G ISEU M- A RICHTER, THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN P o T T E K V THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART PUBLICATION OP THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY BY GISELA M. A. RICHTER OF THIS BOOK 500 COPIES WERE PRINTED IN MAY 1923 500 ADDITIONAL COPIES WERE PRINTED IN MARCH 1924 THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART THE CRAFT OF ATHENIAN POTTERY AN INVESTIGATION OF THE TECHNIQUE OF BLACK-FIGURED AND RED-FIGURED ATHENIAN VASES BY GISELA M. A. RICHTER, Litt.D. ASSOCIATE CURATOR, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICAL ART NEW HAVEN Y ALE UNIVERSITY^ PRESS LONDON • HUMPHREY MILFORD • OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS MDCCCCXXIV COPYRIGHT 1923 BY THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA CONTENTS Page List of Illustrations.vii Preface .......... xi Chapter I. Technical Processes in the Making of Modern Pottery and their Application to the Tech¬ nique of Ancient Vases.1 Preparation of the Clay. .1 Ingredients and Properties. 1 Washing .......... 2 Wedging .......... 2 Fashioning the Vases ........ 4 (1) Wheelwork ........ 4 Types of Wheel ........ 4 Throwing ......... 7 Turning ......... 10 Work in Sections ....... 15 Polishing ......... 19 Attachment of handles ...... 20 (2) Building.26 (3) Moulding ........ 27 Firing the Vases.29 Production of Temperature ...... 29 Types of Kilns.32 Packing the Kiln. 34 Firing ... 35 Number of Firings ....... 37 Injuries in the Firing ....... 44 Glazing .......... 47 Red Ochre Wash. 53 Were Athenian Vases Made for Every-Day Use? . . 59 Chapter II. Representations of Ancient Potters . 64 Fashioning the Vases.64 Decorating the Vases ........ 70 Firing the Vases. 75 Miscellaneous Scenes ........ 78 Representations Wrongly Interpreted as Pottery Scenes . 83 Potter’s Implements ........ 84 jj CONTENTS Page Chapter III. References to the Pottery Craft in Ancient Literature.87 Preparation of the Clay.• ■ Fashioning the Vases ....... S9 (1) Wheelwork ...•■■•■ 85) (2) Building . ..93 Firing the Vases 94 Bed Ochre Wash 96 Porosity of Greek Pottery . . . . • .98 The Status of Potters ....... 98 Conclusion . . . . ■ • ■ ■ .106 Selected Bibliography.109 Index.HI ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Wedging (a) 3 2. Wedging (b).4 3. Kick-wheel with treadle ....... 5 4. Kick-wheel with disk.C 5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle ... 6 Processes of throwing: 6. Centering ball ......... 7 7. Pressing clay down 8. Squeezing clay into cone ....... 7 9. Inserting thumb ......... 7 10. Making cylinder ......... 8 11. Making bowl 8 12. Making jar .......... 8 13. Making bottle ......... 8 14. Turning a vase ......... 10 15. Turned foot.11 16. Foot left as thrown ........ 12 17. Turning marks on outside of vase . . . . .13 18. Turning marks on inside of vase . . . . .13 19. Finishing marks left in handwork . . . . .14 20. Unturned inside of amphora ....... 15 21. Vase thrown in sections ....... 16 22. Sections in place ......... 17 23. Vase after turning.17 24. Wet cellar .......... 18 25. Detail of kylix showing joint ...... 19 26. Detail of amphora showing difference between polished and unpolished surfaces ........ 20 27. Attachment of handles ........ 21 28-33. Athenian vases showing treatment of handles . . 22, 23, 24 34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough . 25 35. Making coils .......... 26 36. Vase poured in a mould.28 37. Inside of moulded vase.29 38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould . . . .30 39. Open kiln.31 40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware.32 41. Open kiln showing saggers.33 42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware ....... 34 43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch . . .37 44. Design on red-figured krater. (a) Preliminary sketch ....... 38 (b) Completed painting.38 ILLUSTRATIONS viii Figure Page 45. Detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze 41 46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body still adhering ......... 42 47. Unfinished kylix ......... 43 48. Foot of unfinished kylix ....... 43 49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side . . 46 Methods of Glazing: 50. Dipping.48 51. Pouring .......... 49 52. Use of the brush. 50 53. Spraying .......... 51 54. Hydria showing brush marks..52 55. Detail of psykter showing relief line.53 56. Detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line (on arm) going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line.57 57. Inside of krater showing extensive wear . . . .63 Representations of ancient potters fashioning vases : 58. Athenian pottery establishment ...... 64 59. Potter throwing ......... 66 60. Potter throwing.66 61. Potter attaching handles ....... 67 62. Potter incising lines (?).6S 63. Potter joining sections (?).68 64. Boy finishing a vase ........ 69 65. Potter building a vase.70 Representations of ancient potters decorating vases: 66. Athena and Victories crowning potters at work . . .71 67. Youth decorating kylix ........ 72 68. Potter glazing kylix ........ 73 69. Potter painting bands on a krater.73 70. Three youths, one painting a krater . . . . .74 71. Pottery establishment. 75 Representations of ancient potters firing : 72. Potter stoking fire ........ 76 73. Potter stoking fire ........ 76 74-79. Potters regulating draught..77 80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln.78 Representations of ancient potters: miscellaneous scenes: 81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks . . .79 82. Youth working on vases(?) ....... 79 ILLUSTRATIONS IX Figure Page 83. Master potter (?) ......... 80 84. Woman potter(?).SI 85. Client in potter’s shop ........ 82 86. Ship with cargo of pottery ....... 82 Potter’s Implements: 87. Wheel-head.84 88. Tools found at Arezzo ........ 85 89. Stilt.85 PREFACE OE our knowledge of tlie technique of Athenian vases we have various sources of information. There are a number of references to the craft in ancient litera¬ ture; we have several actual representations of potters at work among extant vase paintings; and there is the important testimony of the vases themselves. The informa¬ tion gleaned from these three sources has been duly worked over by archaeologists, and the many accounts we have of the technique of Greek vases are all based more or less on this evidence. There is, however, another very important source of information ready to our hand which has not been fully utilized, namely, the study of the technical processes employed in the making of modern pottery. B or, the nature and properties of clay being the same now that they were in Greek times, the manner of working it must have been essentially the same then as now. Many archaeologists have, of course, seen potters at work in different places, or perhaps consulted potters on specific points; but that is a different thing from getting a thorough knowledge of the craft oneself and learning once for all what is possible and what is not possible in clay-working. The neglect of this highly valuable source of information lias led to some surprising theories regarding the technique of Greek vases; and these theories have been repeated over and over again in our books on vases, for the simple reason that, not having any first-hand knowledge, we have copied these statements from one another. A modern potter read¬ ing these accounts finds them remarkable literature. The present writer, realizing her own ignorance on the many questions of clay-working, went to a modern pottery school. The result of this first-hand study was not only the acquisi¬ tion of new knowledge, but a totally new insight into the PREFACE xii whole subject. The present essay is an attempt to revise the current theories of the technique of Athenian pottery in the light of this practical experience. Not only does such practical experience supply us with the knowledge essential for the consideration of technical problems, but it gives us a new appreciation of the beauty of Athenian vases. If we try to make such shapes ourselves we shall begin to observe many details which perhaps passed unnoticed before—the finely designed handles, the well-proportioned feet, the practical mouths; and the curves, the mouldings, and the subtle variations will become a constant delight to the eye. Moreover, we shall be impressed more than ever with the wonderful sense of pro¬ portion in Athenian vases. For the relation of the height to the width, the proportions of the neck, the body, the foot, and the handles to one another appear to be all nicely thought out. There is no hit-or-miss about it; the whole is an interrelated theme evidently planned carefully before making, either by the potter himself or by a professional designer. In short, any one who has tried his hand in the produc¬ tion of Greek forms will understand very well that the makers of such vases were proud of their work and that the signature of a well-known potter was at least as valuable as that of a popular decorator. 