a capital used as a base, and 
 there are other signs of rebuilding. Under it is a«crypt of the 
 eleventh century, with stunted columns, the capitals of which 
 are left plain, not carved. There is a fine early pulpit in the 
 church of the Sepulchre. 
 
 The first church has been rebuilt, and is now modern ; the 
 second is the one called of the Sepulchre ; the third, dedicated 
 to SS. Peter and Paul, is of the eleventh century, with some 
 antique capitals, others plain, not carved. A sarcophagus of 
 the third century is used as a side altar, no doubt it contains 
 the relics of some martyr. The fourth church, called the 
 “ Hall of Pilate,” is made out of the cloister court, with a font 
 in the centre. There is a fragment of Roman reticulated-work 
 of the second century in the wall ; probably a portion of the 
 wall of the old temple has been preserved, though it has been 
 thoroughly concealed by plaster in other parts. The fifth 
 church is the crypt under that of the Sepulchre, and is of the 
 eleventh. The sixth church is made in a cloistered court of 
 the twelfth, with an upper storey of the thirteenth, which is 
 well preserved, with twin shafts. The seventh church, called 
 of the Holy Trinity, is of the twelfth century, with antique 
 capitals, as before. 
 
 The idea of a Lombardic style belonging to the ancient 
 Lombards appears to be altogether a delusion ; the small re- 
 mains that there are in Lombardy of any buildings before the 
 eleventh century are distinctly of Roman character. At Como 
 and in the suburbs are two remarkable churches of the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries, which may be called Lombardic, but do 
 not amount to a distinct style. The Certosa, or Charter-house 
 at Pavia, is a very fine building, and the church very rich, but 
 it belongs chiefly to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 
 
 In Naples and Sicily there is a mixture of the Byzantine and 
 Oriental character with the Roman, and occasionally portions 
 of Norman, giving this part of Italy quite a style of its own ». 
 
 1 The best work on the architecture of Italy is still the “ Remarks ” of 
 Professor Willis, published in 1835. The work of Mr. Okeley, on the “ De- 
 velopment of Christian Architecture in Italy,” published in 1860, contains 
 
302 
 
 SPAIN — BELGIUM. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 The different provinces of Spain differ from each other in 
 their architecture as in their history ; some of the buildings 
 are purely Moorish, others have a mixture of that style, while 
 in other parts they are almost French. The idea of the Gothic 
 style having originated in Spain, and spread from thence to 
 other parts of Europe, is now generally exploded; an exami- 
 nation of the buildings of Spain, with their history and dates, 
 does not in any degree bear out that theory. The use of the 
 dome does, however, occur in some districts at an early period ; 
 and here, as elsewhere, the Gothic style may have been de- 
 veloped, without being copied from any other country m . 
 
 Switzerland has no distinct architecture of its own, for the 
 obvious reason that in the Middle Ages, when these buildings 
 were erected, it had no separate existence. In some cantons 
 the buildings are French, in others German, and in others 
 Italian, according to the country they belonged to at the time 
 when their architecture flourished. The buildings follow the 
 same order as the languages, — here, as everywhere else, they 
 are part of the history of the people. 
 
 The architecture of Belgium may be divided into two main 
 portions ; that of the hilly country which formed the province 
 of Liege, which partakes of the German character, and that 
 of the level country of Flanders, which has more of the French. 
 In many of the domestic buildings there is a mixture of Spanish 
 character, but this is hardly perceptible in the churches. The 
 celebrated Town-halls, or “Hotels de Ville,” have quite a cha- 
 racter of their own, not borrowed from any other country. 
 They are the finest buildings of their class in Europe. 
 
 a great deal of valuable observation, being the result of a three years’ tour 
 as “Travelling Bachelor” of the University of Cambridge: but unfor- 
 tunately it is drawn up rather in the form of a mathematical treatise, 
 illustrated by diagrams, than in a readable form, as a work of historical 
 research. There is a good deal of information in the book, but it is very 
 difficult to get at it. 
 
 “ For the Architectural History of Spain, see “ Some Account of Gothic 
 Architecture in Spain,” by G. E. Street, F.S.A. London, 1865, 8vo. 
 
HOLLAND LIMB URG. 
 
 303 
 
 The architecture of Holland is rather German than Flemish, 
 but has a distinct national character of its own. Many of the 
 churches are fine, large, and lofty buildings, with large win- 
 dows, originally filled with rich painted glass, which has been 
 preserved in a few instances, as at Gouda; but in general all 
 ornament has been so ruthlessly destroyed by the iconoclastic 
 zeal of the presbyterians, that one is rather surprised they did 
 not destroy these fine churches of the fifteenth century alto- 
 gether, and retain the large barns of the same period, which 
 would have been more convenient for their purposes, and more 
 consistent with their ideas of what a place of worship ought to 
 be, — as opposite as possible from that of Solomon’s Temple. 
 
 The church of Roda-Rolduc in Limburg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 is now in Holland, but it is properly a German church, and it 
 is valuable to us as a well-dated example of the twelfth century, 
 and as shewing the sense in which the Lombard style was then 
 understood in Germany. It bears a close resemblance to our 
 own Norman style of the early part of the twelfth century, 
 with some peculiarities. The chronicle of the abbey has been 
 preserved and printed, and it proves that the church was begun 
 in the Lombard style in 1108 and not finally consecrated until 
 1209, but the choir, with the crypt under it, was completed in 
 1138. This crypt, or underground chapel, is the richest and 
 the best-preserved part of the edifice, and bears a close resem- 
 blance to the crypt of Canterbury, with the same shafts orna- 
 mented with spiral and zig-zag fluting in the same manner, the 
 capitals and bases rather more rich. A very similar crypt 
 occurs in a church near Munich of about the same period, and 
 others occasionally in other parts of Germany. The windows 
 of the upper church in the outer walls of the aisles and tran- 
 septs are chiefly small single lights, round-headed, but in the 
 ends of the transepts are large quatrefoil windows ; these are 
 dated a.d. 1143, an earlier date than has been observed for a 
 quatrefoil window in England or France, and this seems to be 
 one of the early steps towards window tracery n . 
 
 B See the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1865, pp. 409—411, with the en- 
 gravings from Dr. Bock’s work there given and the authorities cited. 
 The chronicle is printed in the seventh volume of the History of Limburg, 
 Liege, 1852. 
 
304 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 The different kingdoms and provinces of Germany have each 
 a style of their own, just as in France and Italy. There may 
 be said to be a German Gothic style, just as there is said to be 
 an Italian Gothic style and a French Gothic style ; but as we 
 have seen that the northern and southern states of those 
 countries differ widely from each other in their architecture 
 as in their history — for the one is inseparable from the other — 
 so it is in Germany : the architecture of the Rhine provinces, 
 which is the most familiar to English travellers in general, 
 is no type of that of the rest of Germany ; it bears more resem- 
 blance to that of Pisa, and it has been assumed that both are 
 derived from a common origin of the time of Charlemagne, — 
 which is so far true that the style of that period was a debased 
 Roman, and both these are developments from the Roman ; but 
 as the existing buildings in both districts belong almost entirely 
 to the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, there does 
 not appear to be much connection between them and the build- 
 ings of Charlemagne. 
 
 At Aix-la-Chapelle one of the towers of the palace of Charle- 
 magne remains, now forming the watch-tower attached to the 
 town-hall, the rest of which has been rebuilt. This was pro- 
 bably always a watch-tower. The walls and plan of the cathe- 
 dral are also of his time, with great additions and alterations : 
 the design is evidently copied from the church of S. Vitale at 
 Ravenna; the construction is debased Roman. 
 
 The campaniles or belfry-towers of Germany have quite a dis- 
 tinct character of their own, which seems to be a develop- 
 ment of the Anglo-Saxon towers of England, originally carried 
 to Germany by the English missionaries, but never fully de- 
 veloped in England because the Normans preferred their own 
 towers, which are of a different type. The earlier belfry-towers 
 in Germany approach the nearest to the Anglo-Saxon type; 
 long-and-short work is frequently used, and most of the other 
 characteristic features of that style are found. This type of 
 tower spreads over nearly the whole of the north of Germany, 
 and into the German part of Switzerland, where we also find at 
 Roman-Motier a church, with other parts besides the tower, of 
 Anglo-Saxon character®. 
 
 See Archceologia , vol. xxxvii. p. 253, 1857. 
 
OERMANY . 
 
 305 
 
 Remembering that a great part of Germany was converted to 
 Christianity by English or Anglo-Saxon missionaries, it seems 
 
 probable that they brought their own style of church building 
 with them. It may be, however, that both copied their earliest 
 
 189. Portion of the Tower of the Palace of Charlemagne, at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, shewing the Original Masonry. 
 
 x 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 306 
 
 stone buildings from the wooden buildings which were in use 
 before. 
 
 In some of the churches on the Ehine of the twelfth century 
 very peculiar windows are used ; they are of an ugly shape, and 
 not much to be admired in themselves, but they are cuspated, 
 and are perhaps the earliest examples of the use of cusps. It 
 seems probable that window-tracery may have been developed 
 in Germany earlier than in France or England. 
 
 In part of Germany domical vaults are found of a style very 
 similar to those of Anjou and Poitou, but there is no reason to 
 suppose that they are copied one from the other ; both are pro- 
 bably developed in the same manner from the mixture of the 
 Byzantine and the Roman, and by a further development from 
 that mixture the Gothic style may have been worked out in 
 both countries, with such variations as we find. Some of the 
 German antiquaries are very zealous in the cause of nationality, 
 and stoutly maintain the German origin of the Gothic style ; 
 and this may be true of German Gothic, without its following 
 that either France or England copied their own styles from 
 Germany : the same development may have taken place in dif- 
 ferent countries under different circumstances. Whether this 
 took place simultaneously or not is another question, which 
 cannot be settled until the dates of the buildings in each 
 country are more carefully investigated p. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 The introductory remarks prefixed to Dr. WheweH’s paper 
 are so entirely to the purpose, and express so much better than 
 I could have done it myself, one of the objects of this little 
 work, that I venture to make use of them as a conclusion to 
 
 p The English reader wishing to study the architecture of Germany will 
 derive much information from Dr. Whewell’s “ Architectural Notes on 
 German Churches,” and the “ Notes on the Churches of the Rhine, hy 
 M. de Lassaulx” appended to the third edition of that work. These relate 
 chiefly to the earlier German churches and the development of Gothic, and 
 should be followed up by Dr. Whewell’s very able “ Remarks on the Com- 
 plete Gothic and After-Gothic Styles in Germany,” in the Archaeological 
 Journal, vol. vii. 
 
CONCLUSION . 30 7 
 
 it, and am glad to be able to shelter myself under so high an 
 authority : — 
 
 “ To determine the succession of the architectural styles 
 which have prevailed in any country, is a problem which can 
 be solved only by an extensive and careful examination of the 
 historical and documentary proofs of the dates of buildings, as 
 well as by a survey of the edifices themselves. The external 
 evidence, as we may call it, of architectural chronology must be 
 compared with the internal evidence of style. Such a task 
 cannot be performed in the course of a rapid tour, nor super- 
 seded by any views, however ingenious and persuasive, of the 
 effects which, as we conceive, must have been produced by 
 necessities of construction, or principles of harmony, or ten- 
 dencies and ideas which have governed and moulded the fabrics 
 of different ages. Such theoretical and imaginative views 
 always require to be [substantiated and confirmed by actual 
 history. But though such general speculations are not of them- 
 selves sufficient, they may still be not without their value. 
 The architecture with pointed arches, commonly called Gothic, 
 which succeeded the architecture of round arches, called Ro- 
 manesque, may be supposed to have grown out of its prede- 
 cessor by certain needs of construction, and to have been un- 
 folded to its complete form by the tendencies and connections 
 thus brought into view. Such a theory of Gothic Architecture , 
 as it may be called, I formerly put forward as illustrated by the 
 churches of Germany, especially those of the neighbourhood of 
 the Rhine ; and the doctrine thus proposed has been regarded 
 with favour by eminent architectural authorities. M. Boisseree 
 has spoken of this theory as remarkably confirmed by the re- 
 sults which he had obtained by an historical and artistical line 
 of investigation; and M. Viollet-le-Duc of Paris, in an admira- 
 ble series of articles in M. Didron’s Annales Archeologiques , has 
 maintained the same doctrine, (the derivation of the leading 
 features of Gothic architecture from the necessities of vault- 
 ing,) and has supported it with an intimate knowledge of the 
 actual architectural construction of Gothic buildings 4. 
 
