» yyi * *■ ■ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/periodfurnishingOOclif_O Period Furnishings AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HISTORIC FURNITURE, DECORATIONS AND FURNISHINGS By C. R. CLIFFORD FULLY ILLUSTRATED do2 Published by CLIFFORD & LAWTON NEW YORK Copyright, 1914 By Clifford & Lawton INTRODUCTORY I N PRESENTING this work upon the period furnishings of the house, cov- ering historic furniture, fabrics, wall treatments, fitments and accessories, I would lay emphasis upon the fact that the subject cannot be grasped by blind groping or desultory reading. We cannot comprehend by simply memorizing dates and incidents. We must know the underlying origin and impetus and the growth of the styles as influenced primarily by the events of history and all that makes history ; the development of nations, their social customs and their characteristics. There are no short cuts to be taken in a spirit of impatience. But to the man who is not easily discouraged at the outset this line of study opens a field of world- wide and compelling interest. If he approaches the subject with an orderly mind he will comprehend from the first the broad distinctions and soon begin to differentiate in the more subtle details of decoration. Since the study must be systematic, I have prepared charts showing the de- velopment of races as well as charts showing the development of nations. These give us a retrospect of relationship which will prepare the student to comprehend the later chronological chart which shows the development of the decorative styles. The differentiation between the periods can be made in many cases only by a knowl- edge of historic relation. Chronological consistency satisfies one’s sense of order, and this is quite as important a consideration in the decoration of a room as comfort in the fur- nishings. Decoration must be consistent not only in its construction and application, but in its associations. An- cient architects laid down distinct laws of design covering the five orders, the Ionic, the Doric, the Corinthian, the Composite and the Tuscan. To-day the laws of composition upon which these orders were founded are as effective as ever, for they are not arbitrary, but are based upon the nature of the human mind, the eye and the characteristics of the materials of construction. We must work in accordance with these principles if we are to satisfy the critical taste of men of culture and perception. The outward forms changed from period to period, expressing in their lines, ornament and coloring, the temperament and spirit of the people of the times. Through progressive stages art became altered by elimination, by absorp- tion, and by temperamental interpolations, evolving practically new types and new forms ; but running through all these changing styles are the immutable laws of composition and proportion. We trace with little difficulty the progress of the arts and the development of distinct periods from the days of earliest Babylonia, Egypt, and Assyria, through Greece and Lower Italy, through Asia Minor, through Bagdad and Byzantium, into the Mongol courts of Samarkand. We note the influence of the Saracenic zealots along the Mediterranean. We note the desultory expression of a struggling Gothic art through the dark period of the Middle Ages. We note the awakening finally in Italy during the Four- teenth Century, which expanded into that glorious climacteric era the Renaissance. As the Renaissance developed, carrying with it as an underlying basis the classic arts of Greece and Rome, it was affected by local influences. Religion and commerce alike left their imprint, until finally with . the opening of the Seventeenth Century distinct forms varying with the temperament of the nations and of the individual craftsmen, and affected at all times materially by the wealth of suggestion which came through the chan- nels of foreign intercourse, made their appearance. If we would grasp the meaning and the feeling of what, for want of a better term, we call the decorative periods, we must comprehend the influence in each period of the four prime factors in the development of art, namely, temperament, religion, commerce, and education. If within the limits of this book T have been able to elucidate the subject sufficiently to give the student an intelligent grasp of the essential points, I have accomplished all that I set out to do. For the benefit of those who would pursue the investigation further, I append a list of books to which I have had access and from which I have reproduced many illustrations. I wish to express my sense of personal obligation to the authors of these books, whose original investigations have made them the highest authorities, each upon his own special branch of this subject, and whose works I have found invaluable sources of information. C. R. CLIFFORD. i AcV y GO s o j o -J ^ (3 2 vO o £ j fm \\f> '/Jy .4 '■ . SERIES OF TABLES TRACING THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS, WITH THEIR VARIOUS ARTS, PRODUCTS, ETC. THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS. 4000 B. C.— 100 B. G. BABYLONIAN. B.C. 4000. Ancient Babylonian. 1300. Conquered by Assyria. 600. Regained independence after many wars as New Empire of Babylon. 500. Became Persian Prov- ince. EGYPTIAN. 4000. Ancient Kingdom. 3000. Middle Kingdom. 2000. New Empire. Highly civilized. 500. Became Persian Prov- ince. 300. Late Art Period. Greek invasion of Alexan- der of Macedonia. Ptolemy I, general under Alexander, was placed over Egypt and added Lower Syria, Pales- tine and Cyprus. 100. Conquered by Rome. Egyptian descendants were called Copti. ASSYRIAN. 3000. Chaldean Period. 2000. Assyrian Period. Col- onized from Babylonia. 625. Conquered by Medes. 500. Median Empire cover- ing Lydia and Phrygia in Western Anatolia. 300. Invasion of Alexander. 100. Assyria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia made Roman Provinces. PERSIAN. 4000. Before the dawn of history in Europe, the Ar- yan tribes of Asia migrated East as far as India and West to Greece. The Iran Plateau lay between Cas- pian Sea and Indian Ocean in Central and Western Asia. Those settling in North were called Medes; those South, Persians; those West, Celts. 1200. Bactrians, Medes and Persians occupied the Iran Plateau. 500. Supremacy of Median Period passed to Persians, who formed Empire. Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Judea and part of Arabia paid tribute. 200. Parthian Empire dom- inated a vast territory from 250 B.C. to 220 A.D. Sassanian Empire held sway 220-640 A.D. PHOENICIAN. 2000. Highly civilized. 1300. Colonies in Crete, Cyprus and Rhodes. 1100. Tyre, famous city, fell repeatedly under Assyr- ian rule. 500. Subject to Persia. 300. Invasion of Alexander of Macedonia. HEBRAIC. r 2000. Empire of Shepherd Kings on frontier of As- syria. 1500. Migrated to Egypt. 1100. David King of Jeru- salem. 1000. King Solomon. 600. Kingdom divided into Israel and Judea. 500. Jerusalem Jews became subject to Babylonia, Assyria and Rome. 200. Emancipation of Jews. 100. Jerusalem captured by Pompey (63) ; Jews become Roman subjects. 100. Herod recognized by Romans King of Judea (40). GREEK. 1900. Pelasgians from South- western Asia Minor, original Greeks. 1100. Pelasgians called Hel- lenes divided into Dorian and Ionian tribes. 600. Spartan Supremacy. Ionic Art Period. 290. Corinthian Art Period. 300. Macedonia having be- come leading State in Greek Empire 336, Alexander of Macedonia waged war against Persia and the East and conquered all Asia as far as India, spreading Greek cul- ture. Antioch, Syria, Alex- andria, Rhodes, Asia Minor became Eastern centers of Greek Art. 200. Macedonia becomes Roman Province. SPANISH— FRENCH —PORTUGUESE. 2000. Celts settled in and about Spain. 190.0. Phoenicians visited Spain. 1300. Portugal was ancient Iberia. 1200. France was peopled by Teuton tribes and called Gaul. 600. Celts dominated Spain. 500. While the Celtic tribes and the men of Gaul (orig- inally Teutons) were all termed Gallic people, they gradually formed distinct di- visions. 100. At the opening of Christian era all the Gallic country came under Roman conquest. ROMAN. 700. Mythical Period. 400. Empire dismembered. 200. Conquest of Spain and Gaul. 100. Destruction of Mace- donian Monarchy by Ro- mans. Invasion of England. ETRUSCAN. 1200. Aryan tribes of Asia living North of Rome and in country now Tuscany. 600. Period of highest devel- opment. Subjugated by Romans, 351 TEUTONIC. 600. Tribes of barbarians called Teutons occupied ter- ritory now Germany, Prus- sia, Holland, Belgium, Ba- varia, Scandinavia, North- ern Italy, Saxony. 500. Scandinavia, covering Denmark and Sweden, occu- pied by Finnish tribes. In Denmark dwelt Saxons, An- gles and Jutes. 200. Dominated by the Ro- mans. CELTIC. 2000. Aryan tribes from Asia living North of Rome and in country now Tus- cany. First of the Aryans to settle in Western Europe. They occupied the country now France, but then called Gaul, and together with Teu- ton tribes who found their way West and settled there, were included among the Gallic people. Period of highest development. 600. Subjugated Spain. 500. Reached Great Britain. 100. Gallic tribes formed divisions distinct from Celtic tribes and at opening of Christian era were con- quered by Caesar, Emperor of Rome. ] CHRONOLOGY SHOWING THE Batavians, 78; British, 86; Burgundians, 28; Byzantine, 10; Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Finns, 65; Franks, 37; German Kingdom, 33; Saracens, 62; Saxons, Angles, Jutes, 66; Scandinavians, 65; Scotch, 82; Slavs and A.D. 100 200 300 ROMAN. (1) Destruction Pompeii and Herculaneum, 79 A.D. Roman Empire extended over Greece, Italy, the Gre- cian Islands, Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, Cyrene, Carthage, Spain, France, Germanic Countries and Western Asia, including Armenia and Mesopotamia. (2) Hadrian successor to Trajan abandoned Armenia and Mesopotamia. (3) Constantine, Emperor, became protector of Chris- tians. Accepted Christian religion 328. 330 changed capital of Empire to Byzan- tium. (See 10.) BYZANTINE. 400 (4) Roman Empire dismem- jj bered 455. Invasion of Van- si: dais. (See 28.) 500 600 700 (6) 751. Rome independ- ent. First Papal States. (See 21 and 48.) 800 900 (7 ) 800-1200. Saracenic in- fluence prevailed. ( 10 ) Byzantine Empire under Constantine. By- zantium changed to Con- stantinople. This con- stituted the Eastern Division of Roman Em- pire. (See 3.) (See 16, 17, 18.) 27 (5) 590. Gregory I Bishop w of Rome. (12 ) 700. Lombards (or Langobards) conquered the greater part of the Byzantine Empire in Europe. (See 48.) ITALIAN. (14) Italy originally a term applying to the peninsula divided into Upper, Central, Lower Italy and Islands, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. At opening of century Italy was included in Roman Empire. (15) 320. Langobards were located on Lower Elbe. (See 30.) (11) 527. Justinian be- gan twenty-year war which destroyed influence of Goths and Huns. (See 29.) (16) Invasion of West Goths 400. (17) 476. Odoacer be- came Prefect of Italy. (18) 452. Huns under Attila invade Italy. Venice founded by Italian refugees. (19) 568. The Lango- bards conquered Italy south to Tiber. (See 67.) (20) 590. Gregory I Bishop of Rome. Begin- ning of Papacy. (21) 751. First Papal States. (See 48.) (22) 773. Lombardic Kingdom destroyed by Charlemagne, Charles the Great, who became King of Italy. (See 48 and 67.) (8) 966. Dominated German nations. by k (13) Until 1057 Eastern « (23) 800. Charles re- 's or Byzantine Empire was'S vived office of Emperor ■r under Macedonian rule. § °f West. Byzantine art flourished >J until the conquest of the Eastern Empire. Muham- med II destroyed By- zantine or Eastern Em- pire, in 1453. _. _ (24) 961. First Empire. 1000 TEUTONIC. (25) Teutons occupied ter- ritory now Wurtemberg, Ba- varia, Bohemia, Saxony, Hesse, Holland, Hanover, Prussia, Swiss and Tyrol Alps and Scandinavia. Re- ligion of nature worship. (26) Many small tribes in close relation with Romans. (27) 320. Beginning of migration of Germanic tribes. (28) Alani located on low- er Volga; East Goths, South- ern Russia; West Goths, Eastern Hungary; Vandals, Southwestern Hungary; Su- evi, Bohemia, Moravia and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Rhine ; Ripuarian Franks; both sides lower Rhine; Sohe Franks at mouth of Rhine. (29) West Goths laid waste Macedonia and Greece, and invaded Italy, 400. (30) Langobards on lower Elbe. (31) 476. Odoacer recog- nized by Eastern Emperor as Prefect of Italy. (See 17 and 18.) FRENCH. (35) Roman province. (36) 170. First Christian church at Lyons. (37) 350. Invasion of Franks. (See 28.) (32) See 50. (38 ) 400. Invasion of Van- dals, Suevi and Alian. (See 28.) 443. Burgundians, Visigoths and Franks settled in upper Rhone. (See 28.) (40) 450. Huns under At- tila ravage Gaul. (41) 486. Monarchy estab- lished by Clovis. (42) 511. Division of King- dom with four court camps Metz, Paris, Soissons and Orleans. (43) 561. Second Division. Austrasia with capital at Rheims. Population chiefly German. Neustria capital Soissons, Burgundy capital Orleans. Population of last two Celtic. (44) 620. Dagobert. (45) 632. Third Division. Austrasia, principally Ger- , man Neustria, Northern France, not reckoning Bre- tagne and Burgundy. (46) . 687. Pipin of Aus- trasia became head of the Kingdom of Franks. (47) 732. Martell, son and successor of Pipin, drove out Arabian invaders. (48) 751. Langobards (Lombards) having con- quered almost all Byzantine territory in Europe, except- ing Venice, Ravenna, Naples and Rome, Pope Stephen III sought, aid of Pipin the Short, who drove back the Lombards and was rewarded by being placed at head of First Papal States. (49) 772. War with Sax- ons (pagans). Absorption of ■ Saxon land. (See 66.) ' (50) 843- Empire divided ; into East and West Frank- ish Empire, which eventu- ~ ally became Germany and ! France. (33) 919. Henry I founded 0 <->l) 986. Hugh Capet German Monarchy. ch °s en km S of French mon - (34) 966. Holy Roman Em- elins become royal property. Le Brun dictator of styles. Beauvais Tapestry Works established. Chinese characteristics introduced. 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and consequent flight of many Protestant work people. 1715-1774. Louis XV. Ro- coco Period). 1774-1792. Louis XVI. (Marie Antoinette). 1793-1795. Revolutionary Period. 1795-1804. Directoire or Transition Period. David the prime influ- ence in decoration. 1804-1814. Empire. David dictator of style. 1602. Dutch East India Co. established. 1603-1649. Jacobean (many Flemish and German workmen settled in Eng- land). 1603-1625. James I (found- er Stuart period, beginning of American settlement). 1620. Settlement at Ply- mouth, Mass. 1625-1649. Charles I. 1653-1659. Cromwellian. Many Royalists fled to France. 1660. Exiled Royalists returned from France. 1660-1685. Charles II. 1660. London East India Co. established. 1685-1689. James II. 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes brought many French and Flemish weavers and woodwork- ers to England. 1689-1702. William and Mary. 1702-1714. Queen Anne. 1714-1727. George I. 1727-1760. George II. 1776. American Revolu- tion and establishment of the United States. 1760-1820. George III. 1830-1837. William IV. 1837-1901. Victoria. 6 THE PERIOD STYLES CLASSIFIED Beginnings OLD BABYLONIAN 4000 B. C. EGYPTIAN 4000-332 CHINESE 3500 ASSYRIAN 2286-608 Chaldean Period 2286-1300 Assyrian 1300-625 Median 640-558 Babylonian 608-538 INDIAN 2000 GREEK 1900 B. C.-168 A. D. Doric 700, Ionic 600, Corinthian 290 JAPANESE 1200 ETRUSCAN 1044-238 B. C. (Tuscan) ROMAN 753 B. C.-45S A. D. Following the Greek orders, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian; also the Tus- can and Roman Composite PERSIAN EMPIRE 558 B. C. BUDDHA PERIOD, India, 500 CELTIC 200 B. C.-1100 A. D. POMPEIIAN 101 B. C.-79 A. D. PARTHIAN EMPIRE, Persia, 250 B. C.-220 A. D. NORTHERN AND SCANDINA- VIAN 100 A. D. ROMAN GERMANIC 100-700 SASSANIAN EMPIRE, PERSIAN, 220-641 BYZANTINE 328-1453 ARABIAN 571 MOHAMMEDAN PERSIA 641 MOORISH 711-1610 ROMANESQUE 700-1100 ROME Independent. First Papal States 751 FLEMISH 850-1758 FIRST GERMAN EMPIRE 961-1806 SPANISH, FIRST CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS 1037 NORMAN OR ENGLISH ROMAN- ESQUE 1066-1189 GOTHIC 1100-1550 FRENCH GOTHIC 1108-1515 Early English Gothic 1189-1307 Developments FORTIETH CENTURY B. C. THIRTY-FIFTH CENTURY B. C. Mythic Period 3500-2200 Egyptian Middle Empire 3000-2100 TWENTY-SECOND CENTURY B. C. First Emipre Chinese 2200 Assyria included the Medes, Persians, and Babylonians Chaldean Period 2286-1300 TWENTIETH CENTURY B. C. NINETEENTH CENTURY B. C. Graeco-Pelasgic 1900-1384 FOURTEENTH CENTURY B. C. India Brahma Period 1400-500 THIRTEENTH CENTURY B. C. Assyrian 1300-625 TWELFTH CENURY B. C. TENTH CENTURY B. C. SEVENTH CENTURY B C. Greek Doric 700 SIXTH CENTURY B. C. Japanese Empire 660 Median Empire (Assyrian) 640-558 Empire of Babylon Oj8-5o 8 Greek Ionic 600 FIFTH CENTURY B. C. Chinese Confucius 500 THIRD CENTURY B. C. Graeco-Roman influence Greek Corinthian 290 Hellenistic 290-168 Etruscan cities subjugated by Rome 350 SECOND CENTURY B. C. FIRST CENTURY B. C. Greek Arts absorbed by Romans Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite and Tuscan: the “five orders” Pure Greek 100 B. C.-79 A. D. Egypt became Roman Province SECOND CENTURY A. D. Roman Empire extended over Greece, Germanic Countries, Italy and West- ern Asia. See Chronology of Devel- opment of Nations. THIRD CENTURY A. D. FOURTH CENTURY A. D. Constantine changed name of Byzantium to Constantinople 330 FIFTH CENTURY A. D. ORIENTAL ROMAN Result of absorption of ideas from Armenia and Mesopotamia SIXTH CENTURY A. D. Beginning of Mohammedanism, 571 Best Byzantine Period 550-1000 SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. Saracenic Conquests in Byzantine Em- pire, Persia, India and Spain Saracenic Conquest of Spain 711 Caliphate of Cordova enjoyed bril- liant art period until 1031 NINTH CENTURY A. D. Arabian or Saracenic Conquests affect- ing Sicilian Arts Russia under Byzantine influence 800 Independent Countship 850-1404 TENTH CENTURY A. D. Russia under Celtic influence ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. William the Conqueror 1066-1087 William II 1087-1100 Active trading with the East Wars of the Crusaders 1096-1270 TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. Continuation Romanesque Period Henry I 1100-1135 Stephen 1135-1154 Henry II 1154-1189 Late Byzantine Saracenic and Sicilian arts merged BY CENTURIES Endings CHINESE Mythic Period, 2200 B. C. CHALDEAN Assyrian 1300 GRAECO-PELASGIC 1384 End of Assyrian Period 625 Dissolution of Assyrian Empire 608 BRAHMA Period, India, 500 MEDES Conquered by Persians 558 BABYLONIAN EMPIRE incorporated by Persians 538 ETRUSCAN 238 EGYPT became Kingdom 332 Etruscan Art Period 238 GREEK 168 PARTHIAN 220 ROMAN EMPIRE dismembered 455 SASSANIAN EMPIRE 641 ROMAN GERMANIC 700 BEST BYZANTINE PERIOD ended 1000 CELTIC 1100 ROMANESQUE 1189 7 THE PERIOD Beginnings ALHAMBRAIC PERIOD IN SPAIN 1200-1300 A. D. OTTOMAN EMPIRE ESTAB- LISHED IN ASIA 1258-9 Supremacy 1298 ENGLISH DECORATED GOTHIC 1307-1399 Perpendicular Gothic 1399-1500 FLANDERS 1404 EARLY ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 1400-1500 FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE 1400-1600 MILANESE RENAISSANCE 1400- 1600 ROMAN RENAISSANCE 1444-1643 TURKISH EMPIRE 1453 Byzantium conquered by the Turks ENGLISH RENAISSANCE 1458- 1603 ELIZABETHAN 1558-1603 HIGH ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 1500-1540 LATE RENAISSANCE 1540-1643 FRENCH RENAISSANCE 1502-1643 SPANISH RENAISSANCE 1500 PORTUGUESE RENAISSANCE 1500 GERMAN RENAISSANCE 1550 JACOBEAN 1603-1649 DUTCH REPUBLIC 1609 (Composed of the seven United Provinces) CROMWELLIAN LOUIS XIII, 1610-1643 LOUIS XIV, 1643-1714 QUEEN ANNE, 1702-1714 GEORGIAN, 1714-1820 COLONIAL, 1727-1820 LOUIS XV ROCOCO PERIOD, 1715-1774 LOUIS XVI, 1774-179 3 DIRECTOIRE, 1795-1804 EMPIRE, 1804-1814 COLONIAL LATE CLASSIC PERIOD, 1804-1820 VICTORIAN, 1837 ART NOUVEAU, 1898 STYLES CLASSIFIED Developments THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. Height of Moorish Art Arabians and Saracens dominated by the Turks and Turkish dominion in Asia established 1258 Ottoman Empire V enice became famous as an art center FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. Covering reigns of : Edward II, Edward III, Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI, Edward IV, Edward V, Richard III FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. Great Trading Period of Flanders and Italy. Florence famous for manufactures Gobelins established dye works 1440, which afterward became famous for manufacture of tapestries SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. Age of Oak 1500-1660 Portuguese opened East India Trade 1500 Henry VII, Founder ENGLISH TU- DOR Line, 1458-1509 Henry VIII, 1509-1547 Elizabeth, 1558-1603 Founded by Louis XII, 1502-1515 Francis I, 1515-1549 Henri II, 1549-1559 Francis II, 1559-1560 Charles IX, 1560-1574 Henri III, 1574-1589 Henri IV, 1589-1610 In 1576, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, Gromingen, Friesland and Overyssel became known as the Seven United Provinces and asserted inde- pendence. The Southern Provinces, which form modern Belgium includ- ing Flanders, which fell to Spain after the abdication of Charles I, continued under Spanish domination. India, Mogul Empire, 1525-1748 Russian Empire, 1547 The Reformation, 1529 Portuguese Settlements in Persia SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. Age of Walnut, 1660-1700 Moors Expelled from Spain, 1610 Dutch and East India Trading Com- panies Organized, 1600 New York Settled by Dutch, 1613 James I (founder STUART PERIOD), 1603-1625 Charles I, 1625-1649 Inigo Jones, dictator of English styles, 1625-1652 Commonwealth England, 1653-1659 Inception Queen Anne, 1660. Some- times called Stuart Period Charles II, 1660-1685 James II. 1685-1689 William and Mary, 1689-1702 Dutch and East India furnishings largely imported through Dutch and English Trading Companies. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes brought many French and Flemish weavers and woodworkers to Eng- land EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. Age of Mahogany, 1730 George I, 1714-1727 George II, 1727-1760 George III, 1760-1820 (Age of Chippendale, Sheraton, Adam and Hepplewhite) Flanders subjugated by the French, 1758 Russian Arts under French influence NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. BY CENTURIES Endings Alhambraic Period 1300 Early English Gothic 1307 English Decorated Gothic 1399 Byzantine 1453 Perpendicular Gothic 1458-1500 FRENCH GOTHIC 1515 High Italian Renaissance 1540 VENETIAN RENAISSANCE ended 1600 English Renaissance 1603 MOORISH 1610 Late Italian Renaissance 1643 French Renaissance 1643 ELIZABETHAN 1603 JACOBEAN 1649 Cromwellian 1659 CHARLES II 1685 William and Mary 1702 Louis XIII 1643 QUEEN ANNE 1714 Louis XIV 1714 Rococo 1774 Louis XVI 1793 FLANDERS subjugated by the French INDIA MOGUL EMPIRE 1748 Directoire 1804 EMPIRE 1814 GEORGIAN 1820 COLONIAL 1820 VICTORIAN 1901 8 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL RACES AND PEOPLES AND DATE OF THEIR ORIGIN Black Race (Ethiopian or Negro), Yellow Race (Mongolian or Turanian), ) Tribes and peoples whose true home is Central and Southern i Africa. f (1) Chinese (3500 B.C.), Burmese, Japanese, and kindred 1 peoples of Eastern Asia; (2) Nomad: Tartars, Huns, Par- I thians, Mongols, etc., of Northern and Central , Asia and of Eastern Russia; (3) Turks, Magyars, Hungarians, Finns, ancient *Scythians, Lapps and Basques, of Europe; (4) | Malays of Southeastern Asia and inhabitants of many of l the Pacific islands; (5) Esquimeaux and American Indians. r r White Race or Caucasian, Hamites Semites North Coast Aryans, or Indo- Europeans Egyptians, 4000 B.C. Libyans (Berbers, subsequently Moors), Africa. Assyrians, 2286 B.C. Phoenicians, 1100 B.C. (Cyprians, Rhodians.) Hebrews, 1900 B.C. Empire of Shepherd Kings in East- ern Egypt (Hyksos). Aramaeans (occupying old Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia). Arabians, 571 A.D. (followers of Mohammed, Saracens). f Hindus, 2000 B.C. Bactrians. Medes, 640 B.C. t Persians, 558 B.C. (followers of Mohammed). f Greeks, 1900 B.C. Romans, 753 B.C. Etruscans. I Byzantines. f Gauls. Irish. Welsh. Scotch. Bretons of Brittany, j Asiatics . Classicals . Celts originally from Asia, 2000 B.C. Romans Celts y Germanic I French. Spaniards. Italians. Portuguese. L J Teutons H Slavs . f Germanic tribes, Franks and Goths, j Germans, Flemish, Dutch, Swiss, Scan- dinavians, Swedes, Norwegians and Danes, Angles, Saxons and Jutes--the | English sprung from the four latter L tribes. ( Russians. f Poles, etc. * Authorities differ regarding the Scythians, who 2000 B.C. occupied a vast section of Europe north of the Black and Caspian Seas. Some believe the Scythians were Mongols, others maintain Aryan origin, from which the Slavs descended. BARBARIC DESIGN BABYLONIAN ARCHAIC PHCENICI AN, OLD ARAM/BAN X % ! 1 1 * <5^ A r\ * v i W HEN man the bar- barian carved some mystic sign upon his club or battle-axe, he had no art in' his soul and no conception of Ornament. For centuries that are gone and are still to come, designs or signs or marks, may be regarded as designs to ex- press thought, without any con- ception of an artistic idea. Hence we must not regard Design and Ornament as analogous terms. Ornament came with civilization. Design was of utilitarian impulse. It was smybolical. If we contemplate some phases of Oriental art, especially the tribal forms, we find innumerable ex- amples of design that are far from ornamental. Long before the dawn of history we find two dis- tinct races in Asia, the Turanian or Mongolian, and the Caucasian. The Mongolian or Yellow race in- cludes the Chinese, the Tartars, the Mongols and Turks; the Caucasian race includes the Egyptians, Assyrians, Arabians, Hindus, Persians, Greeks and Romans. The broad plateau of Iran in Asia was in- habited on the north by the Medians and on the south by the Persians. Many of their people, together with broken tribes of other Aryans, traveled east to the dis- MEANING OUTLINE CHARACTER, B. C. 4500 ARCHAIC CUNEIFORM, B. C. 2500 ASSYRIAN, B. C. 700 IATE BABYLONIAN, B.C. 500 I. The sun 0 U <*T 2. God, heaven 3- Mountain l< V w * 4- Man /WIN f-JTT “ “ 1 | 5- Ox T> 6. Fish 4 IK IK 9 i - BARBARIC DESIGN trict adjoining India, and in the great sub-division of the Turanian races of China great hordes traveled west, until the Aryan and Turanian characteristics were merged in broken clans, the class that we now term Turkoman. Where civilization advanced and the arts flour- ished we have design as a concrete form of decoration and best exemplified in the work of Persia and Arabia, but with the hundreds and thousands of nomadic tribes design had been used to express an abstract thought or sym- bolism without heed for beauty, and these pic- torial forms were at best crude ornament. As a means of expression the nomads or wandering tribes as well as the savages of all countries early devised a form of picture language, and certain signs understood by thetn became in time tribal marks or involved possibly religious feel- /\ ing. Thousands of these people the accompanying design was prepared to show that notwithstanding appearances the straight lines en- closed between acute or obtuse angles are of the same length. the usage. The above is from a Greek tablet and shows apparently the origin of three borders — the water line border, the barber pole and the reciprocal trefoil border. V V LJ 1 t A lU living only by conquest traveled about from place to place in vast ravaging hordes. One can com- prehend the conqueror of one band adopting with pride some symbol from the trappings of his fallen foe because this predatory instinct and boastfulness was manifest in the Empire styles, when bits of Italian or Egyptian decoration were strung together to commemorate the con- quests of Napoleon. Then, again, in the crude in- terchange of tribal courtesies and in the common assimilation of migratory people signs, ideograms and phonograms, having no mean- ing beyond being the reminder of some experience, were much used. It is natural, moreover, that in the use of simple signs or de- signs the same thing should be commonly used by many people in many re- mote parts of the world, and parts of squares and circles have been used uni- versally for thousands of years to indicate various ideas, making it impossible for one to fix a definite meaning for these designs or to determine by their presence a definite point of origin. The writer some time ago had occasion to illus- trate the illusions which arise from the use of angles, and with no thought but to accomplish this purpose A V A O— < A series of illusions respecting straight lines and angles ; similar figures appear in Kurdis- tan rugs. Alaskan. “Record of a hunt.” See text. O S 1 ^ III Egyptian. In the preparation of the story of Oriental design writer is interested to note that his illusion illus- trations, prepared at a time when his mind was far from the Orient, may be regarded as ex- cellent examples of Mongol detail. Every figure in the illusion figures is to be found in Kurdistan designs, emphasizing the fact that simple pictorial expressions are of world They occur to the minds of all people and of all countries, and are not sufficiently intricate to constitute an original thought. Perhaps the most important influence on the use of design was the common employment of pic- ture-writing. The researches of the Bureau of Ethnology, Wash- ington, incline one to believe that picture language was introduced by prehistoric America to China. Alexander Speltz, in his great work on “Styles of Ornament,” encour- ages this belief by many examples of prehistoric design from North and South America. The native designs of old Mexico suggest the Anatolian. The native designs of- the Aztecs suggest Egyptian, and we com- mend the reader for further study of this subject to “Unknown Mex- ico,” by Carl Lumholtz, or to the Government Exploration Reports on the Tussayan and Hopi Indians, descendants of those living cen- turies ago in the deserted villages of Arizona and Mexico, Central and South America. In the illustration of old Maya designs it is not difficult to trace motifs identical with those of the Mongol districts of the Caucasus. The Maya In- dians were the most ad- vanced of the North Amer- ican aboriginal races. They had books, paper, picture language, were sun wor- shippers, built well and carved well, had paved roads of stone and communicated by couriers. Their houses were decorated and the temples of Yucatan were built, if we are to believe the archaeologists, when Egypt was a wilderness. > < IO BARBARIC DESIGN The Smithsonian Institute has given to us a great number of illustrations showing the sign language of the Maya, and we find here also the tree of life, the latch-hook, the square and rhomboid, the octagon, the overlapping wave design, the fret, the swastika and the trefoil. We can turn to Aztec and Peruvian decoration and find designs almost pure Turkestan and Caucasian. Forms of a cross that are often seen in Caucasian rugs are illustrated by Lumholtz as represent- ing conventionalized forms of the Mex- ican toto blossom. Mexican water motifs are the same as Caucasian, and the use of florals and geometrical figures gives evi- dence of a common inspiration — an in- spiration that nature gives to the primi- tive mind. There is further interest in the fact that in all countries some flower— the iris, the lotus, the lily, the acanthus, the palm, the poppy, the toto blossom — is utilized for its symbolic significance. With the Mexican Indians flowers, blossoms and birds have a strict religious meaning. Indeed, the Huichol Indians never pluck a flower unless with pious intent. It is safe to assume that no savage ever sat down to the work of ornamentation un- less it expressed thought, and such thoughts were naturally simple and con- fined to simple means. The records of an Alaskan hunt we reproduce as an ex- ample from Meyer’s “Prehistoric Times.” The translation follows : I go by boat (indicated by a paddle held upright — I sleep one night (hand at side of head denotes sleep) — on island with two huts — I go to another island — two people sleep there — a sea Hon I hunt with harpoon — I return by boat with companion (indicated by two oars) to my lodge. In this system of writing the char- acters are crude pictures of material objects and no extensive vocabulary is required to cover the needs of a savage people. A picture of an eye would indicate the order of sight, or the personal pronoun, or vigilance, or other meanings, ac- cording to circumstances. A lot of zigzag lines falling from a parallelogram would in- dicate rain. The great chasm between picture writing and sign writing was partially bridged by the Chinese who, as early as 2000 B. C., employed a system wherein every word of the language was represented by a symbol. Then came the Egyptian system and the Babylonian system of cuneiform writing, 2000 B.C., a system generally adopted in Western Asia, employing the use of a wedge- shaped stylus. Much of the writing was stamped upon clay. For thousands of years the cuneiform system of writing was lost. In 1618 de Sylva Figueroa, of Spain, investigated the inscriptions and fixed them as Turanian. Hence it is rea- sonable, in view of the purely angular character of Mongol decoration, to trace much of its inspiration to the early knowl- edge of cuneiform writing. In the excavations of ancient Troy, the buried cities of Illios and Hissarlic, certain decorative forms of these cunei- form records, found upon coins and tab- lets, have been adopted as fetishes of the people, especially in the Kurdistan dis- trict, much as the people of America adopt the swastika under the vague impression that it is a good-luck sign. From the coins and tablets of these old Trojan ruins of Asia Minor we find the swastika so common and in so many forms, or rather alterations, that we be- lieve that the latch-hook of this district and the Caucasus, and even of the Turko- man district, is a lingering swastika in- fluence and not a wave sign. We find in Asia Minor the swastika in its true form as well as distortions of these forms, sprawly shapes, sometimes representing stars or trees or animals. It is impossible to trace the meaning of the signs because we find them among so many people at periods widely separate. The term is thought by some to mean eternity. The swastika enclosed within a circle gives a suggestion of flight, progress. We have seen the swastika with the extending lines leg-shaped, sometimes eight and ten in- stead of four legged. Zmigrodski, the anthropologist, classifies these distortions under what he calls related swastikas. Unquestionably the swastika orig- inated as a thought expression, which in time became a fixed sym- bol of general world use. The United States Government, in the Smith- sonian report of 1894, published the results of its re- search and showed that the swastika had been found in almost every part of Europe and was identical with the same form used in prehistoric America. It was known in India and ancient Bactria (East Turkestan), in Rhodes, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Asia InJnnHjnjbi uy «Tg Ji mb v Mexican. Hopi. American Indian. ft 0- n Ui %> % 1) A Chinese. 1 1 BARBARIC DESIGN Minor, Greece, Rome, Byzantine, Northern Africa, Great Britain and America. Ancient Troy was full of the swastika, and it appeared on the coins of the classic Orient, Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea and Persia. The French Government discovered the swastika throughout Armenia and in the Caucasus district. So any assumption that it has restricted or local mean- ing is untenable. In searching for the origin of the star, the octagon and the triangle we are brought frequently to the doors of Constantinople. We may go back to India and the Brahmans and we find the triangle as a sec- tarian mark. The combination of two triangles gives us the six-pointed star. The combination of two squares gives us the Mohammedan eight-pointed star, and the five-pointed star is supposed to be a Christian symbol. Yet if we go back to the period of Christian enthusiasm in the Byzantine Empire we will find the Brahman and Mohammedan eight-pointed star in uni- versal use. The marble mosaic which covered the floors contained geometrical shapes innumerable. The five-pointed, six-pointed and eight-pointed star is sim- ply a geometrical combination of squares and circles. After the fall of Constantinople the beauty of its deco- rative system was promptly copied by the Moham- medans, quick to perceive a means of beautifying with- out the use of animal forms, interdicted by the Koran, and we trace this Byzantine influence through the Anatolian Peninsula and the Caucasus. Tradition states that the crescent was adopted and used in Constantinople as an omen of protection like the winged asp and ball of Egypt. When the Mace- donian hordes approached old Byzantium by stealth the crescent moon arose and revealed their presence and saved the city. The crescent was then adopted generally as a good-luck symbol. In after years when Contantinople fell to Turkish dominion the crescent was seized upon as a valuable symbol. Geometrical design had a wide influence upon the arts of all Asia, with the exception of Persia. The Arabians developed a remarkable system of strap- work, scroll and circular design strictly geometrical, and even when the Arabian system became floriated it was the juxtaposition of floral details geometrically arranged and interwoven. We find the same system in China, where geometrical forms of the fret similar to the Greek fret, geometrical circles and diamonds and octagons are used universally, but have no rela- tionship with similar designs of the Greek and Roman Empires. We find in China the eight-point decoration that is adopted generally through the Turkoman dis- trict and found frequently in Afghanistan rugs. It implies Mongol influence. The same thing is common in Gothic decoration. Design is not always decoration, but decoration is always design. ^ 4 A A A ) /\ c ^AVp *=\ A Greek. SACRED MOUNTAINS CONSTELLATION There is much that interests us in aboriginal design in the effort to express some material thought or idea of beauty. But there is greater satisfaction in contemplating a perfect- ed system of decorative unity. Decoration repre- sents a development of civilization and culture. The Arabians as world conquerors left the imprint of their decorative art for thousands of miles around them, but they absorbed little, and to the end Arabian art was true to its ancient forms. With Persia, however, the best period of its art progress may be traced direct to the influence of Shah Abbas,, who in the Sixteenth Century sent his best artists to Italy, where they studied under the tutelage of the great Renaissance designers. All that is most beautiful in Persian art may be ascribed to the Renaissance and Arabian influences. We do not forget that for centuries before Christ the Persians were in close in- tercourse with the Assyrians and Egyptians and their art flourished accordingly, nor that early Persian art was strongly As- syrian and Babylonian. But this was not the art that became in years afterwards indigenous to the soil, the art which, freed of Mohammedanism, embodies the presentation of nature forms, floral and animal, and presents a unity of design brought into coherent relationship by the principles underlying the best Ital- ian school. We can continue the work of Arabian and Persian design satisfied with the deco- rative charm that it possesses. But the mere fact that with most of the Oriental designs we search for the meaning, the sym- bolic underlying story that is told, shows on its face that the mere picture is not satis- fying, and as a decorative composition it does not appeal to us, but only interests Y.IGHTN ING- SUN SYORAA RAIN because enigmatical. rH SWASriKA * KEY Of LIFE 12 1 6 8 9 IO | I 12 1, 2, 3. Marks of Brahma. 