1 The pottery school to which I went was the New York State School of Ceramics at Alfred, New York. Through¬ out my work at the school and later in my investigation of Greek vases at Gie Metropolitan Museum, I had the great 1 Reiehhold’s theory in his Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister (1919), p. 12, that the word eiroi-qaev (“made it”) in a signature refers to the draughtsman of the sketch for the decoration, while its executor signed eypaxpey (“painted it”), since the actual making of the vase “required no artistic skill and could be left to every apprentice,” only shows his exclusive preoccupation with the drawings on the vases in the copying of which he so much excelled. PREFACE xiii benefit of the advice of Professor Charles F. Binns, director of the school. In fact, any value which this paper may pos¬ sess is largely due to this opportunity of appeal to someone who possesses the rare combination of expert knowledge in the field of practical pottery with a scholar’s attitude toward the problems presented by the ancient ware. It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the many helpful suggestions made from time to time by Miss Maude Robinson, director of ‘the pottery work at Greenwich House, New York, as well as by Miss Elsie Binns and Harold Nash, modern potters whom I have had the advantage of consulting on various questions. I am indebted to Miss Helen McClees for valuable assistance in the section dealing with the references to pottery craft in ancient literature. In my examination of Greek vases, which necessitated handling of the specimens, I was greatly helped by the courteous assistance of many museum directors. The plan of this book is as follows: The first chapter gives a concise account of the processes in use in the making of vases at modern pottery schools 1 and their application to the technique of ancient vases. The second chapter con¬ tains a description of the various representations we have of ancient potters at work. In the third chapter are collected the chief Greek and Latin texts referring to the ancient pot¬ tery craft. After this presentation of all the evidence on the technique of Athenian vases comes a short summary of the new conclusions arrived at, and a selected bibliography. The illustrations of modern pottery scenes were taken under the direction of Charles F. Binns at the New York State School of Ceramics, Alfred, 2 and of Maude Robinson at pottery studios in New York City. 3 1 For any one who wishes to study this subject at greater length, Charles F. Binns’s work on the Potter’s Craft is strongly recom¬ mended (second edition, 1922). * Figs. 1, 2, 6-13, 14, 21-23, 27, 39, 41. 3 Figs. 3, 4, 35, 36, 40, 42, 50, 51, 52. ■»: ■ -■ ' I. TECHNICAL PEOCESSES IN THE MAKING OE MODEBN POTTEEY AND THEIK APPLICATION TO THE TECHNIQUE OE ANCIENT VASES PEEPAEATION OE THE CLAY Ingredients and properties. T HE making of a pot begins in the clay bed. The clay lias to be found, it lias to be transported, and above all it has to be tested to see whether it is adapted to the potter’s needs. For there are many different kinds of clay and they are as individual as human beings; so that a thorough understanding of them is essential to the successful potter. The chief ingredients of clay are silica, alumina, and water. Other possible ingredients are iron oxide, lime (calcium oxide), magnesia, and potash. To the iron com¬ pounds are due the different colors of the clay. When pot¬ ters speak of the color of a clay—red, yellow, white—they refer to the color after burning, not in the raw state. The tones of the color are controlled by heat; for instance, a red clay becomes first pink, then in a higher fire a deeper red, and in a still higher fire a brownish red. The potter demands three properties of his clay: (1) plasticity, the property which enables the clay to acquire form; (2) porosity, the property which enables the water to escape; and (3) vitrification, the property which enables the clay to be fired. These three properties are due to the three chief component parts of the clay; namely, clay base, quartz, and feldspar. It will be found that some clays are not plastic enough, others not sufficiently porous, and others again not properly vitrifiable; in such cases the addition of certain substances is necessary to make the clay usable. ft THE OB AFT OF The actual composition of the clay, therefore, is of great importance, as no amount of skilful labor will avail if the clay itself has not the right consistency. Washing. When the right composition of the clay has been assured, the next step is to wash it and separate it from the many natural impurities, such as stones, sticks, etc., with which it is mixed. A clay not properly washed is a source of great vexation in the later stages of pottery making. The best method is that of “blunging,” that is, the dry clay is put into water and stirred constantly until it reaches the consistency of cream, technically called “slip,” whereupon it is poured through sieves, coarse or fine according to the desired consistency. The liquid clay or slip must then be dried sufficiently to become plastic and workable. This can lie done either in filter presses in which the water is squeezed out in a comparatively short time, or in shallow receptacles in the open air where the water is allowed slowly to evaporate. Wedging. But even at this stage the clay is not yet ready for use; it has first to go through the important process of kneading or “wedging.” This consists of cutting a ball of clay m two against a wire (fig. 1), slapping the two parts on a plaster or wooden board, one on top of the other (fig. 2), then lifting up the whole lump, cutting it in two again, and slapping it down as before. The purpose is to remove all air bubbles and to correct irregularities in hardness. The operation has sometimes to be repeated fifteen or twenty times before a good texture is secured. 1 1 In commercial potteries where a larger output and coarser wares are produced wedging en gros becomes necessary. In modern Greece it is done by treading the clay with bare feet. ATHENIAN POTTERY 3 We learn from the above survey that the fine consistency of the clay in Athenian and in some other Greek wares is not necessarily due to its natural state, but to the careful wash¬ ing and kneading undergone in its preparation for use. When different particles are found in the fired clay they Fig. 1. Wedging (a) are due to indifferent washing. And the varying shades of pink and red of Greek vases likewise do not presuppose different kinds of clay, but are due largely to the various temperatures to which the vases were fired. We have too often made our analyses of clays of Greek vases without due cognizance of these facts. 4 THE CRAFT OF FASHIONING THE VASES (1) WHEELWORK There are three principal ways of making vases—fash¬ ioning them on the wheel, building them, and making them from moulds. Let us examine first the work on the wheel, the potter’s tool par excellence. Types of wheel. There are various types of wheel in general use today. The wheel run by electric power does not concern us here since it cannot have been used by the Greeks. In studio Fig. 2. Wedging (t>) ATHENIAN POTTERY 0 potteries, a kick-wheel is often used. In this the operator stands and kicks with his left foot against a treadle, the weight of his body being supported by the right (fig. 3). Another fairly popular type has a large, heavy disk at the Fig. 3. Kick-wheel with treadle bottom revolving in a horizontal plane, and kept in motion by one foot of the operator (fig. 4). A very simple type of wheel in use some time ago is illustrated in fig. 5. Here the motion is imparted by an assistant turning the handle. Any one of these three types may have been used by the Greeks. In the representations of ancient potters at work (cf. pp. 64 ff.) the wheel appears to have been propelled either with the foot or by an assistant. 6 THE CRAFT OF Fig. 4. Kick-wheel with disk Fig. 5. Wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle Barber, The Pottery and Porcelain of the United States, p. 4, fig. 2 ATHENIAN POTTERY Throwing. The first task in fashioning a vase on the wheel—or ‘‘throwing” it, as it is technically called—is to center the Pig. 6. Centering ball Fig. 7. Pressing clay down Tig. 8. Squeezing clay into cone Pig. 9. Inserting thumb Figs. 6-9. Processes of throwing ball of clay on the wheel-head. It is accomplished by pressing the left hand against the ball of clay as it revolves rapidly, care being taken to keep the left forearm abso- THE CEAFT OF Intel}' rigid (fig. 6). The right hand is used for keeping the clay wet by sprinkling it with water, and for pulling the clay inward, thus squeezing it up to a cone. The cone Fig. 12. Making jar Figs. 10-13. Fig. 13. Making bottle Processes of throwing is pressed up and down in this manner several times (figs. 7 and 8). AYhen the ball runs perfectly true, it is time to open it by inserting the thumb in the center (fig. 9) ; then ATHENIAN POTTERY 9 by placing the fingers of one hand inside the hollow, and the fingers of the other on the outside, 1 and by raising both hands gradually several times and squeezing the clay lightly while so doing, a cylinder is formed (fig. 10). The cylinder is the foundation of all other shapes. For to produce a bowl, one need only pull out the cylinder a little at the top (fig. 11) ; to make a globular jar, pull it out at the bottom and in at the top (fig. 12) ; to fashion a long-necked vase, pull it out at the bottom and in at the top, leaving enough clay to spin the top into a tall, narrow cylinder which will serve as a neck (fig. 13) ; and by various other manipula¬ tions one can produce almost every variety of shape. To throw a vase to specific measurements, a careful drawing of the shape should first be made and calipers and measuring sticks kept close at hand for checking the work as it proceeds. The earliest Greek vases are made by hand; but from the Early Minoan III and Middle ITelladic I periods (i. e., about 2200 B.C.) in certain places at least, vases were regu¬ larly thrown on the wheel. They could not have the regular and symmetrical outlines they have if they were built by hand, and many would show traces of vertical joints if they were made in moulds. That the processes of throwing were identical with those described as in use today, there is of course no means of determining; but they certainly must have been similar, as clay has not changed its nature from Greek times to ours. The evidence which we glean from representations on Greek vases of potters at work, scanty though it is, bears out this self-evident fact. From the above description it will be noted that in this work of throwing the simultaneous use of both hands is necessary—an important fact to remember when interpreting scenes to be related to the fashioning of vases. 1 Sometimes a wooden scraper is held on the outside to obtain a smoother surface; especially in cases when the later process of turning is dispensed with. 10 THE CRAFT OF Turning. After a piece lias been thrown on the wheel, it has assumed its general shape, but that is all. The thinning of the walls, the refinements of foot and lip, all such finishing touches must be reserved for the next process. This is known among modern potters as “turning.' 