 “ The countenance thus given to the theoretical or ideal view 
 of architecture justifies us, I think, in attempting to apply it in 
 
 * See Ann. Arch., vol. ii. p. 81, 1845. 
 
308 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 other cases also, at least in the way of trial. Such modes of 
 treating the subject may serve to give to the features of archi- 
 tectural styles a connection which otherwise is not seen, and 
 which is nevertheless interesting and instructive, and even real ; 
 it being understood that we conceive the necessities of structure 
 to have operated rather in producing the general features of 
 a style, than in determining the form of a special building ; and 
 that we suppose the ideas which run through any mode of con- 
 struction or decoration not to have been so much consciously 
 contemplated, as unconsciously directive.” 
 
 It is time that the history of architecture in each country 
 should be carefully investigated, and its national character 
 clearly understood, as well as the chronological succession of 
 the various styles ; nor is this task so difficult or impracticable 
 as it may at first appear : it will be found that the character of 
 each century is stamped upon its architecture in a very dis- 
 tinct manner, and is paramount to all national or provincial 
 peculiarities. It is true that the round arch continued in use 
 in some countries much later than in others, but the mould- 
 ings and details were all changed, though the form of the arch 
 was not. 
 
 Baron Quast, the “ Inspector of Monuments” for the German 
 Government, at the meeting of the International Congress of 
 Archaeologists held at Bonn, under his presidency, jointly with 
 his friend M. De Caumont, in 1868, stoutly maintained the 
 German origin of the Gothic style, and shewed that there had 
 been a sort of colony or station of Byzantine merchants in 
 a part of Germany, who had introduced this architecture to 
 some extent, though not to the same extent as in Perigord. 
 The small church, of the eleventh or twelfth century, of Soezt 
 (which I, fortunately, assisted in preserving), is a curious mix- 
 ture of Byzantine and Boman character. 
 
 As it is quite evident that every nation has its own architec- 
 ture as naturally as its own language, it follows that the in- 
 troduction of foreign elements into the architecture of any 
 country is just as much in bad taste as the interlarding the 
 language with foreign words or phrases : both may be gradually 
 assimilated, but neither should be crudely introduced. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO ENGRAVINGS DENOTED BY AN ASTERISK. 
 
 ♦♦ 
 
 A. 
 
 Abbeville, Normandy, *Moulding, 264. 
 
 Acton Burnel, Shropshire, Castle, Hall, 
 164; Windows, 136, 154; House at, 
 158. 
 
 Adderbury Church, Oxon, Decorated 
 Roof, 184. 
 
 Agen, Aquitaine, Cathedral o f St. Ca- 
 prais, 222. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Germany, 298. 
 
 Palace of Charlemagne, 
 
 Tower, 304, *305. 
 
 Aldham Church, Essex, Decorated 
 Wooden Porch, 178. 
 
 Alnwick Castle, Northumberland, 188. 
 
 Amiens, Picardy, Cathedral, 143, 252 ; 
 Round Pillars, 100; Windows, 241 ; 
 Porch, 159, 244. 
 
 Andover Church, Hampshire, *Nor- 
 man Moulding, 75. 
 
 Angers, Anjou, Churches of, 228. 
 
 Hospital of St.John, 95 ; *Hall 
 
 of Hospital, 232. 
 
 Anglesey, *Penmon, 81. 
 
 Angouleme, Aquitaine, 235. 
 
 Anjou, 218, 228, 232, 258, 306. 
 
 Appleby Castle, Cumberland, 42. 
 
 Appleton Manor-house, Berks, 90. 
 
 Arles, Aquitaine, Coupled-Shaft, 240 ; 
 Cloisters, 282. 
 
 Aschendune (Ashingdon, Essex), 
 Church built at, 23. 
 
 Ashburn Church, Derby, 159. 
 
 Ashfordby Church, Leicester, •Win- 
 dow-head, 130. 
 
 Assisi, Italy, Window, 63. 
 
 St. Francis, 143, 283. 
 
 St. Clara, 143. 
 
 Aston -le- Walls Church, Northants, 
 Window, 129. 
 
 Auvergne Style of, 234, 236. 
 
 Auxerre Cathedral, Crypt, 226 ; •Win- 
 dow, 240, 242. 
 
 Avallon, Burgundy, Castle of, 106. 
 
 Avignon, France, 235. 
 
 Aydon Castle, Northumberland, 158. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bamborough Castle, Northumberland, 
 189. 
 
 Barfreston Church, Kent, Window, 
 63, 139. 
 
 Barnack Church, Northants, *supposed 
 Saxon Tower-arch, 23 ; *Porch, 147. 
 
 Barton Segrave Church, Northants, 
 •Window, 171. 
 
 Bath, Somerset, Abbey Church, 211. 
 
 Bayeux Cathedral, Normandy, rebuilt, 
 59; * Window, 259; Nave, *236. 
 
 Chapel of Seminary at, 253. 
 
 Beaulieu Abbey, Normandy, ‘Buttress, 
 149, 185. 
 
 Beaumaris Castle, North Wales, 188. 
 
 Beauvais, Normandy, College Chapel, 
 230; Choir of, 237. 
 
 Bedfordshire, Dunstable, 57, 97. 
 
 Belgium, Architecture of, 302. 
 
 Benoit sur Loire, S., France, 236. 
 
 Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire, 191. 
 
 Berkshire, vide Appleton, Binfleld, 
 Bray, Charney, Donnington, Fyfield, 
 Long Wittenham, Reading, Spars- 
 holt, Sunmngwell, Sutton Courtney, 
 Tidmarsh, Wickham, Windsor. 
 
 Bernay, Normandy, Changeof Style, 91. 
 
 Abbey Church, 225. 
 
 Bethlehem Cathedral, Nevers, France, 
 234. 
 
 Beverley Minster, *Triforium, 107 ; 
 •Circular Window in, 139; *Corbel- 
 table, 152; ‘Arcade, 181, 240. 
 
3io 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 Beverley, Yorkshire, St.Mary’sChurch, 
 Window Tracery, 166. 
 
 Bicester Church, Oxon, ‘Porch, 204. 
 
 Binfield Church, Berks, Porch, 179. 
 
 Bishop’s Cleeve Church, Gloucester- 
 shire, *Norman Turret, 82 ; Pinna- 
 cle, 150. 
 
 Blois, France, S. Nicholas, Nave of, 234. 
 
 Bloxham Church, Oxon, ‘Decorated 
 Font, 186. 
 
 Bologna, Italy, 299 ; Church of S. Pe- 
 tronio, 97, 300. 
 
 Church of S. Dominic, 300. 
 
 ■ Seven Churches of S. Ste- 
 phen, 300, 301. 
 
 Tower ana houses in, 300. 
 
 Bolton Castle, Yorkshire, 194. 
 
 Boothby Pagnel, Lincolnshire, Manor- 
 house at, 89. 
 
 Boston Church, Lincoln, Tower, 195. 
 
 Bourges, France, Windows, 240. 
 
 Boyton Church, Wilts, Windows, 139. 
 
 Bradenstoke Priory, Timber Roof, 184. 
 
 Bradford - on - Avon, Wilts, ♦Anglo- 
 Saxon Church, with Ground-plan, 15. 
 
 Monastery at, 16. 
 
 Bray Church, Berks, Window-tracery, 
 166 ; *Decorated Mouldings, 172. 
 
 Bredon, Worcestershire, Turret, 83. 
 
 Brislington, Somerset, ‘Perpendicular 
 Tower, 202. 
 
 Bristol, Redcliffe Church, 211. 
 
 St. Augustine’s Priory, 59. 
 
 St. James'sChurch, Window, 139. 
 
 Brittany, 222 ; Kreisker Church, S. Pol 
 de L£on, 249 ; Flamboyant Style of, 
 260; Dinan, 261. 
 
 Brixworth, Northants, Basilica, 9. 
 
 Brougham Castle, Westmoreland, 42, 
 189. 
 
 Bruy£res sous Laon, France, 255. 
 
 Buckinghamshire, vide Caversfield, 
 Notley, Stewkley. 
 
 Bur gh Castle, Suffolk, Roman W all at, 6 . 
 
 Burgundy, St. Hugh of, 101. 
 
 Buildwas Abbey, Shropshire, 58. 
 
 Bury St. Edmund’s, Suffolk, Norman 
 Tower built, 56. 
 
 Moyses Hall, 89. 
 
 Byland Abbey, Yorkshire, 98. 
 
 Byzantium, Art of Building from, 3. 
 
 C. 
 
 Caen, Normandy, Abbaie aux Dames, 
 
 Abbaie aux Hommes, 24, 41. 
 
 Holy Trinity, 39, 41. 
 
 St. Nicholas, 41 ; Capitals, 71. 
 
 St. Peter’s, *Spire, 249. 
 
 St. Stephen’s, 24, 39, 248 ; Clere- 
 story, 63. 
 
 Two Abbeys at, 39, 221, 226. 
 
 Cahors, Aquitaine, 235. 
 
 Caister, Norfolk, Roman Wall, 6. 
 
 Calais, France, 263. 
 
 Cambridge, King’s College Chapel, 211. 
 
 Cambridgeshire, vide Cambridge, Ely, 
 Over, Stourbridge, Willingham. 
 
 Canterbury Cathedral, *Plan of, in 
 Saxon times, 8 ; History of, 33, 46 ; ] 
 
 Crypt, 46 ; Dedication, 46 ; Old and 
 New Work described by Gerrase, 
 50; * Arcade, shewing junction of ] 
 work, 51; ^Unfinished Capital in < 
 Crypt, 52 ; ‘Arcade of Emull, 56, 57 ; ] 
 Piers, 64; Arcade in St. Anselm’s ; 
 Tower, 67 ; Capitals, 71 ; Change of , 
 Style, 92, 96, 98 ; ‘Sections of com- 
 partments of Choir, 94 ; Completed, , 
 101; Work of Prior de Estria, 165: , 
 St. Anselm’s Chapel, 165 ; Nave and ^ 
 Western Transepts, 193 ; Pillars, 239. ] 
 
 Remains of Monastic Build- j 
 
 ings, 89. 
 
 St. Martin’s Church, 7, 10. 
 
 Carcassonne, 120; Change of Style, 91. 
 
 Carew Castle, South Wales, 188. 
 
 Carlisle Castle, Cumberland, 42. 
 
 Cathedral, East End, 187. 
 
 Carnarvon Castle, North Wales, 144, 
 188; Hall at, 41. 
 
 Cassington, Oxon, Norman Chancel. 54. 
 
 Castle Acre Priory Church, Norfolk, 
 founded, 58. 
 
 Castle Ashby, Northants, Jamb of 
 Doorway, 72. 
 
 Castle Rising, Castle, Norfolk, 43, 61. I 
 
 Church, ‘Norman Win- i 
 
 dow, 62. 
 
 Castor Church, Northants, dedicated, 
 
 56. 
 
 Caversfield Church, Bucks, 28 ; ‘Win- 
 dow, 29. 
 
 C£risy, Normandy, Church of, 41, 225. 
 
 Chacombe Church, Northants, *Roll 
 Moulding, 172. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 Chalfield Manor-house, Berks, 211. 
 
 Chambery, Savoy, 106. 
 
 Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxon, *Window, 
 128. 
 
 Charney, Berks, Manor-house, 158. 
 
 Chartres Cathedral, 248 ; West Front, 
 78; Round Pillars, 100; *Window, 
 240; Porches, 244; Norman Nave, 
 251. 
 
 Cheltenham, St. Mary’s Church, Cir- 
 cular Windows, 139, *170. 
 
 Chester Cathedral, Wooden Vault, 
 182. 
 
 Chipping-Campden Church, Glouces- 
 tershire, 194. 
 