4, 5, 6. Latin, Greek, St. An- drew’s Cross. 7, 8, 9. Chinese and Indian Swastika. 9. Ideogram of Ancient Troy. if Hb A ft! f f ’f * 13 14 15 *6 10. Maltese Cross. 11. Monogram of Christ. 12. Tau Cross or Thors Ham- mer, top line sometimes bent Y shaped. 1. Moslem Comb and Star of Bethlehem, Turkish. 2. Knot of Destiny, Chinese origin. 3. Effulgent Star, Caucasian. & 0 Kurdistan and North Persian motifs. % 17 18 13. Egyptian Cross. 14 and 15. Celtic. 16. Swastika. 17. Ancient Troy. 18. Ancient Georgia. I Z >3 ■H □izsLiAxyn 6- _W 1, 2, 3, 4. Altar designs. 5. Solomon’s Signet. 6, 7, 8, 9. Forms of altar, or tree of life. Gothic geometric divisions. Note characteristic of Afghanistan. Old Mexico. Old Mexico (Huichol). Note similarity to Turkoman, Caucasian and Chinese. DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS. EGYPTIAN DESIGN DETAILS. The top line shows the lotus bud, pad and blossom. EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN— Old Empire, 4000-3000 B.C. Middle Em- pire, 3000-2100 B.C. New Empire, 2100-324 B.C. Graeco- Roman Revival, 324 B.C. to 300 A. D. Egypt. 332 B.C., became a Greek kingdom; 30 B.C. became a Roman province until the Mohammedan in- vasion, 640 A.D. E GYPTIAN weaving most ancient known in- dustry. Egyptian linens famous, embroidered with gold, silver and purple. The moment we leave the age of savagery and man clothed in animal skins, we reach the stage of weaving. Clothing was the first necessity of mankind. Tombs of Egypt, 2800 B.C., illustrate weavers at work. One shows a man weaving a checkered, rug. Monuments of ancient Egypt and Syria show the manufacture of rugs and fabrics, 2400 B.C. Nine hundred and eight B.C., Egyptian canopy cloths of fine character, embroidered and of a patch character. The history of lace begins definitely with 900 A. D., but drawn-work and nettings were of prehistoric origin. Fabrics dating 1000 B.C. are preserved in the Louvre, Paris. Three thousand five hundred and fifty B.C., building of the pyramids. Following the Stone Age, came the Age of Copper, Age of Bronze, Age of Iron. As early as 2100 B.C., Egypt was highly civilized. In buildings moldings were seldom used. Chambers were decorated with illustrations representing in- dustries. Carvings, instead of standing out in relief, were sunken and the ground stood out, a system exactly opposite to the Assyrian system, where the ground was depressed and the subject stood out in relief. Decoration full of gold and brilliant colors, the triad form being popular (black, yellow and red), (red, blue and white), (dark blue, light blue and white), (cream color, blue and black), (dark red, medium yellow and blue). Ornaments were frequently in hieroglyphics. Among motifs and designs were the sun, the beetle, the cobra or serpent, feathers, papyrus buds and reeds, lotus, date-palms, the lily, zigzags for wa- ter ways, herbs, animals, fan-shaped ornaments, nude figures, winged human figures, human faces, the ram, sparrow hawk, sacred tree. Late Egyptian furniture had rope or rush covered seats. Egyptian wall treatments, confined to frieze deco- rations against plain walls. Couches were made low ; no foot boards ; small rests at head to fit under the neck. Stools often had wooden bottoms, but couches were always plaited. Six hundred B.C., seats were of narrow strips of leather plaited; furniture often wood inlaid with metal. Seats were curved to fit the figure. i5 BABYLONIAN — ASSYRIAN. BABYLONIAN — ASS YRIAN-PERSI AN A SSYRIAN, Persian, Babylonian and even Egyptian arts in the Early Centuries B.C., were so merged as to be indistinguishable to all but the most careful archaeological student (see “Chart of origins”). The illustration below is Persian, although it contains distinct Egyptian as well as Assyrian char- acteristics. Persian ornament in the popular conception dates from the Islam or Mohammedan period in the Seventh Century A.D. BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN: Old Babylonian, 4000 B.C. Chaldean Period, 2286-1300 B.C. Assyrian Period, 1300- 625 B.C. Median Period, 640-558 B.C. Late Baby- lonian, 608-538. E xcavations in N i n- eveh, Nimroud and Khorsabad afford proofs of the existence of civilization in Babylonia 4000 B.C. But in this wide country, embrac- ing Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Chaldea, Media and Persia, there was such a mixture of peoples, each suc- cessively subjugated by first one then another, that the arts of all must be regarded as common to the whole. Three thousand B.C. in Southern Babylonia a number of independent cities ; Erech, Ur, Larsam ; Agade, Babylon. Kingdom of Elam, East of Baby- lonia, supreme 2300 B.C. About 1900 B.C. Kingdom of Semitic Assyrians founded, which later developed the great cities of Asshur and Nineveh. Six hundred and sixty-eight B.C. Esarhaddon king, Assyria became world power. As in Egypt, so in the adjoining river-valley countries, the lotus flower or the lily played an important role in ornamentation. In the earliest periods Assyria was famous for its weaving. It is impossible to fix the date of em- broideries or fancy needlework, but it is fair to assume that as weaving was, next to the building of the hut and the making of the battle-axe, the first industry, it was likewise the first to par- take of decorative character. In the early period the furniture was of metal and wood or wood inlaid with metal. Seven hundred B.C. magnificent epoch. At Koy- unjik the palace had seventy- one halls and chambers, two miles of wall decorations. Conspicuous features of de- sign were bulls, lions and eagles. At Nimroud the beams of the palaces were of cedar wood carved. It will be noted that in 993 the walls of King Solomon’s Temple were covered with carved cedar and olive wood in styles like the Assyrian stone sculp- tures, utilizing much winged decoration and lily forms. At this period Hiram of Tyre was famous for his bronze work. Much gold was used in ornamentation. Fabrics were ornamented in minute diaper patterns with bands or borders. The faces in the mural deco- rations were in profile. The palm, date, vine, fig tree, i7 Persian. PERSIAN— PHOENICIAN— HEBRAIC— INDIAN fern, lily and tall grass were much used. The sacred tree was conspicuous in design, with wave and guil- loche ornamentations ; fir cones radiated from rosette centers. Carved ivory was plentiful; iron seldom used ; emblems usually bronze ; ornamentation of vivid color, gold and silver and delicate painting; eagle- headed lions, winged bulls, human figures with wings and eagle heads. Babylonia and Assyria in constant war ; their arts were merged. Assyrian ornament copied much that was Egyptian. Examples of Assyrian furniture are very rare, as the climate did not contribute to the preservation of Asia Minor. The art that we regard popularly as Persian is the later Islam art of Mohammed. PHOENICIAN. T he Phoenicians were commercial people. Two thousand B.C. they were settled on the coast of Syria and had trading stations and colonies in Greece, Italy, Gaul and Africa. They were traders and had no art beyond that of local jewelers. HEBRAIC. T he Hebrews of Palestine were dependent on the Phoenicians for their technique, the Mosaic laws forbidding pictures and images prevented the free de- woods, which occasionally in Egypt lasted through the centuries. In many places only the bronze and ivory mountings of feet and ends of chairs have been found. The furniture of the Hebrews was, in the early centuries, of the same character as Assyrian. PERSIAN — 558 B.C. Persian Empire, 558-330 B.C. Par- thian Empire. 250 B.C.-220 A.D. Sassanian Empire, 220- 641 A. D. Mohammedan Persia, 641 A.D. D isunion and unrest, in the Asia of olden times, confused the arts. Ancient Persian Ornament shows few characteristic peculiarities, Egyptian, As- syrian, Babylonian and Grecian influence being all dis- cernible. Indeed, the buildings of the Persian kings were erected by men who were prisoners in the coun- tries of Babylonia, Egypt and the Grecian colonies of velopment of art among the Jews. King Solomon’s palace and the temples were the work of Phoenicians. INDIAN— 2000 B.C. First Period, 2000 B.C.-1525 A.D. Brahma, 1400-500 B.C. ; Buddha, 500 B.C. Mogul Em- pire, 1525-1748 A.D. English Control, 1748-1858 A.D. English Empire, 1858 A.D. A rchaeological research reaches no farther back in India than a few centuries B.C. This earlv art was influenced by Persian and Grecian. The term Indian is geographical and has no ethnological signifi- cance. There is no such thing as homogeneous Indian art. It was a country of many races, Aryan and Tur- anian, of Brahman, Buddhist and Mohammedan de- velopment. The Mohammedan phase, which was the most lasting, will be considered later. 18 GRECIAN— ROMAN — POMPEIIAN GRECIAN — Graeco-Pelasgic 1900-1384 B.C. ; Doric, 700 B.C. ; Ionic, 600 B.C. ; Corinthian, 290 B.C. ; Hellenistic. 290-168 B.C. ; Etruscan, 1040-238 B.C. G keeks inherited the arts of Persia and Babylonia. Starting with 1900 B.C., the Pelasgic period was based on Assyrian. Early Greek couches nothing more than large stools. In the Sixth Century B.C. Greek and Roman beds were of marble, terra-cotta, bronze, wood, bone and ivory ; used for reclining at meals as well as sleeping. Ancient Greeks learned their art from Egyptians, but a purely decorative Greek device is the antljemion, which with the acan- thus can be traced back hundreds of years in Egyp- tian forms. The Greek system was to build within squares. Frets were common. Decorators painted in fresco and in strong colors; blue and Tyrian purple much in use. At an early date conceived a system of applying blue in proportions equal to yellow and red combined, yellow in three parts, red five parts and blue eight parts. First Greek and Roman couches covered with skins or felt materials. Mattresses used Third Century B.C. with coverlets and draperies, in broad stripes of solid colors; pillows various shapes covered with linen, wool, leather and silk. Pillows filled with refuse wool, vegetable fiber, feathers. No record of uses of cotton. Silk much used and draperies described Greek Ornament. I 19 Pompeiian. WALL DECOKATlOn in THE CASA DEL LABIPjnTO POttPEu Roman. as having nap on one or two sides (velvet) in color- ings of purple, scarlet and gold. Fabrics woven in pattern or embroidered. Thin linens, tapestries. Much material brought from Babylonia. Greek furniture inlaid with precious metals; bronze and polished silver mirrors. Beds of wood often ornamented in tortoise shell, veneers of fine wood. Wood finished in oil, wax and stains, some- times painted, never varnished ; solid carvings. Tenth Century B.C., Homer the poet referred fre- quently to the bed. Seventh Century B.C., couches were made with ledges built on a rectangular plan as well as with turned ledges. First they were frame works ledged with a flat surface upon which furs were piled up. Then the upper part was furnished with headboards and footboards. Sixth Century B.C. gives us beds so draped that the construction of the frame is hidden. In the Fifth Century B.C. beds and furniture were common, rectangular and turned legs being used. Wood, bronze and other metals. Some authorities maintain that iron was used in beds as early as 427 B.C. Four hundred B.C., Greek embroiderers produced beautiful results. Pelasgic Greek was largely based on Assyrian ornamentation. The Greek honeysuckle can be traced to Assyria, also the vitruvian scroll and the guilloche. Etruscan — A bronze Etruscan bed exists from the Seventh Century B.C. ROMAN— 753 B.C.-455 A.D. R oman. 753 B.C., Roman houses divided into sep- arate rooms for dresses, cupboards, lockers, lounges, articles of luxury. Fabrics of many kinds developed the Greek style. Great love of pomp and splendor. Elaborated the Corinthian principles; Roman. 22 utilized pineapple, vine, palm, ivy, poppy, winged dol- phins, winged horses. Like the Grecians, the Roman wall treatments were confined to frieze decorations against the plain wall. First couches covered with wool material and skins, in time became elaborated beds with head and foot pieces. No upholsterings ex- cept movable pillows. Marble couches were common, and wood beds ornamented in precious metals, tortoise shell and ivory. Late Roman furniture had rush and reed plaited seats. Beds used for reclining at meals. Roman furniture was decorated with paintings and inlay veneer, Tarsia work forming complex deco- rations. Roman houses were furnished with cup- boards, shelves, wardrobes, lockers and general furni- ture superior in comfort to Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, Europe. Ancient Phrygian and Lydians occupying western Anatolia made embroideries at a period prehistoric. The Roman word Phrygio means embroiderer. POMPEIIAN— 100 B.C.-79 A.D. P ompeiian. Development of the Roman arts which finally became almost pure Greek; beautiful mosaics, still life, human and divine figures, complete pictures on the walls which were frequently painted in reproduction of oil paintings by Greek masters. Pompeiian wall space divided into dado, middle and upper section, dado generally black with simple orna- ments ; purple, green, blue or violet middle space en- lightened with one or more figures or landscapes, hav- ing one or more borders. Upper space usually white. System of dark dadoes and light friezes generally em- ployed. Delicate garlands, fruits, masks, animals, imi- tating nature. (In England 1762-1792 the brothers Adam almost reproduced Pompeiian style.) WALL DECORATION. Grecian and Roman — In Greece much modeling in plaster and stucco, drawn upon a coat of wet plas- ter spread on the wall and built up. Fresco and tem- pera or distemper painting widely practiced. Decora- tive borders frescoed and painted in subjects religious as well as legendary, showing hundreds of Greek and Roman gods ; modern or superior deities ; the Genii and inferior deities; the demi-gods and heroes, and illustrations of events in Greek and Roman mythology. Statuary and sculpture, as well as paintings, partook of these subjects. Greeks love color. Used it in ex- travagant proportions in their paintings and frescoes. Massive walls show not only historical and religious subjects, but paintings of still life, city and country scenes, flowers and nature showing perspective. Un- like Egypt and Assyria where walls were all cov- ered, Greek and Roman walls were usually treated with deep friezes or upper thirds. Ceilings were elab- orate, divided into geometric sections, octagonal forms and squares. Mosaic brought to its greatest perfection for wall pictures, pavements and floors. Pompeiian— Pompeii and Herculaneum were centers of late art of highest Roman type. Myth and religion subservient to the beautiful. Perspective scenes elaborately painted ; gods, hill and valley, palaces and cottages, water-views, mountains, scenes of travel, commerce and warfare. High dadoes filled with model figures. In private houses walls were frequently com- pletely covered by paintings executed direct on plaster. Sometimes divided into panels with small pictures in minute panels above larger panels. Mosaic work of most exquisite character. 23 Pompeiian. CELTIC ORNAMENT. The floriated form is the Romanesque influence developing about 700 A.D. The animal form is the Scandinavian influence. Types of Scandinavian Furniture. NORTHERN SCANDINAVIAN OR NORTHERN— 100- 1299 A.D. S CANDINAVIAN: A geographical term covering Sweden, Norway and Denmark. Northern or Norseman was an adjective term applying not only to the Scandina- vians but to the men of the “North Country.” The term Norman was a contraction of Norseman, the people living just north of the Gallic country. Scandinavia until nearly 1000 A.D. was pagan. Its art reflected in a realistic manner the traditions of the country. According to Scandinavian legends there were wrapped in the history of the country’s origin in- trigue, treasure and murder. It is unnecessary to tell the story (see history), but decorative art util- ized a system of interlacements not balanced like the Celtic, but confused lines and chaotic traceries intermingled with figures of the otter, the dragon, the horse, bags of treasures, human figures in conflict. The Celts and • Scandinavians became in time closely related. - From 1000 to 1100 A.D. Celtic influ- ence was felt on account of the Celtic missionaries who went north from Ireland and preached the doctrines of Christ in the Nbrth country. But after the year 1100 we find plant life introduced, realistic verdure of Roman character, the same that prevailed among the Normans and Anglo-Saxons who at this time were enthusiastic in religion and naturally absorbed the art characteristics of the papal states. CELTIC— 2000 B.C.-1100 A.D. T he Celtic nation of Western Europe was anni- hilated before -the Christian era, but the Celts settling in Great Britain, principally in Ancient Hiber- nia (Ireland) left lasting evidence of their art even On the left, Scandinavian or- nament ; on the right, Celtic. 25 SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. NORTHERN during the sway of paganism which prevailed up to 400 A.D. Celtic art showed interlaced curved lines sometimes utilizing exaggerated bird forms inter- woven, but, unlike Scandinavian, the interlacements showed balanced relation. From 900 to 1100 A.D. Romanesque influence was strong in Celtic art, due to the enthusiasm and pre- eminence of the Irish in religion, art and education. Ireland, independent up to 1172, was conquered by the English. Celtic art underwent a radical change by the introduction of Romanesque floral characteris- tics during the Tenth Century. Intersection was char- acteristic of the art as in Moresque and Arabian, but intersection in Celtic art, unlike the geometric Moorish, or the flat conventionalized vegetation and leaf forms suggested by Arabian, is always intersection of simple circular or curved bands, sometimes introducing ani- mal or bird forms. When dragons and animal forms are introduced one may detect Scandinavian influence. Balanced relations prevail in Celtic intersection design. RUSSIAN— 500 A.D. O rnament of Celtic character is often seen in what is known as Russian art. Russia was settled 862 A.D. by Scandinavians. Russia developed during the Romanesque period up to 1100, a period of high religious fervor, and this period affected the char- acteristics of Scandinavian art. Subsequent to 1100 Oriental influence was strong in Russia. NORMAN, ENGLAND— 1066-1189 A.D. (See Roman- esque.) T he Normans were the Norsemen and inherited the early Scandinavian arts ; but at the time the Normans gained a foothold in Normandy, 911 A.D., and at the time they conquered England, 1066, they were under the French-Romanesque art influence. BYZANTINE BYZANTINE — 328-500, Roman-Christian, 550-800, Orien- tal splendor. 850-1005, Macedonian or Roman Classi- B YZANTINE o r n a- mentation covers three periods. The first from 328, when By- zantium, under Constan- tine, became capital of the Eastern Division of the great Roman Empire, and Christianity was made the established State religion. Most distinctive epoch, un- der Justinian, was from 527 to about 600. A pe- riod of torpor followed un- til 850, when under Macedonian rule it became classic. The close historical relations between Byzantine and the Roman-Italian people naturally merged the arts, and we have terms confusing. Mediaeval art is arbitrarily fixed between 450 and 1150. Romanesque art is the art influenced by the Romans from 700 to 1100, when Gothic began. Lombardic Romanesque, the Romanesque of the Lom- bards, began 773. Early Christian began 330, extending over 200 years. Norman Romanesque was the Romanesque of the Nor- mans, beginning 911 and finding its best expression in England subsequent to the conquest of the Normans, 1066, hence sometimes called English Romanesque. Prior to 550 the term Early Christian applied to that period when Christianity was accepted as the State religion by the Byzantine Empire. Christian sym- bolism soon found its way into Byzantine art, and from the dismemberment of the Roman Empire, 455, these Christian characteristics of design were absorbed and cism. Chair of Dagobert ; Seventh Century. adopted generally outside of Byzantium, but espe- cially by the Goths who ruled Italy until 555, as well as by the Lombards who settled in Northern Italy 568. Byzantine art was characterized by sharp acan- thus foliage united with Christian emblems, circle, cross, crown, vine, dove, peacock ; figure sculpture Byzantine fabric, showing the ogival form of design. 27 BYZANTINE rarely used, group figures done in mosaics. Interlac- ing circles, interlacing crosses in fret work, interlacing guilloches finally conspicuous. FABRICS. Fabrics precedent of paintings. Ancient Babylon renowned for its needlecraft. All other nations learned their art from Babylon, beginning with decoration of animal skins, embroidering, mat-plaiting and finally weaving. We can go back to 3000 B.C. for a simple weav- ing produced by a simple interchange of warp and weft, but the complex manipulation of shuttles produc- ing figures without embroidering or other extraneous aids was not known until 200 A.D., when it was, un- questionably, undertaken by Syrian weavers of the Eastern Roman Empire. Wool. Egypt, mistress of advanced civilization, employed wool, hemp and flax. Cotton. Greeks unacquainted with cotton until 333 B.C. The plant was indigenous to India, and not until the invasion of Alexander the Great did it be- come known to Europe. Embroidery. In the earliest ages animal skins, before the age of weaving, frequently embroidered or decorated with stitches. Early Assyrians used em- broidery. Egyptians and Greeks famous in the art. Ancient Babylon, Egypt and Chaldea understood the art thoroughly. Beginning with Christian era an active commerce introduced Indian and Chinese stuffs, and the Italian, Teutonic and French craftsmen were quick to adopt Oriental methods. Art of embroidering became gen- erally understood. Applique work was also under- taken as well as tapestry weaving. Byzantine Empire from 350 to 700 A.D. knew no limit to extravagance; decoration conspicuous in griffins, unicorns, lions, tigers, elephants, eagles, peacocks, large and small cir- cular bands, medallion shapes, golden apples, palms, shrubs and flowers. Textile design decorated with wheels or circular bands, lozenge patterns, squares, hexagons, octagons, stripes, beasts and birds. Biblical and mythological subjects; fabrics largely used for hangings between colonnades as portieres. A favorite arrangement of pattern employed pairs of animals, or pairs of birds confronted and separated by the sacred tree of the Persians. Silk. Although commonly woven in China, 1200 B.C., not woven in Europe until 500 A.D., when the Emperor Justinian secured through two Persian monks a number of silk cocoons and worms which they smuggled from China. Six hundred A.D. Sicily, as well as Northern Egypt, was making silks. Four hundred A.D. Egyptian and Roman tap- estries well known. Roman silks, possibly Syrian or Persian manufacture, were sarcenets and taffetas, damasks, brocatelles, lampas and velvets, and the same period produced admirable tapestries and embroider- ies. Byzantium became the seat for European silk cultivation, and for five centuries, together with Corinth and Athens, was prolific in weave craft. FURNITURE. Tables, cbairs and beds followed the Roman style, the legs often of turned wood. Ivory, carved and inlaid, and metal, much used ; enamels and gold, bronze and inlaid woods employed. Chair of Dagobert (600) a fair example of the elaborateness of the period. It is of gilt-bronze and one of the earliest pieces. Saracenic. Eleventh Century Silk Damask, showing Persian and Byzantine influence. 28 BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Showing Oriental as well as Classic influence of Tenth Century. BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. No. 1. Perso-Byzantine, 700 A.D. No. 2. Romanesque, 1100 A.D., style of pattern evolved by system of intersecting circles; popular at the beginning of the Gothic period. No. 3. French or German Romanesque, 1100 A.D. No. 4. Section of style showing circles joined together by smaller circles; a system of design in vogue 1000 A.D. No. S. French, Saracenic influence, 1100 A.D. No. 6. French-Romanesque, 1100 A.D. No. 7. Hispano-Saracenic, 1200 A.D. EARLY CHRISTIAN — ROMANESQUE I N T H E study of Early Christian, Byzantine and Romanesque art one must never lose sight of the fact that at the beginning and the end of these periods the Orient wielded an influence. In 328, while preparing for battle, Constantine, Em- peror of Rome, saw a cross in the sky, and accepting it as an omen he embraced the Christian religion. The capital of his new Empire was Byzantium, which name he changed to Constantinople, and the Byzantine Empire at the outstart covered much of Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, North Africa and the country now Bulgaria and Greece. Georgia, that portion of the Caucasus frequently called Iberia, appears first in au- thentic history in the time of Alexander the Great, but in the Fourth Century it was part of the Byzantine Empire. From 550 to 800 Byzantine art was gorgeous in Oriental splendor. The Saracens carried Islam art throughout Persia, Palestine, Syria and Egypt in the Seventh Century, over Africa and Spain in the Eighth Century, and Lower Italy in the Ninth Century. To arrive at a definite understanding of the char- acter of design employed during the early Christian and Romanesque periods we must consider two es- sentials, Origin and Use. In the Romanesque period there was no direct relationship between the designs of mosaic, tile, stained glass, furniture, carving, rugs, tapestries, silks and other fabrics. Tiles had been made for centuries and patterns had been repeated and re-repeated. Colored glass was made by the Egyptians 2000 years B.C., but the earliest stained-glass windows are recorded as 525 A.D. None, however, is known to be still in exist- ence made prior to 1 108. Early examples found in Romanesque windows of this date have little medal- lions with primitive figures and ornaments, the pat- terns reflecting the spirit of design which had been done in textiles four and five hundred years previously. In mechanical weaving, a repeated pattern must have fixed dimensions, a restriction not affecting em- broidering, tapestry making or mosaic work. We have already seen that wools and linens, tap- estries and embroideries were employed back in the earliest ages. Simple mechanical weaving was known in Egypt 3000 B.C., but the complex manipulation of shuttles whereby figures were produced without em- broidering was not practised until 200 A.D. 3i NORMAN ROMANESQUE. 1 0 00— 1 1 0 0. MEDIAEVAL FURNITURE. 450—1150. Romanesque. 900-1100. Illustrations 1, 2, 3 are doubtless tile illustrations, follow- ing the simple forms used in mechanical textile weaving 200 A.D. The motifs here used are, however, heraldic. The heraldic forms were adopted during the period of the First Crusades, 1096 (the seven Christian Crusades ending 1270). Illustration 4 follows the textile forms of the early By- zantine, but the details filled in suggest the Saracenic. Illustrations 5, 6, 7 follow the interlacement system, which beginning with the Roman was revived with the Romanesque and developed with the Gothic. Illustration 9, like illustration 4, is of Byzantine origin with Romanesque development 1000. Illustrations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 Romanesque, direct Roman origin. Illustration 5 shows the framing which developed just prior to the Gothic, 1100. Illustrations 6 and 8 are Romanesque, showing connecting circles, 800. Illustrations 9, 10, 11 represent the Arabian or Saracenic development of the ogival form of design conspicuous in Lower Italy, 900-1000. The “ogival” form relates to the form of design developed from 800 to 1100 A.D., where joining circles were brought to acute angles at points of junctures, forming ovals or ogival shapes. DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICAL TEXTILE DESIGN UP TO THE GOTHIC PERIOD. T he development of design was necessarily slow ; for many years repeat patterns were of the sim- plest character. B.C. Design consisted (1) of repeated lines, spots, bands or stripes; (2) crossed lines or stripes; (3) by changing colors of lines, checks and trellises were produced; (4) by changing proportions, plaids were produced; (5) then came rectangular patterns and diamond shapes. 100 A.D. Development of circular or square frame. 200-600 A.D. Squares or circles filled possibly with floral detail suggested by the Persian and Syrian weavers. The same sort of thing was repeated 34 iCARLY CHRISTIAN— ROMANESQUE i}; Gr again five hundred or. hundred years after- wards in simple st ained -glass effects. 400-600 A.D. BrokehJ^iftrcles or circles joining the upper and lowe&segments and spread out to form bands. ■J' 600-1100 A. Eh /The use of circles continued, but they were nov/ linked together, large circles being joined together by smaller circles at the points of contact. The designs in and out of these circles became more ornamental, developing by the end of the Romanesque period great elaboration, and hexagons (Saracenic) arranged with geometrical nicety and elaborated in design. Up to and including 1100 a common type of de- sign was the persistency of balanced groupings of birds, animals or men, facing or back to back. From 800 to 1100 saw the development of the ogival form or that form of design where the joining circles were brought to acute angles at points of junc- ture forming ovals or ogival shapes. The ogival form continued, developing greater and greater elaboration through the Gothic period. EARLY CHRIST I AN- BYZANTINE- ROMANESQUE Tp he accompanying chart shows better than anything else the related periods of design which followed the Byzantine and developed 1 finally into the Gothic. Early Christian naturally expressed the Byzantine or first Christian expression in art where that art symbolized the Christian faith. As time progressed the Romanesque period developed, which was a period of Roman revival. BYZANTINE. EARLY CHRISTIAN. 328 — 500 Roman Chris- tian Period. Constantine, Emperor, became protector of Christians and the Em- pire constituting the Eastern divisions of the Roman Em- pire, 550. \550— 800. .ORIENTAL PERIOD. This period was largely affected by the Ori- ental influence surrounding Byzantine. 330 — 600. Early Chris- tian. A term arbitrarily applied to the art of the countries influenced by the religious enthusiasm of the Byzantine Empire, by the GOTHS of TEUTONIC and SPANISH territory, the early LOMBARDS who set- tled in ITALY, 568, and the Franks, who under Clovis (the first of the Merovin- gians to adopt Christianity) became a Christian kingdom about 500 A.D. — 750. 850—1005. CLASSIC PERIOD. Reflecting the Roman spirit, which had already affected the Italian, German and French arts. Christian symbolism did not again become conspicuous until the beginning of the Gothic, 1100. bo rt to y. < g >» . o O .SJ'sjs cnj •ri ^4 rt «— i 3 S-o H.2 328 600 700 711 774 911 1066 1(00 ROMANESQUE. 700 — 1100. A style affected by the Roman art developing about 700 and lasting until 1100, the beginning of the Gothic. 711. THE GOTH kingdom of Spain was destroyed by the Moors and from this developed a Spanish art which was largely Moorish affected by the ROMANESQUE. In 774 Charlemagne destroyed the Lombardic Kingdom and became Governor of Italy. The LOMBARDS had entered Italy from Scandinavian territory and founded powerful nation 568 A.D. They conquered almost all of the Byzantine Empire, except Venice, Ravenna, Naples and Rome, and in later years their ROMAN- ESQUE art became more strongly BYZANTINE. The period showed the EARLY CHRISTIAN, the BYZANTINE and ROMAN- ESQUE character. In the Southern sections of their territory, especially Sicily, there developed by the invasion of the Mohammedans a SARA- CENIC art. NORMAN was the ROMANESQUE of the Normans who 911 came down from the North country, gaining a foothold in Nor- mandy and Brittany. In 1066 conquered England where NORMAN ROMANESQUE was often called ENGLISH ROMANESQUE. End of Romanesque Period and beginning of Gothic. DEVELOPMENT OF 300 A.D. Weaving was understood in Egypt. Pos- sibly earlier in Babylonia. Silk weaving intro- duced from China, where it was practised at a remote period. 200 A.D. Complicated mechanical weaving done by Syrian weavers in the Eastern Roman Empire. 300 A.D. Silks well known to Romans. Persian as well as Syrian manufacture. Egyptian and Roman tapestries in use. 500 A.D. First production of European ornamental silks — sarcenet and taffeta ; Roman and Byzantine. Constantinople imported looms for weaving silks in the Persian and Indian styles. Introduced sericulture from Chinese cocoons smuggled into Constantinople by Persian monks, and became a seat for European silk cultivation and manu- facture. Produced taffetas, damasks, brocatelles, lampas, velvets, embroideries, tapestries, and for five centuries Constantinople, Corinth, Thebes and Athens were prolific in weave craft. TEXTILE WEAVING 600 A.D. Northern Egypt made silken fabrics. 700 A.D. Spain in latter part of 700 made progress in silk weaving. Syrian silk merchants opened warerooms in Paris. 800 A.D. Daughters of Charlemagne, France, taught to weave silk. 800 A.D. Abdul-Raman II introduced the use of “tiraz” (silk stuff embroidered). 900 A.D. Sicily and Spain alike showed Saracenic design treatments in fine silks. 1000 A.D. Constantinople, Corinth, Thebes and Athens practically monopolized the making of fine fabrics. 1000 A.D. Roger Guiscard organized a silk factory at Palermo, Sicily, Hotel des Tiraz, with Thebian and Corinthian weavers, and according to some historians it became the greatest silk manufactur- ing city in the world. Scarcely less renowned were Malaga, Murcia, Granada and Seville. Many Italian towns also took up silk manufacturing, 35 Showing Saracenic Influence. EARLY CHRISTIAN. 330-600. EARLY CHRISTIAN— ROMANESQUE. Florence, Genoa, Venice, Bologna and Milan. Saracenic and Greek silk weavers located in Ger- many, the Netherlands, France and Great Britain. 1100 A.D. Towards the end of the Twelfth Century Flemish weavers began the manufacture of wool tapestries. Art developed to Arras, Valenciennes, Tourney, Audenarde, Lille and Brussels. The oldest tapestries in existence are of this era. Two are in the Cathedral, Halberstadt, Germany. 1200 A.D. Persian silks famous throughout Europe and copied generally. 1200 A.D. France began manufacture of tapestries. 1268 A.D. Madrid, Spain, organized tapestry factory. 1300 A.D. Spain began to degenerate as a producing country. 1300 A.D. Arras, city south of France, made valu- able wool tapestries up to 1477. 1300 A.D. Lucca, famous for silk weaving, Lucchese weavers emigrated to Germany, the Netherlands, France and Great Britain, in which countries silk manufacture flourished up to 1500. 1300 A.D. Velvet is mentioned in the English inven- tories and French documents. 1300 A.D. Genoa, the center for Italian trade in the East, introduces Eastern design. 1400 A.D. Spanish and Italian writers referred to “velvets” or velvet stuffs. (See 1500.) 1400 A.D. Asiatic fabrics were taken in great quan- tities by Europe. During Fifteenth Century Con- stantinople and Byzantium were the chief markets for supplying Oriental stuffs to Europe. 1400 A.D. While Italian wool tapestries were de- signed by native artists, the workmen came from Flanders. During 1400, when the Ottomans con- quered Constantinople, they infused Orientalism into Southeastern Europe, and the manufacturers in the Ottoman towns — Anatolia — went into the markets of Italy and France, Spain and Flanders. This spirit brought political changes, new com- mercial relations and the influence over the deco- rative designs and decorative fabrics of all Eu- rope. This Ottoman type was more Persian than Saracenic. It was strongly floriated. 1432 A.D. Silks of Damascus were famous. 1466 A.D. Lyons, France, established silk looms. Under Francis I silk weaving was encouraged and many Italians employed. Turkey pre-eminent for silks of Broussa, Diarbekir, Beyrout, Aleppo and Damascus, Assyria. 1480 A.D. Beginning of needle-point lace work in Italy. 1500 A.D. Spain weakly reflecting the character of French and Italian styles. 1500 A.D. France, Germany, Holland and England weaving fine silks. 1500 A.D. A continuance of inscriptional styles in gold, “velvet,” and satin, superseding brocaded silks of early date. Materials heavier. 1500 A.D. According to the revenue records of Italy, cloths of silk, satin damasks and velvets plain and cut, were made “in a way unknown to the an- cients.” Prior to this date velvet was a material that had been simply roughed up so as to appear fluffy. England attempted during 1500 to make satin damasks, velvets and cloths of gold, but soon abandoned the enterprise. 1515 A.D. Pope Leo X had tapestries made in Brus- sels after cartoons by Raphael. 1539 A.D. Francis I established tapestry factory. This was the beginning of Gobelin manufacture. 1600 A.D. Beginning of point Venise laces in Italy. At this time similar laces were made in France and in Flanders and Russia also. 1600 A.D. Showing Italian character of design, strongly influenced by Oriental. Italian and Sicilian towns famous in silk manu- facture. Also Tours, Nimes, Lyons, Avignon, Paris, France. Flemish and Dutch were more traders than producers. 1619 A.D. Mortlake Tapestry Works were estab- lished near London by James I. Existed up to Charles I. 1619 A.D. Gobelin Tapestry Works became royal property of France. 1650 A.D. Under Colbert many lace factories estab- lished in France for the making of net laces. 1690 A.D. or thereabout, Beauvais Tapestry Works established. 1700 A.D. French characteristics prevailed in French manufactures. Many towns in France undertook manufacturing. The French influence in designs spread to Spain, England, Holland, Germany and Switzerland during the flight of the weavers from France at the time the Edict of Nantes in France was revoked. 1700 A.D. Netherlands, Bruges satins famous. 1700 A.D. Flanders famed for its tapestries. 1750 A.D. Thousands of silk-weaving looms estab- lished in England — in Spitalfields, Cheshire, York- shire, Essex, Derbyshire, Lancashire and Nor- folk. Large quantities of Chinese and Indian silks used in England. 1759 A.D. Manufacture of printed linen authorized and encouraged by French Government. The most famous became known as Toile de Jouy. 1800 A.D. The Germans were great producers at Crefeld, Elberfeld, and Barmen. 1800 A.D. Austria began the manufacture of silk and 1500 looms were soon in operation by imported labor from Genoa and Lyons. 1800 A.D. Some silk was made at Stockholm, but neither Norway nor Sweden had made history in this business. 1800 A.D. Moscow and St. Petersburg established silk looms in Russia. 1818 A.D. Bobbinet first made by machinery. 38 ASIATIC ORIENTAL — ISLAM — MOHAMMEDAN. — Arabian 571 A.D. Saracenic 571. Moorish 711. Alhambraic 1250. Turkish 1096. Ottoman 1360. Persian 641. ORIENTAL -ISLAM ORNAMENT. T he term Oriental relates to the Far East or Asia. The term Islam relates to the religion which be- gan with the birth of Mohammed, 571 A.D. ARABIAN SARACENIC. Native of Arabia. Arabian followers of Mohammed, born 571, were called Saracens and located at Medina ; established Mohammedan re- ligion 622. 634. Saracens conquered Syria, Palestine, Phoenicia and Egypt. 641. Persia overthrown by Arabians, who also conquered Northern Africa and captured Rhodes. 