1 In this the Fig. 14. Turning a vase clay is no longer in a wet state, but in a “leather-hard” condition, and it is not worked with the hands but with steel cutting tools. A newly shaped vase becomes leather hard after it has been kept in the air and the water allowed to evaporate for about twenty-four hours. Pieces in this state are hard enough to be handled with care and to be cut easily with a knife. They are not so fragile as either in the ATHENIAN POTTERY 11 wet or in the “bone-dry” state, but they are still delicate and exposed to many dangers. Not until a vase has been fired is it safe to handle it freely. The cutting with the steel tools is done on the wheel (or “jigger” 1 ), the right hand which grasps the tool being kept steady by letting it rest on a stick held in the left hand; the stick should have a sharpened nail on one end, the point of which is pressed into a wooden board at the height required (fig. 14). By Eig. 15. Turned foot Met. Mus. Acc. No. 12.234.2 continued cutting off of thin shavings of clay and by adding more clay in slip form when more is needed, the final out¬ line of the shape and the various grooves and mouldings for lip and foot can be obtained. But it is a slow process, requiring time, care, and great patience. For the smooth¬ ing of the surface, scrapers, sandpaper, and sponge are useful. This turning or refining of the shape after throwing, was, 1 The jigger is the technical word for the wheel on which shapes are moulded with the aid of a jolly or profile; but it can be used for other purposes. The difference between an ordinary wheel and a jigger is that in the former the speed is changeable, in the latter fixed. 12 THE CRAFT OF as we might expect, not in universal use in ancient times. Prior to the sixth century B.C. it was used occasionally here and there, and often only to a limited extent. But there cannot be the slightest doubt that in the Athenian black- figured and red-figured vases extensive use was made of the Fig. 16. Foot left as thrown Met. Mus. Aee. No. 07.232.30 turning tools. The grooves and mouldings for lip and foot were produced by this turning process, not, as modern archaeologists tell us, by the use of moulds. 1 For this there is abundant proof. The feet of Athenian vases are almost all turned at the bottom, some with remarkable care and finish (fig. 15), not left flat, as they would be after throwing (fig. 16). The lids of pyxides and similar vases could not have been made to fit so neatly on their ledges without the use of turning. Above all, the wonderful finish and pre¬ cision of Athenian vases could never have been attained by mere throwing. But there is even more convincing proof. Unless the marks of the turning tools are very carefully obliterated (with scrapers, sandpaper, and sponge), traces 1 Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, vol. I, p. 208; Herford, Greek Vase Painting, p. 9; etc., etc. 14 THE CRAFT OF of them are always visible. And this is the case also in Athenian vases. The outside surfaces are generally care¬ fully smoothed, but even there the ridges formed by the tools are often discernible (fig 1 . 17) ; and on the inside of the necks or feet or lids such ridges and concentric or spiral scratches are quite frequent (fig. 18). They are very dif¬ ferent, however, from the finishing marks left in handwork (fig. 19). To appreciate the fine, smooth surface which work with the turning tools produces, we need only examine Fig. 19. Finishing marks left in handwork Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.834 the insides of most Athenian amphorai and hydriai; for these, being more or less concealed, are generally left as thrown, often showing the spiral ridges which rapidly revolving clay will cause (fig. 20). They thus form a strik¬ ing contrast to the finely smoothed outside surfaces. The fact that the Athenian potter made use of the turning process shows incidentally that he was able to make his vases to very exact measurements. This is important in connection with Jay Ham bid ge’s theory that Athenian pot¬ tery was carefully designed on certain geometrical princi¬ ples; 1 for if the Athenian potter had confined himself 1 Cf. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry, the Greek Vase, and L. D. Caskey, Geometry of Greek Vases. ATHENIAN POTTERY 15 merely to throwing on the wheel that would not have been possible. It is during the second process of turning that an expert potter can effect many changes in width and height or in details, and thus make his product correspond exactly with his carefully planned design. Modern potters of standing work in the same way today. They first make a drawing of a vase, full size or to scale, and then proceed to follow this drawing in every detail, using rules and calipers for their guidance. Of course it needs a great deal of skill Eig. 20. Unturned inside of amphora Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.545 and patience to be able to work so exactly; but Greek pot¬ ters, we can be quite sure, had a good supply of both of these qualities. Work in sections. So far we have spoken only of comparatively small vases, which can be thrown all in one piece. Larger vases are best thrown in sections. To throw large jars in one piece requires great physical strength, and it is very difficult to finish such jars properly on the inside and to prevent them from being unduly heavy. The section work is by no means 16 THE CRAFT OF easy. At first a drawing of the vase has to be made, either full size or to scale, and the heights of the different parts marked off. While throwing the respective pieces use must be made of measuring sticks and calipers, to obtain the right heights and diameters. The measurements should be those of the soft clay, which will of course be slightly larger than those of the final shape. About one-eighth is the average allowance for the shrinkage of the clay in drying Fig. 21. Vase thrown in sections and firing. This shrinkage will naturally be proportional; so that the relation of every part to the whole will be the same in the fired vase as in the thrown product. The join¬ ing is obtained by applying a thick slip of the same clay as was used for the vase, to act as a binder. When all the sec¬ tions are in place the outside of the vase can be “turned.” If this and the foregoing processes are clone skilfully the final joints will hardly be visible, even before the glaze is applied. Figs. 21, 22, 23 show the three chief stages in the making of a vase in sections. To obtain good results in this work it is important that it should not be hurried. It is best, for instance, before join¬ ing the sections, to let them stand on top of one another for a day or longer, in order that they may mature together. To retain the pieces during this time in leather-hard condi¬ tion, they must be kept in a “wet cellar,” that is, in a moist ATHENIAN POTTERY place where the water in the clay will not evaporate (fig. *24). With this simple precaution pieces can be kept leather hard practically indefinitely. Section work was used by the Greeks, as it is now. There would, in fact, be nothing gained in throwing the very large vases, such as some of the kraters and amphorai, all Slh. I* * s /-: f. m ■ :*• - >. Fig. 22. Sections in place Fig. 23. Vase after turning in one piece ; and though the joints are, as a rule, skilfully concealed, they are plainly visible on certain examples, espe¬ cially on the inside. Where possible the joints seem to have been made at the natural angles or “articulations” of the vase (that is, at the neck, the foot, etc.) ; and further to simplify the work, a thin ridge of clay was often added to conceal the joint. 1 One of the most difficult things to throw successfully is a flat, wide bowl on a foot; and the larger the diameter of the bowl the more difficult the task, since the overhanging rim almost always sags at the critical moment. The fifth-century 1 Cf. e.g. iii the Metropolitan Museum Nos. 08.258.21 and 12.236, where the joint is visible underneath the clay ridge. 18 THE CEAPT OF kylix lias therefore always been rightly admired as one of the greatest feats of the Athenian potter. How did he pre¬ vent the bowl from sagging ? Did he throw it upside down and hollow it out later with the turning tools ? Or did he Fig. 24. Wet cellar make the base very thick and then “turn” it down to fit on a slender foot? Both methods would be clumsy, as they would entail lengthy turning work. Or was the Athenian potter so skilful that he somehow prevented the clay from sagging ? Not at all. He simply threw his kylix in two sec¬ tions ; the foot with a bowl about half the required diameter in one piece (or possibly two, with the foot separate), and the remaining part of the bowl as a separate section. The joints where the two parts of the bowl were united are ATHENIAN POTTERY 19 clearly visible on many kylikes on the outside (fig. 25) 1 ; the inside of the kylix, being the most conspicuous part, is always so carefully turned that no joining can be detected. Polishing. To impart a polish, the blade of a knife is applied to the surface while the vase is revolving; for an inward curve a curved tool must be used. The operation is simple and can Eig. 25. Detail of kylix showing joint Met. Mus. Aec. No. 06.1021.167 be accomplished in a few minutes. It is not often employed, however, by the modern potter, whose object is to keep the pores of his vase open for the better adhesion of the glaze with which he intends to cover the surface of his pot. The Athenian potter, on the other hand, put great stress on giving the surface of his vase a fine polish; probably using the simple method described above. The difference between a polished and an unpolished surface is clearly seen on some vases on which the potter has omitted to repolisli the parts round the handles where the slip used for the attachment had spilled over (fig. 26). 