 Chipping-Norton Church, Oxon, Win- 
 dow, 199. 
 
 Christchurch Priory, Hants, Nave and 
 Transepts, 46 ; Turret, 83. 
 
 Houses at, 89. 
 
 Clee Church, Lincolnshire, 158; In- 
 scription, 99. 
 
 Cleeve (Bishop’s Cleeve), Gloucester- 
 shire, 82, 150. 
 
 Cluny, France, Abbey Church, 41 ; 
 Fluted Shafts, 106. 
 
 Cogges, Oxon, Manor-house, 157. 
 
 Colchester Castle, Essex, 43. 
 
 Roman Wall at, 6. 
 
 St. Botolph’s Church, 46. 
 
 Cologne, Cathedral, 252; Tracery in 
 Windows, 143. 
 
 Como, Italy, 301. 
 
 Conches, Normandy, Abbey of, 38. 
 
 Conway Castle, North Wales, 188; Hall 
 at, 41. 
 
 Corhampton Church, Hampshire, 31 ; 
 Long-and-short work in, 27. 
 
 Cotentin, Normandy, 189, 248, 266. 
 
 Cotterstock Church, Northants, Win- 
 dow, 130. 
 
 Cottesford, Oxon, Manor-house, 157. 
 
 Coventry, St. Michael’s Church, 
 ♦Panelled Roof, 209. 
 
 Cowdray Castle, Suffolk, 211. 
 
 Cowley Church, Oxon, Window, 126. 
 
 CranfordSt.AndrewChurch, Northants, 
 ♦Clerestory Window, 171. 
 
 Cross, St. (St. Cross), Hants, 58. 
 
 Crowhurst, Sussex, Manor-house, 157. 
 
 Cumberland, vide Appleby, Carlisle. 
 
 3i i 
 
 D. 
 
 Daglingworth Church, Gloucester, 
 Saxon, 38. 
 
 Danes, the incursions of, 16. 
 
 Darent Church, Kent, 7. 
 
 Dartington Hall, Devon, 194. 
 
 Dean (West Dean), Sussex, 158. 
 
 Deerhurst Church, Gloucestershire, 
 Dedication Stone, 25 ; *Tower of, 25 ; 
 ♦Window, 29. 
 
 Devonshire, vide Dartington, Exeter, 
 Stoke-in-Teignhead. 
 
 Dieppe, Normandy, 263. 
 
 Dijon, Burgundy, 224 ; Work similar 
 to Lincoln, 106. 
 
 Dinan, Brittany, S. Sauveur, ‘Flam- 
 boyant Window, 261. 
 
 Donnington Castle, Berks, 194. 
 
 Dorchester, Dorset, Roman Wall at, 6. 
 
 Church, Oxon, *Window, 
 
 138; *Square Decorated Window, 
 168; Sedilia, 180; Choir, 187. 
 
 Dorsetshire, vide Dorchester, Sher- 
 borne, Wimbome Minster. 
 
 Dover Castle, built, 42 ; Roman re- 
 mains of Church and Pliaros, 10; 
 St. Martin’s Priory founded, 57. 
 
 Dunstable Priory, Bedford, 57 ; Arches, 
 97. 
 
 Durham, vide Durham, Hartlepool, 
 Lindisfarne, Monks’ Wearmouth, 
 Raby. 
 
 Cathedral, Choir and Tran- 
 septs, 45; Dedication, 46 ; Nave, 46; 
 Piers, 64; *Moulding, 76; Galilee 
 built, 99 ; Nine Altars, 109 ; Flying 
 Buttress, 150. 
 
 Durston Church, Northants, West 
 Front, 154. 
 
 Earl’s Barton Church, LinoohisiHrc, 
 ♦Saxon Tower, 27 ; ♦Belfry Win- 
 dow, 31. 
 
 East Meon Church, Hants, Font, 53. 
 
 Edington Church, Wilts, 192; *West 
 Front, 191. 
 
 Edward the Confessor, the founder of 
 Westminster Abbey, 32. 
 
 Edward I. The Eleanor Crosses built, 
 176; the early or geometrical divi- 
 
312 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 sion of the Decorated Style pre- 
 vailed throughout this reign, 164. 
 
 Edward II. The later division of the 
 DecoratedStyle,withflowing tracery, 
 prevailed in this reign, 166. 
 
 III. The later or flowing De- 
 corated Style continued throughout 
 the greater part of this reign, 179; 
 in the latter part of it the Perpen- 
 dicular Style was gradually coming 
 in, 190. 
 
 IV. The Perpendicular Style. 
 
 St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, re- 
 built in this reign, and much build- 
 ing carried on, 211. 
 
 Ely Cathedral, 17 ; Nave and Transepts 
 built, 45 ; Dedication, 46 ; The Ga- 
 lilee, 108; Presbytery, 109; Lan- 
 tern, 188; Galilee Porch, 158, 240. 
 
 Essex, vide Aldham, Ashingdon, Col- 
 chester, Hedingham, Waltham. 
 
 Evesham Church, Worcester, Panels, 
 195. 
 
 Exeter Cathedral, 162, 192 ; ♦Clustered 
 Pillars, 176; Groined Roof, 182. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fairford Church, Gloucestershire, 
 Painted Glass, 198. 
 
 Falaise, Normandy, S.Gervaise, *Open 
 Parapet, 264. 
 
 Famham Castle, Hants, Norman Hall, 
 89. 
 
 Finedon Church, Northamptonshire, 
 ♦Moulding, 172. 
 
 Flanders, Architecture of, 302. 
 
 Fonts imported from, 53 ; 
 
 Style of, 227. 
 
 Florence, 291 ; Gothic Style, 266 ; Prin- 
 cipal Buildings, 283; Churches in, 
 285 ; Palaces, 288 ; Spires in, 289. 
 
 Annunziata, Church of the, 
 
 287, 288. 
 
 Badia, Spire of, 289. 
 
 Duomo, the, 283. 
 
 Formo Palace, 288. 
 
 Orsan Michele, 287. 
 
 Palazzo Vecchio, The, 288, 289. 
 
 Pitti Palace, 288. 
 
 S. Croce, 286. 
 
 S. Maria Novella, 284 ; Cam- 
 panile. 285. 
 
 S. Mark, 287. 
 
 S. Miniato, 287. 
 
 Fotheringhay, Northants, *Doorway, 
 
 201 . 
 
 Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, 109 ; 
 Founded, 57 ; Arches, 69 ; Domestic 
 Buildings, 89 ; Vaulted Aisles, 90 ; 
 East End, 109 ; Choir and Transept, 
 159. 
 
 France, vide Abbeville, Agen, Amiens, 
 Angers, Angouleme, Anjou, Arles, 
 Auvergne, Auxerre, Avallon, Avig- 
 non, Bayeux, Beauvais, Benoit sur 
 Loire, (S.), Bemay, Blois, Bourges, 
 Bretagne, Brittany, Bruy£res sous 
 Laon, Burgundy, Caen, Cahors, Car- 
 cassonne, C6risy, Chartres, Cluny, 
 Cologne, Conches, Cotentin, Dieppe, 
 Dijon, Dinan, Falaise, Germer, <St.), 
 Grand Chartreuse, (La,) Grenoble, 
 Guienne, Harfleur, Jumieges, La 
 Chante sur Loire, Laon, Le Puy en 
 Velay, Limoges, Lisieux, Lo, (S.), 
 Lyons, Mantes, Moissac, Mortain, 
 Narbonne, Nevers, Normandy, Nou- 
 vion-le-vieux, Noyers, Noyon, Paris, 
 Perigord, Perigueux, Plessis, Poitou, 
 Poictiers, Rheims, Sens, Soissons, 
 Tournus, Valognes, Velay, Vendome, 
 Versainville, Vezelay, Vienne, Vil- 
 .equier, Vorges, Ypres. 
 
 Lines of Commerce through, 
 
 255. 
 
 North of, 70. 
 
 South of, 3, 70. 
 
 Frome, Somerset, Monastery at, 16. 
 
 FurnessAbbey, Lancashire, founded, 56. 
 
 Fyfield Church, Berks, "Decorated 
 Piscina, 182. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gadsby Church, Leicestershire, •But- 
 tress, J85. 
 
 Geddington, Northants, Cross, 176. 
 
 Genoa Cathedral, 299. 
 
 Germany, Styles of, 303, 304 ; Domical 
 Vaults, 306 ; Churches of, 307. 
 
 Gisburne, Yorkshire, Priory Church, 
 194. 
 
 Glapthom Church, Northants, 129; 
 ♦Tracery, 130. 
 
 Glasgow Cathedral, Scotland, 108, 
 
 Glastonbury, Somerset, W oodenChurch, 
 1 1 ; Metal- work, 120 ; *George Inn, 
 210 . 
 
 Abbey, *Norman Buttress, 84. 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, Crypt and Tran- 
 septs, 45; Dedication, 46; Window 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX . 3 1 3 
 
 in Nave, 167; Ball-flower, 173; 
 Choir and Transepts, 190; Cloisters, 
 194 ; *Fan-tracery Vault in Cloisters, 
 205; West Front ana South Porch, 
 211 . 
 
 Gloucestershire, vide Bishop’s 
 Cleeve, Chipping-Campden, Chelt- 
 enham, Daglingworth, Deernurst, 
 Fairford, Glouc^ter, Tewkesbury, 
 Thornbury, Wooiten-NVawen, Yate. 
 
 Godmersuam, Kent, Manor-house, 158. 
 
 Goodrich Castle, Herefordshire, 43. 
 
 Gouda Church, Holland, 303. 
 
 G'and Chartreuse, La, Savoy, Build- 
 ings of, 107. 
 
 Grantham Church, Lincolnshire, Ball- 
 flower, 173. 
 
 Great Malvern Abbe) , Worcestershire, 
 Roof, 183. 
 
 Greetweil Cnurch, Lincoln, 130. 
 
 Grenoble Cathedral, Burgundy, 106. 
 
 Guienne, Aquitaine, 222. 
 
 Guildford Castle, Surrey, built, 43. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hampshire, vide Andover, Beaulieu, 
 Christchurch, Corhampton, East 
 Meon, Farnham, Porchester, Rom- 
 sey, Southampton, St. Cross, Warn- 
 ford, Winchester. 
 
 Harfleur, Normandy, *Porch, 260. 
 
 Hargrave Church, Northants, ♦Circu- 
 lar Window, 140. 
 
 Harlech Castle, North Wales, 188. 
 
 Hartlepool Church, Durham, *Flying 
 Buttress, 151 
 
 Haseley Church, Oxon, *Moulding, 
 114; Window, 196. 
 
 Hedingham Castle, Essex, built, 43. 
 
 Henry I., style of, 47. 
 
 II., King of England, Count of 
 
 Anjou, and Duke of Aquitaine : the 
 transition took place in his time, 
 90—100. 
 
 III., Rebuilds Westminster 
 
 Abbey, 109 ; ihe Early English Style 
 prevailed throughout his long reign, 
 ami an enormous number of Churches 
 were built at this period, including 
 most of our finest Cathedrals ; to- 
 wards the end of his reign tne De- 
 
 corated Style was gradually coming 
 in, 110. 
 
 Henry IV., V., and VI. The Perpen- 
 dicular Style. Henry VI. was a great 
 builder, and the technical directions 
 given in his will seem to shew that 
 he was almost an architect, 195. 
 
 VII. The later division of the 
 
 Perpendicular Style, often called the 
 Tudor Style. His Chapel at West- 
 minster was begun by himself, and 
 money left by i»is will, with minute 
 directions for the completion of it, 
 211 . 
 
 Hereford Cathedral, dedication, 46. 
 
 HERKFor.nsHiRE, vide Goodrich, Here- 
 ford, Ledbury, Leominster, Shob- 
 don. 
 
 Herringfleet, Suffolk, *Moulding, 76. 
 
 Hertfordshire, vide St. Alban’s. 
 
 Hexham, Yorkshire, Church built by 
 Wiltnd, 12; Crypt, 13; *Fragments 
 of Roman Mouldings, 13 ; Plan of 
 Crypt, 14. 
 