700. Saracens conquered Byzantium and Northern Africa; the Berbers accepted Moham- medan religion, and with inhabitants of Greek and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians under the name of Moors; 711, crossed to Spain, establishing the Caliphate of Cordova. Saracenic conquests for many years extended over Southwestern Asia up to the Mediterranean, in- fluencing the arts of Spain, Southern France and Southern Italy. Followed the use of flat con- ventionalized interlacement of geometric accuracy, thus unlike Celtic or Scandinavian, and unlike the Ottoman form or later Turkish type. The Mo- hammedan religion interdicted the use of animal forms, and the law of the Koran was strictly followed by the strict Mohammedans, hence ' Arabian art was confined to conventionalized forms, with occasionally Arabic inscriptions. MOORISH. The Moors were the Saracen converts from Northern Africa who in 711 crossed to Spain. The arts are sometimes called early Spanish. 1250. The Alhambraic period. By 1200 the Moorish form of ornament embodied Arabian ornament superimposed upon geometrical back- ground framework. 1610. Moors expelled from Spain. TURKISH. Turks originally Tartan tribe, 226 B.C. Sel- juk Turks, a term applied to Western Turks who in 1096 held empire by conquest over many parts of Persia and the West Coast of Arabia. The Turks had no art excepting the art bor- rowed from Persia and Arabia. (See Ottoman.) OTTOMAN. A band of wandering Turks aided the Seljuk Turks, or Western Turks, in battle and conquered the Arabians 1250. This was the beginning of the Ottoman Empire and the arrest of the Arabian conquests in Asia. 1360. Ottomans conquered Asiatic posses- sions of the Byzantine Empire and Turkey in Europe. 1453. Surrender of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. 1480. Ottoman supremacy on the wane. The Ottoman arts were the arts of the Otto- man Turks or the Turks of the Ottoman Empire, established 1259. Ottoman art was the develop- ment of the Arabian with strong Byzantine influ- ence even to the interdiction of animal life. A characteristic was the use of conventionalized pea forms and leaf and pod. i PERSIAN. Islam effect upon Persia began 641, wheii Persia was overthrown by Arabians. 750. Independent principalities sprang u|) in Persia. 1605. Shah Abbas, ascending throne of Per- sia, drove out the Ottoman Turks and Mongols and recovered the country. Islam effect upon Persia 641, when Persia was overthrown by the Arabians. As long as Persia was dominated by the Arabians Persian art was largely Arabian; but in 1605, with the downfall of the Ottomans, Persia, through Shah Abbas, developed to its fullest the native tenden- cies, even to the adoption of European Renais- sance forms and human, animal and bird forms. Persian art had been always liberal, and even when under Arabian control was never flat and conventional, but realistic with florals, notably pinks, hyacinths, tulips, roses, palms, pines, pome- granates, pineapples and dates. INDIAN. 1400 B.C. Brahma. 500 B.C. Buddha. 711 A.D. Arabian Invasion. 1525 A.D. Mogul Empire. 748 A.D. English Control. Indian art was influenced by Mohammedan up to the Sixteenth Century, and it broke away from the restrictions of the Koran. 39 ARABIAN ORNAMENT. Arabian— -An interlacement of flat and geometric or vegetation forms, distinguished from Ottoman or the late Turk- ish by being less realistic. Inscriptional work often introduced. Human or animal figures are expressions of out- side influence, usually Persian. It is impossible to distinguish between Arabian and early types of Moorish. MOORISH ORNAMENT. Moorish (Arabian origin) developed finally the Alhambraic, an elaborate form. OTTOMAN ORNAMENT. Ottoman Turkish developed a floriated Arabian form, with the pea vine and leaf as motifs. PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Persian — Where Arabian characteristics appear in Persian design they point to the period of Arabian domination The floriated form expressed a later feeling, when Persia recovered control of much of her territory. Persian art reached its highest type of floriated form in 1500. CHINESE — INDIAN - JAPANESE - SARACENIC CHINESE— Mythic Period 3500 B.C. First Emperor 2200 B.C. Confucius 500 B.C. Sung Dynasty, 960-1127; Han Dynasty, 1127-1279; Yuan Dynasty, 1279-1368; Ming or “Bright” Dynasty, 1368-1628; Wan Lih Period, 1573-1620; Shun Chih Period, 1644-1661; Kang Hsi Period, 1661-1722; Yung Ching Period. 1723-1736; Kien Lung Period, 1736-1796; Chia Ching Period, 1796-1821; Tau Kwang Period, 1821-1851. C hinese and Indian art are frequently confused because they have much in common. Possibly this condition may be accounted for by the influences of Buddha. The Chinese employ an endless list of deities, demons, monsters. They have eight immor- tals and the figure eight is a favorite. They have eight lucky emblems, eight Buddhist symbols, eight ordinary symbols. We note also in Chinese frets and geometrical details, forms identical with Greek. Mythological art is an art of great study. To comprehend its meaning one would have to be a Con- fucionist, a Taoist and a Buddhist. Stripped of its symbolism, Chinese art is an art of extravagant nature forms, and in the past four centuries these forms were undoubtedly influenced by Persian nicety and decora- tive consistency. INDIAN — Brahma 1400 B.C. Buddha 500 B.C. Arabian Invasion 711 A.D. Mogul Empire 1525 A.D. English Control 1748 A.D. W oven brocades and silks of India were not de- veloped as decorative arts until the Sixteenth Century. While Indian art goes back to the remote past, the art as we understand it is Islam. Having the typical Mohammedan divisions of space, but more flowing, having more freedom and grace, it is less confined than the Arabian style. The Arabian inva- sion of India began 711 A.D., and from that date Mohammedan domination prevailed ; but beginning with 1500 Indian art broke away from the Koran re- strictions and we have the elephant, lion, tiger, the peacock and the human figure common accessories in 45 1 INDIAN ORNAMENT. CHINESE ORNAMENT. JAPANESE ORNAMENT. SARACENIC decoration. Indian ornament followed a profuse floral system, and block prints in silk and cotton reached a high degree of perfection during the Seven- teenth and Eighteenth Centuries. The details are- al- ways worked out finely. SARACENIC — 641 A. D. Persia was conquered by the Saracens or Arabians, who by 711 had invaded India, Spain, Turkestan and Northern Africa. 827 A.D. Saracens set- tled in Sicily. Early in Tenth Century extended their incursions into Italy. 1 r is impossible to clas- sify Saracenic designs under one grouping, for the reason that the term applies to the Arabian in- fluences covering many years and many countries. (See Romanesque, Gothic, and Italian.) To com- prehend the term Sara- cenic one must study the chronological history of the Orient. Wherever the Arabian or the Saracen conquered there he left his influence. The term is adjective. It may apply to much that would be otherwise classified as Romanesque, Norma n, Gothic, or Sicilian if the Arabian characteristics permeate the composition. In Southern Italy and in Sicily the style which developed in the Ninth Century was distinctly Saracenic. If we study the Roman- esque and the Norman we find in the origin of each the Saracenic su- perimposed upon Roman or Byzantine and we have as a result a con- fusion that is often hard to analyze. A design, there- fore, Norman, Rom- anesque or Byzantine that is conspicuous by its Arabian influence is called Saracenic. Under the Sara- cens, textile fabrics reached a high develop- ment in color and ma- terial. The arts culminated in the period 900-1200. Though Mohammed forbade the wearing of silk, it was largely used, and to evade the injunction cotton was interwoven with it. Sicilian or Siculo-Saracenic fabrics showed bands of birds and animals, foliage, inscriptions, in blue, green and gold on red ground. Drawn gold thread was not used in early fab- rics, but gold leaf on pa- per and then rolled around a fine thread of silk was manipulated. Sicilian fab- rics of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries are frequently in purple ground of twilled silk with birds and foliage formed by gold thread weft. Saracenic or Hispano- Moresque fabrics of Spain are distinguished by the splendid crimson or dark blue conventional patterns of silk upon yellow ground, and by the fre- quent use of strips of gilded parchment in place of the rolled gilt thread. Undoubtedly under the in- fluence of the crusades the Sicilian weavers of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries produced many fabrics enriched with winged lions, crosses, crowns, rayed stars, harts, birds, linked together with donations or armorial bearings. Late in 1200 this character of design was introduced into Northern Italy. Genoa adopted much that was Persian from the Twelfth to the Seven- teenth Century, and in the Fifteenth Century, when Fouis XI encouraged the art of weaving in France at Tours and later at Lyons under Francis I, the Persian and Italian fabrics were closely followed, and the vase pattern was adopted. The Oriental character of design in textiles did not en- tirely disappear until the gardens of Ver- sailles and the Tri- anons under Louis XIV gave inspiration to the use of Euro- pean flora. Saracenic. 49 Japanese Ornament. B.C. Empire established 660 B.C. T HERE is a close affinity between the Indian and Japanese arts, for Budd- hism, introduced from India, exer- cised pronounced influence upon the people of Japan. We are in- clined also to broadly associate the Chinese and Japanese arts; indeed the differences are not easy to determine. In 1200 B.C. the Ainos, people occupying islands east of Asia, were conquered by bands from the mainland. The con- querors became known as Jap- anese, but for centuries their early arts were stimulated by their Chinese progenitors. Little by little, however, they developed a great love of detail, a nice accuracy of expression foreign to the Chinese spirit. They employed less conventionality and more nature. We nevertheless find in both Chinese and Japanese art forms that are almost identical, and where that is the case we can trace it to the influences of India. We find in indigenous work of the Japanese a great deal of nature study — butterflies, cranes, dragons, peacock-feather patterns, flowers, tortoises, waves — in fact, almost everything in nature, and the methods are in most cases picturesque rather than fixed and formal. During the last fifty years Japan has studied and complied with the demands of European taste, and native art has consequently weakened. At its best, it followed the methods of China and India and in most cases was content with reproduc- tion. JAPANESE — 12* Indian. 50 From an old painting in Stuttgart, Germany FIFTEENTH CENTURY GERMAN GOTHIC FURNITURE. [classic, [romani [SICILIAI [gothic. [gothic. DEVELOPMENT OF FLORAL GOTHIC MOTIFS FRENCH : ENGLISH : GERMAN : ITALIAN : Gothic style originated in France: 1108 Abbey Church of St. Denis, notable example. Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris, 1163-1182, is a fine example. Early Period, 1150. Secondary, 1200-1300. Flamboyant, 1307-1399. Influence lingered till 1515. Early Gothic or Crude Gothic, 1189-1307. Decorated or Ornamental, 1300- 1400. Perpendicular, 1399-1500. Tudor Gothic, 1485-1509. DUTCH, BELGIAN AND TYROL GOTHIC : Began, 1250. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE : Began, 1250. Dominated by Moorish Character. Began, 1250. But never freed itself from Classic and By- zantine influences. Gothic style had little development in Italy. Developments of French and German. GOTHIC H E Gothic style was the art expression having root in the spread of the Christian religion, and is full of Christian symbolism. At first crude and Romanesque or heav y> * y ielded later to a hi § hl y round-head Gothic ornate form of treatment. Regarding the Gothic develop- ment there is much confusion. It developed directly from the. Romanesque, a style which grew up in Northern Italy; natu- rally the Romanesque characteristics lin- gered in its construc- tion. Indeed, the late Romanesque is called the Round - Head Gothic, its arches in architecture being semi-circular, as distinguished from the later Gothic development of pointed arches. The Gothic period, extending as it did from 1100 to 1550 and influenced as it was by the Byzantine, Gothic Fleurs-de-lis. Saracenic, and finally Romanesque, naturally absorbed many architectural characteristics as the style traversed France, Germany Spain, Italy and England. And yet all phases possessed a common floriation and universal religious symbolism — the trefoil, the quatrefoil, curves and arches, circles, triangles, religious figures — are con- spicuous whether of the Gothic of Spain with Moorish arch, or the Gothic of France with pointed spires, or of England with its lancet as well as squat Tudor vaults. One cannot too strongly emphasize the fact that Gothic art was an architectural art. It was the art of the builder, the sculptor, the wood-carver, as distinguished from the art of the weaver, who up to this period took inspiration mainly from Asia. Thus we find fre- quently in the furnishings of a church, palace or cot- tage, Gothic characteristics in all that was of the house or building proper or of the cabinetmaker, and com- Quarry. Gothic Characteristics of Design. 53 A Fifteenth Century room in the Volpi Museum, Florence, the first illustration showing round arch Gothic, the second illustration Transition Gothic. Walls of cosmatic mosaic introduced in the Thirteenth Century by Giovanni Cosmato. Floor, tiles. Furniture, Sixteenth Century. GOTHIC bined therewith textiles and art treasures brought in by the Flemish and Italian traders from far Asia. It is somewhat difficult to understand the terms used descriptive of the Gothic epochs. In order to assist in a comprehension o f these terms we repro- duce the classifica- tions of Sharpe, Rick- man and De Cau- mont. We prefer, however, that the student shall follow our own classification. The term “Transitional Gothic” as shown by Sharpe is the same as “Norman,” applied by Rickman. The classifications are as fol- lows : ith the beginning of Gothic we note the simple crochet form, as it is called, a terminal floriation. At first crude, it soon de- veloped into the Decorative type, characterized by nat- ural foliage of many kinds, with flowing, undulating lines, truer to nature than Early Gothic and treated in richness and profusion. Then came the Perpendicu- lar Gothic, arranged with more fixed geometrical rules of construction, and introduced as motifs we find her- aldic forms shields, badges and crests. The space to be carved was divided into rectangular or lozenge shapes and filled with ornament systematically. w *+YYYf4 Gothic forms from which the trefoil and quatrefoil details were taken, obtained by the use of circles. 1145 A.D. Gothic : T ransitional, 1145- 1190 A. D. ; Lancet, 1190- 1245 A. D. ; Curvi- linear, 1245- 1 3 60 A.D. ; Rectiline a r , 1360-1550 A.D. RICKMAN. Roman- esque : Nor- man, 10 6 6- 1189 A.D. ; Early English, 1189-1307 A.D. Gothic : Decorated, 1307-1379 A.D. ; Perpendicular, 1379-1483 A.D. ; Tudor, 1483-1546 A.D. DE CAUMONT (FRENCH). Romanesque : Primordiale, 400-900 A.D. ; Sec- ondaire, 900-1100 A.D. ; Tertiaire, 1100 A.D. Pointed: Primitive, 1200; Secondaire or Rayon- nant, 1300; Tertiaire or Flamboyant, 1400 A.D. At the time of the Norman conquest English houses were usually one room. A hole in the roof served to carry out the smoke from the fire, and indeed m any houses lacked c h i m - neys in Eng- land as late as 1500. The tables used were mere planks on trestles. Chestswere common arti- cles of furni- ture, and may be divided into three classes, which are defined as follows : First, the chest of the Early Gothic following the Romanesque style banded in iron more for strength than ornament. Second, the chest heavily banded in iron and painted. These were common during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. The third type began with the Fifteenth Cen- //^- SHARPE - Romanesque : Saxon, 1066 A.D. ; Norman, 1066- Group IV (G). Group IV (G). Group V. See table of group classifications, for dates. round-head Gothic. 55 i 1200. Groi^p IV (I). 1200. Italian Group IV (I). 1200. Group IV (I). 1200. Group IV (I). GOTHIC tury and was carved, following the architectural forms. Beginning with 1200 the walls of the houses were wainscoted and painted, often decorated with subjects romantic, biblical and traditional. The very rich used colored glass windows ; the wainscotings of the rooms being primitive were fre- quently hung with tapestries to check drafts.. Domestic furniture was often painted in bright colors or rendered in tem- pera o r wax. Cupboards showed Gothic details of simple character with perforated doors for ventilation, as food was often kept therein. In 1400 the lower-floor room of a house was a combination dining-room and bedroom. The furniture con- sisted of a table, a long bench (with canopy called a dossier) seating four persons, a stand- ing cupboard, a bed with heavy curtains at the foot, two buf- fets, a table for holding toilet articles, a few stools and a prie-dieu. The floor was strewn with rushes, or in the halls of the wealthy it was laid with Eastern carpets. Clothing was kept in an adjoining room, while the bath was taken in a wooden tub drawn up to the open fireplace. About 1500 the large hall of the house was the general sitting-room, recejition-room and dining- room combined, furnished with a long table, and dossier. Chests, benches and settles with occasionally an in- dividual chair, a buffet, a side table, screen and one or more cupboards, completed the furnishings. This furniture was primitive, drawers in tables not being introduced until late in 1400, nor was an extension table or a table witli added leaves in use prior to 1500. The chest was a favorite piece of furni- ture. In the Royal presence it would have been a breach of etiquette to sit on a chair, but proper to sit on chest or coffer. Towards the middle of 1400 these chests be- came decorated with linenfold panels in the form of carving that looked like folds of linen. The linenfold pattern was first used in screens in the churches. Though Flem- ish in origin, it quickly became identified with English. It was carried well into the Renaissance and lasted from about 1450 to 1550. Towards the close, bunches of grapes and pro- fuse floriation were introduced. TEXTILE DESIGNS. T he terms Gothic, Saracenic and Renaissance are laxly applied. In architecture and woodcarving, Gothic, for ex- ample, defines an accurate development, but the fabrics used in Gothic environment, even fabrics woven in Italy, Germany and France, have little Gothic signifi- German, Fifteenth Century. 57 EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC 1189-1307. To this floral form is added, in ecclesiastical work, religious symbols, the circle, the trefoil, quatrefoil, triangle, crucifix, crown, chalice and cross. ENGLISH GOTHIC 1189 - 1509 . cance. Throughout the Euro- pean countries dominated by Gothic feeling, weaving was strongly influenced by the Sara- cens. In lower Italy, Sicily and Spain this fact is obvious ; the weavers perpetuated in their arts the Saracenic style long after all traces of the Orient had been obliterated by architect and sculptor. The traders of Flanders and Italy, up to the fall of Constantinople were active in the importation of Oriental stuffs, which served as a stimulus for European workmen. It was not until the Italians and French had practically lost their Oriental commerce that they turned their attention to home manufactures; and not until this condition arose, were designs produced, consistent with the character of the pre- vailing arts. The acanthus forms were taken as motifs. The Anthemion was gen- erously utilized, as well as fleur-de-lis. Laurel leaves and wreath shapes were adopted, and toward the end of the Six- teenth Century European flora, crowns and urns were a com- mon source of inspiration. (See Saracenic, Twelfth Century. page 52.) 1300. North Italian, 1200. 1400. V Late English Gothic developed finally the style known as Tudor (Tudor Gothic), the arches of which were low and squat instead of angu- lar. The panelings showed linenfold effects and the tops of the folds were often elaborated by floral details. Outside the eccelsiastical forms, leaf motifs were the predominating Gothic charac- teristic. Where the work had religious significance the design harked back to the Byzantine, Romanesque and Celtic. Thus in manuscript decoration of even a later date we frequently note the pea and pea-tendril types, the penman finding special oppor- tunities in the elongated sweeps of the vine. French — French archi- tecture was bold and elabor- ate, showing doorways en- riched with statues. As a rule the floral leaves were rounded and more full than the English leaves. Clus- tered pillars were almost un- known in France; observable in Germany and England. Late Italian Gothic. Netherlands — Tyrol — The arts of the Nether- lands were influenced by France and Germany. Wrought iron decoration in leaf and plant form was popular. Tyrol Gothic, a type simple and effective, generously utilizing the work of the wood carver. Germany — Although Ger- many followed Late-Gothic ten- dencies, it was not until 1350 in possession of an established style. It followed the vertical more than any other and at an early stage developed a fine sys- tem of strap work in metal, in which Gothic lines were closely followed. The use of birds in conjunction with leaf forms was common and twisted spirals and faces and armorial details were often used. gothic fabrics. W e have grouped as IV and V, under the heading, “Development of Mechanical Textile Design,” page 64, all that may be regarded as con- temporaneous with Gothic. Group IV representing fabrics between 1000 and 1350, Group V between 1350 and 1500. Late Italian Gothic. 6i FRENCH GOTHIC. GERMAN GOTHIC. THE DEVELOPMENT T E XT I L E DESIGN - C onstantinople, Corinth, Thebes and Athens prac- tically monopolized the making of fine fabrics 1000 A.D. Towards the end of the Twelfth Century Flemish weavers began the manufacture of wool tap- estries. France and Spain also undertook the manu- facture during the Thirteenth Century. The Orient up to 1400 was famous throughout Europe for its fab- ric creations, the Crusades being largely responsible for the distribution of fine examples. European weavers copied liberally the Asiatic styles, and when in the Fifteenth Century the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, Orientalism was still further infused throughout Southeastern Europe. OF MECHANICAL -GOTHIC PERIOD 200-400. Group I (A) The development of circle and geometric frames, sometimes filled with sim- ple floral, bird or animal forms. 400-600. Group II (B) The utilization of broken circles spread out to form bands. 600-1000. Group III (C) The use of circles linked by smaller circles, with ornaments inside and out, developing at length (D) the ogival form; often (E) hexagon frame work. 1000-1350. Group IV (F) Repeated parallel bands of ornamentation — detached details. (G) Patterns animate and inanimate, enclosed E3E I f i I iR * ^ * iF®5|9p®^ fp V S.% Me ■::■ v-i 1 L ) ApK iMj f vJHL WWr i^V\ )k- 1500. Group VI (M). 1500. Group VI (M). i 1500. Group VI (N). 1450. Group V (K). GOTHIC FABRICS. \\ SPANISH GOTHIC. ITALIAN GOTHIC. f GERMAN — NETHERLANDS. in ogival framing and (H) combination circles or scale patterns as well as geometric straight line framing. 1200-1300 introduced as features of design (I) eagles, falcons, shields, hounds, swans, foli- ated crosses, crowns, rayed stars, lions, harts, boars, leopards, sun’s rays and castle motifs, espe- cially in the fabrics of Italy and Sicily. 1350-1500. Group V. A characteristic design of the Fifteenth Century was the use of (J) reversed curves so arranged that they made frames. This form prototyped the Hogarth line of beauty. (K) Another form was the intersection of a Hogarth panel by two bold curving stems coming up through the bottom of the panel and capped by a cone, pineapple or fruit device. Still another (L) showed a serpentine stem or winding trunk which ran through the Hogarth pattern in the midst of a variety of botanical forms. 1500. Group VI. Designs adopted a free treatment. (M) The plans of previous centuries were com- bined and elaborated. (N) Ornament was arranged within ogival frames, springing out of the base of the frame to which it seems to be attached. (O) Interlacings of two frames of which one is ogival. (P) Ogival frames of leaves and flowers en- closing a large concentric pattern. (Q) Elaborated ogival frames caught to- gether by crowns. (R) The use of vases, urns, crowns and ani- mals became common. 1600-1700. Group VII. (S) During 1600-1700 we find an elaborate use of European garden flowers instead of the purely tropical Persian verdure, following, however, the general ogival form of arrangement. FLOWER.-VA5E PATTERN LATE I6 TH CENTURY VENETIAN DOUBLE MULUOM PATTERN ITAUAT1 ^CENTURY MAUCHESTrRBOCKCOUCCTirvH SINGLE BULLION PATTERN FLEMISH l6 ,M rFNTI PRY 1500. Group VI (M). 1500. Group VI (R). 1500. Group VI (P). 1500. Group VI (P). 1500. Group VI (N). 70 PALAIS DE FONTAINEBLEAU SIXTEENTH CENTURY FABRIC DESIGNS. GOTHIC 1700. Group VIII. (T) Pictorial tapestries and prints. (U) Pure Renaissance styles or develop- ments of that style — Louis XIV or XV. (V) Oriental characteristics of either the French or English styles, as shown in the scenic bits of Chinese or East Indian life. (W) Louis XVI. (X) Classic revival examples as expressed by the late Louis XVI, Directoire or Transition period in France and the Adam school in Eng- land. This period overlapped into 1800 and was generally adopted in the American colonies. 1800. Group IX (Y) Empire and Empire influence. (Z) Art Nouveau. PERSIAN CHARACTERISTICS D E VE LO PM E N T O F FLORAL TYPES D URING the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen- turies there were three distinct types of fabric-design popular in Europe, (a) the Renaissance, ( b ) the Oriental- Renaissance, (c) the Eu- ropean floral. (a) For centuries the textile weavers of Europe had been accustomed to follow Oriental design (chiefly Per- sian). Then came the pure Renaissance as developed in Iris, or fleur-de-lis. Sev- enteenth Century Venetian Italy (1400), in France (1500), in England and Spain (1500), and in Ger- many (1550), and the Per- sian pink and rose, the Rhodian lily, the pomegran- ate, cone and palm, gave way, as motifs, to the Ro- man, Greek and Egyptian details, the anthemion, lo- tus, iris and acanthus. (&) During the Ren- aissance much confusion of types was precipitated by the commercialism of the Netherland States and the explorations of the Portu- guese, who in 1140 had revolted from Spanish rule, under which they had been a province, and established the kingdom of Portugal ; the Portuguese during the Fourteenth Century became famous sailors, and early in 1500 opened possessions in Persia and India. Portuguese-Persian is the type of design (1500) showing the Persian influences merged in the Portu- guese, which at that time was developing the Renais- sance spirit. For centuries prior to the opening of the East by Portugal, the twenty-one provinces of the Netherlands Examples of Old Silk, 1750. had been active in commerce and famous for the great cities of Ghent, Mechlin, Antwerp, Bruges, Amster- dam, Leyden, Delft, Brussels and Rotterdam. After the forty years’ war with Spain, the Northern prov- inces, which had been known early in the Seventeenth Century as the Seven United Provinces of the Nether- lands, formed the Dutch Republic and replaced the Portuguese in the settlement of trading posts in the East Indies (1610). During the Sixteenth Century, involved as they were with the Netherlands and, subsequently, with France and England, who sympathized with the Netherlands, the Spanish, their sea power gone, had no means of continuing the commercial enterprises of Portugal, and the Dutch became paramount on the seas. (c) The French de- veloped still another form (the European floral) be- ginning about 1650 under Louis XIV, presenting the ferns and flora of Europe, especially the exquisite ex- amples cultivated in the Royal Gardens. Oriental influence in design has been stimulated at various periods by polit- ical and commercial de- velopments. The Dutch brought East Indian types into England under the Elizabethan, Jacobean and Queen Anne periods, and English women perpetuated Oriental art in their em- broideries. It seems like an anachronism in this Renais- sance age. Chinese in- fluence was strong during the period in France un- der Louis XV, and in Eng- land under George II and George III. Then again as late as 1760 British rule in India began to stimulate a demand for Indian goods. These phases must be considered in studying the periods. 73 Group IV (I). Saracenic Influence. TALIAN GOTHIC. Fig. V. Fig. IV. (See description on next page.) Fig. III. FABRICS OF NORTHERN ITALY FIFTEENTH— SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. T HE Italian period of art brought great prosperity to Italy. Foreign courts adopted Italian customs and cos- tumes. Vast quantities of rich hangings were used, and the most gorgeous form of dress was affected. John the Calabrian was famous for a silk loom used in the Fifteenth Century and this loom was imported into France during the reign of Louis XI (1475) by the manufacturers of Tours. A loom asso- ciated with the name of Dangon appeared at the be- ginning of the Seventeenth Century and was hailed as remarkable in its ability to facilitate the weaving of fabrics in several colorings. As early as the Thirteenth Century Borghesano of Bologna had invented a spin- ning machine to which was due the superiority of Ital- ian thrown silks. The processes of manufacture were, at this period, greatly improved. In 1500 armures be- came singularly rich. Cloths of gold were made, figured velvets, damasks with broche effects and fancy Velvets. When the Arabs under Mohammed had con- 75 quered the countries of Persia and Syria they found the manufacture of silk a flourishing industry. From this period until the Fourteenth Century the silk in- dustry was carefully fostered by the Mohammedans Next in importance and value to the precious stones the chief treasures of the Caliphs of Bagdad, Cairo and Cordova were their silken goods. Silk fairs or markets were held periodically at Antioch, Rey, Or- zeroum, Ispahan, Jerusalem and Mecca. The Jews then, as now, were the bankers in the Mohammedan districts and the purveyors of articles of luxury to the wealthy Romans of the South, the Gallic Romans of the West and the Goths of Northern Europe. The Italians were first to travel over Asia Minor, and together with the Jews, brought Mohammedan products into Italy, Spain, France and England, eventually establishing silk manufactories in Europe Notably in Sicily and Italy. Palermo, silk factory started 1100; Lucca, famous for silk weaving 1300. Persia was the original seat of art, and thence Persian design spread and was adopted and adapted in North Africa, Sicily and Arabia. In the Thirteenth Century Italian designers were inspired by Oriental art. In the Fourteenth Century they modified their treatment of animal motifs, aban- FABRICS OF NORTHERN ITALY doning the fan- tastic type (See Fig. 1 ) and adapted anew school of flora, employing t h e vine and oak leaf. Venice gave special at- tention to com- positions for al- tar decorations. (See Fig. 2.) Specimens of t h e Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries dis- play a lingering trace of Ori- ental art ty p e s which appeared a n d reappeared for possibly commercial reasons. (See Fig. 3.) Lobed leaves, rather Gothic in character, appeared in the Fifteenth Century and were abandoned in the Sixteenth Century. Thistles and flower artichokes often formed the center of the composition, and around the central motif the old geometrical lines were replaced by foliage forms, forming curvilinear or ogival borders. The magnificent Venetian velvet shown in Fig. 4 illustrates a varied ornamental framework of the char- acter described. Floral effects were in some cases the principal motif, in others the accessory ornament. In Fig. 5 we show a fancy velvet of the Sixteenth Century ; a pale yellow ground is in silk armure, the design produced by the cut velvet is in two delicate colors, mauve and light green. The design is known as the flowered Indian meadows, on account of the numerous shades employed. Sixteenth Century designers were artists having remarkable facility of invention. The multiplicity of rich silken stuffs illustrates very forcibly the luxury Fig. II. in dress. Where gold or silver did not figure in the design it appeared in the form of embroideries on satin or velvet. It was a period of great prosperity in Italian manufacture, especially the factories of Lucca, Florence, Venice and Genoa. Italian work- men, moreover, were in demand and taught their arts contemporaneously at Avignon, Lyons, Tours, Barce- lona, Bruges and London. Even at the end of the Seventeenth Century (1685) official Lyons records speak of Italian silk fabrics as forming the ideal models which the weavers of Lyons were to keep always in view as the standard of perfection. During the Seventeenth Century, however, fash- ions were no longer dictated from Italy. Paris be- came the center and home of taste, and with the aban- donment of long dresses the vogue for large designs had vanished. Smaller compositions were executed not only in dress but in upholsterings, and little by little Italy lost its prestige. KEY TO FABRIC ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. I. — Italian cloth of gold of the Fourteenth Century. Fabric with two wefts following each other; the green silk weft forming the ground with the warp likeness in green silk; the gold weft forming the design. Fig. II. — Italian cloth of gold of the Fourteenth Century; with figures. The ground is in satin weave, present- ing a glazed effect; the warp is light yellow, the weft crimson. This crimson weft and the gold weft succeed each other. In the figures the face, the hand and the feet are executed with a supplementary weft of white silk. The turf is formed by another supplementary weft in green, producing a twilled appearance. Fig. III. — Fancy cloth of gold, with velvet ground, of Italian manufacture of the Fifteenth Century. Pomegranate design. The cut velvet is of crimson shade ; the design being formed by the gold weft. The center of the pomegranate, which, is in small points, is in knotted gold weft ; also called boucle or frise. Fig. IV. — Fancy Venetian velvet, with gold ground. The cut velvet is in crimson; the design, produced by the gold weft, being raised. Fig. V. — Italian fancy velvet, of the Sixteenth Century. Detached floral effects. 7 6 U\ \ ' l Italian, Sixteenth Century. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RENAISSANCE :e, 1400 — 1500.\ e, 1500 — 1540. ) 1540 — 1643. ITALIAN. Alberti, 1404 — 1472. Early Renaissance, High Renaissance, 1500 — 1 Late Renaissance, .Florentine Renaissance, 1400 — 1600. Brunelleschi, 1377 — 1446. — Borgognone, 1450 — 1524. Fra Angelico, 1387 — 1455. Luca della Robbia, 1388 — 1463. Botticelli, 1447 — 1510. Andrea del Sarto, i486 — 1531. Benvenuto Cellini, 1500 — 1571. Venetian Renaissance, 1490 — 1600. Palladio, 1518 — 1580. Roman Renaissance, 1444 — 1643. Donato, 1444 — 1515. Giacomo Barozzio (Vignola), 1507 — 1573. —Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 1474 — 1564. a*. Raphael, 1483 — 1520. Milanese Renaissance, 1400 — 1600. ^Leonardo da Vinci, 1452 — 1519. FRENCH. French Renaissance, 1500 — 1643, a freely ornamented Gothic introduced by Fra Giaconda, 1502, under Louis XII, de- veloped by Francis I, who reigned 1515- — -1547. Leonardo da Vinci, Seralio, Cellini, Italians, influencing the style. ENGLISH. English Renaissance, 1509 — introduced by Henry VIII, through his architect, John of Padua. FLEMISH. Flemish Renaissance, 1507 — Antwerp was destroyed in 1584 and the famous manufactories were dispersed. — Dutch republic formed. 1581. GERMAN. German Renaissance, 1550 — founded by Albrecht Durer. SPANISH. Spanish Renaissance, 1500 — reflected the character of the Flem- ish Renaissance introduced by Flemish artists. Carlos I was born and educated in the Netherlands and upon attaining the crown his advisers were Flemish. The style was termed the Plateresque, and was a sumptuous mingling of Gothic and classic details. Italian, Sixteenth Century. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE Francis I, 1515 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE See Chronology, pages 77 and 114. terpreted in combination with cartouche, strap forms and shields; survival of Crusader motifs. The centaur, showing the fore part of a man and the hind part of a horse, was frequently combined with a liberal system of scrolls. Masks, the female form, birds, animals and trophies were conspicuous. The furniture was sometimes supplemented by painted decorations on gilt grounds prepared in a gesso material. Italian tarsia (inlay) work was a characteristic type. Sometimes the inlays represented floral orna- ment, sometimes landscapes and buildings. The tech- nique came from Persian sources, but the designs developed chiefly by the A enetians were usually classic. In the decoration of tables, chairs and cabinets ebony, ivory and metal were employed. The marriage coffer, of- ten in carved walnut, was a popular article of furniture. Chairs often carved and all gilt. Cab- D CRING the Fourteenth Century religion, art and science expanded. Humanity broke the feudal fetters and a new social life prevailed, stimulated by the study of the ancient arts and sciences, and wider propagation of the Christian religion. This period was the revival period (Italian Rinascimenta: French, Renaissance) . Italian — Brunelleschi was the first artist to study the monuments of classic art. To his genius we owe the Early Renaissance in Florence. 1 he labors of Brunelleschi and his followers were soon felt in other Italian art centers, Rome, Milan, Bologna and \ enice. Its spirit was brought to Rome by Donato, the teacher of Raphael. It supplemented the brickwork architec- ture of Lombardi. It de- veloped in Venice under Pal- ladio. The student who un- derstands his Greek and Ro- man will very readily recog- nize the Renaissance spirit, al- though outside of Italy the classic motifs were often liberally in- French, Plenri II. Italian. French Henri II. 78 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Chair legs of early Sixteenth Century showed braces at bottom of legs. Italian Tarsia or Intarsia Work. inets were made with veined marble tops and panels. In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries painted plaques of porcelain took the place of these marbles. In the Sixteenth Century Venice was renowned for glass manufacture. Looking glasses were invented 1507 by two Murano glass makers named Andrea and Dominico, who were given sole privilege to “make ipirrors of crystal- glass for a term of twenty years.” Previous to this time mirrors were of polished metal. The frames of these Venetian mirrors were carved to represent doorways of windows, pilasters, friezes and cornices ; sometimes gilt. Beds were often four-posters. Discoveries of the stuccoes of ancient Rome aroused the Italian architects to a spirit of emulation' and the mural work became extravagantly elaborate, (ground colors were laid on while the stucco was wet and the details heightened. Sometimes gilt frames en- closed magnificent paintings. The work of Raphael and his followers was often applied to wall decorations. The superb friezes and panels constituted the best work the world has ever seen. The age of oak extended from about 1500 to about 1660. The age of walnut was then generally taken up and extended to about 1700; mahogany 1730. In 1530 furniture with a framework and panels as well as chairs began to adopt a really new order. Pieces of furniture became more complex, with columns, porticos, pediments, niches, friezes, car- touches, caryatids, etc., constituting veritable little monumental fagades. In France the Italian and Flemish tastes influ- enced development. In decorative art the form of Renaissance known as Henry II lasted for half a century. Italian type of Cabinet work. Late Sixteenth Century. 