1 Of. also especially Metropolitan Museum Nos. G. B. 534, 09.221.47, 09.221.48, 06.1021.168, G. B. 581, 18.145.28, etc. 20 THE CRAFT OF Attachment of handles. Tlie final process in the fashioning of a vase is the attach¬ ment of the handles. These can be made either in moulds or by hand. Any one who thinks that the making of handles is a simple or quick process will soon be undeceived. Whether working in plaster, as one would if the handle is Eig. 26. Detail of amphora showing difference between polished and unpolished surfaces Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.530 made in a mould, or in clay, if it is made by hand, the potter must bestow infinite care on the work, as both clay and plaster are very liable to break; and working on so small a thing as a handle is extremely fussy. The writer per¬ sonally found nothing so difficult in her whole pottery training as the making of handles. The best method of procedure in handwork is first to shape the handle roughly ATHENIAN POTTERY 21 while the clay is soft and plastic, then wait until it becomes leather hard, and finally refine it to the desired form and finish with modeling tools. In moulded work, the handle has to be cut out in plaster and then used for making the mould. When the handles are finally made, they are joined to the vase by means of slip, in the same way that the sections were (fig. 27). As the handle is pressed into Pig. 27. Attachment of handles position the superfluous slip will of course spill over the edge, and this has to be carefully removed and the surface smoothed before the vase can be pronounced fin¬ ished. The vase is then put in the drying room so that all the water in the clay may evaporate. Only when it is per¬ fectly dry can it be fired in the kiln; otherwise it is liable to crack. The handles of Athenian vases show perhaps better than anything else the great skill and sense of beauty of the Athenian potter; and they will repay detailed study (cf. figs. 28-33). They are never, as so often on modern vases, detached pieces stuck on the vase as a kind of afterthought. Rather, they seem to grow out of the vase like branches from a tree, which gives them a wonderful, living quality. 22 THE CRAFT OF Fig. 28. Amphora in the Boston Museum Acc. No. 01.17 Fig. 29. Hydria in the Metropolitan Museum Aec. No. 06.1021.190 ATHENIAN POTTERY 23 Fig. 30. Kantharos in the Boston Museum Acc. No. 95.36 Fig. 31. Volute krater in the Boston Museum Acc. No. 90.153 24 THE CRAFT OF Moreover, the place where they were attached, the size, and the curve have been carefully considered both from a prac¬ tical and from an aesthetic point of view. Fig. 32. Bell krater in the Metropolitan Museum Aec. No. 07.286.86 Fig. 33. Kylix in the Metropolitan Museum Aec. No. G.R.1047 Athenian handles are made by hand, not in moulds. Practically every pair of handles shows perceptible varia¬ tions such as are unavoidable in handwork and distinguish it from the mechanical products of moulding. The handles ATHENIAN POTTERY 25 were attached to the vase in leather-hard condition, and often the pressure entailed thereby resulted in a slight bulge on the inner side. This is particularly noticeable on kylikes where the walls of the pot were especially thin. It may be noted that the handles of Athenian vases are not finished off neatly in parts where they were not seen. Fig. 34. Detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough Met. Mus. Acc. No. 07.286.73 For instance, the under parts of handles on column kraters are generally left quite rough (fig. 34). This fact, together with that already observed, that the insides of amphorai and hydriai are usually unturned, shows that the Greeks, at least, had no such theories as those often held today that a work should be finished perfectly all over, even in places not ordinarily seen, and were quite willing to save trouble when possible. Many potters today bestow as much care on the inside of a narrow flask as on that of an open bowl. It is characteristic of the sense of proportion of the Greeks that their potters took infinite trouble with what was important 26 THE CRAFT OF —the shapes, the proportions, the decoration—but that they did not spend time and labor where it profited nobody. (2) BUILDING Compared to the wheelwork the building appears simple at first, but experience will soon show that it too needs con¬ siderable practice. Though the actual process has not the glamor and thrill associated with wheelwork, there is a Fig. 35. Making coils certain quality in a built vase which gives it a value of its own. Building is generally done nowadays by means of coils of clay (fig. 35), which must be a little thicker than the walls of the vase are to be and should be as uniform as possible. To make the foot of the vase, the end of one of these coils is laid in the center of a plaster bat and the rest coiled round in spiral line. To hide the joints the surface is rubbed over with the fingers on both sides. In making the walls of the vase a coil is used for each round and the superfluous clay pinched off, every new coil being begun at a new point. The whole surface, inside and outside, is ATHENIAN POTTERY 27 again, smoothed by rubbing with the fingers, using very lit¬ tle water in the process. Only about three coils should be worked in at a time and then left to harden before new coils are added. In building up a certain shape it is best to use a templet of cardboard or plaster, to be sure that the profile of the vase is followed out correctly. To give the required finish at the end, modeling tools as well as further rubbing with the fingers are required. With this process in mind it is easy to distinguish between built and wheel-made pottery among the Greek wares. In the built pottery, however careful the work, there is always a certain unevenness of outline—which indeed gives it some of its charm. Unlike the moderns, the Greeks did not con¬ tinue to build pottery after the invention of the wheel. Nat¬ urally the general adoption of the wheel was not synchro¬ nous in all ceramic centers. It was used considerably earlier in Crete, for instance, than in Cyprus. But when once its convenience was thoroughly realized, the slower and more monotonous method was entirely dropped. Among Athe¬ nian black-figured and red-figured vases there are no built pieces. (3) MOULDING The process of moulding vases is the one most in use nowadays, for the simple reason that when once the required mould has been made the production of any number of vases is a rapid and easy task. But though commercially favored, this method is looked down upon by the artistic potter as being purely mechanical, and there is no doubt that a moulded vase has all the characteristics of machine work. The material used for moulds nowadays is plaster. The clay can either be poured into a mould in slip form or pressed into a mould while soft and plastic. In the former process the mould or moulds are made in two or more pieces, which fit closely together leaving an opening at the top. 28 THE CRAFT OF By pouring the clay slip into the opening, leaving it to harden a little, and then pouring out again what has not hardened, a hollow vase is formed. After due shrinkage the mould is carefully removed from the vase (fig. 36). The same mould can be used indefinitely for making vases of the same shape; it has only to be dried between one use Fig. 36. Vase poured in a mould and the next. Handles can be produced in the same way and then attached. In pressing clay into moulds each part of the mould is used separately, except where only one mould is required, as in the case of an open bowl or tile. When the clay has been carefully pressed into every part of the mould, it is left to harden, and then, upon shrinkage, can be easily separated. If the vase has been pressed in several pieces, the parts must be carefully joined and the seams effaced as neatly as possible. The Greek potter did not use moulding as a labor-saving device. He employed it only where the work demanded it, ATHENIAN POTTERY 29 as in the Athenian plastic ware. Here we sometimes even find the same mould used several times, as in the group of a negro and a crocodile of which chance has preserved us at least five replicas 1 ; but the number of such repetitions is not great and certainly would not indicate mass production. The material of Greek moulds was burnt clay. That the Athenian plastic vases were pressed into moulds rather than poured can be seen from the fact that the insides of these Pig. 37. Inside of moulded vase Met. Mus. Ace. No. 06.1021.205 vases are rough and show finger-marks (cf. fig. 37). The joints of the two parts are clearly visible on many examples (cf. fig. 38). Often the lip was thrown separately on the wheel and attached. HIRING THE YASES Production of Temperature. In the fire the great miracle takes place and the dry clay, most friable and perishable of materials, becomes one of the most durable. This is accomplished by the softening of the 1 Cf. Busclior, Munchner Jahrbudi der bildenden Kunst, 1919, I/II, pp. 1 ff. 30 THE CRAFT OF feldspar grains which cement the whole together and thus form a dense mass. To produce the temperature at which this phenomenon takes place two things are necessary, fuel and draught, the former supplying the carbon, the latter the oxygen. The liberation of the carbon in the fuel and its union with the oxygen of the air develop combustion, during which heat is generated. Combustion can be com¬ plete or incomplete. It is complete when there is an excess of air and the carbon can combine with two molecules of Fig. 38. Vase showing joint of two parts of mould Met. Mus. Ace. No. 06.1021.203 oxygen to form carbon dioxide (C0 2 ). This condition is called oxidation. It is incomplete when there is not enough air and the carbon can get only one molecule of oxygen, forming carbon monoxide (CO). This condition is called reduction. Carbon monoxide, being very hungry for oxy¬ gen, will try to extract it from whatever source it can. If ferric oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ) is present in the clay—which is the case in red clay—the carbon monoxide will take one mole¬ cule of oxygen from it and convert it into ferrous oxide ATHENIAN POTTERY 31 (CO -f- Fe 2 0 3 = C0 2 -f- 2FeO). The important feature in this process is that ferric oxide is red and will make the clay burn red; but ferrous oxide (FeO) is black and will give the clay a blackish color. If no ferric oxide is present in the clay, that is, if the clay is not a red clay, then reduc- Eig. 39. Open kiln tion has no effect on the color of the clay and can be freely used. In Europe potters regularly burn under reducing conditions, while in America the general practice is to burn under oxidizing