 Holland, vide Gouda, Limburg. 
 
 Style of, 303. 
 
 Howden Church, Yorkshire, Arch-but- 
 tress, 185; Pinnacles, 185; West 
 End and South Front, 187 ; Chapter- 
 house, 194. 
 
 Hull Church, Yorkshire, Choir of, 187. 
 
 Huntingdonshire, vide Lutton. 
 
 Hurstmonceaux Castle, Sussex, 211. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iffley Church, Oxon, Norman Vault, 
 54; *West Doorway, 59; *Moulding 
 of Doorway, 60; *Window, 62; 
 Chancel-arch, 66; Arch-moulds, 72, 
 79; Corbel -table, 79; Turret, 83; 
 ♦Norman Buttress, 84. 
 
 Ilton Church, Somerset, Spire, 156. 
 
 Irthlingborough Church, Northants, 
 ♦Window, 136. 
 
 Islip Church, Oxon, Chancel of, 214. 
 
 Italy, Assisi, 63, 143, 283 ; Como, 301 ; 
 Lombardy, 3, 289; Milan, Peru- 
 gia, Toscanella, 63, 99, 283 ; Rome, 
 266—281; Ravenna, 282; Florence, 
 283; Pisa, 289; Lucca, 291 ; Venice, 
 294, Milan, 297 ; Vercelh, 298; Bo- 
 log a, 299; Lombardy, 301 ; Naples 
 I ana Sicily, 301 ; Veii, 268. 
 
3 T 4 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 J. 
 
 James I. The style of his reign, called 
 Jacobean, is nearly the same as that 
 of Elizabeth, but an attempt was 
 made to revive the Gothic, 213. 
 
 Jarrow Church, Durham, 11; Rebuilt 
 by Monks of Durham, 36, 37 ; ♦Capi- 
 tal, 38. 
 
 Jerusalem, Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre, 69. 
 
 John, the Early English style fully 
 established in the reign of, 107. 
 
 Jumieges, Normandy, Abbey Church, 
 41 ; *Capital, 225. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kent, vide Barfreston, Canterbury, 
 Dover, Godmersham, Mailing, Pens- 
 hurst, Rochester, St. Margaret-at- 
 Cliffe, Stone, Walmer. 
 
 King’s Sutton Church, Northants, 193. 
 
 Kirk dale Priory, Yorkshire, Inscrip- 
 tion, 25. 
 
 Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire, removed, 
 59; ‘Norman Arches, 69; Capitals, 
 71. 
 
 KislingburyChurch, Northants, •Door- 
 way, 177, 178. 
 
 L. 
 
 La Charite sur Loire, France, 232. 
 
 Lancashire, vide Furness. 
 
 Laon, France, Diocese of, Fonts, 53. 
 
 Cathedral, 100, 254; Windows, 
 
 240. 
 
 Ledbury Church, Herefordshire, Ball- 
 flower, 173. 
 
 Leicester, Roman Wall at, 6. 
 
 Leicestershire, vide Ashfordby, 
 Gadsby, Melton Mowbray, Stoke 
 Golding. 
 
 Leigh Church, Worcestershire, •Nor- 
 man Niche, 74. 
 
 Leominster Church, Herefordshire, 
 •Window with Ball-flower, 167, 173, 
 174. 
 
 Le Puy en Yelay, France, 234. 
 
 Lichfield Cathedral, Staffordshire, 
 Sedilia, 180; three Spires, 187. 
 
 Limburg, Holland, Church of Roda- 
 Rolduc, 303. 
 
 Limoges, France, 236. 
 
 Linchmere, Sussex, Early English 
 Window, 128. 
 
 Lincoln, city of, 35; ‘Roman Gate- 
 way, 4 ; *Roman Masonry, 6 ; Ro- 
 man wall at, 6. 
 
 Castle, Cobbe’s Hall, 157. 
 
 Cathedral, West Front built, 
 
 45 ; Choir, 102 ; Bishop Hugh’s 
 Work, 99—103, 117; ‘Pillar in Choir, 
 104; ‘Circular Window, 105; Nave, 
 109; Presbytery, 103, 112; Choir, 
 112; Wooden Vaults, 149; Fall of 
 Tower, 113; ‘Capital in North Tran- 
 sept, 119; * Abacus with Moulding, 
 121; ‘Base, with double set of 
 Mouldings, 122; Presbytery, 134; 
 Windows in Transepts, 139, 169; 
 •Boss in North Aisle, 149; ‘Diaper 
 Ornament, 175; Cloisters, Vault of, 
 184 ; Double Arcade, 240. 
 
 Deanery, Window in, 128. 
 
 Vicar’s Close, 194. 
 
 Houses at, 89. 
 
 St. Mary-le- Wigford, 35; 
 
 ♦Window, 137. 
 
 St. Peter at Gowt’s, 35 ; 
 
 •Tower, 36. 
 
 Lincolnshire, vide Boothby Pagnel, 
 Boston, Clee, Grantham, Greetwell, 
 Lincoln, Somerton, Stamford, Stowe, 
 Thornton. 
 
 Lindisfarne Priory, Durham, ‘Norman 
 Arch, 66 ; Piers, 64. 
 
 St.Finan’s Church, 11. 
 
 Lisieux Cathedral, Normandy, 93, 231. 
 
 Church completed at, 95. 
 
 St. Peter’s Church, Choir, 254. 
 
 Little Saxham, Suffolk, ‘Round Tower, 
 83. 
 
 Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk, 158. 
 
 Lombardy, Distinct Style in, 3, 289, 30 1 . 
 
 London, Tower of, 157. 
 
 White Tower, ‘Masonry, 35 ; 
 
 built, 37; Norman Keep, 42; ‘Nor- 
 man Arch and Window, 43, 44 ; Arch, 
 65 ; Apse, 66 ; ‘Capital with volutes, 
 71 ; Mouldings, 76 ; Norman Vault, 
 80. 
 
 Hampton Court, 211. 
 
 Lincoln’s Inn, 214. 
 
 Middle Temple Hall, 214. 
 
 Palace, Lambeth, 214. 
 
 Savoy Chapel, Strand, 211. 
 
 St.Bartholomew’SjSmithfield, 
 
 58 ; commenced, 46. 
 
 - St, Clement Danes, 215. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX . 3 1 5 
 
 London, Temple Church, Dedicated, 
 99 ; Choir, 109 ; Moulding, *115, *116. 
 
 vide also Westminster. 
 
 Long Wittenham Church, Berks, 
 Wooden Porch, 179. 
 
 Longthorp, Northants, Manor-house’ 
 158. 
 
 Lorraine, 221. 
 
 Lucca, Italy, Romanesque Architecture 
 in, 291, 292; Peculiar Style in, 3; 
 Buildings in, dated by Inscriptions, 
 and by authentic Documents, 293. 
 
 Cathedral of S. Martin, 291, 293. 
 
 La Rosa, Oratory of, 293. 
 
 S. Frediano, 292, 293. 
 
 S. Michael, Choir, 292. 
 
 Ludlow Castle, Shropshire, 189. 
 
 Lutton Church, Hunts, *Doorway, 145. 
 
 Lyons, Diocese of, 221, 223. 
 
 Cathedral, 105, 236. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mailing Castle, Kent, Keep, 37, 42. 
 
 Church, *Rubble Masonry, 34. 
 
 Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts, 11, 16; 
 Work of Bishop Roger, 50 , * Pointed 
 Arch, 68; Capital, 71; *Norman 
 Mouldings, 76. 
 
 Malvern Abbey, Worcester, Timber 
 Roof, 183. 
 
 Manorbeer Castle, South Wales, 188. 
 
 Mantes Cathedral, France, 100. 
 
 Markenfield Hall, Yorkshire, 189. 
 
 Mayfield, Kent, House at, 41, 189. 
 
 Melton Mowbray Church, Leicester- 
 shire, *Window Tracery, 130. 
 
 Middlesex, vide London, West- 
 minster. 
 
 Middleton Cheney Church, Oxon, Win- 
 dow, 129 ; Roof of Porch, 183. 
 
 Milan, 295; Domestic buildings of, 298. 
 
 Cathedral, 298. 
 
 S. Ambrose, 295 ; Rebuilt, 295. 
 
 S. Lorenzo, 295. 
 
 Millennium, fear of the, influencing 
 building, 22. 
 
 Milton Church, Oxon, 114; ^Moulding 
 in Nave, 115. 
 
 Minster, (Isle of Thanet), Houses at, 89. 
 
 Moissac, Aquitaine, Cloisters, 225 ; 
 Coupled Shaft, 240. 
 
 Monks’ Wearmouth Church, Durham, 
 Foundation, 12 ; Rebuilt by Monks 
 of Durham, 36; *Tower, 37, 
 
 Moreton Pinckney, Northants, Win- 
 dow, 129. 
 
 Mortain, Normandy, *Early French 
 Tower, 246. 
 
 Munich, Church near, 303. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naples, Style of, 301. 
 
 Narbonne, Aquitaine, £35. 
 
 Nevers, Cathedral, 226; Crypt, Apse, 
 and Transepts, 224, 226. 
 
 St. Stephen’s Church, 226. 
 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, Castle built, 42 ; 
 •Norman Keep, 43. 
 
 Norfolk, vide Castle Acre, Castle 
 Rising, Norwich. 
 
 Round Towers, 83. 
 
 Normandy, 11, 39, 221, 226 ; Moulding, 
 264 ; Vaults, 53 ; Towers, 82 ; Tooth 
 Ornament, 117. 
 
 Northampton, *Cross of Queen Elea- 
 nor, 176. 
 
 St. Peter’s Church, *Norman 
 
 Pier, 65 ; Round Buttress, 85. 
 
 Northamptonshire, vide Aston-le- 
 Walls, Barnack, Barton Seagrave, 
 Brixworth, Castle Ashby, Castor. 
 Chacombe, Cotterstock, * Cranford 
 St. Andrew, Duston, Earl’s Barton, 
 Finedon, Foiheringhay, Gedding- 
 ton, Glapthom, Hargrave, Irthling- 
 borough, King’s Sutton, Kisling- 
 bury, Longthorp, Moreton Pinck- 
 ney, Northampton, Ounrile, Peter- 
 borough, Polebrook, Raunds, Ring- 
 stead, Rushden, Strixton, Warming- 
 ton, Whiston, Woodcroft. 
 
 Northumberland, The Piets’ Wall, 
 6 ; vide also Alnwick, Aydon, Hex- 
 ham. Newcastle-on-Tyne, Prudhoe. 
 
 Norwich, Castle, 43; St. Ethelbert’s 
 Gate-house, 165. 
 
 Cathedral, removed, 33; Choir 
 
 and Transepts, 46 ; Dedication, 46 ; 
 Nave built, 56 ; Groined Roof, 182. 
 
 Notley Abbev, Bucks, *Corbel-table, 
 151, 152. 
 
 Nottinghamshire, vide Southwell. 
 
 Nouvion-le-vieux, Normandy, 256. 
 
 Noyers, Geoffrey of, 106. 
 
 Noyon, Picardie, Cathedral, 100, 254, 
 2*55; * Window, 241. 
 
 Nun Monkton Church, Yorkshire, 
 West Front, 154. 
 
 Nursted Court, Kent, 189. 
 
3i 6 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 O. 
 
 Oakham Castle, Rutland, Hall of, 96 ; 
 •Capital, 96 ; Pillars, 239. 
 
 Flore’s House, 158. 
 
 Ottery St. Mary, Devon, Church, 192. 
 Oundle Church, Northants, Windows, 
 137. 
 
 Over Church, Cambridgeshire, •Win- 
 dow, 168; *Buttress, 185. 
 
 Oxford Castle, Tower, 36. 
 
 Cathedral, 97 ; Clerestory, 61 ; 
 
 Vaulting, 81; Ribs in Aisles, 81; 
 Chapter-house, 109. 
 
 The Churches — All Saints’, 
 
 Tower, 215; St. Frideswide, 97 ; St. 
 Giles’, 98; Window, 127, 135; St. 
 Mary Magdalen, *Window, 166; 
 St.Mary-the- Virgin, Pinnacles round 
 the Spire, 185 ; *Ogee Moulding, 
 206 ; St. Michael’s, Tower, 36 ; St. 
 Peter’s-in-the East, Crypt of, 13; 
 •Norman Corbel-tables, 79. 
 