8o ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. Uf.SfSS* m# t st c> ilyii ITALIAN RENAISSANCE « ■■ ■ •■ RENAISSANCE — ITALIAN — FRENCH See Chronology, page 114. I T I S difficult to differentiate between Italian and the late French Renaissance. The French were saturated with the Gothic spirit and for a time it was difficult to displace the Gothic feeling. The new art was finally established in France through Cellini, Seralio, Primaticcio, Ilrosso and others who came from Italy and by French artists who finally went to Italy to acquire the newer style evolved from the classic remains of ancient Ronle. The great French carvers of this period were 1 * Jean Goujon, Nich. Bachelier, of Toulouse, Du Cerceau, who pub- lished designs for all kinds of decorations and carv- ings, and Hugues Sambin, of Dijon. Towards the end of the Sixteenth Century and during the early half of the Seventeenth the superb furniture was covered over with fabrics to such an extent that little by little the frame construction ceased to be visible. Wood carving was' one \ % \ > \ Venetian and Genoese velvet and gold brocades of the late Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Originals in the Museums of Berlin, Vienna, Munich, Dresden and Nuremberg. FLEMISH RENAISSANCE DEVELOPED FROM THE ITALIAN 1507. See also page 114. T H E North country, now Hol- land, and the South country, which included Flanders, now Belgium, were, up to the period of Spanish domination, of homogeneous taste and character. With the Re- formation came a gradual division of interests and sympathies. The North country, in- cluding about two-thirds of the Netherlands, estab- lished the Dutch Republic, while the South country, alienated from her Northern sister, soon lost su- premacy in the arts. Upon the traders of Holland fell the mantle of the Portuguese voyagers, and, in India especially, they opened great avenues of trade. For centuries the products of Flanders and later the products of Holland poured into Great Britain. England supplied most of the wool used in the manu- facture of Flemish tapestries, and in Medieval days could always depend upon the support of the Flemings by her control of the wool situation. From the date of the Dutch conquest over Spain, 1600, accomplished with English aid, the relations of the two countries became still more intimate, affect- ing materially the decorative arts of England from Elizabeth down to William and Mary. In the Eleventh Century Cordova leathers, su- perbly gilded and painted, were introduced into Flan- ders; the term soon applied to similar leathers pro- duced in Portugal, Flanders, France and Italy. Spanish leathers (Cordova proper) were usually in high relief and Saracenic design ; leathers of Flanders and Italy, frequently of calf, were of low relief in exceedingly delicate design, mythological or ecclesiastical. The earliest notable tapestries of Europe were Flemish type, early Seventeenth Century. The prototype of the later English type. Known frequently as Charles II. 1660. Flemish (1100). On account of the great import- ance of the arts, the Duke of Burgundy adopted the 87 RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT. Late .French showing influence of Flemish strap-work. FLEMISH RENAISSANCE Golden Fleece as the title of the great order of Knight- hood. In the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries the tapestry makers of Italy, France, Germany and Spain borrowed the tapestry arts from Flanders. The furniture of Medieval days was mostly of a fixed character. Cupboards, wardrobes and larders were built into the panelings. Up to 1300 the carver and carpenter were one and the same. Then came a division of labors. Carving was usu- ally applied to fixed parts of the house. Crude beds and benches were supplied with cushions carried in the chests. Walls were hung with printed linens and tapestries. In the Four- teenth Century we find not only carved oak but in- lays of ebony and ivory. Hangings were the chief feature of the interior decora- tion. The Italians had a monoply of the trade with the Orient, and Europe was supplied by them with Oriental rugs. Up to 1400 there was little movable furniture to be found even in the palace — simply benches, trestles chests and forms. The plain box or chest when raised on feet or legs was a dressoir, credence or sideboard. The armoire was de- veloped by building chest upon chest with open fronts. In some old Medie- val manuscripts we find chests so large that, covered with skins or matting, they were used for beds. The difference between a dressoir and buffet was simply that the dressoir was used for display; the buffet for use. I he number of shelves on a dressoir was regu- lated by etiquette. The common people could use a dressoir with two shelves", the nobility with three shelves, the royalty four or five shelves. In 1420 we hear of Cordova leathers being used on the floor, around the bed, and of leathers for chamber hangings. Charles V of France (1380) used leathers on the floor in Summer time, and throughout the period we find leathers used for upholstering. Dur- ing the Fifteenth Century Flemish workmen emigrated in great numbers to England, Spain, Italy and even Hungary. The Flemish were almost as cele- brated for their leathers as for their tapestries. Gold and painted leathers were com- m on, a it d red morocco leathers from Spain were, from the begin- ning of the Six- teenth Century, generally used for wall hangings and table covers. In 1539 the tapestry factories of France sent to Flanders for her weavers. The Flemish cabinet- make r, architect and weaver was in great demand dur- ing the Renais- sance, and in Spain, France and Eng- land he found con- genial residence. In the Seven- teenth • Century the Dutch commerce in the Far East not only brought into •Europe vast stores of Indian art, but the masters of vessels were commissioned by nobles and potentates to bring home monkeys, parrots, peacocks, pheasants, cats and dogs. In 1609, the East India Company issued letters for reserving “all strange fowls and beasts to be found there, for the Council.” The cockatoo and the parrot in wicker cages were much in evidence in the paintings of that period. Naturally the artists were much im- EARl.Y DUTCH 89 GERMAN RENAISSANCE (BEGINNING 1550). FLEMISH RENAISSANCE (BEGINNING 1507). SWISS RENAISSANCE. RUSSIAN RENAISSANCE. SPANISH RENAISSANCE. 1 3 1. Detail of choir stalls, Convent of San Marcos, Leon. 2. Gothic chair, Fifteenth Century. 3. “Samson,” carved choir stall of Leon Cathedral. 4. Armchair, Seventeenth Century. Museum of Salamanca. 5. Spanish cabinet and stand, carved chestnut, first half of Six- teenth Century, Victoria and Albert Museum. 6. Ivory box, Ninth Century, Madrid Museum. 7. Chair and table, Salamanca Cathedral. 5 6 7 SPANISH RENAISSANCE. R U S S I A N — S P A N I S H RENAISSANCE pressed, and the Dutch embroideries and prints of that age were full of Eastern character, floral and animal. France owed much to Belgium and Holland dur- ing the first part of the Seventeenth Century, when Flemish and Dutch artists contributed so materially to up- building the French industries. But France repaid with interest, for in 1685 the revocation of the edict of Nantes sent 50,000 families of the best French blood, intellect, art, culture and crafts- manship into vol- untary exile. Russian Re- naissance — - The Renaissance reached Russia through Italian ar- tists, who worked always subordinate to Oriental and Scandinavian influ- ences. Polish art, however, was more susceptible to Italian feeling, and the Renaissance ornament of Po- land was purer. Norwe- gian Renais- sance — Norway and Denmark took the Renaissance feeling from Flan- d e r s. Norway peasants were natural wood- workers. Spanish Re- naissance — In 711 the Moors invaded Spain. In 755 they established the Caliphate of Cordova. In 1031 the Caliphate was dissolved. Subsequent to 1200 the Moors in Spain were confined to the Kingdom of Granada. By 1610 the Moors were expelled from Spain. Early in the Middle Ages mansions of Spain were furnished in a style of rude grandeur. They were modeled after the Roman and Byzantine. In time the furniture of Christian Spain was affected by the Gothic and Renaissance arts, with always a trace of the Moorish. The furniture of the Middle Ages was much the same throughout all Europe. The older Spanish furniture was frequently decorated with deli- cate ironwork and with columns of bone or ivory, painted or gilded, often exhibiting Moorish influence. Some specimens were richly inlaid with silver. The bedstead was always a con- spicuous feature of the house and was frequently of iron or bronze. Wood succeeded metal in the latter part of the Thirteenth Cen- tury and the beds grew even larger, rising so high above the floor that sets of steps were re- quired to climb into them. Sometimes these steps were in themselves magnifi- cent. Silver qnd rich carvings, elaborate mosaics, were common. Italian turned rail furniture. Illustr by Flemings, period Henri IV, Franc in Flanders, England, France, 1660. Cacquetoires. Chair in marg ations 1, 3 and 4, Italian. Adapted e. Rail back chairs were common In the latter country called Chaise in of page, probably Flemish. A description of the furniture and furnishings would tax the imagination, velvets and gold and even precious stones being woven into fabrics. 95 ’ -‘- va — ?' V >N'-W ?' : *j»i A PAGE OF SWISS COFFERS RUSSIAN — SPANISH RENAISSANCE Spanish leather of about 1700. The homes of royalty were of extraordinary magnificence, and while Gothic was the general ten- dency during the Gothic period the Oriental influences were conspicuous and the native Moorish a strong factor. By the time of the Renaissance the love of luxury still further increased. We read of the one-hundred- and-twenty-pound silver balustrade of Dona Juana, sister of Philip II ; it stood around her bed. We read of Turkish carpets, Spanish carpets, Toledo gold cloths, wonderful embroideries and tapestries. According to the Marquis of Monistrol, Spanish furniture up to and including the beginning of the Renaissance, consisted of burial chests, storage chests, archive chests, treasure chests, brides’ chests, chests for storing arms, and grain chests. The Spanish Moors employed but little furniture. The cushion was viewed with much favor by Spanish Christians. Among the Moors the cushion was used as a seat of honor because it raised the occupant above the level of those seated on the floor. The women of Christian Spain were always given cushions while the men made use of stools or chairs. In the Seventeenth Century the dais or raised platform was introduced. In 1515 the municipal laws of Granada covered the “operations of the people who worked in the street of chair-makers and carpenters.” These laws were found necessary owing to the false and faulty workmanship prevailing at this time. In Granada the laws provided, among other things, that the work must be bought at public auction, where all could discover its character. It must be thoroughly dry and free from flaws. The law also covered all the details of how a chair should be made and each chair had to be stamped with the city mark and a tax paid upon it. During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries large arm-chairs of quadrangular form were used. The backs and seats were of leather and embroidered stuffs. Cabinets were an important part of the furnish- ings. Cabinets and tables were inlaid with ivory, tortoise shell, ebony, bronze and silver. Frames in- laid in this way were hung on the walls. Women sat on low stools on the ground. Beds were hung with rich brocades embroidered in gold and trimmed with Point d’ Espagne. On the splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burned crushed olive stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks and from early times stamped leathers, painted and gilded “guadameciles” were used to a very great extent. This stamped leather was also met with largely in England. The word comes from the name of the village, Gha- dames in Africa which was celebrated from the Twelfth Century for this industry. The art was im- ported by the Moors to Spain, Cordova becoming a great center of the industry, though this leather was made also at Seville, Granada, Toledo and Barcelona. In 1575 the fame of Cordova for such leathers was so great that the name “Cordova leather” was applied to those made in other parts of Spain as a general term. Leonard Will- iams, the correspond- ing member of the Royal Spanish Acad- emy, has made a deep study of Spanish fur- niture and we are in- debted to his book on “The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain” for the illustration h e r e shown. Nothing more beautiful can be re- produced than the choir-stalls in the Cathedrals of Spain. The most notable ex- ample of Spanish Renaissance is doubt- less the decoration of the choir of the Ca- thedral at Toledo. Spanish Renaissance Chair, covered with Gua- dameciles. 97 Tvrolean ornament. SWITZERLAND AND THE TYROL I T IS not easy to describe the arts of Switzerland. Swiss museums are rich in the glory of the past. Museums which contain interesting specimens of the artistic productions of the different districts may be found in Berne, Basle, Zurich, Aargau, Zug and Geneva. In considering Swiss work we must consider the geographical position of Switzerland. To the west Switzerland was influenced by France, to the south by Italy, to the east by Bavaria. In the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries the influences of Germany pre- dominated. In the Seventeenth Century French art was an influential factor. The Swiss have been always cabinetmakers and woodcarvers. Switzerland has been always famous for its coffers, sometimes used for preserving treasures or rare spices, garments or linens. In the houses of the wealthy they served the purpose of a treasure chest or safe. The lid was utilized as a seat and where large enough it served also as a bed. At Versailles, France, coffers were in general use as beds in about 1752. When traveling the coffer served as a trunk. In Swit- zerland these coffers were always elaborately carved. Fig. 1 is a mixture of Gothic and Renaissance as a Swiss peasant understood it. It is dated 1594. The contours of the design are colored in order to throw the ornament into relief. At the Historic Museum, Basle. Fig. 2, coffer from Canton Solothurm. The dol- phins are peculiar to this Canton. Fig. 3, dated 1626, probably a bridal chest with inlay. Now in the museum at Zurich. Fig. 4, a monastery coffer, date 1614, now at the Zurich Museum. Fig. 5, bedside coffer. Fig. 6, Renaissance. The Renaissance began to make itself felt in Switzerland from 1 520- 1 n30. Tt is unusual at this period to find the field treated in divi- sions, preference being for long flat surfaces upon which to carve. In this example we have a different design upon each field. Fig. 7, early Fifteenth Century, with the iron bands and clamps is decidedly Flemish. Fig. 8, Fifteenth Century coffer. An excellent type of Fifteenth Century peasant carving. The Tyrol district is an Eastern continuation of Switzerland, and is naturally influenced by Germany on the North and East and Italy on the South. The history of the Tyrol is partly German and partly Italian. In 1 early times the Tyrol district was con- quered by the Romans, 15 B.C. Subsequently it was overrun by German tribes. For centuries the Goths occupied the district and the pagan creed prevailed here until the Sixth Cen- tury. Hence we have at all times the Gothic influence and in the furnishing of their homes, simple in the cottage life or elaborate in the palace structure, we have also the influences of Northern Italy. One must bear in mind that the Swiss are famous as wood- carvers and their skill in this direction follows natural forms, preserving usually the Gothic characteristics. In the use of fabrics the Tyrol people followed the work of Northern Italy, but in their panel carvings the work was typically native. Tyrolean carved ornament. 9S ENGLISH RENAISSANCE ELIZABETHAN— JACOBEAN— STUART— CROMWELLIAN. A LIBERAL interpretation of what constitutes the English Renaissance must carry the student back to the reign of Henry VIII, and at the outset one must understand that the Renaissance cov-- ers all that period beginning with Henry VIII and extending through the Elizabethan (the reign of Eliz- beth, 1558-1603), and the Jacobean (the reign of James I, Charles I and the Cromwell period, 1603-1659), the Ital- ian classicism of Inigo Jones and the French classicism of Sir Christo p her Wren, through the Stuart or Jacobe- an period well into the reign of George II. Indeed, what is generally regarded as the Georgian period, prolific with French Renaissance fioriation, is really the termination of the English Renaissance. The entire Renaissance development in England is full of canfusion because subdivided by historical data in many cases confusing. Under Henry VIII, Torrigiano, Ronezzano and John of Padua introduced the Italian style 1512-1536, but following upon Henry VIII’s quarrel with the Pope, the consequent change in religion and the im- poverishment of England, the Italians, now regarded with ill favor, returned home, leaving but little or no influence behind them, and their field of occupation was soon filled by Germans and Flemings. Beginning with 1558, we have what is arbitrarily called the Elizabethan, but Elizabethan, although the reign ended with 1603, ex- tended as a type clear through the Jacobean period, and the term Jacobean means simply, if it means anything, an Elizabethan development. The term Stuart relates to that period beginning with James I and extending d o w n to Queen Anne — all subdivisions of the Renaissance. As early as 1556 great quantities of Flemish cabinet fronts and other cabinet work were imported into England. Elizabethan houses were built by German and Flemish architects. Strap-work designs were common, male and female figures with strap-work on the front in lieu of clothes. To the Flemings we attribute the dia- mond-shapes superimposed, in moldings, on square panels; the numerous juttings, and angles; the ex- tensive use of turned work plain and carved frequently 99 ELIZABETHAN — JACOBEAN. Jacobean ok Jacobian : JACOBEAN. rom Latin Jacobus, James; pertaining to the style of decoration of James I, Rennaissance — Elizabethan — The chairs on the top row represent the types' prior to 1610, Elizabethan or Jacobean. The second chair from the top is an English type beginning about 1650. The chairs of the bottom row are Charles II type, 1675 or thereabouts. The formation of the legs shows the French spirit, although the carving is of Flemish origin. Elizabethan- Jacobean Embroideries. glued upon panels on beds, round applied buttons, and pendants and ovals set in relief upon panels, as well as drop ornaments added below tbe table frames or tbe center of arches in panels. It was all Renaissance, whether from Italy or through the more obscure channels of Germany and Flanders. The Renaissance movement, developed u n - d e r Elizabeth, was con- temporary with a similar movement in France, Flan- ders and Germany. H ence the presentation of styles closely related. We asso- ciate with the Elizabethan * liberally-paneled rooms a n.d stuccoed ceilings.' We find the guilloche, common in As- syrian and Byzantine art, and other simple details, m u c h used at this time owing to the fact that English workmen, w h o copied the foreigners, were restricted in ..their work to simple details, necessitated by the use of oak instead of the softer walnut, and this fact will aid one to de- termine the origin of work of this period. Great importations came from Flanders, so great in fact that Elizabeth introduced prohibitive measures to stop the imports and encourage English workmen. Elaborate interiors were of terra-cotta. Stuccoed ceilings were of great beauty, but the work was confined mostly to palaces. The same characteristics followed through the Jacobean period, 1603-1652. The cabinetmakers made much of this patch-work furniture, and there was much use of the “S” curve in cabinetmaking. Carv- ing was in low relief. The “S” curve, the semi-circle pattern and the interlaced semi-circle pattern and “C” curves became more common with this period. From the architectural standpoint this period is conspicuous with the work of Inigo Jones (born 1572 died 1653), probably the first English architect who practiced the Renais- sance style in its simplicity. Walpole says of him, “Eng- land adopted Holbein and Van Dyke ; she borrowed Rubens, but she produced Inigo Jones.” Inigo Jones studied closely the work of the Italian Palladio, and Charles I encouraged him liberally. Here we have, then, during this Jacobean period furniture and furnish- ings the work of the cabinet- makers which was of a de- cidedly hybrid type, and far removed from the exquisite, dignified and artistic work purely Italian that was ac- complished by. Jones and his contemporaries. Inigo Jones died in 1653, and a few years later Sir Christopher Wren became famous in a further development of the Renaissance feeling. Sir Chris- topher studied in Paris and was saturated with the French Renaissance spirit, hence he was profuse where Jones showed restraint. His style was almost Baroque. Pendants of flowers, shells and fruits were 103 ENGLISH RENAISSANCE used in a prodigal spirit. Carving was of an over- elaborate and highly-ornamented character. It gave the reputation to Grinling Gibbons, who was responsible for so much that was good in carved foliage, birds, fruits, shells, cupid faces, etc., that Charles II employed him on the palace work and subsequently, 1714-1721, he was “m aster carver in wood” to George I, with a salary of eighteen pence a day. While we frequently refer to this prolific form of work made famous by the efforts of Wren and Gibbons as Georgian, we must understand that it developed in the late Renaissance and was a part of the Renaissance period, and the Jacobean, Cromwellian and Queen Anne belong in archi- tecture to the Renaissance schools ; thus we are confronted by confus- ing data, throughout this entire English history of decoration. The furnishings were of a com- mercial character and seldom, if ever, connected with the archi- tectural spirit. Frequently there was con- sistency in the wood trims of the jg ■' . - work done by the architect, but the work was not carried into the furniture, which was usually of Flemish, Dutch or French origin. Wood-paneled chairs were not generally displaced until the middle of the Jacobean period. Then the Flem- ish carved type appeared, which in England is sometimes called Jacobean, sometimes Charles I, and if cane- seated, Charles II. It is easy to trace the Flemish origin even if English de- tails, crowned cupids surmount the back ; and where the legs and the under- bracing convey something of the Louis XIV suggestion, we can account for the French influence. With the re- turn of the cavaliers to England, just after Cromwell’s downfall, 1660, the royalists brought back with their furnishings from France a good deal of its furniture, and thus we can trace the French spirit in what we now regard as the Charles II type. This spirit was further ac- centuated at a little later period w hen, in 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked and the Protestant artisans of France, in- house, mantels, panelings, wainscoting and stucco eluding many Flemish born, fled to England. 1 .2 3 4 5 Illustration No. 1 represents a Flemish type common also with the Italian. In France, 1640, the time of Louis XIII, this type is called the chaise perroquet or chaise cacquetoire. No. 2 is called by English authorities, a Derbyshire or Yorkshire chair, being made In great quantities, 1650-1660. Illustration No. 3, a Lancashire chair, about 1675. rNo. 4, 1650. Derbyshire. ' Illustration No.’ 5, Engl ishf=sbbw i li g Spanish influence,' doubtless the wOrk of Flemish designers when under Spanish domination, 1660. Yorkshire and Derbyshire. JAMES I, 1603-1625, founder Stuart Period. T HE evolution of the spindle or rail-back chair comes from the Italian through the Flemish and French to the English, where it is arbitrarily called Jacobean and even localized as Derbyshire, Lan- cashire and Yorkshire. Where the crown appeared, sometimes crown and cupid, it was a Royalist design, and followed Charles II’s restoration. S and C shapes were frequently seen upon chairs that were unquestionably of French inspiration, a development following the social rela- tions contemporary with Charles II. Following* — the S=£errrrrs — and the C- forms from CHARLES I, 1625-1649, Commonwealth to 1659. 1580 to 1665, we find a chair with the top of its back finished off fan-shaped and later still shell-shaped, but this takes us well into the reign of Queen Anne. Cane seats came in through the trading of the East India Companies, but the exact date cannot be fixed. It was in the neighborhood of 1650 in Eng- land, 1620 France; the poet Chaucer, in his “Canter- bury Tales,” 1400, mentions wicker chairs. Mahogany was not used until after 1700. It must be recalled that all ceremonious and pre- tentious form was confined to castles, and not until late in the Seventeenth Century did the work of the 1^80-1690. Note the French spirit in third table-leg, <■ 1690, also those on extreme right. During the William and Mary period, about veneering became popular. 105 AN ELIZABETHAN DINING-ROOM POSTLIP HALL, GLOUCESTERSHIRE From Fash's “ Mansions of England in the Olden Times.' ELIZABETHAN INTERIORS fit MS; HARDWICK HALL-ELIZABETHAN, 1 5 9 9. decorator extend beyond the homes of the nobility. In the palaces the ceilings were superb, the interior woodwork was of a most elaborate character ; one must realize this and in watching the development of furniture and furnishings one must not confuse the commercial work of the artisan with the more pre- tentious work of the archi- tect. In the homes of the wealthy the walls were fre- quently hung with tapestries, ceilings elaborately stuccoed often colored. Fabrics of elaborate character, velvet, brocades and damasks were used and the floors were covered with Oriental rugs, excepting in chambers for public use, on the floors of which they scattered rushes. It was an age of enibroider- i n g ; Flemish leathers and embroideries of many vari- eties were used. Panels were full of heraldic devices and crests. In small rooms chintzes from India were used. India prints in the Oriental spirit were con- Italian, wood-cut illustration spicuous in bed coverings, portieres, table covers and balustrade hangings. There were no wall-papers used, but prints of cotton or linen or embroideries were in general favor. The upholsterings were all that can be imagined. Fabrics of every sort were manufactured. Glass mirrors were made in Venice, 1507, when methods had been discovered of applying the metal leaf. Mirror makers had their own corporation. . During Elizabeth’s time a mirror was a rare posses- sion and worthy' of a rich frame, but about 1685 the Duke of Burgundy installed a number of Venetians at Lambeth, where they made looking glasses. Grandfather’s clocks also appeared about 1680. Queen Elizabeth had chartered the East India Company in 1600, but it suffered serious com- petition with the Dutch, French and Portuguese com- panies. The chair foot or the from Dante’s “Inferno,” e g terminal indicates, in 1 10 1660 1690 1714 some measure, the period of the furniture. The scroll foot was Flemish with French influence, of the type that came in about 1670. The fluted foot was Spanish in origin and goes back to 1600-1700. The ball foot or bulb foot is Early Dutch or Flemish. What is known as the spade foot came in with the Sheraton and Ilepplewhite period, late in the. Eighteenth Century. The Renaissance feet were sometimes square blocks, discs or balls in flattened form. Frequently the legs rested upon parallel bars. Various animal-feet were generally used by the Greeks and Romans and we therefore find them to- gether with scroll feet in good Renaissance examples. They were not associated generally with Queen Anne until the Eighteenth Century. Sometimes we find the cabriole leg and claw foot in old Spanish pieces of the Seventeenth Century, but they can be distinguished The Oriental motif from which Elizabethan and Jacobean embroidering took inspiration. Ill ENGLISH RENAISSANCE rooms set aside for study. In a few houses ceil- ings were carved elabor- ately, which style was imi- tated in plaster. Windows were furnished with little diamonds or squares of glass and often in the cen- ter were armorial pieces. Even at this time floors of private chambers were of inlaid wood. Green, yel- low and crimson were favorite colors for bed and window draperies and the materials were silk damask, worsted damask, satin, silk, or serge. The names are not easy to define. We know that of the silken stuffs there is a constant refer- ence' in old documents to lustering, paduasoy, doubt- less Padua soie (silk), tabby, taffeta, sarcenet, cheney (China). In woolen goods we have reference to serge, dor neck (linen print), per- p e t u a n a , mohair, camoca or c a m a k , camlet, say, serge, rep, watchet, fustian, damask, and kitter- minster or kidder- minster, some of which were mixed with camel’s hair or threads of silk. There were also dimity, flowered chintz, and c a 1 1 i - man co (a glazed linen), as well as Turkey and “wrought -work” (which, of course, was needlework) . East India goods, such as printed calico and' seer- sucker were of this period. White curtains for the bed were rarely employed, in- from the Queen Anne styles by the front, back and side stretchers that connect them near the base. The claw-and-ball foot was distinctly Queen Anne, but the form came through Louis XIV and late Jacobean. Fabrics. Tapestries applied above high wainscoting were in common use. Some- times tapestry hung down over the panel. For a while during the Wars of the Roses tapestries were aban- doned in England but un- der Henry VIII fresh im- petus was given and later some superb examples were introduced in the Mortlake factory established by James I. Another very popular fabric was a “painted cloth,” canvas painted in mottoes. In “Much Ado About Nothing,” Beatrice says that she “g o t all her wit from the painted cloth hang- ings.” Embossed and gilded leather, cloths of gold and the richest kinds of silks and velvets were in use and what is referred to as a novelty is quoted by Pepys in his diary, 1663, “I bought my w i f e a c h i n t , that is a painted Indian cal- ico for to line her new study.” The term study at this period must have referred to a sort of boudoir or library, although in some houses there were On the right, typical of Elizabethan em- broideries. Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen- turies. 112 1640 1650 1660 1690 1690 variably satin and dimity being employed, worked in colored crewels or worsted. Valances were much used; leather, vel- vet, brass nails, needlework, embroiderings, were all popular. As early as 1300 velvet is mentioned in English inventories and French documents. At that time it was a flock-like material. In Italy, beginning 1600, design was still influ- enced by the Orient, and France was a great producer of velvets and damasks. While silken stuffs had been made in Europe at -an early date (see page 35, chap- ter on Development of Textile Weaving), it was not until the commencement of the Euro- pean trade with the East and the introduction of silk culture into Italy and France that the lower price of the raw material encouraged the manufacture. In the time of Queen Eliz- abeth a charter was granted to the Dutch settlers in Norwich for figured loom weav- ing, and damasks, flowered and striped, were made. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685, strengthened the English trade, and by 1700 Flemish and Huguenot weavers settled in London, Spitalfields, Cheshire, Lancaster, Derbyshire, Kent, Essex and Norfolk. The illustrations on the right show the Jacobean panel work of 1600-1620. , The rest of the pieces show the French development immediately following the restoration of Charles II, 1660, and the bulbous formations, distinctly William and Mary. The eight-legged chair would be properly called Louis XIV, probably made by French exiles, who settled in England in 1685. These William and Mary styles were usually walnut, and need never be confused with mahogany of a later period. 1 1 3 THE RENAISSANG (See also page 77) ITALIAN. FRENCH. FLEMISH. 1400-1500. Early Renaissance. 1400-1600. Florentine Renaissance: Brunelleschi, 1377-1446. Borgog- none, 1450-1524. Fra Angelico, • 1387-1455: Luca della Robbia, 1388-1463. Botticelli, 1447-1510. Andrea del Sarto, 1486-1531. / Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1571. 1400-1600. Milanese Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519. 1444-1643. Roman Renaissance: Donato Lazzari (Bramante), 1444- 1515. Giacomo Barozzio, 1507-1573. Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 1474- 1564. Raphael, 1483-1520 1490-1600. Venetian Renaissance: Palladio, 1518-1580. (See England, 1603-1649 for Italian influence.) 1500. High Renaissance. 1540-1643. Late Renaissance. 1515. Francis I. Leonardo da Vinci and Cellini in- fluenced the introduction of Italian Renaissance. Flemish workmen given generous employment. 1549-1559. Henri II. The furnishings up to Louis XIII were similar to late Elizabethan. (See English, 1603-1649.) 1559- 1560. Francis II. 1560- 1574. Charles IX. 1574-1589. Henri III. 1589-1610. Henri IV. Edict of Nantes granting religious freedom. 1604. Organization of East India Trading Company. 1610. Louis XIII. 1643-1715. Louis XIV. 1642. Richelieu’s East India Com- pany. 1653. English cavaliers settled in France after downfall of Charles I, and on returning under Charles II, brought back French influence in art. 1685. Daniel Marot, one of the most talented decorators who flourished during the reign of Louis XIV, fled with other Protestants at the time of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure originally granted by Plenri TV to allow toleration of worship. When revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV thousands of Protestants fled to Holland and England. The French style of Marot and his con- freres became conspicuous in the English period just prior to Queen Anne. 1507 Development from Italian. 1576. All Netherland provinces united and drove out the Spanish. 1581. Formation Dutch Republic. Consisting of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland Overyssfel. 1584. Antwerp destroyed. Famous manufactures dispersed. Flanders, Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Ar- tois, Hainault, Namur, Zutphen, Mechlin became finally merged as Belgium. Dutch traders ruled the commerce of the world. 1600. Spanish dominion overthrown. 1602. Dutch East India Co. incor- porated. East Indian textiles and pottery furnished Oriental motifs for embroidery. 1613. New Amsterdam, America, set- tled by the Dutch. 1648. Republic of the United Prov- ince of the Netherlands recognized by Spain. 1664. New Amsterdam was seized by Duke of York, brother of Charles IT. and name changed to New York. EVELOPMENT SPANISH. GERMAN. / ENGLISH. 1500. At first Moorish or Hispano- Moresque. Italian style was adopted gradually, developing what was termed the Plateresque, a sumptu- ous mingling of Gothic and classic details. 1550. Carlos I was born and edu- cated in the Netherlands, and upon attaining the crown his advisers were Flemish, and the late Spanish Renaissance showed Flemish char- acteristics. 1500-1600. Portugal enjoyed monop- oly of trade with India. 1600. Spanish withdrawal from the Netherlands. 1550. Founded by Albrecht Durer. Perpetuated by Holbein and Peter Vischer. 1509. Renaissance introduced by Henry VIII, who employed many Italian artists. This period is some- times called Early English or Tu- dor, Henry VII having founded the Tudor line, 1485. 1534. Reformation. Departure of Catholic Italian workmen from England. Italian influence was soon forgotten in the employment of German and Flemish artisans. 1558-1649. Elizabethan style. Devel- opment along German and Flemish lines. Protestant element. Dutch commerce made such inroads that Elizabeth took measures to check it. The full development of Elizabethan style included what is popularly called Jacobean. 1600. English East India Trading Company incorporated. Charter re- newed several times, and active up to 1813. 1603-1649. Jacobean (Jacobus, James), a continuance and full development of Elizabethan. Under James 1 came the classic development of Inigo Jones ( 1625-1652), who studied under Palladio, Italy. 1625-1649. Charles I. Charles be- headed 1649, and many royalists fled to France. 1653. Cromwellian. 1660. Charles II. To the Flemish spirit was added French character- istics through the sentiments ab- sorbed by the exiled royalists who now returned to England. New Amsterdam seized (see Flem- ish). 1685-1689. James II. 1689-1702. William and Mary. WILLIAM AND MARY PERIOD, ABOUT 1690 Early Jacobean. FOLLOWING THE JACOBEAN CHARLES II, 1660-1685. James II, T HROUGHOUT this entire period which fol- lows the Jacobean epoch we have such a con- fusion of styles, adaptations of French, Flem- ish and Italian, that it seems absurd to attempt to distinguish definitely the beginning and ending of periods like the Cromwellian, which only lasted five years, or the James II, which only lasted four years, or the William and Mary, which lasted twelve years. It is impossible to draw a strict line of demarca- tion between the end of the Jacobean and the beginning of the Queen Anne. Queen Anne reigned 1702-1714, but what is known in art as the Queen Anne Period had its inception in 1660. One may say of this im- mediate period that it is Charles II if French in- fluences are particularly strong, or William and Mary if Dutch influences are prevalent, but Queen Anne in its entirety was strictly Dutch and, as will be seen later on, had a style distinctly its own. Before reaching, however, the narrowed confines of the period that began in 1702 we have to do with 1685-1689. William and Mary, 1689-1702. the French-Flemish and the Flemish-Dutch, which carries us through the late Jacobean and past the James II, 1685-1689, and William and Mary, 1689- 1702. Flemish characteristics began to depart and the French details of Louis XIV were adopted in the reign of Charles II. History tells of the lavish extravagances of his mis- tresses, especially Louise de Queroualle, who was presented to Charles through the instrumental- ity of Louis XIV, for whom she became prac- tically a spy. The tastes of the court were dis- tinctly French. Chairs with heavily upholstered seats and backs became popular. The cane chair took on the scroll leg. In 1675 marquetried furni- ture came in. Lacquered furniture became popular. Again in that year we notice the flat serpentine stretcher, drop handles and brass key escutcheons to doors. Bedroom chairs would often be made in sets and covered with vel- vet to match the hangings of the bed. Double-seated chairs or settees came into use. The French leg and Chair with all covered frame, popular in France and England as early as 1600. 