conditions. When the draught in the kiln is faulty, partial reduction will often occur, and many faults in the burning, especially in the glazes, are attribu¬ table to this cause. THE GRAFT OF We shall see presently how important is a knowledge of these chemical changes during the process of firing when we come to consider the defects on Greek vases caused by injuries in the firing' (cf. pp. 44 ff.). Types of Mins. There are two chief types of kiln construction in use today: (1) the open kiln, in which the flame passes through Fig. 40. Muffle kiln with biscuit ware the kiln chamber (fig. 39) ; (2) the muffle kiln, in which the flame passes around the chamber and not through it (fig. 40). In the open kiln the ware either conies in direct con¬ tact with the flame, or is stacked in saggers, i. e., boxes made of fire clay fitting one on top of the other (fig. 41). The muffle kiln is, so to speak, one large sagger, and the ware is ATHENIAN POTTERY stacked on shelves. The draught in the kil n can be either an up draught or a down draught; in either case the air supply, as well as the fuel supply, must be under control, so that the combustion shall be as desired. The draught can be regulated by means of dampers, the fuel by attention Fig. 41. Open kiln showing saggers to the burners. An arched top is an advantage, for it imparts greater strength—an important item considering the strain to which the kiln is subjected—and it facilitates the circulation of the heat. Coal, wood, gas, or kerosene oil can be used for fuel. Of these, oil and gas are now the most popular; coal and wood are rapidly coming into dis¬ use on account of the greater labor they entail. 34 THE CRAFT OF Packing the kiln. In packing the kiln the ware is stacked as closely as pos¬ sible for economical reasons, so that as much as possible shall be accomplished in one firing. In biscuit firing the ware can be placed so that it touches (fig. 40) ; m glaze firing the pieces must be separated (fig. 42) both from one Fig. 42. Muffle kiln with glazed ware another and from the bottom of the saggers or shelves on which they stand, since the melted glaze is apt to run. Glazed pieces are therefore generally placed on stilts made of burnt clay, and the marks of these stilts will often show on the bottoms of the vases. That the chief features of modern and Athenian kilns were similar is clear from an examination of the ancient representations of kilns (cf. figs. 72-81 and pp. 76 ff.). Hov closely the ware was sometimes stacked is clearly seen m fig. 80. The fuel used by the Greeks was probably wood and charcoal. ATHENIAN POTTEBY 35 Almost all modern pottery is twice fired; once for the conversion of the clay into terracotta or biscuit, and the second time for the glaze. To glaze unbiscuited ware is a delicate business, and the risk of glazing a piece of raw clay is considered larger than the trouble of burning it a second time. It is done occasionally when very tough clay is used, for instance, in kitchen crocks and in stoneware; in that case it is best to apply the glaze when the clay is in leather-hard condition, for then the absorption is less. More than the two regular firings are often used for cor¬ recting mistakes in glazing, for additional coats of glaze, and for decorating the ware. Firing. Different wares and different glazes require different temperatures. Thus porcelain and stoneware are fired to much higher temperatures than ordinary pottery, and salt and alkaline glazes need a higher fire to mature than the ordinary lead glazes. When the required temperature has been reached—which nowadays is determined either by means of a pyrometer or with the help of pyrometric cones which melt at a given temperature and which are watched through a spy-hole (cf. fig. 40 where the cones are set up opposite the spy-hole in the door, and fig. 42 where the cones have melted)—the fire is gradually extinguished and the kiln left to cool slowly. Twelve hours for the firing and twelve for cooling is a rough estimate for the firing of an ordinary kiln. It is important not to hurry the process of cooling, as a too rapidly cooling fire may crack the ware or affect the glaze injuriously. The Greeks fired their pottery at a considerably lower temperature than potters do today. It seems to have been about 960° centigrade (corresponding to about cone 010) since any increase over this temperature causes a change in the color of the clay together with an additional contrac- 86 THE CRAFT OF tion. Mr. Tonks lias made the ingenious suggestion that, 950° and 1065° being the melting points of silver and gold respectively, the Greeks may have used these metals m the same way as the modern potters use cones, to regulate the heat of the kiln. 1 . . When the kiln is finally opened comes the exciting moment of seeing what the fire has done with one’s prod¬ ucts. In taking out the contents of the kiln, gloves and sticks are often useful for handling ware that is still too hot to touch. Invariably there will be surprises—what one has expected to be a great success often turns out a failure, and what one thought little of may become a rare thing of beauty. In the biscuit firing the adventures of the pot are comparatively few; it may crack or sag or warp, but as a rule the expected shape is maintained. But in the glaze firing so many elements enter in that even an experienced potter can never be sure of the result. The color may turn out a different shade from that desired; the glaze may unexpectedly be matt (dull) or too glossy; it may blistei or peel or crack; it may be too thin or too thick. Such defects are almost invariably due to faulty composition of the clay or the glaze or to the conditions of firing. They can often be remedied by further glazings and firings; but quite often a pot on which much time and labor have been bestowed is hopelessly ruined. A good potter, however, will soon learn to bear such mishaps philosophically; and it is certainly true that one often learns much more from fail¬ ures than from successes. Moreover, the element of uncer¬ tainty lends spice to the craft. A careful consideration of the modern processes of firing pottery described above will help us to settle the problems connected with the firing of Greek vases—for the action of fire on clay remains the same even though the kilns in use 1 Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. 421. ATHENIAN POTTERY 37 by the Greeks were probably somewhat more primitive than now. The chief problems which confront us in Athenian pot¬ tery are (1) the number of firings, (2) the interpretation of defects on Greek vases as injuries in the firing. Pig. 43. Detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch Met. Mus. Aec. No. 06.1021.114 Number of firings. Was Athenian pottery once or twice fired? 1 That is, was it decorated in leather-hard or in biscuit condition? This has been one of the most debated questions in Greek ceramics. Archaeologists often assume offhand a number 11 ‘ Twice fired” technically means, as already explained (p. 35), once for biscuit, another time for glaze; the glazing itself may have necessitated several firings, but the piece would still be spoken of as twice fired. 38 THE OR APT OF of firings, 1 but without stating any evidence or squarely facing the problems involved. Briefly, the arguments for Fig. 44. Design on red-figured krater (a) Preliminary sketch (b) Completed painting Furtwangler u. Reichhold, Griechisclie Vasenmalerei, I, pi. VII and against are as follows. As is well known, a large pro¬ portion of red-figured vases of good period show a prelim- 1 Cf. e.g. Walters, op. cit., pp. 221, 222, and Herford, op. cit., pp. 13, 14. Reieliliold, op. cit., p. 152, felt convinced there was only one firing. ATHENIAN POTTERY 39 inary, colorless sketch for the design traced with a blunt' instrument directly on the clay (cf. figs. 43-44). The smooth grooves of this sketch show beyond doubt that the sketch was made while the clay was in leather-hard condi¬ tion, that is, before firing. If the vase had been fired, even at a low temperature, the sketch would have had to be scratched in with a sharp tool, and would have left a ragged, not a smooth line. 1 2 Now it is not a natural pro¬ cedure for an artist to make a rough sketch for his design, and then to leave his vase to be fired before completing his work. Furthermore, an examination of the incised lines on the black-figured vases—which clearly go over the black glaze—shows also that these lines must have been made while the clay was still leather hard. The ragged edge of the glaze along the incisions has sometimes been thought to indicate that they were made after firing. But just this effect is produced by cutting through dry glaze on unfired clay; and it would have been very difficult to attain the required delicacy, swing, and smoothness by incision into hard, fired clay. Any one who will try the experiment will soon become convinced of this. 3 So that, for the black- figured period at least, this evidence points to a once-fired pottery. On the other hand, it might be urged that if we assume that the decoration was executed in leather-hard condition, the vase painters whom we see depicted on Greek vases should be handling their pots with considerable care, and that this is hardly conveyed in the representations. On the Boston fragment, for instance, the painter is holding a 1 Occasionally a toothed instrument seems to have been used; as on the pyxis, No. 06.1117, in the Metropolitan Museum. 2 Archaeologists ’ accounts are very misleading here, for some even assume that vases are in leather-hard condition after the first firing. (Cf. Herford, Handbook of Greek Yase Painting, p. 12.) 3 E. Pottier has come to the same conclusion; cf. his Catalogue of the Louvre Yases, III, p. 674. 