 The Colleges — All Souls, Quad- 
 rangle and Chapel, 211 ; Balliol, 
 Gothic Front, 194; Christ Church, 
 97,21 1 ; Vault over Staircase to Hall, 
 213 ; Jesus, Chapel, Choir, 20 ; East 
 Window of Chapel, 213 ; Lincoln, 
 Chapel, 212; Magdalen, 211 ; Tower, 
 202 ; Merton, *Window in Chapel, 
 163 ; *Window of Ante-Chapel, 197, 
 199 ; •North Door of Chapel, 200 ; 
 New College, Chapel, 193; •Win- 
 dow, 196 ; Oriel, Chapel, 213 ; Wad- 
 ham, Chapel, Choir, 20, 212. 
 
 Divinity Scnools, Panelling, 
 
 195 ; •Panelled Buttress, 208 ; The 
 Schools, 208. 
 
 Oxfordshire, vide Adderbury, Bices- 
 ter, Bloxham, Cassington, Charlton- 
 on-Otmoor, Chipping Norton, Cogges, 
 Cottesford, Cowley, Dorchester. 
 Haseley, Iffley, Islip, Middleton 
 Cheney, Milton, Oxford, Piddington, 
 Swinbrook, Westwell, Woodstock. 
 
 P. 
 
 Palestine, Churches in, 70. 
 
 Paris, 228 ; Sainte Chapelle, 142, 228, 
 256, *258 ; Windows in, 241. 
 
 Hotel de Cluny, 230. 
 
 Mont Martre Church, 229. 
 
 Notre Dame Cathedral, 100, 228, 
 
 230, 253; Work similar to Lincoln, 
 106 ; Choir, 100. 
 
 Paris, S. Denis, 143, 231, 254- •Fly- 
 ing-buttress, 237, 238. 
 
 S. Eustache, 230. 
 
 S. Genevieve Abbey, 230. 
 
 S. Germain des PrOs, 100, 229. 
 
 S.Germainl’Auxerrois,230,*260. 
 
 S. Gervais, 230. 
 
 S. Jacques de la Boucherie, 230. 
 
 S. Julien le Pauvre, 229. 
 
 S. Martin des Champs, •Win- 
 dow, 229. 
 
 S. M6dard, 230. 
 
 S. Merry, 230. 
 
 S. Nicholas des Champs, 230. 
 
 ■= S. Sevenn, 230. 
 
 Parma, Italy, 285. 
 
 Pavia, Italy, Charter-house, 301. 
 
 Pembroke Castle, 188. 
 
 •Penmon Church, Anglesey, 81 . 
 
 Penshurst Castle, Kent, 211. 
 
 House at, 189. 
 
 Perigord, Aquitaine, Byzantine 
 Churches in, 3. 
 
 Perigueux, 235 ; Church of S. Front, 
 223. 
 
 Perugia, Italy, Circular Window, 63. 
 
 Peterborough, Archdeacon’s House, 
 157. 
 
 Cathedral, 17 ; removed, 33 , 
 
 Choir commenced, 46 ; Norman Ceil- 
 ing, 53 ; Billet Omament, 55, 76 ; 
 Built, 56; *Norman Ribbed Vault, 
 80, 81 ; Plate -tra< ery, 127 ; Circular 
 Window, 139; * Pinnacle, 150. 
 
 Pevensey, Kent, Roman Wall, 6. 
 
 Piddington Church, Oxon, *Cusped 
 Window, 165. 
 
 Pisa, Italy, 289, 291 ; Peculiar Style m, 
 3 ; Contemporary with Early English 
 Style, 290 ; Buildings in, with Histo- 
 rical dates, 289. 
 
 Baptistery, the, 289, 290. 
 
 Campo Santo, 289, 290. 
 
 Cathedral, the, 283, 285, 289,290. 
 
 La Spina, Chapel, 291. 
 
 S. Caterina, 289. 
 
 S. M. della Spina, 289. 
 
 S. Paolo, 289, 290. 
 
 San Frediana, 289. 
 
 Plessis, Normandy, Castle of, 227. 
 
 Poictiers, France, Choir of Cathedral, 
 96. 
 
 Poitou, 218, 258, 306. 
 
 Polebrook Church, Northants, ’Win- 
 dow, 125, 126. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 317 
 
 Porchester Castle, Hants, •Roman Ma- 
 sonry, 5 ; Founded, 43. 
 
 — Church, Founded, 58 ; *West 
 
 Front, 88. 
 
 Prudhoe Castle, Northumberland, 189. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raby Castle, Durham, 189. 
 
 Ramsey Church, Hants, 17. 
 
 Raunds Church, Northants, # East 
 Window, 135; West W'indow, 137; 
 •Cusp, 141, Window, 154; Deco- 
 rated Roof, 184. 
 
 Ravenna, Italy, Tower at, 10; Coupled 
 Shafts, 240; Round Towers, 282 ; 
 Brickwork of, 282. 
 
 Campaniles at, 282. 
 
 S. Apollinare lr Classe, 283. 
 
 S. Vitale, 3, 282, 298. 
 
 Tomb of Gallia Placidia, 282. 
 
 Theodoric, 282. 
 
 Reading Abbey, Berks, commenced, 47» 
 
 Reculvers, Kent, Roman Wall at, 6. 
 
 Revival of the Gothic styles, 25. 
 
 Rheims, France, Diaper Ornament, 
 175; Windows, 240. 
 
 Cathedral, 142, 252 ; Porch, 159 ; 
 
 Windows in Apse, 142. 
 
 S. Remi, 100, 225 ; Change of 
 
 Style, 91 ; *Norman Buttresses, 85. 
 
 Rhine Provinces, 221. 
 
 Churches, 3, 90, 99, 142, 292. 
 
 Richard I. The Early English Style 
 introduced in his reign by Bishops 
 Hugh at Lincoln, Lucy at Winches- 
 ter, Eustace at Ely ; but the Norman 
 Style still lingered, 101. 
 
 II. The buildings in this reign 
 
 are chiefly in the Perpendicular 
 Style, but with considerable remains 
 of the Decorated, 194. 
 
 Richborough, Kent, Roman Wall at, 6. 
 
 Richmond Castle, Yorkshire, 42. 
 
 Rievaulx Abbey, Yorkshire, founded, 
 
 Ringstead Church, Northants, 126, 
 155 ; *Square-headed Window, 127 ; 
 •Broach Spire, 155. 
 
 Ripon, Yorkshire, Church built by 
 Wilfrid, 12. 
 
 Rochester Castle, Kent, 43. 
 
 Rochester Cathedral, 38; *Respond 
 from Gundulph’s Crypt, 38; Dedi- 
 cation, 46 ; Arcade, 56 ; Choir and 
 Transepts, 108, 159; Choir, 109. 
 
 Romainmotier, Switzerland, 236. 
 Rome, 266. 
 
 Arch over mouth of Cloaca 
 
 Maxima, 269. 
 
 Aventine, foundation of Fort 
 
 on, 271. 
 
 Basilica Jovis, 275. 
 
 Capitolium, use of saw - cut 
 
 sione, 269. 
 
 Circus Maximus, 279. 
 
 • Colosseum, Wall of, 270. 
 
 Emporium, 271. 
 
 Etruscan Walls, 267. 
 
 Forum Olitorium, 272. 
 
 House of Sallust, 270. 
 
 Minerva, Church of, 281. 
 
 Muro Torto, 270. 
 
 Opus Alexandrinum, 281. 
 
 Incertum, 270. 
 
 Reticulatum, 270, 271. 
 
 Palace of the Caesars, 280 ; W in- 
 
 dow in, 279. 
 
 Palatine Hill, 267 ; West side 
 
 of, 269. 
 
 Priscilla, House of, 274. 
 
 Porta S. Paolo, 271. 
 
 Pu'chrum Littus, 269. 
 
 Renaissance, 281. 
 
 S. Agnes, 280. 
 
 S. Alexius, 275. 
 
 S. Anastasia, 269. 
 
 S. Clement, 275, 277, *278. 
 
 SS. Cosmas and Damian, 272. 
 
 S. Croce, 276, 277 ; Window, 
 
 279. 
 
 S. John’s, 274. 
 
 S. Lorenzo, 272, 274; Tracery, 
 
 Window, 280. 
 
 S. Maria, or Ara Cceli, 281. 
 
 S. Maria ad Martyris, 272. 
 
 S. Maria in Domnica, 274, 275. 
 
 S. Maria in Trastevere, 274. 
 
 S. Maria Maggiore, 281. 
 
 SS. Nereo and Achilleo, 275. 
 
 S. Nicholas in Carcere, 272. 
 
 S. Peter’s, 274. 
 
 S. Prassede, 277, 280; Tracery 
 
 in Window, 280. 
 
 S. Prisca, 274. 
 
 S. Pudentiana, 274. 
 
 S. Silvester, 274 ; Window, 279. 
 
 S. Stephano Rotondo, 3. 
 
 Thermae of Titus, 274. 
 
 Tombs of Etruscans, 268. 
 
 Trastevere, the, 274. 
 
3i8 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 Rome, Via dei Cerchi, 269. 
 
 Walls of, 267—270, 279. 
 
 Wall of the Kings, 267 ; Wall of 
 
 Aurelian, 270; ‘Wall of Roma 
 Quadrata, 267, 269; ‘Wall of the 
 Latins, 268 ; Wall of Servius Tul- 
 lius, 269. 
 
 * Wooden Tower from Trajan’s 
 
 Column, 273. 
 
 Romsey Abbey Church, Hants, 87, 97 ; 
 •Norman Window, 61 ; *Norman 
 Apse, 87. 
 
 Rushden Church, Northants, Window, 
 138 ; Porch, 178. 
 
 Rutlandshire, vide Oakham. 
 
 S. 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral, 100, 159; Work 
 of Bishop Roger, 50; Type of the 
 Early English Style, 108 ; Chapter- 
 house, 112; ‘Clustered Pillar, 123; 
 Window in Transept, 131 ; Chapter- 
 house and Cloisters, 134 ; ‘Vaulting, 
 148. 
 
 Scotland, Glasgow Cathedral, 108. 
 
 Selby Abbey, Yorkshire, Window Tra- 
 cery, 166; ‘Early English Arches, 
 180 ; East and South Fronts, and 
 Interior of Choir, 187. 
 
 Sens Cathedral, France, 221 ; Vault 
 of Choir, 53 ; partially burnt, 93 ; 
 similar to Lisieux, 231. 
 
 Sherborne Castle, Dorset, *Norman 
 Vault, 79, 80. 
 
 • Minster, Norman Porch, 86. 
 
 Shobdon Church, Herefordshire, •Nor- 
 man Sculpture, 77, 78. 
 
 Shropshire, vide Acton Burnel, 
 Buddwas Abbey, Ludlow, Stokesay, 
 Uriconium. 
 
 Sicily, Churches in, 301. 
 
 Silchester, Hampshire, Roman wall, 6 ; 
 Basilica at, 9. 
 
 Skelton Church, Yorkshire, built, 111. 
 
 Soissons Cathedral, France, 100, 232, 
 250 ; Window, 240 ; ‘Capital, 244 ; 
 Choir, 250. 
 
 Churches near, 100. 
 
 Solihull Church, Warwickshire, ‘Win- 
 dow, 129 ; ‘Square Crocket, 207. 
 
 SoMKnsETSHiiiF,rideBath,Brislington, 
 Brist -1, Glastonbury, Ilton, Taunton, 
 Wells, Worle Hill, Wrington. 
 
 Somerton Castle, Lincolnshire, 156. 
 
 Sompting, Church, Sussex, ‘Saxon 
 Tower, 28. 
 
 Southampton, St. Michael’s Church 
 Font, 53; Houses at, 89. 
 
 Southwell Minster, Notts, Clerestory, 
 55 ; Norman Porch, 86 ; Chapter- 
 house, 164. 
 