117 1 FOLLOWING JACOBEAN foot came in 1680 — the S-shaped leg, serpentine like. In 1685 came James II and a marked develop- ment in furniture. With 1685 appeared the tall- backed French chair. It was a more severe style of furniture than that of Charles II. French dining- room chairs were tall, narrow-backed, without arms and with sometimes an upholstered seat. They had the French characteristics. Towards the end of fames II and during the reign of William and Mary the crest at the top of the back was often placed as a finish to the back posts instead of between them. The strong French char- acteristics were due largely to the work of Marot, a prominent decorator who fled from France at the time of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685. Many other French artisans worked in England at this time, just prior to the Queen Anne period, introducing what ap- peared to be anachronisms. While cushioned seats were not uncommon at an e a r 1 i e r period, chairs made with fixed upholstering did not come into use until about 1550, the period of Elizabeth in England and Henri II in France. Flenry VIII had gathered together a small army of French, Italian a n d German workmen and at this early date the Italian and Flemish X chairs were used, uphol- stered seats and backs. Prior to this date the furniture backs being carved did not encourage arm and back upholsterings and movable cushions were common. The chairs were without arms to accommodate the monstrous skirts of the women. At the period of James 1 the Farthingdale chair was popular. It had no arms and allowed the dress to spread in all directions. By 1620 we have the type illustrated where the frame is entirely covered. CHARACTER OF THE WOOD-FINISH. The use of varnishes goes back 3,000 years. The Egyptians were expert in the use of varnish, but the Europeans learned their art from the Far East Old English term, vernish ; French, vernis ; Italian, vernice. Italian Renaissance furniture probably received an oil finish. Martin, a carriage painter, born 1726, Above, types of inception Queen Anne below, Cromwellian, 1653-1659. rivalled the lacquers of China and Japan with a var- nish which was hard and transparent, now known as Vernis-Martin. From 1744 to 1764 Martin was granted a monopoly to manufacture this lacquer. Elizabethan and Jacobean oak furniture received only a light coat of dark oil varnish. The pieces were then rubbed with beeswax and given a rich tone. It may be safely assumed that during the “Age of Oak,” 1500-1660, and the “Age of Walnut,” 1660- 1700, little varnish was used. Italian Renaissance furni- ture, 1400-1643, was of oak, lime, willow, sycamore, chest- nut, ebony or walnut, and was wax polished, oiled or left natural. The French, Flemish and Spanish Renaissance, 1500-1643, used a great deal of oak, chest- nut and walnut polished, oiled or left natural. The Portuguese traders from about 1525-1576 and the Dutch traders subse- quent to 1576, brought into Europe a great many foreign woods, but they were not to any extent employed in the manufac- ture of furniture until the middle of the Seventeenth Century. The finishing of woodwork was hand polished. Indeed, in England it was not until the Queen Anne style came in that we notice any efforts at eve n shellacking. The old- time cabinetmaker ob- tained his toned effects by exposing his woods to the light un- til the surfaces had darkened, then he rubbed in the oil and beeswax. Be- ginning about 1680 a spirit and shellac preparation was used. Then followed the Louis XIV period and soon afterward Vernis-Martin and a host of imitation varnishes. As early as 1601 there are records of lacquer ware brought from China and Japan, hence the term japanned, as applied to lacquering. The Oriental method required a vast degree of patience and skill, sometimes requiring eighteen or twenty treatments and never less than three treatments. The Chinese and Japanese lacquer was derived from a juice of the varnish tree, which hardened into a black resin. Lacquer wares were brought into Holland, England and France in large quantities throughout the Seven- teenth Century, particularly by the East Indian Com- 1 18 FOLLOWING JACOBEAN English elm has been always used, especially for chest drawers and tables. It has a plain straight grain and is not as attractive as oak. Some of th^jfi^en Anne dressing tables were elm. Laburnum, a wood of the Alps, was excellent as a veneering. ive panies. Cane belongs essen- tially to the Jacobean period, England about 1650 and Louis XIII France. The earliest long clocks belong to the period of Charles II and were inlaid. Excellent m a r q u e t r y work following Dutch styles was popular in England dur- ing William and Mary’s regime. Veneering was first used in the reign of William and Mary, until which time furniture had been made solid. The beginning of walnut in England was about the period of Charles II. Dur- ing the Queen Anne period the prevailing woods were walnut, beech, holly, birch and yew. Cedar was used for room paneling in England as early as 1678; also for chests. A F «s p, c ^ o O . J ^ P-. , XfQ' (A £ 5 < o fcd Beilin. Berain, Claude. Boullognes, Tlie. Coypel, Antoine and Noel. D’Avilier, J. De Espouy. Francart Hedouin. Hongre, Louis le. Le Brun, Manager Gobelins, 1660. Le Pautre, Jean and Pierre. Loir, Nicholas. Mansart. Marot, Antoine. Marot, Jean and Son Daniel. Mignard, Paul (Manager Gobelins, 1690). Monnoyer. Rousselet. Van der Meulen. Yvart. Auguier. Baronniere. * Caffieri, Jacques. Coysevox. * Cucci. Lespagnandel. Tuby. Armandi Boule. Cucci. Denis, Louis. Oppenordt. Percheron. Poitou. Sommord. Albadier, Jacques. Audran. Blondel, J. I 7 . Boucher. Briseux. Chamblin. Cotelle. Dagley (Le Sieur). Dantin. De Cotte, Jules Robert. De Cuvillcs. De La Salle, Philip. Eissen, Ch. Fragonard. Germain. Gillot. Gravelotte. Huet. Jouv. Lancret, Nicholas. Lathuile, J. P. Leclerc, Sebastian. Le Moyne, Frangois. Le Prince. Leroux, J. B. Martin, J. A. Meil, J. W. Meissonnier. Natoire, Joseph. Nilson, J. E. Oberkampf. Oudry, Jean Baptiste Patte, Pierre. Pineau. Revel. Rubo. Slodtz. Tessier. Watteau. rxj Babel, P. E. Boffrand. Bouchardon, Edme. Caffieri, Jacques. Cressent, Charles. Duplessis. Guibal. Hervieux. Lenroyne, M. Pigole. Pineau, Nic. Sally. Winant. Arnoult. Bernard. Boudin, L. Dautriche, Jacques. De Lorme. Denizot, Pierre.- Dubois. Garnile, Pierre. Germain. Gillot. Joubert. Leatz, I. P. L’Avasseur. Loriot. Mignon. Oeben, Jean Frangois. Pillement. Riesener, Jean Henri. Sulpice. ro Os Berthault. Lagrenee. Bardin. Beneman, Guillaume. Cochin, Chas. Nic. * Lalonde. Falconet. Bergeman. Coysevox. Le Doux. * Gouthiere. Bertrand. * David, Jacques Louis. Leleu, Jean Frangois. Haure. Birkle. r>* De La Fosse, Chas. Leonard. Martin. Blucheidner. Desprez. Moreau, J. M. (Le Jeune). Pajou. Carlin, Martin. > De Wailley, Ch. * Normond, Chas. Pierre Jo- * Roentgen. Degault. X! Drud’hon. seph. * Thomire. Feuerstein. (n p Dugourc, Jean Denis. * Fontaine, Pierre Frangois. * Percier. * Riesener. Frost. Girard. Fragonard. Goudouin, Jacques. * Rousseau, Jean Simon de. Salembier. * Jacob (Bros). Joubert. Os . . OS Tf * Gouthiere. Saunier, Claude Chas. Leleu, J. Frangois. <-* , -/I Greune, J. B. Soufflot. Levasseur. T * in i Jouy. Vanloo. Montigny. French Transit Empire Directorate, 179. 804-1814. Consulate, 1799 / Linereux. Pasquier. Richter, Chas. Roentgen. Saunier. Schmitz, Peter. Schneider, Gaspard. Schwerdfeger. Stokel, Joseph. Weisweiler. Desmalter, Jacob. The asterisks indicate names of men who became famous in the Empire period. 'y h e s e illustrations present very clear- ly the serious, classic tendencies of the Louis XIV period, as distin- guished from the whimsical, exagger- ated and capricious character of Louis XV. The Regency was the Transition Period between late Louis XIV and early Louis XV. At this time the classicism observed and the Renaissance principles followed by Louis XIV gave way to a predisposition to modernize, a n cl the nymphs and satyrs as- sumed the dress of the day, a little low in the neck and a little short in the skirt, but never- theless modernized. The heroics of an- cient Rome and Pom- peii were succeeded by a comedy spirit, winged horses and fa- bled lions disappeared and monkeys, parrots, cats and dogs and farmyard creatures took their place. Finally, t h e artists Watteau, Boucher, Lancret and Bouchar- don abandoned alto- gether the legendary, historical and Biblical illustrations, scenes which found expres- sion in tapestries, ceil- ing and wall decora- tions, and cultivated a modern spirit depict- ing the life of the people ; idealized, to be sure, but of a contem- porary character ; so- cial festivities, recrea- t i o n s , occupations, were the subjects treat- ed, surrounded by a decorative treatment that developed finally into the Rococo. sras&gK si Fig. 4. Group VIII. Gros de Tours 1700. Sky-blue ground, flowers, fruits and leaves in blending shades broche. Design of Revel, the pupil of Lebrun. 1700. Fig. 6. Louis XVI. Fancy fabric manu- factured by Philip de la Salle. Medal- lion type. Ground of the medallion in yellow satin. The fancy design is in part broche. Fig. 2. Group VII. Brocatelle. Period of Louis XIII. The design is executed in crimson on a yellow ground. THE FABRICS OF THE XVI AND XVII CENTURIES F RENCH manufacturers of the Eighteenth Cen- tury were equipped to produce exceedingly rich stuffs ; foliage velvets in imitation of the Venetian broche cut velvets, crepes, etamines, mixed cottons, Levantines, plushes, fancy velvets, fabrics with three and five colors in Turkish, Milanese, Genoese and Venetian fashions. At the end of the Eighteenth Century fewer metallic- threads were used in weaving and the thick, heavy cloths of gold had fallen into disfavor. Embroidery at the same time had done marvelously well. The refining and spinning of gold had been very successful in France, and in all the countries of Europe since the Fifteenth Century the art of embroidering official robes and ecclesiastical ornaments had devel- oped considerably. Oriental foliation and the vase which had for a long time served both before and during the Ren- aissance in the decoration of fab- rics are now revived ; one finds this combination in Figure 4, which shows a cut velvet on a gold ground. The warp threads of the Fig. 1. Group VI (B). Dolphin design. Executed under Henry IV. 1610. velvets which make the fancy effects are crimson. It followed the Chinese taste of the period. (See page 144.) At the end of the Sixteenth Century, designs were of small dimensions — detached floral pieces, palms and fleurs-de-lis. T hey corresponded with the less ample form of the garment. We reproduce (Figure 1) the sketch of a fancy fabric with gold ground, date 1610. The design is Gros de Tours, raised on a gold ground in a deep green shade. Many striped fabrics are noted at this period. Under Louis XIII and Louis XIV, 1610-1700, the composition of fabrics took on a grandiose style. Brocatelle (Figure 2) is a beautiful specimen, Louis XIII; red in color composes the body of the fabric, and a yellow silk tram thread is intertwined in a serge weave in such a manner as to give a brilliant ground ; the design is raised and is worked out in a satin weave with the crimson warp threads. This fabric may be assigned to the latter years of the Sixteenth Century. 140 Fig. 5. Group VIII (U). Taffeta broche, about 1740, Louis XV. Rose- colored ground with lace effect in white. Flowers in gilt. Fig. 8. Group VIII (U). About 1750, Louis XV. Pheasant design. Fancy fabric manufactured by Philip de la Salle. From the Lyons Industrial Museum of Design. Fig. 7. Group VIII (U). Partridge design. About 1750, Louis XV. Fancy fabric manufactured by Philip de la Salle. From the Lyons Industrial Museum of Design. The great vogue of gardens under Louis XIV brought about the adoption of architectural design — green arbors, trees in full leaf, bouquets, etc. Revel, the painter, a pupil of Lebrun, established himself in Lyons at the beginning of the Eighteenth Century, and gave a great impulse to this kind of ornamenta- tion (Figure 4). Under Louis XV rocks and shells entered into the ornamentation of fabrics in the Eighteenth Century. Fabrics reflected all the fantasies ol fashion. One sees the feathers which women had placed in the coiffures, ribbons, knots, pastoral attributes, crooks, baskets, etc., finely garlanded, also Chinese and Japanese- — whimsicalities. Under Louis XVI the poetic- spirit of the designers was inex- haustible and it is impossible here to indicate the innumerable paths in which it was successfully en- gaged under the impulse of the passing caprices of fashion. Decorative art was admirably comprehended and taste in com- position was exquisite. We have spoken of the num- erous improvements in the art of weaving made by Philip de la Salle. In 1775 the Academy of Science commended his work in engrossed eulogies and presented him with a gold medal in 1783. An entire glass case in the Industrial Museum of Lyons is reserved for this remarkable manufacturer. It includes all types of composition, arabesques, foliage, flowers, figures, trophies, allegories, landscapes, country scenes and Chinese ornaments. 141 1643-1715. LOUIS XIV. A X 1643-1715. LOUIS XIV. LOUIS XV 1715 - 1774 . S ELDOM in the history of the world has there been greater exuberance of inflated wealth than that which prevailed during the early period of Louis XV. The first eight years constituted the Regency ; medley of the mythological classic and modern ; all parade and ostentation. The austere, the serious and the heroic of Louis XIV became full of abandon, frivolity and extrava- gance. The monkey supplanted the Renaissance masque, and the Chinese utterly routed Pompeiian bal- ance. Then came another phase, the Rococo, an im- pressionistic form which, following in some degree the curved outlines of the late Louis XIV, displaced the acanthus floral motifs and substituted massings of rock and shell and stalactite shapes, and the independ- ence of execution, already developed in the Baroque. Carvers presented a flower the size of a man’s head and beside it a pheasant no bigger than a canary. Occasionally the Louis XV period showed phases rational and charming, but the Regency and the Rococo dominated the reign. Perhaps the greatest maker of furniture was Charles Cressent, who ranked with Boulle. Other artists were Caffieri, Duplessis, Riesener, Le Roux, Oudry, Briseux, Pineau, de Cuvilles, Gravelot, Boucher, Blondel, Babel, Germain and Joubert. Oeben was a pupil of Boulle and in great favor with Madame Pompadour. J. Henri Riesener was his foreman. About 1720 Louis XV dispatched an embassy to the Emperor of China with goods of rare value, charged with a commission to encourage the opening of more extensive trade relations. The emperor was cordial in his reception of the king’s messengers, and returned magnificent gifts lavishly decorated. This incident rendered the Chinese style fashionable in the upper circles of France, and for some time thereafter Chinese vases appeared in French textile designs juxtaposed to dragons, birds, human figures, pagodas and bits of scenery. A great amount of lacquer work was imported and the lacquers thus introduced were soon copied, the Vernis-Martin becoming especially famous. Pronounced stripes were affected as crea- tions of Madame Pompadour. ' The word apartment at this time meant a com- plete suite of living-rooms : vestibule, first and second ante-chambers (for the servants and attendants, some- times used as a dining-room), principal chamber salon 144 LOUIS XV and company-room or reception-room, bedroom, sev- eral studies and wardrobe-room. Each room bad its own special decoration and coloring. The bedroom was usually hung with the same materials as the bed. Ceremonious visitors were received here. The ceiling was painted and pictures and mirrors wrought into it. White and gold was a favorite composition, but bronzes and colors and ma- hoganies and all kinds of woods were also used. The room was usually longer than wide so that after the bed and side furniture were placed the balance of the room would be almost square. A niche or alcove was often provided to receive the bed. The walls were done often in hand-painted scenes, Chinese lacquered. Thick-pile French carpets or Oriental carpets cov- ered the floors. Draperies were profusely used and LOUIS XV Watteau’s designs became exceedingly popular. His ladies were depicted in fashionable attire and dainty landscape scenes were presented. Romance and fash- ion were merged. His subjects were “The Lady in the Sleigh,” “The Lady in the Swing,” “The Courtier and the Sheepherdess,” “Frolic,” “Folly,” “ 1 he Danc- ing Girl.” The nude was liberally presented in the great works of Boucher, Babel, Natoire, Fragonard and Bouchardon. In 1692 there was record of three factories in Paris making “lacquer work and furniture in the Chi- nese style again under Louis XIV, Chinese lacquers were introduced into his palace at Versailles by Louis l’Hongre. Thus we find that before Louis XV, the Chinese tendency was strong. Robert Martin, born 1706, as early as 1733 became known as vernisseur du roi Louis XV. A brother was engaged in making relief work in the Japanese and Chinese styles and two sons also followed the manufacture of lacquers. In 1744 the establishment of the Martin works, which in 1748 became a Royal Manufactory, is accredited to a Martin, born 1726, probably Simon Etienne Martin Jr., doubtless a nephew of Robert, and the work of the family was here concentrated. Vernis- M7 Louis XV furniture and details. LOUIS XV Martin, or Martin varnish, soon became the finish for Louis XV furniture and hundreds of people were en- gaged in making lacquers in the Martin style : red, brown, gold, speckled bronze, even black, and the walls of the daintiest boudoirs were finished in this composition. Ornamental bronzes also were much in evidence. Corners of furniture pieces were ornamented in bronze; panels were decorated in great profusion, and upon all sides we note exquisite mantel ornaments, clocks, vases, candelabra and sconces. Some furni- ture was almost completely covered with bronze work and wood carving was abandoned for this form of decoration. Charles Cressent, famous in this period, studied the Boulle methods, and we have in his work not only bronze or ormolu decorations, but tortoise- shell and marquetrie of the finest character. (See table of Intarsia.) Probably the Rococo spirit was carried to its best expression by Messonnier, who brought with him frojn Italy the decadent baroque and idealized it. He was designer to Louis XV and to the royal houses of Germany, Portugal and Poland. His interpretation of what was finally known as the Rococo, style became fashionable about the year 1730. Walls and ceilings were decorated profusely with female faces and forms, costumed and in the nude, by Boucher, Watteau, Huet, le Prince, Gravelot and Bouchardon. Glass chandeliers were of the most gor- geous character. Huge mirrors were used not only for wall panels but for ceilings, cut up and surrounded by moldings and juxtaposed to painted scenes or dec- orations. Oudry’s famous cartoons, illustrating the La Fontaine fables, were executed about this time in Beauvais tapestry, and some of the finest work of the Gobelins was undertaken, but the nudities of Boucher and the frivolities of Watteau were the fashion, and gave lasting imprint to the Louis XV period. During the late years of Louis XV, and while the wildest extravagances were being encouraged by him, his favorite, Du Barry, and her satellites, his grandson was exploring the sciences. The Dauphiness was a picture of refinement amid ribaldry, culture amid chicanery, but she held aloof from contamination, and the style known later as the Louis XVI was a style which reflected Marie An- toinette’s personality. 150 A MANTEL PLACE AT VERSAILLES. LOUIS XV. Boudoir of Marie Antoinette; Louis XVI — Transition. LOUIS XVI 1774 - 1793 . H ERCULANEUM, for centuries buried beneath the ashes of Vesuvius, was discovered about 1709. By 1748 Pompeii also had been dis- covered and excavations were successfully undertaken in both cities. The antiquities brought to light aroused great enthusiasm among French artists and in the latter half of the reign of Louis XV this purely classic feeling, this restor- ation of pure lines, Pom- peiian lines, was strongly in evidence. In the closing years of Louis XV’s regime, the style had fully developed, and it continued u n d e r Louis XVI, to which period its development is popularly attributed. The Louis XVI style was a reversion to the early classic. It came back to the straight legs of the early Louis XIV, but fol- lowed the models of the architectural columns, rounded, but smaller at the base or foot instead of smaller at the top. No longer did they use curved lines, the S shapes or the exaggerated curves in the acanthus forms. There was a well-de- fined effort to purify dec- oration, which had run the limits of extravagance. Moreover, the petit salon and boudoir had become fashionable, hence a de- mand for reduced propor- tions, daintier figures, smaller furniture. The tastes of Marie Antoinette were simple and her judg- ment and patronage stim- u 1 a t e d the new styles, which following the lines of least resistance, adopted the classicism dis- played in the Restoration work at Pompeii. So strong did this feeling be- come that notwithstanding the fanatical hatred and destructiveness which fol- lowed in the path of the Revolution, the style con- Costume and Furniture of the Louis XVI period. DETAILS. LOUIS X V I FURNITURE LOUIS XVI LOUIS XVI tinued through the Transition or Directoire and into the period of the Empire. We find the same spirit in the English styles of the Brothers Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, modified but undisguised. Pagan deities, masks and caryatides were replaced by suggestions of pastoral simplicity : flowers, ribbons, festoons and the depiction of peasant life, a little unreal in the diminu- tive waist and high-heeled shoes and coiffures of the shepherdesses, but dainty and charming. Chinese lac- quers were much in vogue and Chinese pictorial and scenic designs. De la Londe published thirteen books of design during the Louis XVI period which he called “The Classic Taste.” His work showed a fondness for the fluted leg laced with ribbon. He utilized the bow and quiver, the urn, lyre, garland, burning torch and the ribbon in many forms. Le Prince was particularly fond of pastoral accessories, groups of big pots, shep- herd’s crooks, spades, trowels, bird cages, thrown to- gether in bunches with garlands and ribbons. Some- times the oval frames of his chairs are supplemented by a quiver of arrows or a garland of roses wherein doves are nestled. Salembier’s books are devoted to the description of ornamental trailing foliage, the arabesque, the acan- thus, and the thistle leaf. Although these are motifs which appeared for a hundred years previously they are treated now in a more delicate fashion. And this characteristic marks the style of the whole period — delicacy, minuteness, grace. Vases were reproduced after the fashion of the vases discovered in the restor- ation, all Greek or Early Roman and all slender and graceful. In textiles we find ribbons and stripes inter- mingled with flowers, winding ribbons and feathers, medallions, columns, lyres, and occasionally heads of Minerva or other classic subjects; and ever conspicu- ous was the stripe. Indeed Mercier in 1788 wrote, “Everybody in the King’s cabinet looks like a zebra.” To be sure Madame Pompadour had already set the fashion for stripes, but Marie Antoinette sprinkled her stripes with flowers and interwove them with ornaments. It is a singular fact that while the Ger- mans did little for their own country they established through Riesener and Roentgen the fame of Louis XVI furniture. Riesener was particularly happy in his marquetry, introducing often painted porcelain, chiselled copper and Sevres plaques. Roentgen’s mar- quetry also was full of the most minute shadings and he together with a number of other noted cabinet- makers followed the Boule (Boulle) style, and also utilized plaques and china. At this period it is sometimes difficult to find the dividing line between the beds and sofas. Frequently the head and footboards were of equal height and exactly alike. The canopy was erected at the side in- stead of the head of the structure. They were some- times upholstered, sometimes lacquered, frequently Louis XV Terminals. LOUIS XVI gilded or all white and paneled with cane or left in natural wood, ornamented with bronze, gilt or per- haps ormolu. Muslins, prints and silks were profusely used for curtains, trimmed with cords and tassels. The beds were usually curtained. Cornices were used gilded and lacquered or. white and gold. The com- mode became popular and was often made of ma- hogany or amaranth wood. The console or pier table held its place, but was composed of straight lines, with fluted legs, tapered. In the boudoir we find the Chinese lacquer as well as the Vernis-Martin. Flower tables were popular, writing tables, work tables, card tables, and in this period was introduced also the extension table. Dining-room chairs frequently had cane backs or were covered with material to match the walls. Low ottomans were introduced, and while all kinds of carpets were utilized Moquettes were the most popular. 1 1 : ; | 1 !: j ' | fi i! ii f ji ! ! { 1 it ;! it i ii ii J 1 ! ii i ! !f mm si ft jg|g§5 ¥ gl iglf ip 1 4 35 fit 157 Louis XVI interior. Louis XVI, heavy and formal. APARTMENT OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, FONTAINEBLEAU THRONE ROOM, APARTMENTS OF NAPOLEON I, AT FONTAINEBLEAU. TRANSITION PERIOD. Showing the detached as distinguished from the connected classic compositions of the Directoire and Adam work. TRANSITION — DI R ECTO I RE— EM PI RE Following Louis XVI, the Revolutionary Period, 1793-1795. Directorate, 1795T799. Consulate, 1799-1804. Empire, 1804-1814. trench Directoire. T HE period immediately be- fore and after the Transition French was inspired by a common enthusiasm, the French and English developing the feeling contemporaneously. The English cabinetmakers, with the exception of Chippendale, who af- fected in many instances the Rococo spirit applied to Dutch structural 'lines, were especially active in this new classic school. In France David was the genius whose taste prevailed at the close of the Louis XVI period, the political atmos- lutionary, from 1793 to 1795 ; then what is known as the Directoire, 1795 to 1804. This period, properly called the Transition, carried the delicate Pompeiian classicism of late Louis XVI into the more masculine type of the Empire. It was a period that frowned upon all that was of royal suggestion, and designers and decorators en- deavored to procure a style essentially new. The Transition period was largely Roman; but with Na- Coming at this time, when phere was unfavorable to the presentation of the styles of Louis XVI, David found ready acceptance for his rendition of the classic revival. He had studied in Rome, where also the brothers Adamof Lfcglaml had spent much of their earl y liy^s and naturally were interested in th e ' ' Thus the development which followed Louis XVI in France, as well as conlernp land.^ Wks saturated with the Italian apt -was Ponipeu^^aealized. Following the Louis XVI period came the Revo i$x Empire. Empire. poleon we had not only the inspirations of Italy but Egypt. In woodwork there was little or no carving. The decorative motifs were classic appliques on mas- sive frames; the wreath and laurel branch, the torch, Napoleonic bee and crown became conspicuous ; winged figures were popular as emblematic of liberty ; heads of helmeted warriors, trophies of lances surmounted by the Phrygian cap were significant details. After the Italian and Egyptian wars the French adopted boldly all that was sig- nificant of con- quest. Occasion- ally we find the sphinx carved into the arms of the chairs, a re- minder of the French expedi- tion in Egypt. The furni- ture was of ma- hogany, rose- wood and ebony, with brass mountings. Sometimes the wood was in- laid. Vases found in tombs were introduced and the pan- ther’s muzzle and claw and other chimerical devices were in- troduced. In some cases Egyptian and Roman ex- a m p 1 e s were copied without alteration. It was a style that was massive, ponderous and ostentatious, and may be broadly designated as modern classic. Examples of ceremonial work are apt to be pomp- ous, but private work along the Empire lines was usu- ally no more afifected by what might be called national motifs than American home decoration is influenced to-day by the star-spangled banner or the spreading eagle. While it is true the flambeau and wreath are characteristic of the Empire epoch, their ab- sence is not in- consistent with pure Empire. Furniture ornament gilded or made of cast brass is not in it- self a positive in- dication of the Empire period, but classic forms in metal orna- mentation denote Empire. The spirit of the Empire was influenced by a revival of the more digni- fied and pomp- ous characteris- tics of Roman ornament, a n d its detection de- pends on the stately assemb- ling of various decorative units in orderly and oft- repeated forms as distin- g u i s h e d f rom the more con- nected and elab- orate ensemble effects of the Directoire style. Empire. Napoleon’s room in the Grand Trianon. 163 164 EMPIRE Examples of exquisitely-colored floral motifs, Indian. PRINTED FABR W HEN one thinks of the steam-driven me- chanically engraved cylinders of the mod- ern print factories, it seems incredible that so much could have been achieved by the primitive methods of the Persian and Indian printers, who in the late Seventeenth Century supplied all Europe with chintzes and calicoes. There is no doubt that color printing was known to the early Egyptians, Persians, and Chinese. Ancient Mosul in the early Christian Era was famous for its muslins ; and col- ored fabrics, printed, as well as painted, were used in Europe at an early age, impossi- ble to fix definitely by any reliable data. Block print- ing on fabrics was undertaken in Italy during the Thirteenth ICS AND PAPER Century. In the Fourteenth Century printed linens were made in Flanders. Painted cloths with stories or legends came into use during the time of Henry IV, England, early in the Fifteenth Century ; some of them were intended doubtless as models for tapestries ; at a little later period they were dyed and painted, possibly stenciled and printed. The Portuguese, early in the Six- teenth Century, 1530, imported “painted” hang- ings from the East, but whether done by hand or by pro- c e s s and whether or not the term “painting” might n o w be regarded as printing, is a question. It is a noticeable fact that the French name for the early imi- tation of chintz was Pcrses, u n - doubtedly relating to the Persian 1 66 From an Indian cotton-printer’s book of patterns. origin of chintz, a fact reasonable to conclude when you consider that Persia was open to commerce at a period a little earlier than India or China. While we are accustomed to examples of extra- ordinary richness of furniture and fabric during the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV — years of great decorative wealth — it is a fact little known that printed linens or painted linens, commonly called India prints, became so popular in France and threatened so seriously the prosperity of the silk trade that many French factories took up the manufacture, and Colbert, to protect his pet organization, pro- hibited in 1 6 8 6, under pain of severe penalty, either the m a n u - facture or importa- t i o n of printed linen. Neverthe- less they were manufac- tured clandestinely and persistently until finally the authorities i n s t i - tuted a plan of searching for and burning everything in the nature of a printed linen. But the popu- larity of the fabric was too much for the law to cope 167 with. Even Madame Pompadour herself had her chateau at Bellevue decorated with contraband prints. The term “painted” linen is often confusing. In 1759, when the French ministry decided to authorize the manufacture of linens and cottons, the French in- dustry may be said to have started, because heretofore all that was done was done surreptitiously. By 1789 a hundred factories were in operation and Christopher Philip Oberkampf, a German, had developed some new methods at Jouy, near Versailles. He introduced the “resist” method. The pattern- was printed and then the whole fabric was dipped in a dye ; a deep red, for instance. Again the fabric was submerged in an acid bath which withdrew the red color wherever it touched the lines of the chemically printed design, leaving the natural linen color. But at the beginning of the industry they knew only one mode of print- ing — ■ that of -the Orientals. The linen was laid on a table and the workmen pressed upon it by hand a block of wood Intricate design worked out in colors; Jouy, 1745-1811. PRINTED FABRICS AND PAPER engraved with the outline of the design. The piece then passed through the hands of the brushers, or painters, who filled them in with a brush of various colorings. More slowly did they conceive the idea of print- ing uniformly certain colors with the aid of second plates which overlaid the lines or the outlines of the first plate. In 1780 printing by copper plates made its appearance. They were deeper plates and finer. By 1797 such progress had been made that by cylinder printing, which at this date was introduced, they were able to print in one day, on one machine, the work ordinarily accomplished by forty-two block printers. And now began not alone the art but the industry of linen printing. The vast amount of material now turned out was naturally of the French Transition or Empire character. France, during the period of Louis XV and Louis XVI, was rich in printed linens and they were used in enormous quantities. Paper in quantity or size was not made until the Twelfth Century, and even then 13x26 inches was considered a large sheet. The first mention of rag paper we find is in Cluny, 1122. Nobody knows when the first examples of wall- paper were made in Europe, but if the record of Herman Schinkel, the Dutch printer, is correct — that he actually made wall-paper in Holland in 1568, “printing roses and stripes on the back of common ballad paper and applying it as a covering for his attic walls,” he was undoubtedly inspired by some- thing he had seen or heard of, possibly by the cloth prints of early Flanders ; possibly by the “Domino” papers of Italy or by the Portuguese imports, because it is fair to conclude that Indian or Persian papers had been introduced by the Portuguese traders fol- lowing Albuquerque’s settlements in Persia, 1505. The Dutch were not active in the East until the downfall of Spain and Portugal in 1600. To be sure we have heard of Jehan Boudichon and his fifty rolls of wall-paper for the King’s bed- chamber in 1481, but they were not rolls as we under- stand the term ; at that time paper was made in squares about 36 x 15 inches. Continuous lengths were not made until 1780-1800. The Boudichon papers were scrolls and not fastened to the walls. We have heard of colored papers for decorations at the time of the entrance of Louis XIII into Lyons in 1507. They were pictures on paper not applied to the wall, but loosely hung. The term “domino” was Italian and used in Italy in the Fifteenth Century in relation to marble prints. At first the paper was used only for box linings and was usually stained irregularly, but French taste in- troduced arabesques and finally figures and the manu- facture continued steadily and developed eventually to papers of larger size, and we have record, 1586, of marbled papers and papers of all colors, and printed with figures. By 1700 there was hardly a house in Paris that did not utilize this domino work on walls or screens. They were printed from blocks of pear wood, finished off in distemper colors, or dusted with powder, or finished with a flock in imitation of flock cloths, some- times referred to as velvets. In 1787 we find a de- cree of the King declaring that the art of painting and printing paper used in furnishings was a depend- ence of the governing board of the Merchants-Pape- tiers-Dominotiere-Feuilletinere, which shows that the term “domino” still clung. We take exception to the theory that the Chinese were the first makers of wall-paper or that the Dutch were the first importers. The fact that a printer in Delft made paper in 1568 predisposes one to believe that something of the sort had been already intro- duced. Indeed we know that “domino” papers were already made in Italy. However, Chinese trade had not been opened at that early date, but the Portuguese early in the Sixteenth Century traded in Persia and India. There is no authentic record of Chinese paper until the reign of Louis XIV, 1643, when we began to hear of “pagoda” paper for walls. Towards the middle of the Eighteenth Century wall-paper manufacture began to develop in France and England. It is probable that the first factory was set up in France in 1746. The industry thrived, but Chinese papers continued in popular use. Some of them, highly artistic, were utilized by the wealthy classes. Exquisite compositions of foliage and flow- ers, birds and butterflies, landscapes, water and sky scenes, the work of the Japanese as well as the Chinese. The paper was printed upon squares ; continuous rolls were not undertaken until about 1790. The perfected process was patented in England about 1800, but our American records show that paper made in the roll was advertised in this country in 1790. There is no reason to assume that we were behind the times ; there was wealth in America and the wealthy classes, even at this early date, enjoyed the latest luxuries from Europe. s. QUEEN ANNE 1 7 0 2 — 1 7 1 4 Hogarth type of Queen Anne chair. W HILE the term Queen Anne begins naturally with the reign of Queen Anne, 1702, it had its inception with the close of the Jacobean. We have illustrated already a number of examples of late Seventeenth Century English furniture, which brings us up to the period 1702. The in- fluences of Louis XIV were disseminated both in Holland and England by Marot and other French artists, who had fled in 1685 at the time of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Unlike the turned work, the bulbous forms of the periods from Charles II to Will- iam and Mary, we have the terminals, the cabriole leg, the stretchers and frequently the pediment forms of the French. The smooth splat is always a Queen Anne char- acteristic. The smooth stretcher instead of the carved and ornamented stretcher of the Charles II period was a natural development. There were probably no smooth splat-back chairs before 1700. There was probably no smooth cabriole leg until 1702. While the cane chair was found in the beginning of Queen Anne’s reign it had been identified with earlier work and was, subsequent to 1700, succeeded by upholstering of a substantial kind. Flat uprights were also used in the backs of the chairs which were now more comfortable than in previous epochs, being not only shaped to the back, but divested of carvings. The seat became broader and the top corners of the back were rounded. Shell details were conspicuous. The claw and ball finally came in about 1708. To the comfort-giving qualities of the smooth-backed, full- seated chair were added comfortable upholsterings, and the grandfather chair became popular, a form that was begun as far back as 1680, but was not developed to the full until well into the Queen Anne regime. Double chairs or small sofas, called “love seats,” were only wide enough for two. The sides were often in wings and when these wings extended very high they were called draught-chairs. The width of Queen Anne “Love Seat. the chair seats at this time was due largely to the flaring, voluminous costumes worn both by the women and the men. As far back as 1680 we find many examples of record where the cabinetmaker has not used stretchers between the legs of his chairs, but one may say ap- proximately that the use of stretchers was practically abandoned by 1708. The tendency to simplicity of form expressed in the furniture was extended to other woodwork of the room. Over-door fitments were frequently of simple pediment type. The woodwork was in most cases walnut. There are records of mahogany as early as 1708, but its use was unusual. Gilt ornament and marquetry and gilt furniture were common. A great deal of Chinese wall-paper and Chinese and Indian prints was used. Commercialism prevailed to an extraordinary degree and both the Dutch and the English East Indian Trading Companies were active. At this period America naturally felt the effects of this commercialism and the colonies were satu- rated with the Queen Anne spirit. Indeed, to appreciate fully the Colonial furnishings at this time one must under- stand the Colonial relations with the mother country, for while many American cabinet- makers, upholsterers and decorators thrived in the larger cities of the new country they accepted the fash- ionable dictates of Europe and conformed to the con- temporary styles. While much Colonial furniture approximated the Queen Anne type, the same is true also of practically the entire Georgian period, so that any attempt to fix Colonial by its resemblance to Queen Anne alone is apt to be misleading. A Late Queen Anne Card Table. “Cards in 1730 were the re- source of all the world. Every night for hours kings and queens of England sat down and handled their majesties of spades and diamonds.” — Thackeray. 