40 THE CBAFT OF kylix by its slender foot without any apparent fear of break¬ ing it (fig. 67). And whoever painted the scene knew what he was doing, for he was in the act of decorating such a kylix himself. However, if the clay used by the Athen¬ ians was of a tough variety, 1 2 this would, I have been told by potters, be a perfectly possible procedure; and experi¬ ments made with imported Athenian clay 3 bore this out to an astonishing degree. Vases made of this clay could be handled quite freely in leather-hard condition. So that if the Athenian potter of the fifth century used similar clay to that of his present-day descendant, his handling of these pots on the vase paintings would be perfectly justified in the leather-hard state. There is, moreover, evidence which seems to settle this question beyond dispute. On a number of the Athenian vases there are dents such as can only have occurred while the vase was still in a leather-hard state. The mark of the object contact with which caused the dent is invariably over the black glaze (cf. fig. 45), showing clearly that the glaze must have been applied in leather-hard condition. 3 In some cases we find still adhering in the dents a little burnt 1 The clay of Reichhold’s pot, which he says could he dropped on the floor without appreciable damage (Furtwangler und Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152), must have been very tough indeed. Potters I have asked have never encountered clay quite as tough as that. The leather-hard vases I have handled were fit only for the dust bin when they fell on the floor—a not unusual event when learn¬ ing to turn. 2 1 wish here to acknowledge the great kindness of A. J. B. Wace, director of the British School of Athens, who went to much trouble in sending me this clay. The clay sent is that used by the Athenian potters today. It is a mixed clay, composed of red earth from Chalandri and white earth from Koukouvaones. s Cf. also Nos. 06.1021.114, 07.286.78, 17.230.13 in the Metropoli¬ tan Museum, and other instances quoted by Reichhold in Furtwangler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152. If, as Reichhold assumes, the vases were actually placed in the kiln leather hard, they must have been allowed to dry for some days in the kiln before firing; otherwise they would have cracked. ATHENIAN POTTERY 41 clay, apparently from another vase contact with which caused the accident. Here it is probable that the accident was caused not while the vase was leather hard, but when red hot in the kiln, at least in those instances, as in the black-figured amphora in the Metropolitan Museum 1 (fig. 46), where the glaze shows a rough fracture due to the sep- Fig. 45. Detail of liydria showing dent with mark over black glaze Met. Mus. Acc. No. 17.230.15 aration of the two pieces which had stuck together; for this fractured edge would have become fused and smooth upon subsequent firing. 2 The fragments of unfinished vases which have been found from time to time 3 have been used as evidence to prove sev¬ eral glaze fires; for they show fired vases at a definite stage 1 Cf. also Furtwangler u. Reichhold, loc. cit. 2 This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. 3 Five are listed by Hartwig, Jalirbuch des deutsclien arch. Insti- tuts, XIY, 1899, p. 164, note 21, one in Athens, one in Sevres, one in Wurzburg, one in Berlin, one in Bonn. A sixth piece is a fragmentary kylix in the Metropolitan Museum, No. 11.212.9, and a seventh one, the cover of a toilet box, in the British Museum, Room of Greek and Roman Life, No. 426. 42 THE CEAPT OE in the glazing, the outlines and inner markings painted, but the background not yet filled in. Must we, then, suppose that it was the regular practice—at least in the later red- figured period to which all the unfinished pieces belong— to fire before and after the painting of the background? It is difficult to see what would be gained by the process. Eig. 46. Detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body still adhering Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.E.530 If the pottery were fired before any decoration was applied, there would be the advantage of safer handling of the ware; but to have an extra firing with the decoration more than half completed gives no apparent gain and there is the dis¬ tinct disadvantage of the extra expense of firing. The unfinished kylix in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum may shed light on this problem (fig. 47). It is not so fragmentary as the pieces in the other museums, being complete except for portions of the rim. The foot is very roughly turned (fig. 48), very different from the aver¬ age kylix foot, as if it had not been worth while to spend ATHENIAN POTTERY 43 much time on this product. The decoration itself is also quite cursory. This suggests that the piece was merely a “test,” such as potters use often nowadays for making Fig. 47. Unfinished kylix Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9 Fig. 48. Foot of unfinished kylix Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.9 trials of their clay body, or their glaze, or their kiln. The kylix is, as a matter of fact, too soft fired, and the glaze has turned reddish in parts. May we be permitted the guess 44 THE CRAFT OF that this was a trial to test out a new kiln? It is only a possibility and there are many others. The important point is that the evidence of the unfinished fragments does not make it necessary to assume more than one glaze firing. The probability, therefore, is that Athenian pottery is once fired, 1 all ornamentation—both glaze and accessor}^ colors 2 —being applied while the vase was in leather-hard condition; for in the case of the accessory colors also there would have been no advantage in an additional firing. Injuries in the firing. The action of the fire on the potter’s products was appar¬ ently as much an open question in Greek times as it is now. Practical experience must have gone a long way then as today; but full control could not be achieved. In forming an estimate of what proportion of the pottery was spoiled in the kiln we must remember that in our museums we are apt to encounter the survival of the fittest—what the potter considered worth preserving, what the Greek client deemed adequate to his need, and what the modern museum curator considers good enough for exhibition. But even in this selection we meet with a number of kiln mishaps, which apparently were so common that they were hardly noticed. When our eyes have become trained to observe such things, we shall note that in any collection of Greek vases there are many cases of warping and sagging, especially in the over¬ hanging lips of the liydriai and amphorai. 3 There are 1 An interesting parallel is furnished by Chinese porcelain for which, Mr. Bosch Reitz tells me, there is clear evidence that it is once fired. 2 It is sometimes assumed that the accessory colors—purple and white—were not fired and that this is the reason why they are less well preserved and dull instead of shiny like the black glaze. That they were fired is shown by the discoloration of the black glaze beneath the white or purple. They are neither shiny nor durable for the simple reason that they are not a glaze but earth colors. 3 Cf. e.g. No. 06.1021.114, in the Metropolitan Museum. ATHENIAN POTTERY 45 many cracks and dents, 1 many faults in the glaze. A very conspicuous fault is the change of the clay from a pink to a grayish color. 2 Archaeologists often explain this as due to over-firing. 3 The real reason is not that the tem¬ perature has been too high, but that the clay has been sub¬ jected in the kiln or in the funeral pyre, to fumes the car¬ bon of which has been absorbed by the clay. In other words, there was either reduction and the red ferric oxide in the clay has been changed to black ferrous oxide (cf. pp. 30 f.), or the clay has absorbed the black carbon physically. When controlled, this change is very useful to the potter for obtaining certain effects. Thus bucchero pottery is simply red clay fired under completely reducing conditions; and in the Vasiliki mottled ware some carbonaceous pigment like tar was probably placed on the spots which were intended to be black, whereupon the carbon would be absorbed by the clay and the iron reduced. 4 5 The commonest injury to the glaze in the fire is its change into a brilliant red instead of the intended black. This can be observed on many vases, sometimes as a large spot (cf. fig. 49), other times as a less clearly defined variegation. 3 The cause was irregularity of fire, a jet of air passing- through the kiln coming in contact with parts of the vases. 1 Cf. e.g. Nos. G. R. 530, 06.1021.82, 06.1021.114, etc., in the Metro¬ politan Museum, and No. 379 (Salle G) as a conspicuous example in the Louvre. 2 Cf. e.g. Nos. 07.286.47, 07.286.81, and C. R. 541 in the Metropoli¬ tan Museum. 3 Cf. e.g. Reichliold in Furtwangler u. Reichliold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153. 4 This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. He does not consider that the accidental piling together of glowing coals could account for the carefully designed effects in the Vasiliki ware; so that Mr. Seager’s ingenious theory (cf. Hawes, etc., Gournia, p. 50) would have to be given up. 5 Cf. e.g. 11.212.7, 12.336.1, G. R. 54, G. R. 1229, 06.1021.120, 06.1021.191, 12.229.15, etc., in the Metropolitan Museum. 46 THE CRAFT OF In other words, there was an excess of oxygen (or the reverse of reduction) which turned the black ferrous oxide of the glaze into red ferric oxide. 