 Spain, Ornamental Work, 121 ; mediae- 
 val architecture of, 302. 
 
 Sparsholt Church, Berks, ‘Open Tim- 
 ber Roof, 183, 184. 
 
 Staffordshire, Lichfield, 180—187. 
 
 St. Alban’s Abbey Church, 158 ; built, 
 38 ; Dedication, 46 ; ‘Norman Pier, 
 65 ; ‘Norman Moulding, 75 ; Norman 
 Turrets, 83, Choir, 211. 
 
 St. Cross Church, Winchester, 58, 69 ; 
 ‘Norman Base, 73; ‘Doorway, 146. 
 
 St. Germer, Picardy, Lady Chapel, 256. 
 
 St. Lo, Normandy, ‘Mouldings, 262. 
 
 St. Margaret-at-Cliffe Church, Kent, 
 •Norman Porch, 85, 86. 
 
 St. Sauveur sur Rille, Normandy, 236. 
 
 St. Taurin d’Evreux, Normandy, 236. 
 
 Stamford, Lincolnshire, All Saints’ 
 Church, *Porch, 203. 
 
 Stewkley Church, Bucks, Plan of, 54. 
 
 Stoke Golding, Leicestershire, Win- 
 dow Tracery, 166. 
 
 Stoke - in -Teignhead Church, Devon- 
 shire, ‘Capital, 207. 
 
 Stokesay Castle, Shropshire, 158. 
 
 House at, 189. 
 
 Stone Church, Kent, ‘Window, 134, 
 168. 
 
 Stourbridge, Cambridgeshire, ‘Scol- 
 loped Capital, 71. 
 
 Stow Church, Lincolnshire, built, 25. 
 
 Strixton Church, Northauts, Window, 
 135 ; ‘Front, 153, 154. 
 
 Suffolk, vide Bury St. Edmund’s, 
 Ilerringfleet, Little Saxhaiu, Little 
 Wenham. 
 
 Round Towers in, 83. 
 
 Sunningwell Church, Berks, Porch, 
 
 212 . 
 
 Surrey, vide Guildford. 
 
 Sussex, vide Cowdrav, Crowhurst, 
 Hurstmonceaux, Linchmere, Sompt- 
 ing, West Dean, West Tarring. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX , 
 
 319 
 
 Sutton Courtney, Berks, *N orman Win- 
 dow, 63 ; Mouldings of Window, 126. 
 
 ■ Manor-house at, 89, 
 
 189. 
 
 House at, 157. 
 
 Swinbrook Church, Oxon, * Window, 
 198. 
 
 Switzerland, Architecture of, 302; 
 Romainmotier, 236, 304. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tarring (West Tarring), Sussex, 157. 
 Taunton Church, Somerset, Tower, 
 202 . 
 
 Tewkesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, com- 
 menced, 46; Windows in, 137. 
 Thornbury Castle, Gloucestershire, 211. 
 Thorney Abbey, Cambridgeshire, 17. 
 Thornton Abbey, Lincolnsnire, Win- 
 dows, 137 ; Gate-house, 194. 
 Tidmarsh Church, Berks, 154. 
 Toscanella, Italy, S. Mary, 99, 283; 
 
 Circular Window, 63. 
 
 Toulouse Abbey Church, France, 225. 
 Tournus, France, 236. 
 
 U. 
 
 Uriconium, Shropshire, Basilica at, 9. 
 
 V. 
 
 Valognes, Normandy, Gothic Dome, 
 237. 
 
 Velay, Le Puy, France, Cathedral, 234. 
 
 Vendome, France, 248. 
 
 Venice, Italy, Style of, 294. 
 
 Venetian Palaces, 294 ; Doge’s Palace, 
 294, *296, *297. 
 
 Vercelli, Italy, 298 ; Church of S. An- 
 drea, 298, 299. 
 
 Versainville, Normandy, *Tower, 247. 
 
 Vezelay, Burgundy, Church, 226 ; 
 Choir, 232. 
 
 Vienne, Dauphiny, 223, 235, 236 ; Ca- 
 thedral, 104. 
 
 Villequier , N ormandy , *Mouldin gs, 263 . 
 
 Vorges, near Laon, 256. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wales, vide Beaumaris, Carew, Car- 
 narvon, Conway, Harlech, Manor- 
 beer, Pembroke, Penmon. 
 
 Walmer Church, Kent, *Norman 
 Moulding, 77. 
 
 Waltham Abbey, Essex, Clerestory, 61 ; 
 Piers, 64 ; Crosses, 176. 
 
 Wardbur Castle, Wilts, 194. 
 
 Warmington Church, Northants, *Win- 
 dow, 126; Early English Vault, 149 ; 
 Wooden Vaults, 184. 
 
 Warnford, Hants, Foundations of Hall 
 at, 89. 
 
 Warwick Castle, 189, 194. 
 
 St. Mary’s Church, Chancel, 193. 
 
 Warwickshire, vide Coventry, Soli- 
 hull, Warwick, Wotton-Wawen. 
 
 Wearmouth, vide Monks’ Wearmouth. 
 
 Wells Cathedral, Somerset, Bp. Joce- 
 line’s Work, 100; Nave and West 
 Front, 104, 159; Lady Chapel, 112; 
 Chapter-house, 165. 
 
 Bishop’s Palace, 156 ; Banquet- 
 
 ing-hall, 165; Windows, 133; Vicars’ 
 Close, 194. 
 
 West Dean, Sussex, House at, 158. 
 
 Westminster Abbey, 154; Founded 
 by Edward the Confessor, 32 ; Chapel 
 of the Pix, 32; Capitals, 71 ; Abbey 
 enlarged, 109; Triforium Arcade, 
 *100, 134; ^Moulded Capital, 120; 
 *Arch, North Transept, 123; Chap- 
 ter-house, 134; *Circular Window, 
 139, 140 ; Windows in Chapter-house, 
 142 ; ^Spherical Window, 140 ; But- 
 tress, 151 ; Choir and Transept, 159 ; 
 Effigy of Queen Eleanor, 164, 176 ; 
 Window in South Cloisters, 167 ; 
 South Transept, 169 ; Diaper Orna- 
 ment, 175; *Tudor Flower in Henry 
 VHth’s Chapel, 206 ; Henry Vllth’s 
 Chapel, 204, 211 ; Towers, 214. 
 
 Hall, *Norman Moulding, 75 ; 
 
 Roof and Walls, 194. 
 
 Westmoreland (Brougham), 42, 189. 
 
 West Tarring, Sussex, Parsonage- 
 house, 157. 
 
 Westwell Church, Oxon, East Win- 
 dow, 169. 
 
 Whiston Church, Northants, 211. 
 
 Wickham Church, Berks, *Belfry Win- 
 dow, 30, 
 
320 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 William I., or the Conqueror, style of 
 his time, 41. 
 
 II., or Rufus, style of his 
 
 time, 45. 
 
 Willingham Church, Cambridge, Stone 
 Roof, 183. 
 
 Wiltshire, vide Boyton, Bradenstoke, 
 Bradford, Chalfield,Edington,Frome, 
 Malmesbury, Salisbury, Wardour. 
 
 Wimborne Minster, Dorset, 130 ; *Win- 
 dows, 131. 
 
 Winchester Cathedral, 17 ; Rebuilt by 
 Ethelwolf, 18; Crypt and Transepts 
 built, 45 ; Dedication, 46 ; ^Interior 
 of North Transept, 47 ; * Section of 
 Transept, 48 ; *Masonry in Transept, 
 49 ; Fall of Tower, 47 ; Font, 53 ; 
 ♦Capital, North Transept, 70 ; *Base, 
 North Transept, 73 ; *Base and Foot 
 Ornament, 73 ; Bishop Lucy’s Work, 
 100 ; Presbytery, 107 ; Vaulting, 148; 
 Fiying Buttress, 151 ; *Oak-leaf Fo- 
 liage, 174 ; Wooden Vault, 184 ; 
 Changle of Style in, 193 ; West End, 
 195 ; Screens and Stalls with Cano- 
 pies, 210. 
 
 College, 193. 
 
 King’s Hall, Windows, 130, 
 
 *132, *157. 
 
 Windsor Castle, 156 ; Cloisters, 192 ; 
 St. George’s Chapel, 211. 
 
 Wittenham (Long), Berks, Porch, 179. 
 
 Woodcroft Castle, Northants, 158. 
 
 Woodstock Church, Oxon, Window, 129. 
 
 Wootten Church, Gloucestershire, 159 ; 
 Norman Capital, 72. 
 
 Worcester, Roman Wall at, 6. 
 
 Cathedral, Crypt, 45; Bands 
 
 round Pillars, 123 ; Choir, 109. 
 
 Worcestershire, vide Bredon, Eve- 
 sham, Leigh, Great Malvern, Wor- 
 cester. 
 
 Wotton-Wawen Church, Warwick, 38. 
 
 Wressel Castle, Yorkshire, 194. 
 
 Wringtou, Somerset, Church Tower, 
 
 202 . 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yate, Gloucestershire, House at, 89. 
 
 York, Roman Wall at, 6 ; Church built 
 by Wilfrid, 12. 
 
 Minster, South Transept, 109; 
 
 ♦Arches in North Transept, 111; 
 Chapter-house. 112 ;*Mouldings from 
 the North Transept, 117 ; ‘Crockets 
 from Tomb of Archbishop Grev, 118 ; 
 North Transept, 160; ‘Window in 
 Passage to Chapter - house, 164 ; 
 Wooden Vault. 149 ; Nave, 165, 182, 
 184, 188 ; Change of Style in, 193 ; 
 ♦Clerestory Window, 199. 
 
 St. Mary’s Church, *Belfry Win- 
 dow, 30. 
 
 St. Maurice’s Church, Window, 
 
 63, *64, 127. 
 
 Yorkshire, vide Beverley, Bolton, 
 Bvland, Conisborough, Fountains 
 Abbey, Gisburne, Howden, Hull, 
 Kirkdale, Kirkstall, Markenfield, 
 Nun-Monkton, Richmond, Rievaulx, 
 Ripon, Selby, Skelton, Wressel, York. 
 
 Ypres, Belgium, Diaper Ornament, 175- 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX 
 
 *** The figures refer to the pages where examples are given, or the 
 words more fully explained. 
 
 Abacus , the flat member at the top of a capital, originally a square 
 tile, and in the Classical styles always square : this form is re- 
 tained in French Gothic, 244 ; and in Norman, 72 ; but in English 
 Gothic it is usually round, sometimes octagonal. Early English, 
 121 ; Decorated, 175 ; Perpendicular, 207. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Period , 7 — 18 ; Cathedral, plan of, 7 — 9. 
 
 Apse, the semicircular space at the end of a building. In Roman 
 Basilicas = the tribune, 2. In Christian churches of the twelfth 
 century the chancel generally terminated by an apse, 54, 55, 87. 
 
 Arcade, a series of arches, usually applied to the small ornamental 
 arches only. Norman, 51, 61, 62, 67, 68; intersecting, 57; Early 
 English, 107 ; Decorated, 181. 
 
 Arches, Norman, 47, 66; Early English, 111, 123; Decorated Eng- 
 lish, 180 : Perpendicular, 209 ; Early French, 240 ; Decorated 
 French, 258 ; Flamboyant, 262. 
 
 Ashlar-work, masonry of squared or hewn stones, as distinguished 
 from that composed of Bubble, rough or unhewn stones: em 
 ployed by the Romans, 4. 
 
 Ball-flower, an ornament peculiar to the Decorated Style, 167, 173. 
 
 Baluster, in windows, a small pillar swelling in the middle. 
 Saxon, 30, 31. 
 
 Band, a ring round a shaft, as if to bind it to the larger pillar : it 
 occurs in late Norman work, 65 ; but is usually Early English, 
 104, 125 ; and is seldom used afterwards. 
 
 Barrel-vault, resembling the inside of a barrel ; called also Wagon- 
 headed and tunnel, 80. 
 
 Bar-tracery, that kind of window -tracery which distinguishes 
 Gothic work, resembling more a bar of iron twisted into various 
 forms than stone, 134, 164, &c. 
 