1 69 / I N THE QUEEN ANNE PERIOD. Bed in which Queen Anne slept on the occasion of her visit to Brympton. The bed is entirely covered with rose damask. IN THE QUEEN ANNE PERIOD. Walnut bed, 1710, double frieze carved and gilded. Back is in four panels, 1730. From Walpole collection. About one-half of the sofa. Walnut and gilt. 1723. About one-half the size. Walnut covered with needlework. QUEEN ANNE. QUEEN ANNE Queen Anne Chairs. The term Colonial means anything from Jacobean to the end of the colonies and even beyond. Indeed for a quarter of a cen- tury after the close of the colo- nies we have a definite style, called late Colo- nial or sometimes . Jeffersonian, that is simply a reflec- tion of the French Empire, the same type being adopt- ed in England by Thomas Hope. The term Colo- nial covers a wide range of thought. It was during the Jacobean pe- riod that the first settlers landed in New England. During the commonwealth p e r i o d of 16fj3- 1 6 5 9, Virginia and M a r y 1 a h d profited by the Royalist classes, out of power in England and many of whom were in exile. During the Queen Anne pe- riod, which may be said to have had its inception with Charles II, 1660, the English laws restricted American imports to Eng- land, and a great deal of East India goods came into this country through English channels. In 1685 the Edict of Nantes caused French emi- gration, hut it was not until later under George III that the French spirit had any material influence. In considering the Colonial style we must always analyze it. We must determine always date and locale. The Cottage Colonial of New England, late in the Seventeenth Century, had nothing in common with the Ceremonial Colonial of the late Eighteenth Century. The styles covered a period of two hundred years. We copied from the English, the Dutch and the French. We benefited by the imports from Asia, par- ticularly from the East Indies, and beginning about the middle of the Eighteenth Cen- tury, from China. There was wealth here in • many of the cities and a fashionable e 1 e - ment that profited by the best that Europe afforded. History tells us ©f the progress of the American nati@n, and with the knowledge of the time and the classes we can Queen Anne Period. Itil; Queen Anne interior, showing characteristic furniture and draperies. turn back to European chronology and fix pretty definitely the char- acter of the Colonial style. V On the left, Queen Anne chair seats. *75 Georgian. THE TRADES IN THE GEORGIAN PERIODS E ARLY in the century the gardens of the Em- peror of China had been described by architects to assist the taste in landscape gardening. In 1750 William Halfpenny produced a book of new de- signs for Chinese temples, triumphal arches, garden seats, and he says that at that time Chinese manner of building was already introduced in England with suc- cess. Another book, by Edwards and Darley, which ap- peared four years later, was overcrowded with Chinese suggestions, particularly frets. The work of Mathias Darley belongs more prop- erly to the post-Chippendale period because it was more in sympathy with the Adam school. Were it not for the literature of the times, the catalogues issued by the various cabinetmakers and even the architects, we would know little of the subject. We know that besides the great masters there was an organization called the Society of Upholsterers and Cabinetmakers, doubtless composed of many capable men. A volume issued by this body is undated, but probably came out before Chippendale’s book, “The Director.” Horace Walpole’s interest stimulated the public taste for the Gothic style and no book was complete without designs for Gothic furniture; the “Society of Upholsterers,” published probably about 1750, was full of Gothic suggestions. Manwaring claimed that his book, published 1765, showed the first suggestion for rural furniture made from twisted limbs of the yew and apple trees. Man- waring seems to have imitated all that was weak in Chippendale. Ince and Mayhew published a book that seerns like a caricature of the Chippendale style, and adopted all that was flamboyant and exaggerated. They illus- trated card tables with places for counters and stands for candles. The English architects, decorators and cabinet- makers from the time of Inigo Jones developed rapidly. He with John Webb, Edward Carter, and Nicholas Stone, expressed the Italian spirit up to Cromwell, 1653. Sir Christopher Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, Sir John Van Brugh and James Gibb became famous up to and into the period of George I. From this point we can classify the great leaders as Early Georgian, Middle Georgian and Late Georgian. EARLY GEORGIAN. Period of George I, 1714-1727. Hogarth, artist and critic, 1697-1764. Grinling Gibbons, 1648-1721. Sir Christopher Wren, 1632-1724. Nicholas Hawksmoor, 1666-1736. Isaac Ware, published “Complete Body of Architecture,” 1750. James Gibbs, 1694. Sir John Brugh (contemporary). Colin Campbell, published many books, 1781, 1795, 1798. Richard Harris, first connected the pendulum with a clock movement, 1641. Thomas Archer (contemporary of Kent). Abraham Swan, published “The British Architect,” 1745. William Kent, painter, architect and de- signer, 1684-1748. W. Jones, published “Gentleman or Builder’s Companion,” 1739. Sir Robert Taylor (contemporary). James Paine, 1725-1789. MIDDLE GEORGIAN. Period of George II, 1727-1760. Thomas Chippendale, 1708-1779; first known plates dated 1753. His “Cabi- netmaker’s Director” came out in 1754, 1759, 1762. Robert Manwaring, published book, 1765. Edwards and Darley, published book. 1754. Ince and Mayhew, published their book, 1762. Sir William Chambers, published book in 1760. Copeland, issued work 1752. _ Isaac Ware, best work about 1750-1756. Mathias Lock, issued books, 1752, 1765. Thomas Johnson, published volume of designs, 1758. J. Crunden, published books 1765, 1770, 1776, 1796. Milton (contemporary). Josiah Wedgwood, famous for plaques and pottery, 1730-1795. Overton (contemporary). Francesco Bartolozzi, born 1710, re- moved to England, 1767. Mathias Darley, published his book 1754-1769. William Halfpenny, issued a book on Chinese architecture and furniture, 1750. LATE GEORGIAN. Period of George III, 1760-1820. R. & J. Adam published their first volume on Italian art, 1764. First general volume of architectural de- tails appeared in 1773, reflecting the j classic taste following the discoveries J of Herculaneum and Pompeii. J. Carter, followed Adam style. Antonio Zucchi, painter (worked for Adam). Society of London Cabinetmakers, 1770- 1800. Angelica Kauffmann, ceiling and wood painter (worked for Adam). Cipriani, Italian designer; worked in England, 1732-1785. Pergolesi, painter, 1775 (worked for Adam). William Clement, made first long clock case, 1780. Columbani, 1775. Sheraton, published great book, 1791. Shearer, published book, 1787. Hepplewhite, published book, 1789. N. Wallis, published books of ornament, 1771. George Richardson (contemporary). Thomas Hope, published book in 1807. George Smith, published book in 1808- 1826. Richard Gillow, 1800; improvements and methods of table slides. W. Thomas and Joseph Rose, painters and decorators. 176 Chippendale chair backs. GEORGIAN — CHI PPEN DALE— CHAMBERS I N THE reign of the early Georges, beginning 1714, there was a mania for everything French and' for the Chinese motifs popularized in England by Sir Will- iam Chambers, to whom the cabinet- makers and architects were greatly indebted. Chambers produced nothing strikingly new but adopted much that had gone before. He was de- cidedly un-English. He had made many voyages tq East India and had spent much of his time in China studying the habits, customs and architec- ture of the people. As early as 1757 Cham- ! b e r s described a Chinese room : F , The side-walls are matted —1 about three or four feet upward from the pavement, the rest being cov- ered with white, crimson or gilt paper ; instead of pictures they hang on them long pieces of satin or paper stretched on frames and painted in imitation of marble or bamboo, on which are writ- ten moral sentences or proverbs. Sometimes they hang a very large sheet of thick paper covered with antique Chinese paintings. The mov- ables consist of chairs, stools and tables, made sometimes of rose- wood, ebony or lacquered work, and sometimes of bamboo only. When the movables are of wood the seats of the stools are often of marble or porcelain. In the cor- ners of the room are stands four or five feet high on which they set plates of citron or other fragrant fruits, branches of coral, vases of porcelain and glass globes containing gold All Chippendale pieces. Square legs were made by Chippendale about 1750. 1 77 These illustrations have been copied direct from Chippendale’s first known book, “The Gentleman and Cabinetmaker’s Director,” dated 1754. They illustrate three characteristic types, the Classic, the French and the Chinese. 178 GEORGIA N— C HIPPENDAL E— C H A M B E R S fish, together with a certain weed somewhat resembling fennel. On such tables as are intended for ornament they place landscapes composed of rocks, shrubs and a lily which grows among pebbles covered with water. But among the principal ornaments are the lanterns, of which there are gen- erally four, suspended from the ceiling. Chambers had no idea of the effect that his book would have, but the Chinese taste grew to extra- ordinary dimensions. In the reign of Queen Anne the custom of panel- ing was partially kept up. The chimneypiece, however, only went half-way up the. wall. White woodwork was affected. Low, marble mantelpieces were used, but with the beginning of the Georgian we had the great- est possible variety of taste — classic, Roman, Turkish, Pompeiian, French. Roy- alty having set the fashion, Chinese also became a special fad. Not only were Summer houses and other buildings erected in C h i - nese style, but it w a s mixed up with all the ornaments of the period. The walls of the rooms were simply covered with scenes of Chinese life, bridges and boats and impossible stair- cases and mattings and lacquers being abund- antly in evidence. All the furniture was mark- ed by the Chinese influ- ence, and Chippendale affected with rare abandon the use of the pagoda, the Other architects fol- student of the classic, followed blindly with Ince, Mayhew and Manwaring, and sat- isfied popular clamor. Rounded wood was used in the bamboo fashion, but of turn- ed beech and painted in imitation of reeds or cane. Gothic was also copied, and the flam- boyant French was in evidence. Frequently in a room we find the Chinese spirit com- bined with Louis XV, just as in France this same combination bell, dragons, and mandarins, lowed ; even Lock, who was a was very successfully effected. Just before the death of George I, in 1727, the elder Chippendale came to England and began making furniture founded upon the Queen Anne fashions. He was accompanied by a son, a boy eighteen years of age, also called Thomas Chip- pendale, and the son ab- sorbing the French taste of the Louis XV period, 1715 to 1774, soon showed his talent as a carver and a joiner. Chippendale was born 1708 and buried November Probably he died No- vember 10 or 11. His first plates are dated 1753, and his book “The Gentleman and Cabi- netmaker’s D i rec- tor,” came out in 1754. The second edition was brought out in 1759, and the third in 1762. This was the first furni- ture catalogue and it sold for sixteen dol- lars a copy. It was issued under the pat- ronage of a long list of subscribers, mem- bers of the nobility as well as cabinetmakers, among them Ince and his partner Mayhew. Although Chippendale was successful, he was no more so than others and his reputation was largely posthumous. It is seldom that we find records of his name. Even Walpole, who left many mem- oranda concern- i n g designers and decorators, never alludes to Chippendale, and old Ameri- c a n advertise- ments fail ever to mention his name. His con- temporaries were Manwar- ing, Mayhew, Edwards, D a r - ley, Mathias All pieces on this page are Chippendale. 179 GEORGIA N— C HIPPENDAL E— C H A M B E R S Lock, Copeland, Thomas Johnson, and Crunden. The years of the first George, King of England, were the transition years of wal- nut and mahogany, 1714 to 1727. From 1715 to 1720 Queen- Anne styles became a little more squat and heavy. From 1720 to 1730 there was a great deal of elaborate, gilt furniture and about this period we find what is known as the lion pattern, lions’ heads on the knees of furniture legs. Sometimes the lion’s head or mask is used as a center dec- oration. The lion’s paw was used in place of the claw and ball for the foot of the leg. As early as 1720 we find veneered mahogany, because from 1715 to 1720 the solid wood was not only very ex- pensive but hard to manipu- late. By 1721 Walpole was in power and set the fashion for mahogany in his use of it for the magnificent doors at Houghton, which he began to build in 1721. Kent was the architect. Much elaborate gilt furniture was used following the models of the Flemish fashions. The splat back was universal but this back was often elaborately carved. Middle- Furniture on this page, Chippendale. class homes were furnished with furniture simplified by the use of straight legs. By 1733, Walpole succumbed to the demands of the cabinetmakers and took the duty off mahogany, and from this. date ma- / hogany became generally used. By 1733 the lion’s head was elaborated by the addition of a ring in the mouth. By 1735, we find the splat back opening out into slits, sometimes vase shaped. The hoop- ed or rounded top of the back departed and it curled up at the corners. This squaring up of the chair back caught the fancy of the trade gen- erally. It seemed to lighten the appearance of a piece. The cresting also of the back became like a cupid’s bow. This bow effect together with the claw - and - ball foot, dates between 1730 and 1750. By 1740 the cabriole leg had shed its masks and lion’s heads and was carved in low relief with the acanthus and similar effects. The splat-back was now being cut into strap devices which led up to the ribbon- back of 1750. The years 1737 to 1750 saw the rise of Chippendale and the full evolution of the square- backed chair as distinguished from the hooped back. Little by little the back had been punctured ; little by little the corners of the back were lifted square. Then the punc- turing of the back b e c a me m ore compli- cated until it developed finally the ribbon back typical of the late period. We note also pierced rails and elaborate orna- mentation, fre- quently uniting Chinese and Louis XV motifs. 180 We illustrate a page of Chippendale, showing the Chinese lattice and the mixture of Louis XY. We also illustrate three chairs above, which are in the Sheraton and Hepplewhite styles, and it will be noticed that the splat in the Chippendale chairs invariably comes down to the back rail of the seat, re-enforcing and strengthening the backs, while the backs of the Sheraton and Hepplewhite were above the chair seat always. 181 CHINESE INFLUENCE IN THE LOUIS XV AND CHIPPENDALE STYLES. THE CHINESE SPIRIT was a closed country for centuries, and Japanese art was not known to commercial Europe until after 1854, when Commodore Perry, who had entered the harbor a year previously, effected a treaty between Japan and the United States, fol- lowed eight months later by Japan’s treaty with Great Britain, a year later with Russia, and three years later with France. What we regard as the Chinese spirit is not necessarily pure Chinese. Frequently the Chinese spirit was merged with the Gothic or with Fouis XV, or with some other French and English style. be attributed to- Chambers, the taste was felt as early as Will- iam and Mary, 1689; and even earlier in France, 1660, under Mazarin (Louis XIV). In 1720 Louis XV dispatched an embassy to China to encourage greater trade relations, and this step was followed by a rage for Chinese stuffs. Japan, on the other hand, Indeed the pure Chinese spirit, as shown, particularly in the rugs of China, was seldom seen. The form utilized was the adapted form wherein the Gothic, Louis XV or some con- ventional background was treated in Chinese motifs, plucked from the pottery and pro- jected upon European composition. In the same way the architects reproduced bits of land- scape and laid garden walks and grottoes, from the suggestions found in pottery. W hile the pop- ular adoption of Chinese decora- tion in England can 183 Hepplewhite and Sheraton desk, wardrobe and cabinet feet. HEPPLEWHITE Chippendale’s great book, 1754. Hepplewhite’s book, 1789. Sheraton’s Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer’s Drawing Book, 1791. P RIOR to Queen Anne chimneypieces were carried to the ceiling as part of the woodtrims, but by 1700 the chimney- piece never went above half the height of a room. White trims were also introduced at this - period and have clung, more or less, especially to small rooms requiring greater light, to this day. In 1755 Chambers, returning from Italy with Cipriani, brought back a number of Italian sculptors who made mantels. These mantels were put into a house independent of the architect and established a new height, sometimes four, five or even six feet, but independent of the woodtrims and usually marble or other stone. They became an article of general trade and were sold by the fireplace fixture dealers. Chippendale Cabinet. Another change came with Hep- plewhite when wood mantels were in- troduced. Wreaths of flowers and classic details were painted on natural wood with plaques introduced. Fantastic elegance became the fashion, and plain wood was elabor- ately colored. Satinwood and ma- hogany were mainly used, painted, gilded and inlaid. Contrary to the popular belief, glass knobs were not made at this period, but during the late Colonial period in America and introduced later into England, just as the use of mahogany was common in America for many years before utilized by the English cabinet- makers. Inventories and wills in this country dated 1708, refer to mahogany furniture, such pieces be- ing solid and frequently in desks of the Queen Anne style7~wfftr claw-and- ball foot and serpentine front. Hepplewhite had many contem- Hepplewhite and Sheraton examples. 185 HEPPLEWHITE HEPPLEWHITE poraries, few of whom have survived in history. Among the cleverest was Shearer, a member of the Cabinet- makers’ Society. He prob- ably was as well known in his day as Hepplewhite. It is a curious fact that while Hepplewhite’s book was full of chairs Shearer makes no reference to a chair, a fact possibly due to an understanding with Hepplewhite to avoid his specialty. Shearer’s furni- ture, like Sheraton’s, was full of concealed drawers, hidden receptacles. There were no safe deposit vaults in those days and one had to depend upon the cabinet- maker for devising hiding places. Shearer was not so well educated nor had he the artistic feeling of Hep- plewhite ; his furniture was heavy and he repeat- edly utilized the Prince of Wales’ feathers. His in- Hepplewhite chair backs were oval or shield shape and had a curved top. The base was unsupported,- Sheraton utilized straight-line effects and where he used the shield shape he broke the curve at the top. T221 W .v ; , *V* ' ... : V? |l|Sg^^il |; " ,| ! |,|l ! Hte/jiiteiS The illustration on the left-hand at the bottom of this page is an Adam piece; the second illustration is a, Sheraton; the third and fourth Chippendale. The illustrations above are by Shearer. The first and second illustrations represent the hardware used from about 1660 to 1720. The second and third illustrations were used in the first half of the Eighteenth Century. The solid drop handles, as shown by illustration 5, were commonly used until about 1790, at which time the pressed brass became popular, shown in illustration 7. From this date through the Empire and late Colonial up to 1820 rosettes with inserted rings were used and in America glass knobs were common. genuity in the invention of furniture was quite as great as Hepplewhite’s. It was about this time that the wardrobe came in. Hepplewhite produced wardrobes that supplanted in practical usefulness the highboy. Hepplewhite’s chairs were mainly for the room known then as the “parlour,” a term that has clung. We first heard of parlors in the Medieval times when it was part of the common hall but screened off for the privacy of the family. It gradually became a separate room often used as a bedroom. Later it was synonymous with the modern dining-room. Accord- ing to Johnson, 1755, it was “A room for receiving company.” Sheraton and Hepplewhite used the words parlor and dining-room as interchangeable terms. The chairs were frequently covered with horsehair in col- ored stripes and check designs, the edges finished with a close line of brass-headed nails ; sometimes they were cane-seated. The Duchess chair of Hepplewhite was an ar- rangement of two armchairs facing with a third chair or ottoman placed between them continu- ing the seats along one level and making one piece of furniture. High clocks were very popular. The history of clocks would take us back to the Medieval ages — in- deed, if specifically dealing with timepieces, to the prehistoric years. Our interest in the subject starts with the first making of household clocks. In the be- ginning of the Seventeenth Century clocks were made at a moderate price and were known as bird-cage, bedpost and lantern clocks. They were the kind that were wound by pulling down opposite ends of ropes on which weights were hung. None of them would run more than thirty hours. The pendulum was not introduced until 1670, and it is at this time that we fix the origin of the grandfather’s clock. The bracket clock having a handle on top enabling one to carry it around, came in about 1675. Mantel clocks were another type, introduced at about the time of banjo clocks, so called on account of their shape, produced just after the American Revolution, about 1805, and very popular in America where they originated. The Hepplewhite and styles followed the Adam tendencies strongly and yet there was in- dividuality in each man’s work which gave character eagerly followed by their contemporaries. In the mind of the modern decorator the differ- ences are not clear. Broadly considered, while Hepple- white and Sheraton were both influenced by their con- temporary Adam, Sheraton lea ned to Louis XVI. To simplify the subject we have arranged the characteristics of the two schools in parallel columns. On the left, an Adam sideboard; center, Hepplewhite, showing concave corner; on the right, Sheraton showing back rail and characteristic convex corner. 189 Shearer furniture, with Hepplewhite mirror and chair of the period. Hepplewi-iite. I. The Hepplewhite chair backs are as a rule heart or shield shaped, and the bottom is unsupported by any rail. The top of the back of a Hepplewhite chair shows a sweeping curve. II. The arms move out with a swing and join the leg as a part thereof. All Hepplewhite work is in sweeps and unbroken lines. III. The chair legs are in most cases square. In the inexpensive chairs they are plain or with a simple reed or inlaid at the corners. In some chairs of the better type we find fluted legs. A characteristic of most Hepplewhite chairs was Sheic ajoh— I. The Sheraton chairback is usually in straight lines and supported by a bottom rail. While occa- sionally Sheraton used a shield back, he broke the sweep at the top by some sharp straight line. II. Sheraton arms moved out with a swing and joined the legs as independent parts, pedestal-like. III. The chair legs run strongly to the Louis XVI style. . Sheraton strengthened the back and ig- nored the under framing of his chairs. He used reeded and fluted legs, twisted pillars, festoons, husks, cornucopias. He carved swags of drapery and flow- 190 DRAWING-ROOM AT NOSTELL PRIORY. The painted panels on either side of the mantelpiece emanated from the hand of the brothers Adam, who reconstructed and decorated the room. HEPPLEWHITE — SHERATON the under-framing : Hepplewhite left the back weak and the legs strong. Mahogany and inlays were much used. The seats are upholstered frequently in horse hair, leather, cane, or in any kind of fabric. IV. Sideboards were usually made with concave corners because of the decorative effect. V. He became famous for his Pembroke tables. He indulged not only in inlays and carving, but in painting, japanning and brought into his services Angelica Kauffmann, Cipriani, and Pergolesi. The pole fire screen was just becoming popular. It was in- tended simply to screen the firelight from a lady’s face and the screen itself was frequently no wider than eight or ten inches ; a bit of embroidery, a mat, or bit of needle-work. The feet of the pole were loaded with lead to prevent its upsetting. Tea caddies were very popular. The Dutch did not introduce tea drinking until about 1660, and it was fully 1690 when the' custom became prevalent. VI. Hepplewhite’s bookcases were furnished with glass doors, the glass being cut into patterns. They were called traceried doors, the lines or traceries being of mahogany or satinwood, brass or lacquered wood. These traceried forms in Hepplewhite doors were usually angular. VII. His pediments over doors or windows were usually fragile and finnicky. While Chippendale was one of the first to in- troduce the highboy, Hepplewhite improved it. He made also secretaries, secretary bookcases, bureau bookcases, toilet tables, washstands, chests, shaving stands, side tables, girandoles, wall mirrors, brackets, and innumerable other pieces, all treated from a deco- rative standpoint. While bedsteads were draped in anything, Hep- plewhite in his book commends particularly Manches- ter prints to be lined with white cotton. He also recommends specifically green silk as appropriate for mahogany. ers ; he used the vase and rendered all these motifs beautiful in carving. Occasionally he painted. He introduced the conversation chair, the sort of thing which one straddled facing the back upon which one leans. IV. Sheraton si deboards had the added super- structure of a brass railing against which dishes rested. Sometimes the railing was balanced with candelabra, a plan seldom, if ever, adopted by Hep- plewhite, who did not consider comfort and conveni- ence so much as decoration. The interior of the sideboard was full of conveniences. Sheraton’s sideboards were made with convex corners, thus giving a little more room. In other re- spects many of the Hepplewhite and Sheraton side- boards are almost identical. V. His Pembroke tables were furnished with scrap bags. As an instance of his ingenuity one of his tables was called a Harlequin table, so termed because in Harlequin exhibitions there is generally a great deal of machinery introduced. Some of his desks had disappearing drawers and pigeon-holes, leaving a space free for the breakfast table. VI. In Sheraton traceried-doors curves were generally utilized, the oval and the vase being fre- quently used as centerpieces. VII. Pediments were of a substantial character. Sherato n introduced a form of horse screen, a larger lower set piece than the pole screen. Some- times these screens were furnished with swinging toilet boxes on the side, or receptacles for odds and ends of the dressing table, also candle holders. While he showed a preference for the round or turned leg for chairs he followed the square shape of the Louis XVI style very largely with his tables, side- boards and other cabinet work. His grandfather’s clocks were generally inlaid. S heraton’s work will frequently be recognized because of its extraordinary ingenuity. He was an inventor and produced many pieces of convertible furniture, tables with concealed- stepladders, bureaus with convertible desks. He made many little pieces of utility furniture. He considered not only grace of style but comfort. He anticipated the American roll-top desk by producing something almost iden- tical. 191 Sheraton’s pediments, though showing somewhat the same characteristics as Hepplewhite’s, were more substantially constructed. S H E R A QUICK understanding of the character of Sheraton furnish- ings may be had in the knowl- edge that Sheraton cabinet work was a little more ornamental, a little more profuse, than Hepplewhite ; the fab- rics used were in harmony ; little fig- ure details of the Louis XVI order were particularly favored. Both Hep- plewhite and Sheraton upholsterings and draperies were of a light and filmy type and rich in every pos- sible variety of fine weaves. Sheraton leaned toward the French, although the decoration of houses into which the Sheraton furniture entered was frequently in the pure Adam. The styles of Sheraton and Hepple- white were closely associated and the distinction is not always clear. Our previous chapter points to many of the differences. Sheraton employed often the lyre form in his chair backs and used a form of needlework in burning or engraving panels of satinwood with rosewood in- laid ; all of his work was at first of an original type, but little by little he copied slavishly anything French. t- He originated intricate ornaments for legs and backs of chairs and turned work as well as inlay was much affected. He picked out designs with gildings and employed cameo-like panels. He suggested in his book that orna- ment may be white and gold, japanned or painted, and A T O N advised that the cove and ceiling be richly ornamented in paintings and gold. His use of satinwood or white mahogany was extended even to the production of mantelpieces. His drawing-room schemes provided for wall panels, mirrors and draperies a little more stiff than those of Hepplewhite, as a foil to the complexity of his furniture details. When we consider that Sheraton designed many rooms and furniture for the Prince of Wales, after- wards George IV, and for most of the nobility, we can understand that he was not worried by any considera- tions of economy. He confessed to an admiration for Shearer, and there are many examples of simple Sheraton inlay that strongly resemble Shearer. Both men made the same little corner washstands and toilet accessories. Sheraton was an extraordinary inventor and not only introduced beautiful pieces, but pieces of great originality and far in advance of the times, full of quaint combinations, hidden drawers, parts that were convertible, turning from one use into another, cleverly hidden accommodations, for boxes or writing materials or toilet articles — desks that became dressers and fancy tables that became washstands. If he had never made a reputation as a cabinet- maker and designer, he would have become famous as a mechanician. It was a period when bedrooms were frequently used as sitting-rooms and very many ingenious pieces *93 Chair and desk, Sheraton ; balance probably Hepplewhite. of bedroom furniture were concealed in bookcase forms or desks or writing stands. Even washstands folded up and became cabinets. It is well to remember that in 1750 thousands of silk- weaving looms were established in England at Spital- fields, Cheshire, Yorkshire, Essex, Derbyshire, Lan- cashire and Norfolk. Moreover, at this period up to the beginning of the Nineteenth Century an enor- mous lot of Indian silks and cottons were used ; in 1759 the manufacture of printed linens was author- ized and encouraged by the French. (See page 167.) Sheraton died in what might almost be called poverty. He was not a good business man and his style was at its best in the beginning of his career. If he failed to gain material compensation for his art it was because he was unable to progress beyond the limitations which hedged him in and the work of in- numerable competitors who had no hesitation in copy- ing his style. 194 | © © © © C’ © 0 © ^ 0 0 '© 0 liTTTwT";' .-rr'-r— r— n.'.'ii.jTT ; ITPMV THE ADAM SPIRIT WHICH INFLUENCED CONTEMPORARY FURNITURE MAKERS: HEPPLEWHITE, SHERATON, SHEARER. Adam furniture in which the classic spirit is emphasized. R. AND J. ADAM — 1765-1790 R obert ad am, the elder of the two brothers, R. and J., was born in Scotland 1728. He was educated in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, studied in Italy under a French archi- tect, became F. R. S. and F. S. A. and before he was forty he was architect to the King of England. He died in 1792 and was buried with high honors in Westminster Abbey. His brother was closely identi- fied with him in all his work. The Adam broth- ers were not furni- ture makers but architects, decorators and designers, e m - ploying Angelica Kauffmann and h e r husband, Antonio Zucchi, Cipriani, Per- golesi and a host of others. They built palaces for the nobil- ity, houses for the middle classes, ter- races, bridges, even streets and squares, and in almost every instance their work was classic. The Chinese craze cropped out now and then, but its popularity waned from the inception of this epoch. Their style, reflecting the spirit of Pompeii and Herculaneum in a purer type than was expressed in the late Louis XVI adaptations, left its deepest im- pressions on ceilings, side-walls and mantelpieces pro- duced under the architects’ direction. They were tinted usually in jasper or palest gray colors. Circles and ovals were used as frames for pictures. They utilized mythological ornament, the hexa- gon, circle, octagon and lozenge-shaped panel, wreath, fan, medallion, draped or with figures, the sphinx, griffin, sea horse, goat, faun, ram’s head, the caryatid and innumerable other classic motifs found in Roman, Pompeiian and Etruscan work. They designed walls, ceilings, mantelpieces, even door knobs, escutcheons, locks — everything that went into a room, including table tops and furniture panels. While they were by 197 R. AND J. ADAM no means furniture makers, the brothers Adam always de- signed furniture to fit their rooms ; many sideboards with urn - shaped knife - boxes and classic brackets, ped- estals, clock cases and mirrors were designed by them. They even designed the carriages, the plate and the sedan chair for Queen Charlotte. Their style was a complete departure from the massive and pon- derous compartment ceilings of the Jacobean. Instead they adopted light moldings, delicate stucco frames and painted ornaments. They advanced the theory that the dining-rooms being so often utilized for extended con- versation should be fin- ished with stucco and adorned with statues and painting and never hung with tapestry or d a m - ask, “which retains the smell of the victuals.” As a result many of their rooms so largely depending on the work of the painter and sculp- tor lacked c o z i n e s s . They were often circular or semi - circular or with circular recesses. By Cipriani. The gesso work of Italy was adapted and the ceilings were part in relief and part painted, the plas- ter being put on cameo- like, with great delicacy. Italian artisans were re- quired for this work, which preceded the use of plaques and friezes furnished for late Adam work by Wedgwood, who caught the Adam craze and commercialized it. The brothers were so earn- est in imparting their spirit to the entire room that they insisted upon even the carpets being By Adam. in unison with the sur- roundings. The palest tints of color and neutral tints of carpets to match were utilized. Even the table cloths corresponded in Paneled side-wall and furniture by Pergolesi. O V § ^ § o * 0 § « s bfi 1 _ O -5 2 o pattern and the unity scheme was carried out in the silver plate, the table-tops, even the snuff-boxes. Their first published volume on Italian art is dated 1764; next volume almost purely Pompeiian, 1773. The period of their greatest success was con- temporary with Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Shera- ton. Being primarily architects, their mantels and side- walls are conspicuous examples. Their moldings are usually of simple classic order ; the vase and urn are favorite details, generally accompanied by swags or festoons of drapery, leaves or husks. While acanthus scrolls and chimerical creatures characterize their 199 TYPICAL ADAM SIDE-WALLS. R . & J . ADAM An Adam lounge or daybed. work, they were not treated in the heavy Roman school, but with delicacy. Wedgwood ware was fre- quently utilized, in panels and plaques. Michael Angelo Pergolesi is responsible for much of the fame which attaches to the name of the brothers Adam. In 1777 Pergolesi published a perfect store- house of Italian designs covering plaster friezes, bor- ders for painting on furniture, doors, sides of rooms, pier tables, settees and silver plate. Often he left a center of his panel work blank to be painted by Cipriani or Angelica Kauffmann in scenes of child life or nymphs. The same idea was often repeated in mar- quetry and painted furniture. W. Thomas, a contemporary, followed the Adam style, together with N. Wallis, Columbani and George Richardson. Richardson in 1792 published a work on wall treatment that was exceedingly interesting. He fol- lowed very closely the scenes from Greek mythology or Roman history, and bacchanalian figures and nymphs usually decorated the corners. The same thing was frequently done by Zucchi, the Venetian painter, whose fame was gained in Eng- land. His walls were often tints of the lightest char- acter, paneled. To fix the relative influences of the conspicuous styles of this period we would explain that the first illustrated book bearing directly on furniture was that of W. Jones, who published the “Gentleman or Build- er’s Companion” 1739. Chippendale’s first book was published 1754. Adam’s influence was approximately 1765-1790. George Richardson’s book was published in 1776; Columbani’s 1775; John Crunden’s 1765, 1768, 1770; Wallis’ 1771. Hepplewhite’s epoch-making book appeared 1789. Sheraton published the book which made his name in 1791. There were in all four Adam brothers. John in- herited the father’s business as architect. R. and J. were the second and third sons, while William Adam, who died in 1822, was the youngest brother. Oak chair with cresting rail of Charles II period retained and perforated, arched center peculiar to walnut designs. Oak chair with elaboration and turned legs and uprights of William and Mary period retained and having Queen Anne' splat of 1710. Oak chair with sunk seat for cushion. Turned uprights and legs and curious back showing transition from lath back to splat back. Cricket table of about 1750. Lancashire spindle-back chairs. Cricket table of about 1700. Windsor Chairs. COLO C OLONIAL furniture is simply the furniture used in the colonies. We can differentiate in the phases of Colonial furniture by localizing, and then we have New England Colonial, Dutch Colonial, Southern Colonial and the periods Seven- teenth, Eighteenth or Nineteenth Century. It is a mistake to assume that Colonial furnishings were necessarily primitive. Historians give ample record of wealth in the Southern States long before the beginning of the Eighteenth Century. Pory, writing of Virginia as early as 1617, spoke of the growing wealth of the Southern colonies. In 1607 Jamestown was settled by the English ; in 1613 New York was settled by the Dutch; in 1620 the Puritans settled in New England. From 1650 to 1660, during the period of the Commonwealth in England, the Southern States profited by considerable immigra- tion drawn from the Cavalier and Royalist classes then out of power. In 1674 the Dutch settlements of America went into English possession. From this record we can form a fair idea of the character of Colonial furniture. The South was in- fluenced by French styles, especially at the period of Charles II when the French styles prevailed in England. New York and the Middle States were largely in- fluenced by the Dutch. New England took inspiration from all the periods, and from the beginning, skilled craftsmen, joiners, cabinetmakers and carvers settled in New England and during the Eighteenth Century a very small proportion of the furniture used in New England was imported. New England cabinetmakers were numerous and ex- pert, and New England furniture from 1700 to 1776 found a ready sale all through the colonies. The principal woods used were oak, ash, elm, walnut, maple, pine and red cedar. Goods were brought to the colonies so quickly from abroad that the new fashions appeared N I A L in American homes quite as quickly as in the country houses of England. Readers of history need not be told of the great wealth in the country even in the earlier half of the Eighteenth Century. Esther Singleton has gone into this subject very thoroughly and John Fiske, the emi- nent historian, says : “The Puritan exodus to New England, which came to an end about 1640, was purely English. Like the best part of the emigration to Virginia, it consisted largely of country squires, thrifty and prosperous. . . . The best part of the New England immigration con- sisted of people prosperous in their old homes, from which their devotion to an idea (religious) made them voluntary exiles.” Again quoting from this authority: “Up to 1688 there were 26,000 New Englanders, and from this num- ber, in the following one hundred and fifty years, there have descended at least one-quarter of the present population of the United States. “The laws of the early colonies were discouraging to the poor people, who went to the Barbadoes, Hon- duras or elsewhere. Even as late as 1714 the immigra- tion laws of the New England colonies were strictly enforced, forbidding one to enter who was unable to furnish proof of financial responsibility. During the fifty years preceding the American Revolution there was much wealth in the colonies, measured by the standard of wealth in those days. A fashionable social life centered about the representatives of the Crown, and the pride of the wealthy found expression in hand- somely decorated homes. In Maryland and Virginia, where the High Church adherents and the Catholics settled, there was an aristocratic tendency, the happy combination of climate and agricultural facilities en- abling the people to support a generous style of living as landed gentry.” 