1 Fig. 49. Black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side Met. Mus. Acc. No. G.R.607 1 This explanation is also that offered by Reichhold in Furtwangler u. Reichhold, Griechische Yasenmalerei, I, p. 153. It is to this same cause that I should be inclined to attribute Reichhold’s ‘ ‘ Lagerringe, ’ ’ round red spots or black spots surrounded by red rings (op. cit., p. 154). Supports such as he describes which came into direct contact with the glaze are inconceivable; the glaze would have stuck to them and serious injury resulted. Furthermore, Athenian vases must have been placed in the kiln standing on their feet, and for this purpose the under surfaces of the feet are left unglazed so as to prevent the glaze from sticking. If placed in the positions Reichhold suggests, the vases would have been apt to warp, and no potter would run such risks. ATHENIAN POTTERY 47 Such red spots caused by jets of air coming in contact with the vases must not be confused with the very similar red spots which are due to the wearing off of the black glaze and the exposure underneath it of the ochre-tinted clay (cf. p. 58). Examination with a magnifying glass will show the difference: in one case the red is part of and level with the black glaze, in the other it is on a layer beneath the black glaze; in the former case the red will not come off when rubbed, in the latter it will. GLAZING Besides shaping and firing a vase, a potter must under¬ stand the art of glazing, to many the most alluring part of the craft; this comprises both the preparation of the glaze and its application to the pot. A glaze is a chemical com¬ pound, known as a silicate, which upon firing becomes a glassy substance. It has three chief ingredients: (1) an oxide of lead, of lime, of alkali, etc., which forms the foundation of the glaze; (2) alumina and boron oxide, which regulate the behavior of the glaze in the fire; and (3) silica, which controls the fitting of the glaze to the body. Modern glazes are divided into two chief categories: lead glazes and leadless glazes. Of these the former are by far the more numerous; but alkaline glazes, tin enamels, etc., are also used, especially in studio potteries. In the preparation of a glaze the ingredients have first to be weighed out carefully in the required proportions; the mixture has then to be ground with water and sieved; and when the right thickness is attained (usually about the consistency of cream), the glaze is applied to the vase, which should first be soaked in water to saturation to pre¬ vent too rapid absorption. Gum tragacanth is used as a binder to make the glaze stick. The glaze can be applied in various ways—by dipping (fig. 50), by pouring (fig. 51), by the use of the brush (fig. 48 THE CRAFT OF 52), or by spraying (fig. 53), the method depending chiefly on the individual choice of the potter. To apply a glaze properly to the clay body is a great art, and upon it, as much as on the preparation of the glaze, final success depends. The glaze mixtures when applied are whitish or Fig. 50. Method of glazing: dipping grayish; it is only after firing that they assume the wonder¬ ful range of colors which delight us so much today. The Athenian potter had no ambition to produce brilliant color effects in glazing. He was content with the one variety which he had brought to perfection—a thin, lumin¬ ous glaze of a deep, velvety black color and of astonishing i m ATHENIAN POTTERY 49 durability. After generations of experiments we cannot yet say that we can successfully imitate it. Its composi¬ tion is, however, no longer a secret. It has been shown by analysis and synthesis that the chief component parts of the glaze are an alkali (potash or soda), a clay (which Fig. 51. Method of glazing: pouring would contain some silica such as flint naturally), and fer¬ rous oxide. 1 The exact proportion of these parts, and 1 Of. Salvetat in Brongniart, Traite des arts ceramiques, I, p. 550; and Tonks, Black Glaze on Greek Vases, American Journal of Archae¬ ology, XII, second series, 1908, pp. 420 ff. Mr. Binns in a series of experiments has come to the same conclusion. 50 THE CRAFT OF above all the manipulation of the glaze are still unknown. At least, nothing completely corresponding to the Greek glaze has as yet been produced, though Mr. Tonks 1 and especially Mr. Binns 2 have come very near it. Whether the secret lies in the proportion, in the medium used for binder, 3 or in some undiscovered element one cannot tell. It is only rig. 52. Method of glazing: use of the brush certain that when the discovery is made, as doubtless it must be, it will be of great import both to archaeologists and to modern potters. The glaze was, as I have endeavored to show (cf. pp. 37 ff.), applied to the vase in leather-hard condition. At that stage the clay still contains enough water to prevent too rapid absorption, and the glaze, therefore, runs in an easy, flowing 1 Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, pp. 423 f. 2 Mr. Binns’s experiments are as yet unpublished. 3 Under Mr. Binns’s direction I tried gum arabic, honey, water- glass, glue, white of egg, glycerine, and oil as binders, but none gave complete satisfaction. ATHENIAN POTTERY 51 manner. 1 To carry out his work the painter could take his time, for, as we have seen (cf. p. 16), a vase can be kept leather hard for an indefinite period by the simple device of placing it in a damp box, that is, an air-tight case with a pan of water at the bottom. 2 How did the Greek painter apply the glaze to his pottery ? AVe know that on the broader surfaces the brush was used, Pig. 53. Method of glazing: spraying Cox, Pottery for Artists, Craftsmen and Teachers, p. Ill, fig. 51 for brush marks are clearly visible in many cases. 3 When possible the backgrounds and horizontal bands were painted while the piece was rotating on the wheel; where a panel had to be reserved, the irregularity of free-hand brush work 1 II. B. Walters in his Ancient Pottery, I, p. 212, says that the glaze runs "best on a surface already baked. As a matter of fact, to make glaze run at all on the baked surface, the biscuit has to be soaked in water. 2 Beichhold in Furtwangler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152, forgets this when he argues that since the decorations were applied on leather-hard clay they must have been executed within a few days. 3 Some archaeologists even claim that they have noticed hairs of brushes in the glaze. It is, however, impossible that these are hairs from the brushes with which the glaze was painted, as they would have burned up in the fire to which the glaze was subjected. 5 2 THE CRAFT OF can readily be observed (fig. 54). For the “flat glaze lines, in both the figured scenes and the ornamental motives, smaller brushes were employed. But what was the instru¬ ment which produced the famous “relief” lines, that is, those fine lines which stand out perceptibly from the sur- Fig. 54. Hydria showing brush marks Met. Mus. Acc. No. 11.212.7 face and which were used for the contours and inner mark¬ ings of the figures during the best red-figured period (fig. 55) ? The quality of these lines has been justly admired by all who have studied them and it lias been thought that the instrument used had much to do with the result. 1 After a number of experiments with fine brushes, single bristles, 1 Cf. e.g. the discussions by Hartwig, Jahrbuch d. Instituts, XIV, 1899, pp. 147 ff.; Reichhold, in Furtwangler u. Reichhold, Griechisclie Vasenmalerei, I, Text, pp. 148 and 230; Tonks, American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. 425; Walters, Ancient Pot¬ tery, I, pp. 227 ff. ATHENIAN POTTERY 53 reeds, feathers, pens, etc., I have come to the conclusion that it is of little avail to discuss the instrument used before we can employ in our experiments a glaze identical with the Greek. For to get the wonderful flow of the Greek line, the glaze must run much more easily than any imitation black Pig. 55. Detail of psykter showing relief line Met. Mus. Acc. No. 10.210.18 glaze which we have so far produced. The groove which runs down the middle of the relief lines hardly affords a clue: for slight pressure of any instrument seems to pro¬ duce such a result. RED OCHRE WASH In three statements of ancient writers the addition of red 54 THE OKAPT OE ochre to Athenian pottery is referred to. 1 In Pliny, Nat¬ ural History, XXXY, 152, we read: Boutades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere, “Boutades first added red ochre, or made pottery of red clay.” Isidorus, Etymologiae, XX, iv, 3, speaks of pottery vases having been first invented at Samos and then adds: Postea inventum et rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere, ‘ 1 a later inven¬ tion was to add red ochre and to make pottery of red clay.” Suidas in his lexicon, where he describes Cape Kolias as a place in Attica where pottery is made, says that the clay from that region is the best, and adds : Wre k xatq Av xrjv rfkn'.av, euv xaicn', *«! dtxexvtog xi Xeyopevov xaxa xi]V xapotptav uptv aupSaivig ev x!0

v. Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum. Zenobius, hi, 65. ‘ ‘ I learn the potter’s craft on the pithos”; a proverb upon those who skip the first lessons, and immediately attempt greater things; as if anyone w T lio was learning to be a potter, before learning to mould plates or any other small thing, should under¬ take a pithos. ’Ev x!0

g xwv pec^ovwv. 'Qg e!' xtg pav- 0av(ov xepapeueiv, xp!v pa0e!v xtvax.ag Tj aXXo xt x(ov ptxpwv xAaxxe'.v, xt'Ocp eyyepot'r). ATHENIAN POTTERY 93 The fact that there was a Greek proverb on the folly of attempting large vases before a thorough knowledge of the craft has been acquired, shows how common was the realiza¬ tion of the difficulty of the task. Plutarch, Quaestiones conviviales, n, p. 636 c. Polykleitos tlie modeler said noXinXerro? b xXaan)? slice %aXe- that the work is most difficult xoiTa-rov elvat aoupyov, otav 4v ovu/i when the clay stands the test of 6 xrjXb? yevY)-cac. the nail (?). If we interpret this passage as referring to a potter, and oral' ev driyt yivijrar. as meaning when the stage has been reached that the clay is hard enough to be scratched with the nail, this may possibly be an allusion to turning; which may well be called the most difficult process of pottery making. But this interpretation is very uncertain. The passage is usually taken as referring to the sculptor’s last touches on a clay model for a bronze statue. (2) BUILDING Geoponica, vi, 3 (4). 4. Potters do not use the wheel for all pithoi, but only for the small ones. The larger ones they build up day by day, placing them on the ground in a warm room, and thus make them large. 4. Ou xavraq 8e too? xiflou? ext rbv apoxbv ava6i6a'Couaiv ot ye papist?, aXXa tou? p.ixpou?. tou? pievaoi y.e(- l^ou? xetpiivou? barjpiipai ev Oeppup oixTjpia'U 4xoi7.o8op.ouai, yat pieyaXou? xoiouaiv. Pollux, Onomasticon, vh, 164. 164. That around which those who make pithoi put the clay and shape it—this wooden core is called Kavaftos- 164. Ilept 8e o ot to 6? ictGou? xXaT- TOVTE? TOV XTf]kbv XSpiTE0iVT£? xXat- Touat, touto ib ^uXijfpiov yava6o? y.a- Xecrai. 