 Bases, Norman, 73 ; Early»English, 122; Decorated, 176, 181 ; Per- 
 pendicular, 201; Early French, 245. 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 O LOSS A RIAL INDEX. 
 
 Basilica , the name applied by the Romans to their public halls, 
 either of justice, or exchange, or other business ; used as churches, 
 and afterwards served as models for churches, 1 ; their plan, 2. 
 This name is used for a church in describing Canute’s church, 24. 
 
 Battering , sloping inwards from the base. 
 
 Battlement , a notched or indented parapet, originally used on 
 castles, but afterwards employed as an ornament on churches, 
 especially in the Perpendicular Style, 191, 210; sometimes 
 pierced, or open, 202. 
 
 Bead, a small round moulding.; also an ornament resembling a row 
 of beads, 72, 75. 
 
 Billet , an ornament much used in Norman work, 76. 
 
 Blind-story : see Triforium, 48. 
 
 Boss, a projecting ornament in a vault at the intersection of the 
 ribs, Norman, 80 ; Early English, 149. 
 
 Broach-spire , a spire without any parapet at its base, shewing the 
 junction of the octagonal spire on the square tower, 155. 
 
 Buckle, or Mask, a kind of corbel, 152. 
 
 Buttresses, supports to the wall. Norman, 84 ; Early English, 
 149—151,153; Decorated, 189 ; Perpendicular, 208 ; Early French, 
 238, 246. 
 
 Byzantine Style. The term includes the styles of architecture 
 which prevailed in the Byzantine empire from the foundation 
 of Constantinople, a.d. 328, to its final conquest by the Turks. 
 The plan of these buildings was generally that of a Greek cross, 
 with a large cupola rising from the centre, and a smaller one 
 over each of the arms of the cross, and sometimes two on the 
 nave : arches, round or horse-shoe. Specimens found in France. 3. 
 
 Canopy, the head of a niche over an image ; also the ornamental 
 moulding over a door or window, or tomb; usually crocketed, 
 and with a finial at the top, 180 — 182, 185, 203. 
 
 Canute, or Cnut : the style of his time, 24 ; his journey to Rome, 217. 
 
 Capitals: the cushion, 51, 52, 57; Norman, 70 — 72; Transitional, 
 96; Early English, 110, 119, 120; Decorated, 176; Perpendi- 
 cular, 207; Early French, 243; Decorated French, 258; Flam- 
 boyant, 263. 
 
 Carving, on early work executed with the axe only, 51 ; on later 
 work with the chisel, 51, 52, 57, &c. See Sculpture. 
 
 Castles, Norman, 41; Early English. 156; Decorated, 188. 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 323 
 
 Ceiling , the under covering of a roof, floor, &c., concealing the 
 timbers, 183, 209. 
 
 Chamfer , a sloping surface forming the bevelled edge of a square 
 pier, moulding, 75, 173, or buttress, 150, 184, 247, when the angle 
 is said to be chamfered off : the two ends of the chamfer are 
 often ornamented, and these ornaments are called chamfer- 
 terminations. 
 
 Cinque Cento , the Italian for what we call the sixteenth century, 20. 
 
 Cinquefoil , an ornamental foliation or feathering of five leaves 
 or cusps, 138. 
 
 Clerestory , or Clearstory , the upper story of a church, as dis- 
 tinguished from the triforium or blind-story below it, in which 
 the openings, though resembling windows, are usually blank or 
 blind, not glazed, 48. 
 
 Clustered Pillar , a pillar formed of a cluster of small shafts, or 
 made to appear so, 123, 176, and a distinguishing feature of the 
 Gothic styles. In Classical and Norman architecture the columns 
 are plain and not clustered, and this is often the case in French 
 Gothic also. 
 
 Coping , the sloping termination of a wall or a buttress, to throw 
 off the water, 151, 185 ; when forming the top of a buttress, it is 
 also called a gablet, or little gable. 
 
 Corbel , a projecting stone to carry a weight, usually carved. In 
 Norman work the corbels are often made into grotesque heads, 63, 
 and the eaves of the roof are carried by a row of corbels called 
 a corbel-table, 79. In the Early English Style the corbels are 
 often carved into the form called a mask or a buckle, 152, but 
 heads are also commonly used, 111, or foliage, 152. In the Deco- 
 rated Style they are often the heads of a king and a bishop, 
 especially those carrying the dripstone over a door, 178, or a 
 window. In the Perpendicular Style the moulding is often 
 continued, and forms a square or round termination, called 
 a dripstone termination, 200. 
 
 Corbel-table , the external cornice in the Norman Style, 78; and 
 used also in the Early English, 152, but not afterwards. 
 
 Cornice, the horizontal moulded projection at the top of a building, 
 or of one division of a building, 152 — 167. 
 
 Crocket , an ornament peculiar to the Gothic styles, usually re- 
 sembling a leaf half opened, and projecting from the upper edge 
 of a canopy or pyramidal covering. The term is supposed to be 
 
324 
 
 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 derived from the resemblance to a shepherd’s crook. It is not 
 used in the Norman Style. Early English, 118 ; Decorated, 177, 
 181, 182; Perpendicular, 198, 207; Early French, 238; Flam- 
 boyant, 262. 
 
 Cruciform Churches. In the western parts of the Roman empire 
 the Latin form was adopted, i.e. the nave long, the choir and 
 transepts short ; in the eastern, the Greek form, i.e. the four 
 arms of equal length, 2. 
 
 Crypt , a vault beneath a church, generally beneath the chancel 
 only; used sometimes for exhibition of relics, 12, 13. Plan of 
 the Saxon one at Hexham, 14. 
 
 Cupola , or Dome , a circular concave roof of skilful construction, 
 used first in Byzantium, and frequently for covering the portion 
 where the transepts united with the choir and nave, and over 
 each transept or arm of the cross, in the Greek churches, 3. 
 
 Cusp , an ornament used in the tracery of windows, screens, &c., 
 to form foliation. It is at first solid, 139, 140 ; then pierced, 141 ; 
 afterwards often enriched with carving, 110, 129, 167, 181. 
 
 Decorated English Style, the second Gothic style. Windows, shew- 
 ing geometrical tracery, 163, 164, 167 ; with rear arch and hanging 
 foliation, 165 ; flowing and reticulated, 166 ; square-headed, 168 ; 
 segmental headed, 169 ; circular, 170 ; spherical, 171. Mouldings, 
 172, 173; Ornaments, 173 — 175; Pillar, 176; Niche or Tabernacle, 
 with figure of Queen Eleanor, 177 ; Doorway, 178 ; Porch, 179 ; 
 Arches, 180; Arcade, 181; Piscina, 182; Vaults, 182; Roofs, 183; 
 Buttresses, 184, 185 ; Fonts, 186 ; Fronts, 187. 
 
 Decorated French Style, 258. 
 
 Diaper, ornamental work cut on che surface of the wall, originally 
 painted in imitation of hangings, 110, 175. 
 
 Doorways, Norman, 59; Early English, 144; Decorated English, 
 146; Perpendicular, 200, 201; Early French, 243; Decorated 
 French, 259 ; Flamboyant, 260. 
 
 Dripstone, the projecting moulding over a door, 146, 178; or a win- 
 dow, 153, to throw off the wet ; but it is also used in the interior 
 over arches, 110 ; and is sometimes called a hood-mould, or, when 
 it is square, a label, 201. 
 
 Early English Style, the first Gothic style. Abacus, 121 ; Arcade, 
 107; Arch, 111, 123; Base, 122; Boss, 149; Buttress, 149, 151; 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 325 
 
 Capitals, 120; Corbel-table, 152; Cusp, 140; Doorways, 145, 146 ; 
 Front, 153 ; Mouldings, 112 — 117 ; Pillars, 123 ; Pinnacle, 150 ; 
 Porch, 147; Spire, 155; Vault, 148; Windows, 125; circular, 139, 
 140 ; progress of Window-tracery, 126 — 144. 
 
 Early French Style. Apse, 238; Pillars, 239; Arches, 240; Win- 
 dows, 240 — 242; Mouldings, 243; Doorways, 243; Capitals, 244; 
 Bases, 245 ; Ornaments, 245 ; Buttresses, 238, 246 ; Towers, 246 ; 
 Spires, 248 ; Fronts, 249. 
 
 Eleventh Century , architecture of, 22 ; a great building time, 24 ; 
 characteristic features, 24 ; Towers, 25; Windows, 28. 
 
 Elizabeth , the style of the Renaissance, and a mixed style ; chiefly 
 houses, 212. 
 
 Entablature, the horizontal block of stone or masonry lying across 
 the top of two columns, found in Classical architecture ; but bj' 
 degrees the arch substituted for it, 2. 
 
 Fan-tracery Vault, a rich kind of vaulting much used in the 
 Perpendicular Style, and peculiar to England, 204. 
 
 Feathering, or Foliation, an arrangement of small arcs or foils, 
 separated by projecting points or cusps, 140. 
 
 Fillet, a small square band used on the face of mouldings, 116. 
 
 Finial, the ornament which finishes the top of a pinnacle, a canopy, 
 or a spire, usually carved into a bunch of foliage, 180, 182, 185, 
 186, 203. 
 
 Flamboyant Style, 260; Doorways, 260; Windows, 261; Arches, 
 262 ; Crockets, 263 ; Mouldings, 263 ; Pillars, 264 ; Parapets, 
 
 264. 
 
 Flying Buttress, or Arch Buttress, an arch carried over the roof 
 of an aisle from the external buttress to the wall of the clere- 
 story, to support the vault, 151. 
 
 Foils, Foliation , the small arcs or spaces between the cusps or 
 featherings of a window, 140. 
 
 Foliage, sculptured ornament in imitation of the leaves of plants, 
 at first very rude and in conventional forms only, 73, 78, 96, 119, 
 149; afterwards closely copied from nature, 174; and again de- 
 generating into hard square and flat forms, 207. 
 
 Foliated. This term is applied to window-tracery, &c., which has 
 cusps, 141. 
 
 Foliated Circle : in the tracery of windows, the earliest kinds 
 of bar-tracery, as at Salisbury and Westminster, 110; before 
 
326 
 
 GLOSS ARIA L INDEX . 
 
 trefoils and quatrefoils and other geometrical forms were in- 
 troduced. 
 
 Font, Baptismal, Decorated, 186. 
 
 French Gothic Styles, 230 — 265; the Transition in France, 228; 
 in Anjou, 232; in Auvergne, 234. The Early French Style, 236 ; 
 the Decorated French Style, 258 ; the Flamboyant Style, 260. 
 
 Fronts: Norman, 87; Early English, 152; Decorated, 187, 191; 
 Perpendicular, 210. 
 
 Gable, the end wall of a building sloping to a point, 153. 
 
 Gablets, small gables, 151, 184, 185. 
 
 Gargoyle, or Gurgoyle, a projecting water-spout, often ornamented 
 with grotesque figures, 185. 
 
 Geometrical Tracery : this term is applied when the openings are 
 of the form of trefoils, quatrefoils, spherical triangles, &c. This 
 kind of tracery came into use in the time of Edward I., 163, 164. 
 
 Gothic, the style of architecture which flourished in the western 
 part of Europe from the end of the twelfth century to the 
 revival of the Classical styles in the sixteenth, 19. 
 
 Herring-bone masonry, flat stones or tiles placed like herring-bones 
 in rough walling, 27. 
 
 Holland, architecture of, 305. 
 
 Impost-moulding, the point from which an arch springs. Saxon, 
 23, 30, 81. 
 
 Jambs, the sides of a window opening, or doorway, 24. 
 
 Joints, the interstices between the stones, filled with mortar, wide 
 in early work, fine in late work, 34, 50. 
 
 Lancet Window, a window the lights of which are of the form of 
 a surgeon’s lancet, chiefly used in the thirteenth century, but 
 occasionally at all periods. At first they are single, then two, 
 three, 125, 131, or more together, separated by solid masonry, 
 163, which is gradually reduced in thickness until mere mullions 
 are produced, 126; several lancets are then grouped under a 
 single arch, 136. 
 