203 COLONIAL There are no authentic records of mahogany fur- niture in American inventories prior to 1708, but the fact that mahogany was part of the inventories of that date indicates that the wood was used at an earlier period. The Colonial styles followed closely the English. We used wall-paper at a time contempo- raneously with that of England. Mahogany trims for banis- ters, mantels, cornices and furni- ture were not generally intro- duced until 1750. At that period Isaac Ware wrote: “The decor- ation of an American room is of three kinds ; first, where it is coated with a plastic materia shaped into ornamental details ; second, covered by wainscot ; and third, where hung with silks, tapestries or paper.” As early as 1745, Charles Hargraves was advertising wall-paper in Philadelphia, and a very few years later Peter Fleeson was making paper-hangings, al- though paper made in the roll did not appear till 1790, the same year it appeared in Eng- land. At the Metropolitan Museum there are many examples of excellent Ameri- can-made furniture covering the Jacobean types and at least forty pieces showing Elizabethan influence, the principal characteristics being wainscoting, flat carving, turning, straight legs and heavy underbracing, rails and stiles mortised, and the tenons pinned with wooden pegs. Other periods are also well represented, includ- ing twelve pieces grouped under the first decade of the Nineteenth Century and attributed to Duncan Phyfe, an American cabinetmaker of great skill. It is very interesting in this connection to note the fact that small tables were not thought of in England until the abandonment of great halls and the construction of smaller rooms also the introduc- tion of the new drinks, tea, coffee, and chocolate, from 1645 to 1658, and at that period they appeared also in this country. Chests came over with the colonists, and when the use of chairs became common and the chest was no longer needed as a seat, it was raised upon a trestle and soon after drawers were in- troduced and we have then “a chest of drawers.” By way of Holland came the Chinese fashion of lacquering furniture. As early as 1650 we find Connecticut quite famous for its chests. One in Hadley, Mass., was provided with a drawer and became a type. So many were made that they became known as the Hadley chest. See illustra- tion. Towards the close of Colonial history we have a type of furniture and furnishings called Late Colonial, which was a development of the Late Em- pire, in France developed by David and in England adopted by Thomas Hope. In this country, especially during the Jefferson regime, Latrobe, the decorator and architect appointed Bedstead, Eighteenth Century. On the left, chest, Connecticut type, front in three panels, end ones having floral pattern in flat carving, center one divided into four sections with applied moldings and bosses. In the center, “Hadley” chest with one drawer. Front covered with all-over design in flat carving; three sunken panels with conventionalized leaf and flower design. On the right, chest with two drawers. Chest part divided into three panels with flat carving. Called the Connecticut pattern. American oak, with top, bottom and back of pine. 204 COLONIAL Field bed and tester ; on the right, an adaptation of the Wind- sor chair. Early Nineteenth Century. as surveyor of public buildings in Washington, exer- cised a great deal of influence. He eliminated the very extreme character of the Empire school, the personal elements interpolated by David, and the Egyptian and Roman symbolisms of victory and conquest, and retained the clas- sic simplicity, notably the classic column, and in many cases the eagle’s head appeared in the chair backs and as central pediments. If there is any one distinctive form of Colonial furniture it is this form. Bureaus, sideboards, tables and sofas became famous and are still popular types of strictly Colonial character. Colonial chronology be- gins with James I, but the American homes by no means adhered to the early Jacobean examples in archi- tecture. The side-walls in the Elizabethan and Jaco- bean homes were largely wainscoted and often hung with tapestry. The ceilings were in stuccoes frequently colored, paneled and orna- mented and in heavy relief. These features were not adopted in the colonies. The country was too young. Jacobean furnishings were in other respects in common use, and cotton, linen, chintzes and other fabrics were much utilized. Architectural features of the English home began to be copied with Queen Anne, and from that period down to the Georgian, we find many homes of dis- tinction in America. None more beautiful can be imagined than the Chase House, the Harwood House, the Ham- mond, the Lockorman, the Bryce- Jennings House, Byrd’s, Carroll’s or hundreds of other homes in Salem, Providence, Bristol, An- napolis and other thriving towns and cities. As early as 1774 there was great wealth in the colonies, r a condition obvious when we con- sider that it was from private sources that most of the money was obtained that sustained the eight years’ war with England. The variety of fabrics produced was unlimited. In silks Spitalfields was a vigor- ous rival to Lyons. From 1727 to 1750 innumerable silken fabrics were made, as : brocade lutestring, brocade tabby, brocade tissue, brocade damask, tobine, flowered tabby, figured tobine, four- comber damask, double tissue, gold stuff, double tabby, brocade satin, Venetian brocade, India figured brocade, tobine tabby, tobine lutestring, and so forth. The style of their patterns closely corresponds with that of con- temporary Lyons silks. In East Indian stuffs alone we have a list of forty terms. Field bed and tester In 1759 “flowered. damask for furniture” was im- ported. In 1760 “crimson, blue, green and yellow harrateens with tassels” were imported. 1762, Indian gimp and binding. 176S, fine striped lutestring (plaip silk) Marseilles quilts. 1770, moreens, stout woolen curtain stuffs. Harrateen cloth was made of combing wools. Printed cotton, hand-printed, frequently of very large bird and animal designs. Scarlet and crimson cassimere, calico and dimity. Durance, a stout worsted cloth. Calamanco, a glazed linen stuff. Turkey work, a coarse, plain ground with pattern tufted like a rug pile. Paduasoy, a strong silk. Green cloth, crimson worsted, red cloth, red damask. Shalloon, soy, watchet, linsey woolsey, fustian. Silk muslin, chintz, Indian calico, tabby, sar- canet, taffeta, horsehair. The earliest example of a Windsor chair is found in an old Jacobean interior of Windsor Castle. It is estimated that the chair dates 1650. It was a common American article in cottage use in 1700. The illustration in the left-hand upper corner is the first example found. Immediately below it is the well- known Hogarth chair of about 1720, and to the right is a de- velopment of the Hogarth with turned rail back and Hogarth splat, about 1720. From this directly comes the type in the upper right-hand corner. The large chair is one used by Thomas Jefferson. Until 1830 various kinds of Windsor chairs were common in America. COLONIAL FURNITURE IN PENDLETON MANSION, AFTER CHIPPENDALE MODELS. COLONIAL Caraak, or Comacoa, was silk and camel’s hair mixed. Bancours, a kind of tapestry. Shalloon was a coarse woolen cloth. Darnix or darneck, coarse, taking its name from Dorneck, the Dutch for Tournay. Perpetuana (1650), a very durable woolen. Damask, first made in Damascus in such a way that “what is not satin on one side shows satin on the other side.” Green and red paly is the heraldic term for alter- nate stripes of these colors. Camblet was a woolen, hair or silk twill, some- times waved or watered. Tabby, a kind of coarse watered taffeta. Seersucker, a thin ridged and puckered material. THE FOREIGN INFLUENCE OF COLONIAL STYLES Elizabeth. 1558-1603. George I. 1714-1727. Jacobean. 1603-1625. Jamesl. 1603-1625. (Commencement Stuart Period.) Italian influence. Inigo Jones, dictator of style, 1573-1652. 1607. Jamestown settled by the English. 1613. New York settled by the Dutch, and for many years after India goods were brought over in large quantities. 1620. Puritan settlement in New England. Charles I. 1625-1649. Louis XIV. 1643-1715. Cromwellian. Commonwealth. 1653-1659. During the period of the commonwealth, England, Virginia and Maryland profited by the immi- grants drawn from the cavalier and royalist classes, then out of power. Charles II. 1660-1685. James II. 1685-1689. 1674. Dutch settlements in America went into Eng- lish possession. 1680. English laws restricted American imports to England and English possessions. 1685. Edict of Nantes caused French immigration to New York, Massachusetts and South Carolina, but influence on decorative arts was trivial. William and Mary. 1689-1702. Mahogany discovered (1597) by Raleigh. Came into use 1700. Anne. 1702-1714. Dutch furniture largely imported. 1702-1714. Dutch furnishings prevailed owing to pop- ularity in England and close political and com- mercial relations between England and Holland. First mention of mahogany in America 1708. Sir Christopher Wren and Grinling Gibbons, famous architects. Sir Christopher Wren and Grinling Gibbons took up the Renaissance move- ment where Inigo Jones left off. George II. 1727-1760. By 1714 the Colonies had reached that state of afflu- ence that English styles appeared in American homes as promptly as in the suburbs of Lon- don. Louis XV. 1715-1774. Louis XVI. 1774-1793. George III. 1760-1820. Noted cabinetmakers and architects: Chippendale, Sheraton, Edwards & Darley, Thomas Johnson, Ince & Mayhew, Manwaring, R. & J. Adam, P. Columbiana, M. A. Pergolesi, George Richard- son, G. B. Cipriani, Hepplewhite & Co. George III, developed the work of Chip- pendale, covering the Dutch adaptation of the French and Chinese, the work of Thomas Shera- ton. Hepplewhite, and the classic work of R. & J. Adam. Empire, France 1795-1814. 1807. Works of Thomas Hope published, following the French Empire. 1800. Late Colonial. A form applied to the Ameri- can acceptance of the “English and French Em- pire,” which followed the French Empire and was successfully introduced in England by Thomas Hope and others. A Colonial interior of about 1630. Kitchen at Van Cort- landt Manor. T O DEFINE the term Colonial we must fix the period not only chronologically, but geo- graphically. We must discriminate between New England and the South, between early and late. We must understand the conditions, whether of town or country, because the types varied. One is prone to regard in this country the characteristic Colonial form as that form which presented Oriental furnishings, brasses, Chinese porcelains, cot- ton prints, con- spicuous in birds and flower details, rich lacquers, cop- pers and pewter. But this form lasted only from 1690 to 1740; in England it was broadly character- ized as Queen Anne. The early colonists enjoyed the same comforts as their English brothers, and sur- prising as it may seem, the earliest settlements were furnished with window glass, at a period in England called Jacobean, when window glass was a luxury. In 1629 one of the Salem settlers, Higgins, wrote to a friend in England, “Be sure and bring with you a supply of window glass.” The use of glass in dwelling houses began about the Four- teenth Century, although we have records of window glass used in Pompeii 79 a. d., and frequent references to window glass in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries ; in the latter periods, however, the glass was an inch and a-half and two inches thick, sometimes discs or fragments joined. In the Fifteenth Century oiled linen was generally used. The Dukes of Burgundy used oiled paper, and as evidence of the general use of glass it will suffice to say that at the close of the Eighteenth Century, 1790, there existed in Paris itself a corporation for making window sashes filled with oiled paper. (“Glass Making,” by Sauzay. Scribner.) Up to this date all glass used for mirrors or windows was limited in size to the lung power of the glass blower, which explains the little glasses in mirrors and cupboards. It was not until . A Pewter" COLONIAL the beginning of the Nineteenth Century that a method was produced for making larger sheets and for a long while the cost was very heavy. In 1702 a yard of looking glass cost $32.10. In 1802 a yard cost $39.90. In 1862 a yard cost $8.75.— Ed. American patriotic societies have preserved not only many old landmarks and old buildings of Colonial reputation, but old furnish- ings. One must always bear in mind, however, the nature of a collection, whether a collection from the farmhouse, or the city house, the cottage or the mansion. In the Northern States, where Winter comfort was considered, the rooms were smaller in size, the ceil- ings were lower, the win- dows were smaller than we find in the South, where weather conditions were diametrically opposite. We hear a great deal of the rush-strewn floors of the Elizabethan homes ; but they were only the floors that were open to the tenantry and the serv- ants — rooms of a public character. We hear of the sanded floors through Pennsylvania, but they were the kitchen floors and inn floors. The same tastes prevailed here as pre- vailed abroad. All social grades were represented, and to those who are in- terested in the study of Colonial sociology we recommend the works of John Fiske, the eminent American historian, “The Beginnings of New Eng- land,” “Child Life in the Colonial Days,” “John Han- cock, His Book,” and “Ex- amples of Colonial Archi- tecture,” a volume of in- teriors and exteriors of South Carolina and Georgian homes by E. A. Crane and E. E. Soderholz, published in Germany. The decorations of the ceilings, the side- walls, the floors, even the wood finish followed the European styles, white woodwork coming in with William and Mary, about 1690. In 1749 Isaac Ware wrote : “The decoration of an American room is of three kinds — first, where it is coated with the plaster material wrought into ornamental details; second, where covered by wainscot, and third, where hung with silks, tapestries or paper,” for in that year dealers in America were advertising “to hang rooms with paper or fabrics in the very newest fashion.” Indeed, Charles Hargraves advertised wall- papers in Philadelphia in 1745, and only a few years later Peter Fleeson was making paper-hangings in squares, corner of Fourth and Chestnut Streets, Philadelphia. Nantucket, Portsmouth and St. Johns- bury, Vt., have yielded to the collectors some exquisite examples of wall decora- tions. Thomas Hancock, in 1757, wrote to an English friend to send him some paper-hangings showing a great variety of birds, ani- mals, fruits and flowers and he adds to his letter: “I think these papers are handsome, better than painted walls.” Colo- nial characteristics were simply the char- acteristics of modifica- tion or adaptation. Duncan Phyfe, in his time more famed in America than Chip- pendale in England, followed his English models with modifica- tions. Latrobe fol- lowed the Empire styles, but with modi- fications. The larger cities and towns of this country were well equipped with cabinet- makers, who, at the time, were more famous than Chippen- dale, Sheraton or Ilepplewhite, but they followed the English prototypes. We have before us an extract from a New York paper of 1771, which dwells upon the exquisite work made by a New Jersey cabinetmaker who “served his time and was for eleven years foreman to the great cabinetmaker Hallet.” If this advertisement is a mere catch-penny scheme it is evident the name of Hallet 2IO COLONIAL was considered at that time a great bait in New York. And so also American architecture was an archi- tecture of modification modelled upon the work of Inigo Jones, who in turn modelled his style upon that of Palladio. But where the work of Jones was superb and elaborate, in America we followed his lines simply in much the same way that our late Colonial furniture followed the lines of the Empire, eliminating the specific ornamentation which in France made the style Napoleonic. Not only in the South, but throughout the East also the Palla- dian spirit was well expressed. As early as 1738 the discoveries made in Pompeii and Herculaneum still further promoted interest and was received with great enthusiasm in America. Classic pillars were reared in front of every porch and by 1800 pillars appeared upon the ends and fronts of sideboards and bureaus. The full development of this movement was felt in the latter part of the Eighteenth Century, and if there is any one form of architecture that may be said to be particularly Colo- nial and any one type of furniture that may be similarly characterized, it is the architecture and furniture of 1800 to 1820 when simplified classicism was universally Above, mirror frame, about 1790; be- low, interior in Cowles house, Deer- field, Mass., 1752. affected. Some of the old buffets and sideboards and bureaus of what we now call the Jeffersonian Period were purely American devoid of the Empire ornamentation which ap- peared in contemporary French and English work. Up to 1810 the characteristics of our Colonial styles were built upon European prototypes, altered frequently, as Duncan P h y f e altered the Chippendale models, or as Latrobe altered the David models. Our cultured classes fol- lowed closely the prevailing fash- ions, and our American cabinet- makers and decorators learned in almost all instances their arts abroad. Phyfe had a shop at 35 Parti- tion Street, now Fulton Street, New York. His work from 1802 to 1810 was well known, following the Em- pire school. The Dutch “kas” was a linen cupboard used largely in New York; seldom found elsewhere in this country ; sometimes carved wal- nut, frequently of pine, cherry or maple, paneled or painted. The heavily-carved mahogany beds with designs of acanthus leaves or pineapple, with high or low posts, came into use about 1790, following the Sheraton and Empire styles. Window and door traceries. The butterfly table, which appeared about 1700, was so called because the leaves were supported by wings which swung either way. Turned woodwork came into America with the first settlers ; from 1575 to 1620 we find a great number of examples of turned work in England, a de- velopment of the spiral work of the earlier Sixteenth Century. The cradle that came over in the Mayflower, used for Pere- grine White, was wicker, un- questionably made in Holland. The first mention we have of tea- tables in America was 1660. We hear often of the French furniture of the South ; the only part of the South where French furniture was used to any extent was Louisiana. That sec- tion had been settled by the French, who brought with them French fash- ions of the Louis XV and Louis XVI periods, and the French styles were adopted here in their purity. See page 203. Chests, while utilized merely for travel, serving the purpose of trunk and bureau, for years also served as seats and tables. They developed in decoration and usefulness in \ Cradle chair. America as they did in England, becoming finally chests with drawers and ultimately bureaus. The use of the word form or bench applying to the primi- tive seats still used in some schools, has survived the style of seat that succeeded the chest. Frequently a room contained two or three forms and perhaps one chair. At the dining table these forms were commonly used, ex- cepting at the head of the table, where the master’s chair was placed. Chairs of turned-wood and wainscoted chairs followed ; then rush and cane chairs, then up- holstered chairs, in the same order they appeared in Europe. Rush seats continued popular until 1830. The cradle chair shown in the center of this page is a curious piece of furniture, evidently having been planned with a removable rail at one end of the seat so that it could be used as a rocking settee. This remov- able rail would prevent a child from rolling off the seat while the free space at the end where the back is high provides a comfortable rocking chair for the at- tendant. 212 Colonial Grouping — Everything except the bed and the right-hand chair of early Queen Anne or late William and Mary. Late Colonial Room — Using William-and-Mary highboy. OLD AMERICAN WINDSOR CHAIRS. A L : r- 1740 1810 At the head of this page is shown a number of examples of Colonial transom window traceries. Above in this column, Colonial doorway, about 1790, followed by two Colonial chairs. On the right, a buffet showing the characteristic column construc- tion of late Colonial times, made in New York, 1807. 21 5 Colonial, 1790, in the English spirit. A. Biedermeier interior from the Royal Palace at Ludvvigsburg. See definition of Biedermeier. On the right, restrained L’Art Nouveau. MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L’ART NOUVEAU T HE develop- ment of the Empire Period in France inspired, co- incidentally, a certain decorative feeling in England, America and Germany. In Eng- land the style had little vogue, but in America it developed structurally into what is popularly called “Late Colonial.” From a recent issue Extreme L Art Nouveau. Q f Bie Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, over the signature of Luke Vincent Lockwood, we quote the following: The evolution of style and decoration in furniture is one of the most fascinating and instructive of studies, and America is especially rich in specimens showing the various transition stages. In no other country has a style been so completely worked out as it has here. . . . Having once acquired the style the Colonial workman, adapting it to the needs of the people, developed it until it has reached a per- fection not attained in Europe. The truth of the statement is particularly well illustrated in the development of the high chest of drawers. In England this article of furniture was abandoned, while yet in a rather crude state, for the French commode on the order of the modern bureau, but in America it was developed and the commode form remained compara- tively scarce. This statement was confirmed by the late Sir Purdon Clarke, who informed us that some of his best examples of furniture he found in America. The de- velopment of the Empire in this country resulted in great good, while in Europe all efforts at an absorption 217 MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L’ART NOUVEAU of this style became a failure. In Germany the Empire school was so distorted by the ef- fort to popularize it that it soon became known as the Bieder- meier, a term of re- proach. Biedermeier was a fictitious character invented for the pages of Fliegcnde Blatter, a good- natured bourgeois with no aesthetic per- ception. Germany, after the Napoleonic wars, was either too poor or too pre- judiced to follow the prevailing fashions in French furniture ; hence the Bieder- meier style which eliminated the ormolu mounts and ex- pensive carvings naturally symbolic of Empire decoration, and substituted mere- ly pretty forms, pret- ty details, unmeaning and weak. Not only was the studious work of Fontaine, Percier, David and Above, L’Art Nouveau chair; below, modern German-Empire or Biedermeier chairs. the brothers Adam pruned by the Bied- ermeier gardner, but a lot of petty florals were grafted in a sort of Dutch garden style. The acanthus, the vitruvian scroll, the lotus and the pal- mette were all dis- placed by a sort of barnyard flora. Sym- bolic animals were driven out and tame creatures adopted. The Biedermeier period began with 1800 and ended about 1830. “With the glory of the Napoleonic era,” writes Herr Lux, “vanished also the aristocratic Em- pire style. From cos- mopolitanism and its political katzen jam- mer people fled back to the old land of romance. Uhland, Eichendorff and Schubert aroused en- thusiastic love for nature. And the in- troductionof the moral element, as well as the influence of MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L’ART NOUVEAU England in matters of style, led to the solid, square and cylindrical forms of Biedermeier furniture, to which reminiscences of the Baroque and Empire styles re- main attached as decorative details.” In England Thomas Hope made an ephemeral reputation with a rather clumsy adaptation of the Empire, but its vogue was brief. In America, contemporaneously, the Empire grew and thrived ; its influence was felt even in the farm districts, and classic pillared houses were erected with chaste doorways, columned and pilastered furniture was built and a taste was generally observed for lines that were simple, substantial and refined. With the close of the Georgian period the great redivivus of art was ended, and while the Victorian period (Queen Victoria, 1837) has indulged in fitful spurts, nothing substantial has resulted and no phase developed that may be clearly defined. We have had Eastlake and the Eastlake craze, William Morris and the Morris vogue, Sir Edward Burne-Jones, Walter Crane, Ruskin and the Arts-and- Crafts movements, but neither in England, France nor Austria, where Art Nouveau for a brief period became hysterically popular, and in Germany, where 219 the top-heavy form of the Art Moderne prevailed, has there been any healthy or well-founded style. In America a simple type known as the Mission school has been adopted quite generously, but it has represented not so much a school of ornament as a school for the elimination of ornament. About 1870 a band of artists in Vienna, led by Wagner, produced a style of design arising out of the use of curved as opposed to straight lines. The un- derlying principle was based upon nature forms and Gothic and Japanese were drawn upon, and sinuous tree trunks and exaggerated vines produced occa- sionally such pleasing results that in the minor arts a great deal of encouragement was given to the movement. When applied to toilet articles and table, desk and dress accessories or even silverware there was little to offend, but when the same character of design was applied in broad and emphatic forms upon the walls and floors, it failed. Little by little Art Nouveau has been chastened, refined and simplified under various “movements,” Secession, New Art and Art Moderne; some of the curves have been straight- ened out and the weird nature forms are no longer part of the structural character of furniture but are utilized only as decorations. In Germany this new development has made great strides ; but not elsewhere. It is surprising when we look back over the Two chairs which show modified L’Art Nouveau forms. : ' ' ■ MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L'ART NOUVEAU serious utterances of Eastlake, whose book was written in 1870, that any success what- ever attended his efforts. We are aware of the fact that much was produced by the manufacturers of Eastlake furniture which would have shocked the sensibilities of the author. The Eastlake school represented a simplification of Elizabethan and Jacobean. It was the application of factory labor and was full of jig-saw corners and cheap orna- mentation, with metal and tile panels and squares inserted, and conspicuous hinges and handles obviously introduced for deco- rative effect. Sometimes the convex carv- ings were daubed with contrasting paint Little by little this ornamentation became so vulgar and the operations of the jig-saw be- came so conspicuous that the Eastlake style died out. While Eastlake was a man of education his work suggested nothing higher than the vaulting ambitions of a boss carpenter. The work of William Morris and his confreres was important and far-reaching, establishing as it did the craftsman spirit in England. The Morris move- ment, so called because Morris was the managing head of affairs, employed the services of men who will live forever in the history of art. William Morris was born in England, March 24, 1834. He died October 3, 1896. He went to Oxford in the fifties and beside him at the examinations sat Burne-Jones, who became his life-long friend. He intended to study for the church. He knew nothing of art but became interested while traveling An early Morris design, “Daisy and Columbine.” through Belgium and Northern France studying the churches of Amiens, Beauvais and Chartres. He had become acquainted with the work of the pre-Raphael- ites, a brotherhood cultivating the Gothic arts and preaching the theory of individualism. Dante Gabriel Rossetti was the head, Ford Madox Brown, Holman Hunt and John Mullais were active members assisted by Ruskin’s writings. Subsequently the coterie ad- mitted William M. Rossetti, James Collinson, F. J. Stephens and Thomas Wolner. As a child, Morris was possessed of a vivid imagination and a romantic, poetic temperament. At an early age he became a poet. Buildings had inter- ested Morris from his childhood. The Gothic period appealed to his nature, the beauties of the Gothic art stimulated it and before he was through Oxford he had decided to study architecture and Burne-Jones was to become an artist. Morris studied under George Edmond Street, an architect whose enthusiasm for the Thirteenth Century made the foundation for all of Morris’s work. Street was engaged at the time Morris went to him in restoring ancient churches and designing Gothic buildings. While never an artist in the broad sense — in the ability to depict the human form — and while never an architect, Morris developed along lines of adornment or ornamentation. In 1855 Burne-Jones and Morris took lessons in painting under Rossetti, and in 1856 Rossetti wrote enthusiastically of Burne-Jones predicting his fame as an artist, and of Morris he said that “in all illumination work of that kind he considered him quite unrivalled.” When he was twenty-five Morris married Jane Burden, and the house into which they moved, known afterwards as “The Red House,” possessed many furnishings con- tributed by their artistic friends. A Voysey design showing the pre-Raphaelite influence of Morris and his colleagues. 220 MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L’ART NOUVEAU Chrysanthemum design, by William Morris. The firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., as it was first called, appears to have followed their success of this early effort at decoration. Rossetti ex- plains that the suggestion to organize a firm was a whim. “One evening a lot of us were together, and we got to talking about the way in which artists did all kinds of things in olden times — designed every kind of decoration and most kinds of furniture, and some- one suggested that each put down five pounds and form a company. This was done. Morris was elected manager simply because he was the only man among us who had time and money to spare.” The associates were Morris, Rossetti, Burne-Jones, Madox Brown, an artist of reputation, Webb, the architect of the Red House, also a designer of furniture, Peter Paul Marshall and Charles Faulkner. * Naturally their work was of the highest char- acter, covering mural deco- ration, carving as applied to architecture, stained glass, rtietal work, furni- ture, fabrics, stamped leathers and decorations generally, including drap- eries and wall-paper.. They affected full, luscious colorings, tabooed fadey effects and dingy colors were abhorred by them. In 1858 some of the furniture made by Ford Madox Brown was described by him : “Adapted to need of solidity and of a kind of homely beauty ; above all, free of false display in carving, veneering and the like.” He tried to exhibit his furniture at the Hogarth Club, but the work was rejected as not fine art. But he persevered, and to- day his masterpieces, the frescoes in the Manchester Town Hall, are recognized as unequalled. Rossetti describes a room which he was furnishing for his bride : “Our drawing-room is papered from a design printed on common brown packing paper. The trees stand the whole height of the room; the stems and fruits are of Vene- tian red ; the leaves are black ; the fruit will have a fine line of yellow to indicate roundness.” The Morris factory took up finally printing on wall-papers or fabrics, which, together with the furni- ture, was based upon Gothic lines influenced in the modern spirit. Occasionally his floral treatment was classic, utilizing the acanthus or flora of England. His wood tones predominated as a background for vivid colors. His designs were never in straight lines and were always Medieval, and even where his motifs were modern flora the colorings and technique were Medieval. In 1875 the original firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. was dissolved and Morris carried on the business alone, though Burne-Jones and A typical Morris treatment; designed by William Morris for St. James’s Palace. MORRIS, BIEDERMEIER, L’ART NOUVEAU Webb continued to help him with designs for stained glass and furniture. His enthusiasm was aroused in 1877 (in spite of his great interest at this time in public affairs), by the establishing of calico and chintz printing, the manufacture of brocades in silk and silk and wool, a Frenchman being got over to teach brocade work. He also began to think of tapestry, though this could not be attended to till later in the year, and it was when he took Kelm- scott house, on the upper mall, Hammersmith, that he had a tapestry loom put up in his bedroom, rising early to practice the art of tapestry weaving. Carpet looms were built in the stables and here the first Hammer- smith carpets were made. The most important development perhaps was the production of printed cotton goods, i. e., “Morris’ chintzes,” which are more used than any of his other fabrics. Between seventy and eighty wall-paper designs and nearly forty chintzes were invented and carried out by Morris, though if the various colorings were counted separately his designs would amount to 400. The sum total of his designs for paper-hangings, chintzes, woven stuffs, silk damasks, stamped velvets, carpets, and tapestries (excluding the hand-made car- pets and the arras tapestries, which were each specially designed and as a rule not duplicated) which were actually carried out, amounts to little short of 600, be- sides countless designs for embroidery. Modern Arts-and-Crafts. MISSION On the left, chair in relic-room, Santa Barbara ; on the right, chair in relic- room, Santa Clara. T HE Mission style is a commercial style. Originally it made pretense to reflect the char- acter of the furniture found in the missions of old Mexico and the coun- tries now New Mexico, Arizona, Texas and California; but there was never any serious effort to conscientiously follow the style which, after all, was simply primitive Gothic — the simplest style of carpenter work made for or by the missionaries under conditions which neither invited nor permitted the exercise of an artistic touch. It was simple, crude furniture bearing naturally the influences of the Spanish architecture which con- stituted the environment. The woods used were those most easily manipulated and obtained. Ponce de Leon discovered Florida in 1512; in 1513 Balboa discovered the Pacific; in 1519 Cortez set forth to conquer the countries of Mexico. In the early part of the Sixteenth Century Mexico proper and all the newly-established Central American provinces were being flooded with mission- aries from Spain ; churches by the hundred were built and missions established on every hand, in what are now the Mexican provinces. The colonization of Mexico by Spain naturally meant the introduction of Catholic missions. In the early times the furnishings of these mission chapels Modern Mission. An Arts and Crafts Interior, from the German School. were crude in the extreme, but in the Eighteenth Century the missions gathered strength and prosperity. It has been often claimed that the Mission style was a purely American style. Unfortunately, the Mission style could have been historically accurate were it not that it was at an early age subjugated to the exigencies of commercialism. Lumholtz, in his extraordinary work on Mexico, gives a vast store of illustration and data regarding the work of the Aztecs, that dominating people who possessed a civilization in Mexico before the Spanish invasion under Cortez, 1519. One finds a very good example of this work at the American Museum of Natural History. While the furniture is probably not authentic in style, it ap- proximates the character of furniture which even at this early date was found by the missionaries, and with slight alteration, was adapted to their ideas of Gothic structure. Mission ornament was necessarily ecclesiastical and to present the old Mexican or Aztec decoration as a background to the Mission furnishings is wrong, for whatever the charm of Aztec decoration, we doubt if the representative of the Christian Church adopted it in any particular. The United States Department of Agriculture is authority for the statement that the woods of Cali- fornia covered a wide variety, and it is illogical to as- sume that Mission furniture was made of any one par- ticular wood. In Southern California what is known as the Pacific Coast forest yields Douglas fir, spruce, larch, western red cedar (arbor vitae), hemlock, redwood and big-tree, yellow and white pine, incense, port Ox- ford and yellow cedar, fir (balsam), juniper, yew, cottonwood, maple, alder, birch, madorna and laurel. In Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Northern Mexico, what is known as the Rocky Mountain forest yields yellow pine, Douglas fir, fir (balsam), spruce, juniper, pinon pine, aspen, cotton- wood and oak. In other parts