94 THE CRAFT OF Such hand-built ware does not, of course, include the large painted kraters and amphorai of Athenian make; for these have all the ear-marks of wheel-thrown pottery. Wooden cores are still used today in the making of cement forms. Since the clay cement shrinks upon drying and the wood does not, care must be taken to prevent the former from cracking. The wooden core is therefore made in collapsible form. A wedge is made in the center and a core built around it. When the work is finished the wedge can be drawn out and the sides of the core will fall in. 1 FIRING THE VASES Geoponica, vi, 3 (5). 5. The firing is no small part of the potter’s craft. Not too little or too much fire should be built under the pots, but just enough. 06 (xtz.pbv 8s Ti)<; xs papu'osg ear! p.£pog Yj oxt 8ei Ss frrjTs eXcsttov, [a^ts xXeov, aXXd fj.e[ji.sTpT]p,avaiv. b 8s “Opngpop aelSsi auzoic; va exea Tabs a y.aXesTai Kdpuvoi;’ Et p.sv SwasTS puaObv aeiaoi, £) /.spa¬ ns' Seup’ ay’ ’AGrpaer) xai uxscpe/e xapivou, so 8s [rsXavGstev x.6tuXoi -/.al xdvva IxdXeupa, 1 This information I owe to Mr. Binns. ATHENIAN POTTERY 95 the.and may they be well baked, and receive the price due to their value, many being sold in the market, and many in the streets. May they gain much.... But if you turn to shamelessness, and choose falsehood, then I sum¬ mon the destroyers to fall upon the kiln, Crasher and Smasher and Unquenchable and Shatterer and Fierce Conquerer, wdio would bring many evils upon this craft .and may the whole kiln be thrown into confusion, while the potters lament loudly. As a horse’s jaw eats greedily, so may the kiln devour all the pottery ■within it, making it brittle. Come hither, Circe, daughter of the sun, skilled in drugs; bring malignant poisons, afflict the men and ruin their work. Let Cheiron bring hither many Centaurs, both those who escaped the hands of Herakles, and those who perished. Let them harshly smite the work and smite the kiln, and may the men themselves see these grievous deeds with lamentations. But I shall be happy when I see their unlucky craft. And the man who peeps over, may his whole face burn on account of this, so that all may know how to do what is right. ’ ’ 9pux0rjvac re xaXaig xtpLfjq (bvov dcpeaOat, xoXXii pev e!v dyopij xcuXeupeva, xoXXS: S’ dyutag, xoXXa Se xepSrjvat, rjp.lv 8s Srj wg atpi vorjaat. rjv S’ ex’dtvaiSei'rjv TpepOewsg dieuSs’ aprjaOe auyxaXev dyexM xoX^ag Kevraupoug, o” 6’ 'HpaxXetoug xetpag ipuyov, oY v’ dtxoXovvo" Tuxvotsv vaSs spya xaxfiig, v6xvot Se xapivov, aivoi S’ oipcpgovveg Spioavo epya xovrjpa. yrj0rjag xavxeg extavatw’ ai'atpa pel^etv. This is a good picture of the havoc that may happen in a kiln. 96 THE CRAFT OF Ilippokrates, Epidemia, iv, 20; Littre, v, p. 160. The man who fell down from the potter’s oven, since a cup¬ ping-glass was not applied imme¬ diately, suffered from an internal inflammation and on the twentieth day grew worse. 'O axo vou y.epafji.sou txvou y.oi'za- xeoiiv, (I) ou Ttpoa6Xifj0Y) aOTtV.a uc/.uy), Ey.au0T) law, xal sixoavij exaXiyy.oT'r]- aev. on the kilns This reminds ns of the men we see climbing in the representations on Corinthian pinakes (p. 76). Pollux, Onomasticon, vii, 108. It was the custom for bronze casters to hang something ridicu¬ lous in front of their furnaces, or to mould something upon them, in order to avert envy. These were called paaKavia. IIpo be Twv xapuvtov xoTq %aXxeucriv eOoq rjv yeXoTa Ttva xaxapTav, y} ext- xXaxxeiv, exl tpOovou axoxpoxfl. ixa- Xecxo be paaxavta. Such devices to avert the evil eye would apply equally to pottery kilns, as we know from actual representations (cf. pp. 61 f.). It is natural that the vagaries of a kiln should be ascribed by the superstitious ancients to supernatural forces. RED OCHRE WASH Inscriptions Graecae, ii, 1, 546. Be it decreed by the senate and people of the Ioulietai concerning the representations of the envoys from Athens, that the export of miltos shall be to Athens, and to no other place from this day forward; if anyone ex¬ ports it to any other place, his ship and its . cargo shall be con¬ fiscated and a half shall be given to the informer; . If the Athenians decree any other regu¬ lations for the guarding of the miltos they shall be valid. (’'E8)o£ev t f] y.al tip SfjpKp t(p ’IouXrrivwv, xspi(u>v oixap’ ’A07]- vai'cov Xiy ouat, 8e8o/0a)t ty) uXtj xal xii Slipup T

8s i%Cimac ’AGtrjvatoc xspl tpuXayYj? vij? [m'X(tou.... y.upia el)vat 5 av ’A0Y)vaTot t^Tqtpl^covTat. ATHENIAN POTTERY 97 Inscriptions Graecae, n, 1, 546. Tlieogenes moved: be it de¬ creed by the senate and people of the Koresians, concerning the representations of the envoys from Athens, the export of miltos shall be to Athens.as it was before; and in order that the decrees of the Athenians and Koresians concerning miltos may be valid, it shall be exported in a ship which they shall designate and in no other ship.the tax of two per cent shall be paid to the collectors by those en¬ gaged in the trade. (0eoy)evY)? sixev. BeBoxOcu (t)iq 3o(uXi) xai tS Ttp Kopiqafcov. tus pi d)v Xsyoua: ot Trap’ ’AGirpvactov, eivat ty]p [HXtou tt)v ^(ayMyrjv ’Aflf;- vat)e. x)cc0dxep xpovepov ^v. oxax; 8’ av xbpia ^(t t)o: tpTjqjtapj.cc'vo: (.’A0Y]vai'a>v x)ai Kopiqat'wv t& xspi vijs [BXtou, E^ayecv etj.xXo:'

Xcdp, Toxog zfii ’Aeec/.TjP, EvOa axsur) xXaTTOVTai, Xsyei oiv oxi oaot exi vpo/oup qjspovrat (vpoxov Be t bv axEuoxXaaTixov Xeyst) toutecttiv, oaou xpoq axeuoxXoKJtav extvfjBetai, xaatov f] KwXtocBoq xpei'aaov/ coa-re xot! ga- XTeaGat uxo 'rfjc piXxou. 1 Cf. Gr. P. Stevens in Fowler-Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, p. 102. 98 THE CRAFT OF Isidorus, Etymologiae, xx, iv, 3. It is said that pottery vases were first invented in the island of Samos, being made of clay and hardened by fire, whence comes the term Samian vases. A later invention was to add red ochre and to make pottery of red clay. The significance of these discussed on pp. 53-59. Fietilia vasa in Samo insula prius inventa traduntur, facta ex creta et indurata igni; unde et Sarnia vasa: postea inventum et rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere. passages has already been POROSITY OF GREEK POTTERY Pollux, Onornaslicon, vii, 161 ft. 162. Aristophanes says that a 162. Aexpxv be xepapistov 6 p 7 ]p 6 v, clay vinegar jar has leprosy, in- avA toj p.u 5 av, ’AptaTocp&veq Xeyet. stead of saying that it is moist (sweats?). This appears to refer to the fact that unglazed ware (and even painted Athenian pottery is unglazed in parts) becomes moist when filled with liquid, on account of its porosity. THE STATUS OF POTTERS Isokrales, De Permutatione, 2. As if one should have the inso¬ lence to call Pheidias, who made the statue of Athena, a statuette maker, or to say that Zeuxis and Parrhasius had plied the same trade as that of the painters of pinakes. ’'floTCp otv £t Tip dhiStav vov "to tt)? ’AGirjvai; eSoq epyaaap.evov voXp/pr) xoAelv xopoitAaGov, r t ZeO$lv xai I lap- paacov vr]V geuttjv syetv tpa:r] Teyvqv Ta icivaxta ypapouatv. Aristophanes, Ekklesiazousai, 995 f. Old Woman. Who is this? Young Man. The man who paints lekythoi for the dead. Fp. ouxoq h’ Iutc t lq; Neavtaq. o<; to! q vex poten t,o>Ypa- epet t ccq XyjxuOouc;. ATHENIAN POTTEBY 99 Plutarch, Life of Numa, 17. So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpen¬ ters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters (A. H. Clough). T Hv 8s Y) Scavopd) xard Tap Ts/vap, aiiXrjTwv, 7puao%6wv, textovmv, {Ja- cpswv, axuTOTOgtov, ax’jToSidwv, yaX- xemv, xepapiluv. Plato, Euthydemos, 301, c, d. What, said he, is the business of a good workman? Tell me, in the first place, ^ogg business is hammering ? The smith’s. And whose the making of pots? The potter’s. And who has to kill and skin and mince and boil and roast? The cook, I said. And if a man does his business, he does rightly? Certainly. And the business of the cook is to cut up and skin; you have admitted that? Yes, I have, but you must not be too hard upon me. Then if some one were to kill, mince, boil, roast the cook, he would do his business, and if he were to hammer the smith, and make a pot of the potter, he would do their business (Jowett). Oia0a oOv, scprj, oti xpoirrjxsi exa- cToiq ™v SiqfjLioupydjv; xpajTov Tiva yaXxeusiv xpomrjxei, oia0a;—"Eyioye' otc y_a.Xf.ia. —ti 81, xepagsuetv; xe- pa[x£a. —t£ 8s, aipan xeiv re xai 1x81- pstv xai vd puxpd xpla xaraxoitavTa eiisiv xai oxTav;—Maysipov, ijv 8’ eyw. — Ouxouv lav Tip, ’itp-q, to: xpoarj- xovtcx xpaTTY), op0cop xpai;ei; MdXi- crta.—IIpoaT)xei SI ys, dip 9T:p, tov gdyeipov xaTaxoxTsiv xai IxSIpsiv; w(j.oX6yr)aap TauTa f] ou ;— QpioXo- yiqaa, etprjv, dXXa auyyv(op.ii)v p,oi eye —ArjXov toi’vuv, fj S’ oc, oti av Tip aipa^ap tov fidyeipov xai xaTaxo- itap xai oxTiQtjp, to xpoafjxovTa xoifjaei. xai lav tov yaXxea xip aliTov XaXxeliT) xai tov xepaqla xspap.e6ig, xal otTop Ta xpoaYjxovTa xpa^ei. Justinus, Ilistoriae Philippicae, xxii, 1 , 1 and 2. Agathoeles, the tyrant of Sicily, who succeeded to the great power of the elder Dionysius, came into the splendor of a king¬ dom from a humble and base family. And too, being born in Sicily of a potter, he had a boy¬ hood not more honorable than his origin. Agathoeles, Siciliae tyrannus, qui magnitudini prioris Dionysii successit, ad regni maiestatem ex humili et sordido genere pervenit. Quippe in Sicilia patre figulo natus non honestiorem pueritiam quam principia originis habuit. 100 THE CRAFT OF Much has been, written about the lowly status of Greek potters, 1 2 and the above references bear out this general idea. The craft of pottery was evidently placed on a par with other trades, and all such manual work was not considered a worthy occupation of free-born citizens, and left mostly to the metics, or non-citizens. We know this not only from texts and inscriptions on stone, but also from the non-Attic forms of the names of the potters, as well as the inscriptions on the vases which frequently show non-Attic spellings. It would be absurd, however, to infer that all pottery was as contemptuously regarded as the rough little tomb lekythor and the pinakes referred to by Aristophanes and Isokrates. And this is borne out by the following references. Plato, Ilippias Maior, p. 288 d. If a skilful potter had made the vessel smooth and rounded and well baked, like some of the fine two-handled jars which hold six choai—if he should ask us about such a vessel as this, we should be obliged to agree that it was beautiful. Ei'xep rj xurpa xex.paixeup.evfj e’c'r) uico dyaOou xepa[xeVY)