 Long-and-short Work, long stones placed, one vertically up the 
 angle of a building, and the alternate stones flat, as binding 
 stones in the wall, as at Earl’s Barton, 28. 
 
GLOSS A RIAL INDEX . 
 
 327 
 
 Mask , or Buckle , an ornament used on corbels in the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries : when looked at in front it often re- 
 sembles a buckle, but the shadow of it on the wall is the profile 
 of a human face, 128, 152. 
 
 Masonry, Roman, 3; Rubble, 4; Ashlar, 6; Long-and-Short, 27; 
 wide-jointed, 34 ; wide and fine-jointed, 49. 
 
 Monastery, in early times — a church, with three or four priests 
 attached, 17, often called Minster. 
 
 Mortar , Roman, 6. 
 
 Mouldings : Norman, 56, 60, 61, 74 — 76; Early English, 113 — 117; 
 Decorated English, 172, 173; Perpendicular, 205 — 207; Early 
 French, 243; Decorated French, 258; Flamboyant, 263. 
 
 Mullion, the vertical bar dividing the lights of a window : it oc- 
 curs in very late Norman work, 64, but is essentially a Gothic 
 feature. 
 
 Newel , a circular stone staircase, generally attached to one angle of 
 a tower, 10. 
 
 Niche, or Tabernacle, a recess for an image. Norman, 73; Deco- 
 rated, 177; Perpendicular, 210. 
 
 Norman Style , the, commences in the last quarter of the eleventh 
 century, and ceases during the last quarter of the twelfth, 19. 
 Edward the Confessor’s work, 32: Masonry, 34; introduction of 
 the Style from Normandy, 39; important buildings of the period 
 were Castles, 41; Plans of Norman Castles, 42; Cathedrals and 
 Churches built and restored, 44; fine-jointed Masonry, 50; pro- 
 gress in the Style as shewn in Canterbury Cathedral, 51 ; Roofs, 
 53; Chancel, 54; Arch, 55; Tympanum, 55; Doorways, 59; Win- 
 dows, 61; Arches, 65; round-headed, 65; of horse-shoe form, 66; 
 stilted, 66; pointed, 67; pointed, previous to the transition, 69. 
 Mouldings, 54, 60, 74 ; Chevron, 75 ; Sunk Star, 76 ; Abacus and 
 string, 76; Billet, 77; Beak-head, 76; Cat’s Head 76; — Towers, 
 81 ; belfry-story often added, 82 ; round, 83 ; Turrets, 83 ; — Apse, 
 53 ; Churches of rich character, 56 ; examples of, 56, 57. Arcades, 
 intersecting, 61, 67, 68. Piers, square, 65. Pillars, round, 66. 
 Triforium, 69. Capitals, 70 ; cushion-shaped, 70 ; rude Ionic, 70 ; 
 scollopped, 71 ; sometimes carved after their erection, 72 ; trans- 
 itional, 96. Abacus, 72. Bases, 73. Niches, or Tabernacles, 73. 
 Ornament, sculptured, 55, 61, 77 ; shallow in early work, 77 ; deep 
 and rich in late work, 77. Corbel-table, 78. Vaults, 52, 79 ; barrel, 
 
GL0SSAR1AL INDEX. 
 
 328 
 
 80 ; groined without ribs, 80 ; groined with ribs, 80 ; over a wide 
 space, 81. Buttresses, 84. Porches, 85. Fronts, 87. 
 
 Oculus, a term applied to the large circular window at the west 
 end of a church, common in foreign churches, but not usual in 
 England, 63. 
 
 Ogee, a moulding formed by the combination of a round and 
 hollow, 206. 
 
 Ornaments : the Billet, 77, and the Chevron or Zig-zag, charac- 
 teristic of Norman work, 61, 75; the Tooth-ornament, of Early 
 English, 112, 114, 117 ; the Ball-flower, of the Decorated, 174; the 
 Tudor-flower, of Perpendicular, 206. 
 
 Panelling , a feature characteristic of the Perpendicular Style, 195, 
 206 , 208 , 210 . 
 
 Parapet, the low wall at the top of a building forming the outline 
 against the sky, at first solid, then often divided into battle- 
 ments, afterwards pierced with ornamental open-work, 264. 
 
 Perpendicular Style. Windows, 196 — 199; Doorways, 200, 201; 
 Porches, 203,204; Buttresses, 208; Towers, 201; Vaults with fan - 
 tracery, 204 ; Mouldings, 201 ; Tudor-flower, 206 ; Capitals, 207 ; 
 Crocket, 207 ; Open Timber Roofs, 208 ; Panelled, 209 ; Panelled 
 Front, 210. 
 
 Pier-arches : the main arches of the nave or choir resting on piers 
 are so called, 48. 
 
 Piers, Norman, 48, 64. 
 
 Pilaster Strips , a term used to describe the vertical projecting 
 parts of the towers supposed to be Saxon, 27, 28. 
 
 Pillars, Norman, 51, 65; Early English, 104, 123; Decorated Eng- 
 lish, 176; Early French, 239; Flamboyant, 263. 
 
 Pinnacle, a sort of small spire usually terminating a buttress. 
 Norman, 82; Early English, 150; Decorated, 177, 185. 
 
 Piscina, a water- drain in a church placed on the right-hand side of 
 an altar for the use of the priest. Decorated, 182. 
 
 Plate-tracery, the earliest kind of tracery, cut out of the solid 
 block or plate of stone, 62, 63, 105, 131, 132, before the lighter 
 kind of tracery, called Bar-tracery, was introduced, but often 
 continued afterwards. 
 
 Plinth, the projecting member forming the lower part of a base, or 
 of a wall, 73, 74 
 
GLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 Pointed. First, Middle, and Third Pointed Styles, synonymous 
 with the more generally received names of Early English, Deco- 
 rated, and Perpendicular, 20. 
 
 Pointed Arch. This is usually a Gothic feature, or a mark of trans- 
 ition to it, but it occurs also in earlier work, before the change 
 of style, as at Fountains Abbey, Malmesbury, 68, Kirkstall, 69. 
 
 Porch , a projecting structure to protect a doorway. Norman, 86; 
 Early English, 147; Decorated, 179; Perpendicular, 203, 204; 
 Early French, 244; Flamboyant, 260. 
 
 Pyramidal Hoof, on tower, 28. 
 
 Quoins , corner-stones, 27. 
 
 Renaissance, Style of the, in England called Elizabethan or Jaco- 
 bean, 212, 213. 
 
 Rib, a projecting band or moulding on the surface of a vault, 
 80, 149. 
 
 Roll, or Scroll Moulding, 172; Roll and Fillet, 116. 
 
 Romanesque, the French term for the debased Roman styles, in- 
 cluding the Norman Style, 19. 
 
 Roman buildings, remains of in England, 6, 7. 
 
 Roman manner, i.e. of stone, 16. 
 
 Roman walls, characteristics of, 4. 
 
 Roofs of open timber- work made ornamental ; but these were fre- 
 quently, in fact, ceilings, having an outer roof of rough work 
 over them. Decorated, 183 — 185 ; Perpendicular, 208. 
 
 Rubble-work, masonry of unhewn stones, and in early buildings 
 without mortar, 4. 
 
 Saxon Style : earlier buildings of wood, 9, 10 ; Crypts, 13 ; docu^ 
 mentary evidence relating to buildings, 16; so-called Towers, 
 24 — 26. Vide Eleventh Century. 
 
 Scroll-moulding, a characteristic of the Decorated Style, 172. 
 
 Sculpture, when early, always shallow, 63; executed with the axe, 
 63 ; Norman, 71. 
 
 Shaft, a small slender pillar usually attached to a larger one, or in 
 the sides of a doorway or a window, Norman, 65; Early English, 
 110, 111, 119, 123; Decorated, 176; Perpendicular, 200. In the 
 Early English Style they are often detached from the wall or 
 pillar, 119, 134. 
 
 Z 
 
330 
 
 OLOSSARIAL INDEX. 
 
 
 Spherical triangle , a triangular opening with curved sides, used in 
 clere-story windows, as at Cranford, 171; and in the tracery 
 lights of other windows, as at Merton, 163, and York, 164. 
 
 Spire , an essentially Gothic feature. Early English, 155; Early 
 French, 249. 
 
 Squinches, the small arches across the angles of a square tower to 
 carry an octagonal spire, 155. 
 
 Stone churches , first built, 9. 
 
 String-course , a horizontal moulding or course of masonry usually 
 applied to the one carried under the windows of the chancel, 
 both externally and internally, as at Strixton, 153. 
 
 Sunk-chamfer moulding , a feature of the Decorated Style, 173. 
 
 Tabernacle : see Niche. 
 
 Timber, Saxon buildings imitate, 7, 27. 
 
 Tooth-ornament , an ornament resembling a row of teeth, some- 
 times called Dog’s Tooth and Shark’s Tooth. M. de Caumont 
 and the French antiquaries call it Violette, and it often bears 
 considerable resemblance to that flower when half expanded; 
 it occurs in Anjou in work of the twelfth century, in England 
 it is rarely used before the thirteenth, when it is so abundant as 
 to form one of the characters of the Early English Style, 111, 114, 
 116, 117. In France it is used freely in Normandy, but scarcely 
 at all in the Domaine Roy ale. 
 
 Towers, supposed Saxon, 25 — 28; Norman, 36, 37, 42, 81, 82, 83; 
 Early English, 155; Perpendicular, 202; Early French, 246, 247. 
 
 Tracery in Windows, Panels, or Parapets : beginning of in Norman 
 work, 61 — 63; progress of in Early English, 128 — 141; Decorated 
 English, 162 — 170; Perpendicular, 196 — 199; Decorated French, 
 258 ; Flamboyant, 260. 
 
 Transept , the portion of the building crossing the nave, and pro- 
 ducing a cruciform plan, 2. 
 
 Transition. The period of a change of style, during which there 
 is frequently an overlapping of the stylep, one building being in 
 the old style, another in the new, at the same period. The last 
 quarter of each century was a period of transition, or change 
 from the style of that century to the style of the one which came 
 after, 19 ; examples of at Canterbury, &c., 90, 94. This term is 
 chiefly applied to the great change from the Norman, or Roman- 
 esque, to the Gothic Style, 90 — 100; but may also be applied in 
 
GLOSSAXIAL INDEX. 33 I 
 
 a minor degree to each of the subsequent changes of style, 161, 
 190 ; in France, 228. 
 
 Transom , the transverse horizontal piece across the mullions of 
 a window; it occurs sometimes in Early English, 132, and 
 Decorated work, but is far more common in the Perpendicular 
 Style, 196. 
 
 Tribune , the semicircular space at one end of the Basilica, for the 
 judges. In Churches copied from the Basilicas it was retained 
 as the apse, 2. 
 
 Triforium, or blind-story, the middle story of a large church, over 
 the pier-arches and under the clere-story windows ; it is usually 
 ornamented by an arcade, and fills the space formed by the ne- 
 cessary slope of the aisle roofs : see Winchester, 48, 68 ; Canter- 
 bury, 94; Beverley, 107; Westminster, 110. 
 
 Tudor-flower, an ornament belonging to the Perpendicular Style, 
 but not confined to the Tudor period, 206. 
 
 Turrets , small towers. Norman, 82. 
 
 Twelfth Century : vide Norman. 
 
 Tympanum, the space between the flat lintel of a doorway and the 
 
 | arch over it, usually filled with sculpture, 55. 
 
 Vault , barrel-shaped, 25, 80; Early Norman, 32, 52; groined with- 
 out ribs, 80 : with ribs, 80; over a wide space, 81 ; Early English, 
 148 ; Decorated, 182 ; Perpendicular, 205 ; Early French, 233. 
 
 Windows, in Saxon work triangular-headed, 29 : Norman, 43, 61 — 
 64; Early English, 105, 124 — 141; Decorated English, 161 — 172; 
 Perpendicular, 196 — 200 ; Early French, 229, 240 — 242 ; Decorated 
 French, 258 ; Flamboyant, 261. 
 
 Wooden Churches , in Saxon times, 9. 
 
 Drinitb bg Jarlur Crofon garb, ®*forb. 
 

 
 
 
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