of Dower Mexico we find all of the sub-tropical and tropical woods, mahogany, pine, prima-vera, santa maria, logwood, Mexican rosewood, zebrawood, mesquite, aliso (alder), ash, elm, mul- berry, cottonwood, silk cotton tree or ceiba, linden, china, pimienta, John Crow wood, buttonwood, black maba and salm-wood. In Central America and West Indies, mahog- 224 MISSION any, lignum vitae, logwood, sabicu, rosewood, fustic, quiebra hacha, zebrawood, calabash, cocobola, cork- wood, panama, jaqua, amarillo, laurel, sarsaparilla and cocoa-wood. It is doubtful if any Spanish furniture was brought over by the early missionaries for the furnish- ing of their pioneer structures. Their work was at- tended with great hardships, long marches and strug- gles for a living and a foothold in the interior of a new country. And it is unreasonable to suppose that they added to the hardships of their progress any unneces- sary burdens. The famous missions of to-day are the missions of California, and in their construction the builders utilized black oak, laurel, juniper, live oak, red wood, scrub oak, sycamore and walnut. The Arts and Crafts style has gradually become a general term for any furnishings of an unperiodic and unconventional character. Originally, it stood simply for individuality. It represented a movement that advocated the association of art and labor and had its first practical inception some forty years ago, when Morris built his famous Red House, ignoring the pre- vailing styles and factory products and producing through individuals an independence that was effective. But the work of Morris and his confreres was sat- urated with the spirit of Medievalism, hence the move- ment at the very beginning presented a consistency of decorative thought. Morris developed along the ideas instilled by Carlyle and Ruskin, who preached what was prac- tically the socialism of art, expressing contempt for the purely artificial, the carving that is plaster, the luster that is varnish, the bronze that is sheet brass, the painted woods — all the dictates of commercialism or tradition, and in no way representing an individual ambition. In the beginning the movement was under- taken by men who had something worth saying. But to-day the movement simply expresses a con- tempt for all rules of order. While Carlyle and Ruskin advocated the applica- tion of individual thought, the movement would never have developed were it not that the individual thought was born of culture, and followed with respect the pre- Raphaelite traditions. The doctrine that no man can accomplish any- thing worth accomplishing if he is not free to express all that is in him, is good theory if the man is an ar- tist, but it is dangerous to extend this encouragement to the inexperienced and uneducated. As a result the Arts and Crafts movement has be- come simply a cloak behind which one hides his in- ability to produce a period style. Chair-back stencil pattern of eighty years, a photographic reproduction of the original stencil plate. PAINTED F I N OUR “Chronology of Inlays and Marquetry” we covered the subject from 1100, when marble and vitreous paste were much used in Southern Italy, to 1779, when David Roentgen, appointed by Marie Antoinette as “marqueteur to the Queen,” produced extraordinary work. The Dutch marqueteurs were famous in the middle of the Seventeenth Century and in England as well as France they practiced the art of intarsia — the inlaying of woods. We have already gone into the distinction between intarsia, marquetry and parquetry. In the Queen Anne epoch the designs were rich in colors, ob- tained through the use of tropical woods, and lustrous with the use of ivory and mother-of-pearl. But from the latter part of the Eigh- teenth Century down to date, little has been done until the School of Nancy (France), stimulated by the vogue of Art Nouveau, introduced intarsia of quaint and unusual form. Contemporaneously the Aus- trians, Germans, French and Eng- lish went in for this style dur- ing the latter part of the Nine- teenth Century. After the Revolution many types of painted furniture were brought to America, not only from England, but from the South of France. They were frequently called japanned work, but the term is a misnomer, for the decora- tion is usually an ordinary paint and not lacquer work or japanned work, so called because at an early period it came from Japan and China. The Dutch about 1750 took up On the right, typical painted chairs of the Nineteenth Century. U R N I T U R E the fashion for painting furniture, much after the style of Vernis-Martin, painted under lacquer, not unlike the work of carriage panels. All sorts of subjects were followed, from flowers to ship scenes, a type familiar even to those of the present generation is the work of the New York stage coaches, sleighs of the old seventies, and snow chairs, which of late have been much sought. The work was frequently of a highly-artistic character. In Holland of late years dealers have bought up old sleighs by the thousands, utiliz- ing the painted work for cabinet- work. Similar work was done in Norway and Sweden. Lacquered furniture was brought into England and France in large quantities throughout -the Seventeenth Century, particularly by the East India Company. It gave inspiration to much of the work of Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, who, however, made no pretense to do lacquer work ; they simply applied good painted motifs to certain parts of their furniture. Angelica Kaufifmann and Per- golesi were particularly successful, and in some cases their work was highly lacquered or japanned; but the hosts of unknown artists who followed this style and painted humbler types of furniture, bed- steads, washstands, chairs and toilet articles, used common paint, and some exceedingly simple ef- f e c t s , which finally deteriorated into stencil work, became popular and continued in vogue well into 1830. Indeed, the work became so common that the broad splats were introduced in chairs especially to give space for decoration. 226 AMERICA’S MOST DISTINCTIVE NATIVE FURNITURE TYPE. AMERICA’S MOST DISTINCTIVE FURNITURE TYPE F EW authorities have covered the subject of furniture and furnishings in America 1790 to 1830. English authors stopped with the early Georgian. They felt that with the end of Sheraton and beginning with the abortive efforts of Thomas Hope, who in some degree followed the Empire, there was an end to the periods, and the Vic- torian age was ap- proached apologetically. Nevertheless there was a distinctly American type pro- duced early in the Nineteenth Century, the outgrowth of the Empire form, simpli- fied and beautified. The Chippendale, Sheraton and Hepple- white schools were dainty and delightful examples of carving, painting and inlaying. Empire shapes were more massive and em- ployed brass applique. From the beginning the Americans elimi- nated the brass or ormolu ornamentation, and while there was consider- able carving on the backs of lounges and on the table legs, little by little this disappeared and only the simple shapes remained with broad flat surfaces made beauti- ful by veneers highly finished and polished. Prior to the Nineteenth Century veneering was an expensive art; the wood was cut by hand and it was im- possible to cover large surfaces excepting at heavy expense. In the pieces of William and Mary and Queen Anne veneer- ing was used fre- quently as an economy. It was applied very often as a surface to cheap woods, but the veneerings of the late Colonial period were not applied because cheap, but because of the possibilities of a high, lustrous finish, and the veneers were often attached to a solid mahogany base. It is a mistake to assume, as so many do, 229 Above, American chairs of the period 1790-1830; below, tables of the same epoch. that veneer is shoddy and nndertaken as a pretence and deception. Veneering is one of the oldest arts and in some form or other, as marquetry or as in- laying, has been practiced throughout all periods. Moreover, it gives strength to the frame, as best il- lustrated in Queen Anne work when frequently wal- nut was veneered on oak or yellow deal. Veneers are cut in two grades — saw-cut and knife-cut. The first vary in thickness from 1-32 to 1-16 of an inch and are cut from a log with a large circular saw producing twelve or fourteen sheets to the inch. Knife-cut veneers are thinner. Before the introduction of machinery veneers were almost in- variably an eighth of an inch thick and the decorative beauty of some of the veneers used is due to cutting through the burrs or excrescences of the tree. The “curls” and “feathers” are produced by the separation of the heart at the junction of a branch with the main trunk. Mottles and figures, which are noted particularly in maple and mahogany, come from certain condi- tions of the wood when cut across the grain. Machine- made veneers opened up a wide field of usefulness and constituted a type coincident with the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. CHRONOLOGY OF WALL AND CEILING TREATMENTS WOODS USED AND RUGS. [4500 B. C.— 1603 A. D.] Egyptian, 4500 B.C. — 324 B.C. W ALL treatments confined to frieze decora- tion on plain walls; full of gold and brilliant colors; ornaments frequently hieroglyphics and Egyptian symbols ; beautifully hand-painted stucco and fresco work much in vogue ; illustrations represent- ing industries. Chinese, 3500 B.C. — 238 B.C. Modern art described by Chambers 1757. Side- walls, matting four feet high, the rest colored or gilt paper, overhung with pictures and proverbs. Assyrian, 2286 B.C. — 608 B.C. Stone work overwrought in bronze and gold ; hu- man faces showing profile ; Assyrian symbols used, following largely the Egyptian. Walls of King Solo- mon’s temple were covered with carved cedar and olive wood. Greek, 1900 B.C.— 168 B.C. Fresco on plaster in strong colors, usually in deep friezes and dadoes; also stucco, fresco and tempera or distemper painting practiced; borders frescoed and painted in religious and legendary subjects, full of color; painting of still life, city and country shown; ceilings elaborate, divided into geometric sections ; mosaics brought to perfection. Roman, 753 B.C.— 455 B.C. Similar to Greek. Pompeiian, 100 B.C. — 455 A.D. Following the Greek and Roman style, but walls were also completely covered with paintings, some- times divided into panels with small pictures and fine mosaics ; sometimes wall space divided into dado, mid- dle and upper section and ornamented with delicate garlands, fruit, masks. In England the Adam style almost reproduced the Pompeiian. Byzantine, 328 — 1451. Closely related to Roman. Magnificent in tiles, largely Oriental. Romanesque — Affected materially by the Byzan- tine and Saracenic. Tiles and tile treatment; stained glass windows recorded 525 A.D. Tapestries made by Flemish weavers, 1170 A.D. In the Eleventh Century Cordova leathers, superbly gilded and painted were made in Flanders. The term was also applied to similar leathers produced in Portugal, France and Italy. Gothic, 1100—1550. Beginning with 1200 walls of houses were wain- scoted and painted, often decorated with romantic, biblical or legendary subjects. In the Thirteenth Cen- tury walls were treated with tiling forms called Cos- matic mosaic, and frequently hung with tapestries. Wall-paper used prior to 1500 was simply pictures on paper and was hung like banners and not stuck to the wall. About 1500 large hall of house was generally sit- ting-room, reception-room and dining-room combined. Raftered ceilings were common. Italian Renaissance, 1400 — 1643. Discoveries of the stuccoes of ancient Rome aroused Italian architects to the spirit of emulation and Roman and Greek mural work was generally adopted. Ground colors were laid on while the stucco was wet. Raphael and his followers applied themselves to wall decoration. Superb friezes and panels, the best the world ha§ ever seen, was the result. Both wainscoting and rich tapestries, leathers, gold and silk fabrics were liberally used in all the phases of the Renaissance. Marbleized paper called “domino” was made in Italy during the Fifteenth Century in small squares and used on walls. French Renaissance, 1500 — 1643. Covering practically the same characteristics as the Italian Renaissance, years of great magnificence embracing the reigns of : Francis I, 1515-1549. Henry II, 1549-1559. Francis II, 1559-1560. Charles IX, 1560-1574. Henry III, 1574-1589. Henry IV, 1589-1610. Louis XIII, 1610-1643. The domino papers of Italy were improved and instead of being marble or plain papers were printed in figures, and by 1700 there was hardly a house in Paris that did not utilize “domino papers.” Continuation of the use of fabric side-walls, rich paneling, stuccoed ceilings, carvings, rich paintings. Louis XIV, 1643-1715, side-walls frequently paneled in fabric. Ceilings painted or in rich plaster. Elizabethan, 1558 — 1603. Reflected the Italian spirit. Moldings were much used and strap-work carvings, wood side-walls clear to the ceiling, stucco ceilings. Oak prevailed Period lasted from 1500 to 1660. Painted linens and hang- ings, tapestries, embroideries. 231 CHRONOLOGY OF WALL AND CEILING TREATMENTS [ 1603 — 1800 .] Jacobean, 1603 — 1649. Continued the Elizabethan style. Still the age of oak. Side-walls of oak hut in some of the finest resi- dences the ceilings were beamed. Side-walls hung with tapestries. Magnificent stuccoes. Ceilings frequently of the most elaborate type, often colored. Heavy re- lief work, massive reproductions of panels full of heraldic devices and in small rooms chintzes from In- dia were used. Cotton and linen embroideries were hung on the wall. Embossed and gilded linens, cloths of gold, painted cloths. Louis XIV, 1643—1715. Gobelin Tapestry Works became royal property. Beauvais Tapestry Works established. Richest silks used on the walls, damask, brocade and embroidery. Magnificent ceilings, paneled, painted and stuccoed. Magnificent Chinese papers popular for walls. Louis XV, 1715—1774. Chinese characteristics introduced. Wealth of his predecessor continued. Paneling rich in gold and bronze. 1746 — first factory established in France for the manufacturing of wall-paper squares. French Ministry, 1759, authorized the manufacture of printed linens, and by 1789 one hundred factories were in operation, some of them working from copper plates. Wood side-walls disappeared. Everything rich in fabrics. Louis XVI, 1774—1792. Continuation of fabric effects following the dain- tier classic feeling ; ceilings beautifully hand painted, cleverest artists of the day contributing to the work. Walls paneled in fabrics, surrounding the same ' with elaborate compositions of plaster and molding work. White and gold conspicuous. Continuous rolls of wall-paper were undertaken in 1790. In 1787 we find a decree of the king declaring that the art of painting and printing paper used in furnish- ings were a dependence of the governing board of the Merchants-Papetiers-Dominotiere-Feuilletinere, which shows that the term “domino” still clung. Empire, 1804 — 1814. Walls stronger in gold effects. Continuation of fabric treatment with the added use of bronze and gold in profusion. Walls hand painted on plaster or canvas. Charles II, 1660 — 1685. James II, 1685 — 1689. William and Mary, 1689 — 1702. Wainscoted side-walls began to come lower in height and by Charles IPs time began to disappear ; the French method of treating walls in fabric came in. The ceilings, however, continued to be of magnifi- cent proportions, elaborate in stucco and relief work divided into panels, circles, hexagons and rhomboids, borders enriched with flowers and fruits similar to the extraordinary carvings of Grinling Gibbons. Borders were often flat ornaments of Greek or Roman design. Ceilings were magnificent reproductions fol- lowing the Renaissance, also prolific with goddesses, saints, muses and Cupids. Queen Anne, 1702 — 1714. Frequently side-walls followed the French style. The custom of paneling the side-walls was partially kept up. Chimneypieces, however, only went half- way up the wall. White woodwork was affected. Walls were often without any paneling or wainscot- ing and covered with squares of Chinese wall-paper or painted directly on or hung with fabrics, particu- larly prints. Colonial, 1700—1800. The American colonies adopted the European styles. White woodwork was popular, little wainscot- ing was attempted about 1690. In 1749 Isaac Ware wrote : “The decoration of an American room is of three kinds — first, where it is coated with the plaster material wrought into ornamental details ; second, where covered by wainscot, and third, where hung with silks, tapestries or paper,” for in that year dealers in America were advertising “to hang rooms with paper or fabrics in the very newest fashions.” Indeed, Charles Hargraves advertised wall-papers in Philadel- phia in 1745, and only a few years later Peter Fleeson was making paper-hangings in squares, corner of Fourth and Chestnut Streets, Philadelphia. Nantucket, Portsmouth and St. Johnsbury, Vt., have yielded to the collectors some exquisite examples of wall decora- tions. Thomas Hancock in 1757 wrote to an English friend to send him some paper-hangings showing a great variety of birds, animals, fruits and flowers and he adds to his letter: “I think these papers are hand- some ; better than painted walls.” Fabrics were used on the walls contemporaneously with the European use of them. 232 CHRONOLOGY of RUGS ACCORDING to PERIODS T H E chronological or the period uses of rugs is in no way confusing if one knows the history of rugs. For cen- turies the only rugs in use were Oriental rugs, and when the making of Orien- tal rugs was introduced into Europe by the Sara- cens, Ninth and Tenth Cen- turies, the patterns con- tinued to be Oriental. The history of Oriental rugs goes back to Assyria, Egypt, Old Persia, ancient Greece and Rome. In 711 when the Sara- cens began swarming into Spain and later when they settled along the southern countries of Europe, par- ticularly Sicily, they took their looms with them. We find as early as 900 A.D. traces of Oriental art as far north as Scandinavia and in later days, the Thir- teenth and Fourteenth Centuries, we have a distinct type of Oriental rug known as Hispano-Moresque, and a little later Portuguese-Persian was evolved. We have record also of looms set up by the Saracens in Palermo, Twelfth Century ; Poland, Twelfth Century; Venice, Fourteenth Century. During the reign of Henry IV of France, 1600, rug weaving was undertaken. The first European in- fluence developed in design character, and right here it is well to emphasize the fact that we must differen- tiate between a tapestry and a specific floor covering. The term carpet was one which in the early days applied to hangings, and the references to ancient car- pets which we frequently find in literature have doubt- less reference to tapestry. The French term tapissier means to carpet, to hang or cover with tapestry; tapis, a carpet ; tapete, carpet or tapestry. Hence when we read of the Flemish, French, English or Italian “car- pets” of an early period, we must remember that the term was sy- nonymous with tapestry. An Englishman to- day who carries a traveling shawl speaks of it as his “rug.” THE PERIOD USES OF RUGS The making of rugs in Asia goes back to the Prehistoric Ages. English Romanesque 1066 French Romanesque 700-1100 Gothic Early Period 1100-1500 Late Gothic and Italian Renaissance 1400 French Renaissance 1500 Francis I, Henry II, Louis XIII. English Renaissance 1500 Henry XIII. Flemish Renaissance 1507 Spanish Renaissance 1500 Portuguese Renaissance 1500 German Renaissance 1550 Elizabethan 1558 Jacobean, English 1603-1650 James I 1603-1625 Charles I 1625-1649 Cromwellian 1653-1659 Charles II 1660-1689 William and Mary 1689-1702 Queen Anne 1702-1714 Georgian Period 1714-1820 Chippendale-Sheraton-Hepplewhite and Adam. American Colonial Period 1727-1820 Henry IV, French 1589-1610 Louis XIV 1643 Louis XV 1715 Louis XVI • 1774 Directoire 1795 Empire 1804 Oriental rugs from Asia or of Spanish origin the results of colonization. From 1100 to 1400 the Mediterranean merchants estab- lished rug industries in Spain, Sicily and Venice and supplied Europe with Oriental carpets of European manufacture, be- sides the vast quantities of native examples imported from Anatolia, India and Persia; all of Oriental design. Early in the Seventeenth Century Shah Abbas introduced Renaissance characteristics in the Persian rugs of his court, in order to demonstrate his antagonism to the influences of Mon- gol character. Contemporaneously the manufacture of Turkish carpets, but of European design was introduced at Arras, Fontainebleau, Tours and La Savonnerie. Results of prac- tical productions began 1620, and by 1660 this manufacture was well developed. Frequently heavy wall tapestries were utilized for the floor. Prior to 1745 English-made carpets were crude products similar to ingrain. In 1745 a cut pile carpet called Wilton was first produced. In 1749 the Brus- sels loom was erected in England. During Louis XV and the period of Chippendale Chinese rugs were much used. 233 C H R O N O LOGY OF WOODS Inlay or Marquetry woods are in italics. ENGLISH. Applewood. Ash. Beech. Birch. Bog or Black Oak. Brown Oak. Cedar. Cherry. Chestnut. Elm. Holly. Lime or Linden. Maple. Oak (English). Oak (Pollard). Pearwood. Planewood (Buttonwood or Lace- wood). Sycamore. Walnut. Willow. Yew. EUROPEAN. Austrian Oak. Baltic Oak. Birch. Black Sea or Circassian Walnut. Boxwood. Cedar. Cherry. Chestnut. Cypress. Elm. French Walnut. French Oak. German Oak. Holly. Italian Oak. Lime or Linden. Maple. Olive. Pearwood. Pine. Polish Oak. Planewood. Riga Oak (Russian). Spanish Oak. Sycamore (Colored varieties called Hairwood, Mousewood, Grey- wood). Walnut (Italian). Willow. ASIATIC. Andaman Redzvood. Cedar. Calamander (Blackstripe, India). Cherry. Coromandel (Yellow Ebony, In- dia). Ebony (India). Green Ebony (India). Indian Mahogany. Ironwood (India). Pearwood. Porcupine, Pheasant or Partridge. Rosezvood. Satinwood. Teak (Pheasant or Graniteware). Zeen Oak (Ind ia). WEST INDIAN AND SOUTH AMERICAN. Angelique (Mahogany). Cedar. Cocobola. Greenheart. Green Ebony. Kingwood or Violet. Lanceivood. Lignum-Vitae. Mahogany. Mora (Mahogany). Purpleivood. Rosewood. Sabicu (Mahogany). Santa Maria (Mahogany). Santine (Mahogany). Satin Walnut. Satinwood. Snakewood or Leopard. Tulip. Yellow Oak. Zebra. AMERICAN. Ash. Basswood (Lime). Beech. Birch. Bird’s Eye Maple (Sugar Maple). Black Walnut. Butternut. Cedar. Cherry. Chestnut. Cypress. Elm. Hickory. Holly. Live Oak. Maple. Pine. Poplar. Planewood (Buttonwood or Lace- wood). Red Oak. Redwood. Sycamore. Walnut (many varieties). White Oak. Whitewood (Known as Tulip, Yel- low Poplar and Canarywood). MISCELLANEOUS. African Oak. African Teak. African or Golden Walnut. Citron (Africa). - Mahogany (Africa). INTARSIA OR MARQUETRY. I NTARSIA — Tarsia from the Latin, interserrere, to insert, applied to the inlaying of woods. When in metal, as practiced at Damascus, called damascening. Marquetry — Synonymous term adopted by the French from marquerter, to spot, to mark. Parquetry applies to coarse work for floorings or wainscotings. The process of inlaying goes back to the early Assyrian and Egyptian methods on metal, ivory, marble and wood. 1100 — Intarsia of marble and vitreous pastes produced in Southern Italy. 1259 — Beautiful examples of inlaying produced in Siena. 1300 — Germans worked in inlays, and beauti- ful examples were brought from India, Arabia, Egypt, Venice and Spain. 1331 — Famous stalls inlaid with ebony, box- wood, walnut and white poplar were pro- duced by the Siennese and reached a high degree of artistic merit. 1416 — The Due du Berri’s furniture was il- luminated with pictures in intarsia, doubt- less of Italian workmanship. 1490 — Exquisite work done in France. 1500 — Germans understood intarsia work in colored woods. 1550 — Italians revived the ancient styles of marquetry and the furniture of this Latin Renaissance or Baroque Period was often of marquetry arranged in the form of ac- tual pictures. Sometimes furniture was also painted, gilded or decorated with oil paintings. 1550 — Ebony and ivory work successfully un- dertaken in Germany. Fine examples in Mosque of Cordova, Spain. 1550-1650 — Dutch marquetry, highly artistic, employing Asiatic woods in great number. Rich chairs were commonly decorated with marquetry, usually huge tulips and birds. 1600 — -Marquetry made itself felt in the Netherlands and Flemish artists copied the work in precious woods. 1603 — Some excellent work was done by Eng- lishmen during the Jacobean Period. Jean Mace of Blois is thought to be the first to practice intarsia in France under the name of marquetrie. He learned the art in the Netherlands. French designs usually ran to landscapes, ruins and classic scenes. 1650 — Under Louis XIV Dutch marqueteurs were employed to teach the art to French- men. The name Boulle has become indis- solubly connected with the application of copper and tortoise shell mosaics upon wood. The Portuguese carried on the work in the Seventeenth Century, em- ploying metal plates cut and pierced in elaborate and fanciful patterns fastened upon black wood, the beginning of Boulle work, which was characterized by the sinking of the metal into the wood. 1672 — Andre Charles Boulle, born in 1642, was granted apartments in the Louvre as “joiner, marqueter, gilder and chiseler.” Boulle’s work covered Louis XIV and XV Periods. J. F. Oeben was famous during the Louis XV Period, also J. Henry Riesener and Chas. Cressent. 1700 — Marquetry fashionable in England in the Queen Anne Period. The designs were rich in foliage with bands of ivory and mother-of-pearl. 1760 — Satinwood used for inlaid lines of Sher- aton furniture; also holly, tulipwood, de- cidedly reddish, and later lancewood. 1770 — All of the tropical woods utilized by the inlayers. Wonderful effects obtained by David Roentgen, German, who secured shadings by subjecting woods to various degrees of hot sand baths. 1779 — David Roentgen appointed by Marie Antoinette as marqueteur to the Queen. FINISH. 1200 — Gothic and early Renaissance furniture was left untouched. As the forms of fur- niture became more ornamental a deep colored varnish was applied or the wood was much oiled and waxed. 1500 — Amber was known from time immemo- rial. It was a recognized commercial article in the Sixteenth Century, and it is probable that it was used for the manu- facture of varnish for violins. 1600 — The gums used in the manufacture of varnishes coming from Asia, South Amer- ica and the West Indies, there was prob- ably no commercial supply for the gen- eral manufacture of varnishes until late in the Seventeenth Century. Unquestion- ably varnishes have been made at almost all periods, but they were rare. In small quantities they were used for jewel boxes, violins, musical instruments. Japan and China have long been skilled in the art. 1700 — Towards the close of 1600 the craze for Oriental ware induced Louis XIV to enact laws to protect native industries. 1710 — In 1710 the French japanners claiming that the lacquers and japans were equal to the Asiatic ware, asked for protection, and throughout this period there is con- stant reference to lacquered tables, screens, chairs, lacquered trunks, panels fans and furniture. 1733 — Imitations of lacquer found fame in the Netherlands through Huygens, and contemporaneously in France through Martin (Vernis-Martin) Royal factory, 1748. 234 INDEX Note: — The innumerable racial names, divisions and nationalities, not indexed hereunder, will be found comprehensively grouped under the charts, “Developments of Nations,'’ pages 3 to 6. Acanthus, 60, 73 Adam, 72, 154, 161*, 176, 184, 184b*, 187*, 188*, 189* 190a* 196*, 197, 198a*, 199*, 200*, 201, 202* Age of Bronze, 15 Age of Copper, 15 Age of Iron, 15 Age of Oak, 8, 118 Age of Stone, 15 Age of Walnut, 8, 80, 118 Ainos, 50 Alberti, 77 Alhambraic, 8, 39 Amaranth, 157 Animal Forms, 15, 17, 24, 27, 28, 45 Anthemion, 60, 73 Arabesque, 130 Arabian, 7, 39, 40*, 41 Arabic, 130 Arras Tapestries, 222 Artists and Architects, 138 Art Moderne, 219 Art Nouveau, 8, 72, 217*, 218*, 219* Arts and Craft, 219, 222*, 223, 224*, 225* Asiatic, 38, 39 Assyrian, 3, 7, 16*, 17 Aztec, 10, 224* Babel, 144, 147 Babylonian, 3, 7, 16*, 17 Barbaric Design, 9 Baroque, 123, 124* Bartolomeo, 77 Bartolozzi, 176 Beauvais, 132, 150 Beetle, 15 Beidermeier, 216, 217, 218, 219 Berain, 132, 133, 137* Bird Forms, 27, 28, 49, 137 Bonchon, 125 Borgognone, 77 Botticelli, 77 Bouchardon, 139, 147 Boucher, 139, 144, 147, 150 Boudichon, 168 Boulle, 133, 150, 154 Boullognes, 132 Brass Mountings, 163 Erocatelles, 140 Bronze, 28, 133, 145, 150 Brown, Ford Madox, 220 Bruges Satins, 125 Brunelleschi, 77, 78 Bulb Foot, ill Buonarroti, 77 Bureau, 128, 217 Burne-Jones, 219, 220 Butterfly Table, 212 Byzantine, 4, 7, 27, 29, 30, 35 C Curve, 103, 105 Cabriole Leg, 111, 169, 180 Calico Printing, 222 Campbell, 176 Candle Stand, 211* Cane, 119, 124, 169 Cane Seats, 105, 189, 212 Card Tables, 157, 176 Carpets, 222 Carter, Edward, 123, 176 Carter. J„ 176 Cedar, 117, 119 Ceilings, 123, 126a* 128* Celtic, 3, 7, 24*, 25 Chaise Cacquetoire, 105 Chaise Lounge, 137* Chaise Perroquet, 105 Chaldean, 7 Chambers, Sir William, 176, 177, 183, 185 Charles I, 105 ■Charles II, 8, 104, 117, 121, 202 Charles IX, 83, 124 Cheshire, 194 Chests, 57, 212 Chinese, 7, 38, 45, 47*, 133, 147, 182, 183 Chinese Ornament, 141, 144 Chintzes, 110 Chippendale, 161, 176, 177*, 178*, 179, 180*, 181*, 182* -4185, 188* 201 Christian, Early, 31 Chronology of Decoration by Centuries, 7, 8 Chronology of Rugs, 233 Chronology of Wall and Ceiling Treat- ment, 227, 231 Chronology of Woods, 234 Cipriani, 176, 185, 191, 197, 198*, 201 Circle, 27, Si, ,34 Clarke, Sir Purdon, 217 Claw-and-Bali Foot, 111, 112, 169, 180 Clocks, 110, 119, 189 Colbert, 125, 132, 137, 167 Colonial, 8, 169, 175, 203, 206*, 208, 209*, 211*, 213* 214a*, 217, 228 Colored Glass Windows, 57 Color Printing, 166 Columbani, 176, 201 Commonwealth, 105 Composite, 7 Connecticut Chests, 204 Console, 157 Constantinople, 31 Copeland, 176, 180 Copper, 57, 78 Cordova Leathers, 89, 97 Corinthian, 7 Couches, 15, 19 Coypel, 132 Cradle Chair, 212 Crane, Walter, 219 Cromwellian, 8, 99, 104, 176 Crown, 49, 60 Crunden, 176, 180, 201 Crusades, 7, 34 Cupboard, 222* Cylinder Printing, 168 Dagobert, 27 Damasks, 28, 75, 130, 133 Dangon, 125 Darley, 176, 179 David, 161 Da Vinci, 77 Day Bed, 201* De Cuvilles, 144 De La Londe, 154 De La Salle, 125, 140, 141 Del Sarto, 77 De Maintenon, 137 De Medici, Catherine, 83, 124 Derbyshire Chair, 105* Design Characteristics, 13 Development of Floral Types, 72*, 73 Development of Mechanical Textile De- sign, 64 Development of Nations, 3, 6 Development of Textile Weaving, 35 Diamond-paned Windows, 112 Dimity, 113, 125, 130 Directoire, 8, 161, 163 Directorate, 161 Domino, 168 Donato, 77 Doric, 7 Dossier, 57 Double-seated Chairs, 117 Dove, 27 Dragon, 25, 27, 50 Draught Chair, 169 Drop Handles, 117 Du Barry, 150 Duchess Chair, 189 Duplessis, 144 Diirer, 77, 123 Dutch, 6, 8 t 235 INDEX Four-post Bed, 212* Fra Angelico, 77 Fra Giaconda, 77 Fragonard, 147 Francis I, 86, 86a* Francis II, 83 French, 3, 4, 6 French Carpets, 145 French-Flemish, 117 French Gothic, 7, 53, 54*, 61, 62* French Renaissance, 6, 8, 77, 83>, 84*, 85 French Romanesque, 27, 31 Frieze Decoration, 15 Friezes, 188 Fustians, 125 George I, II, III, 176 Georgia, 31 Georgian, 8, 175, 176 Germain, 144 German Empire, 7, 218 German Gothic, 52, 53, 61, 63*, 68* German Renaissance, 8, 77, 90 German Romanesque, 31, 33* Gesso Work, 198 Giacomo, 77 Gibb, 122, 123, 130*, 176 Gibbons, Grinling, 104, 122, 123, 128*, 176 Gillow, 176 Glass, 31, 209 «■ Glass Knobs, 185 Gobelin, 8, 132 Gothic, 6, 7, 51*, 52*, 53, 54a*, 55, 60*, 61, 70a* Gothic Fabric Design, 64*, 65 Goths, 27 Graeco-Pelasgic, 7, 22 Grandfather’s Clocks, 110 Grecian, 3, 7, 18, 19, 23 Greek Ornament, 19* Group System of Classifying Textiles, 34, 64 Guadameciles, 97 Guilloche, 22 Flighboy, 213* Hispano-Saracenic, 31 Hogarth, 176 Hogarth Chair, 169, 206* Holbein, 103, 123* FI ope, Thomas, 176, 204, 219 Idorsehair Coverings, 189 Huet, 150 Flunt, Holman, 220 Flyvart, 132 Ince, 176, 179 India Prints, 110 Indian, 7, 18, 39, 45, 46*, 50*, 112, 166*, 167* Inlaid Floors, 112 Inlays, 83 Inscriptional Work, 40 Intarsia and Marquetry, 23, 80*, 83 Interlacements, 27, 34 Interlacing Circles, 28 Interlacing Crosses, 28 Intersection Design, 27 Ionic, 7 Islam, 39 Italian, 4, 6, 70, 75, 78* Italian Chairs, 83 Italian Gothic, 53, 61, 67*, 74*, 76 Italian Renaissance, 8, 77*, 78, 79*, 81*, 82*, 83 Jacobean, 8, 99, 100*, 101*, 109*, 113, 117, 129* ; -r Jacobean Chests, 99* Jacquard, 125 James I, 105, 129* James II, 117 Jamnitzer, 123 Japanese, 7, 45, 48*, 50, 183 Japanned, 118, 226 Jeffersonian Period, 175, 211 John of Padua, 77, 99, 123 Johnson, Thomas, 17(5, 180 Jones, Inigo, 103, 122*, 123, 130*, 133 Jones, W., 176, 201 Jouy, Prints, 141*, 104*, 166*, 167* Dutch Embroideries, 95 Dutch Gothic, 53 Eagle Head, 18 Eagle-headed Lions, 18 Eagles, 17, 28 Early Christian, 27, 31, 35, 37* East India Goods, 175 East India Trading Co., 89, 110 Eastlake, 219, 220, 222* Ebenists and Inlayers, 138 , Ebony, 118, 124, 163 Edict of Nantes, 104 Edwards, 176, 177, 179 Egyptian, 3, 7, 14, 15 Egyptian Damasks, 125 Eight-legged Chair, 113 Elizabethan, 8, 99, 100*, 102*, 104*, 106*, 107*, 108*, 118 Elizabethan Embroideries, 99* Embroideries, 22, 23, 28, 31 Empire. 72, 158b*, 161, 162*, 163*, 165* Enamels, 28 English Gothic, 6, 7, 8, 53, 58*, 59*, 61 English Renaissance, 6, 8, 77, 99, 109*, 122 * English Romanesque, 27 Escutcheons, 117 Essex, 194 Etamines, 125 Etruscan, 3, 7 Fabrics, 28, 56, 61, 65, 71, 112, 126*, 127*, 140*, 141*, 206 Fabrics of the Sixteenth and Seven- teenth Centuries, 140 Fabrics of Northern Italy, 75 Falcon, 125, 128 Fan-shaped Chairs, 105 Fan-shaped Ornaments, 15 Farthingdale Chair, 119* Feathers, 15, 137 Feradines, 125 Field Bed, 205, 212* Fig Tree, 17 Filatrices, 125^ Fir Cones, 18 Flambeau, 163 Flanders, 8 Fleeson, 210 Flemings, 83 Flemish, 5, 6, 7 Flemish Dutch, 6, 117 Flemish Renaissance, 77, 89, 91* Flemish Strapwork, 88 Fleur-de-lis, 53, 60 Floral Motifs, 28, 72 Florentine Renaissance, 8, 77 Floriated Forms, 24, 43 Flower Tables, 157 Fluted Foot, 111 Fontainebleau, 70a*, 83, 129*, 222a* Hadley Chests, 204* Halfpenny, William, 176 Hals, Franz, 123* Hardware, 189 Hargraves, 204, 210 Hawksmoor, 123, 176 Hebraic, 3, 18 Henri II, 7, 78*, 83*, 118, 124, 126, 127* Henri III, 83, 124 Henri IV, 8, 83, 124, 126*, 140 Henry VIII, 118 Hepplewhite, 159*, 176, 181, 184, 185, 186*, 189*, 190*. 191, 192*, 193*, 201 Heraldic Forms, 34 Herculaneum, 151 Kas, 210*, 211 Kauffmann, Angelica, 176, 191, 197, 201 222 Kent, William, 130*, 176, 180 Lacquer, 118, 144, 145 Lacquered Furniture, 117, 226 La Fontaine, 133, 150 Lancashire Chair, 105*, 194, 202 Lancet Gothic, 55 Lancret, 139 Latrobe, 204, 210, 211 Leathers, 89, 94a*, 110, 112, 124 Le Brun, 132, 141 Le Pautre, Jean and Antoine, 132 236 INDEX Le Roux, 144 Linenfold Panels, 57, 61 Lions, 17, 28, 45, 180 Lock, Mathias, 176, 179 Lockwood, Luke Vincent, 217 Lombards, 27 Looking-glasses, 110, 207* Lotus, 15, 17 Louis XI, 49 Louis, XIII, 8, 124, 125*, 126*, 127*, 129*, 131* Louis XIV, 8, 113, 125*, 127*, 132*, 134*, 135*, 136*, 137*, 142*, 143*, 144*, 148* Louis XV, 134a*, 142*, 144, 145*, 148*, 154* Louis XVI, 8, 151, 153, 155*, 156*, 157*, 158*, 159* Love Seats, 169 Lucca della Robbia, 77 Luccan Damascenes, 125 Lyre-form Chairbacks, 193 Mahogany, 8, 105, 145, 163, 180, 204 Mansart, 132 Mantels, 158a*, 185 Manwaring, 176, 177, 179 Marble Couches, 23 Marbled Papers, 168 Marie Antoinette, 150, 151, 152, 222a*, 226 Marot, Daniel, 118, 132, 137*, 169 Marot, Jean, 132 Marquetry, 119, 124 Marquetried Furniture, 117 Marshall, 221 Martin, Robert, 118, 147 Martin, Simon Etienne Jr., 147 Mayhew, 176, 177, 179 Mazarin, 132, 183 Medieval Art, 27 Medieval Furniture, 33* Messonnier, 150 Mexican Decoration, 224 Michael Angelo, 123 Mignard, 133 Milanese Renaissance, 8, 77 Milton, 176 Mirror Glass, 110, 210 Mirrors, 22, 80, 110, 128, 150, 207* Mission, 219, 223*, 224 Mohammedan, 7, 39 Moliere, 133 Monnoyer, 132 Moorish, 5, 7, 38, 39, 41* Moquette Carpets, 157 Moresque, 130 Morris, William, 219, 220, 221 Mortlake Tapestry Works, 38, 112 Mosaics, 23 Mullais, John, 220 Mythological Subjects, 28 197 Napoleonic Bee, 163 Napoleonic Crown, 158b*, 163 Natoire, 147 Netherlands, 68 Netherlands Gothic, 61, 68* Nettings, 15 Norfolk, 194 Norman, 7 Norman England, 27 Norman Romanesque, 27, 32* Northern, 7, 25 Norwegian Renaissance, 95 Oak, 8, 118 Oak Leaf, 76 Oberkampf, 167 Octagons, 28 Oeben, 144 Ogival Forms, 27*, 34, 35, 70 Oiled Linen, 209 Oiled Paper, 209 Oriental Motif, 111* Oriental Rugs, 110, 133, 145 Ormolu, 150, 229 Otter, 25 » Ottoman, 8, 39, 42* Ottomans, 157 Oudry, 144 Oval Chair-backs, 187* Ovals, 34 Overton, 176 Paine, 176 Painted Furniture, 124, 208, 225*, 227 Painted Linens, 167 Palladio, 77, 103 Palm, 17, 23, 39 Panels, 23 Paper, 168 Papyrus Buds 15 Partheon, 7 Peacock, 27, 28, 50 Pea Form, 39, 42, 61 Pediments, 130*, 193* Pelasgic, 7, 22 Pembroke Tables, 191 Perforated Doors, 57 Pergolesi, 176, 191, 197, 198*, 201, 226 Perpendicular Gothic, 55 Persian, 3, 7, 17, 18, 39, 43*, 74 Perso Byzantine, 31 Phoenician, 3, 18 Phyfe, 204, 210, 211 Pierced Rails, 180 Pier Table, 157 Pineapple, 23, 39 Pines, 39 Plumes, 137 Pomegranate, 39 Pompadour, Madam, 144 Pompeii, 7, 151 Pompeiian, 7, 19, 20*, 23, 161, 197, 199 Porcelain, 137 Portieres, 28 Portuguese, 3, 6 Portuguese Persian, 73 Portuguese Renaissance, 95 Pre-Raphaelites, 220 Printed Fabrics and Paper, 166, 222 Printed Linens, 167, 194 Queen Anne, 8, 105, 117, 169, 170 171*, 173*, 174*, 175*, 179, 213* ' Queen Anne Highboy, 169* Queen Anne Love-seat, 169* Racine, 133 Rag Paper, 168 Raphael, 77 Rayed Stars, 49 Rectangular Patterns, 34 Reeds, 15 Regency, 139, 148* Rembrandt, 183* Renaissance, 77, 88, 102*, 127* Renaissance Development, 77, 114 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1> Ribbon-back Chair, 180 Richardson, 176, 201 Riesener, 144, 154 Rock and Shell, 133 Rocking Chairs, 227 Rococo, 8, 139, 150, 168* Roentgen, 154, 226 Roman, 3, 4, 7, 19, 21*, 22, 23 Romanesque, 7, 31, 34, 35, 36 Romanesque Gothic, 53 Roman Renaissance, 8, 77, 123 Ronezzano, 99 Rope Seats, 15 Rosewood, 163 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 220, 221 Rossetti, William, 220 Roundabout Chair, 212*, 215* Rounded Wood, 179 Round Head Gothic, 53 Rubens, 103, 123* Rush Floors, 57, 110, 119*, 210 Rush Seats, 15, 212 Ruskin, 219, 225 Russian, 5, 27, 69* Russian Renaissance, 92*, 95, 97* S Curve, 103, 105 S-Shaped Chair Leg, 118 Sacred Tree, 15, 18 Salembier, 154 Sanded Floors, 210 Saracenic, 28*, 31, 38, 48 Sarcenets, 28 Sassanian, 7 Satin, 125 Scandinavian, 5, 7, 25, 26* Scissor Chair (see X Chair), 118 237 INDEX Schinkel, 168 Schubert, 219 Sconces, 128 Scroll Feet, 111 Secession, 219 Seralio, 77 Serpentine Stretcher, 117 Settees, 117 Seventeenth Century English Furni- ture, 120*, 121* Shah Abbas, 39 Shearer, 176, 187, 188*, 190*, 193 Shellacking - , 118 Shell Shapes, 105, 137 a^&heraton, 154, 159*, 176, 181*, 185, 188‘ - , 189*, 190, 191, 193, 195*, 201*, 202 Shield-shape Chairbaeks, 187* Sicilian, 49 Siculo-Saracenic, 49 Sideboards, 189*, 191, 215 Silk, 19, 28, 35, 49, 75, 113, 125, 131*, 194 Silver Ornamentation, 18 Sixteenth Century Fabric Designs, 71* Smith, George, 176 Smooth Splat, 169 Spade Foot, 111 Spanish, 3, 5, 6, 7 Spanish Gothic, 66* Spanish Portuguese, 6 Spanish Renaissance, 6, 8, 93*, 94*, 95, 96* Spinning Machine, 75 Splat Back, 180 Squares, 28, 34 Stalactite Forms, 133 Stencil Work, 227 Stephens, 220 Street, George Edmund, 220 Stretchers, 112, 169 Stripes, 28, 34 Stone, Nicholas, 123, 176 Stools, 15 Stuart, 8, 99 Stuccos, 80*, 103, 133 Swan, Abraham, 176 Swastika, 11, 12 Swiss Renaissance, 98 Switzerland, 96*, 98 Sycamore, 118 Syria, 3 Taffetas, 28 Tapestries, 22, 28, 31, 35 Tapestry Weaving, 222 Tarsia (see Intarsia) Taylor, Sir Robert, 176 Tea Tables, 212 Teutonic, 3, 4 Textile Design, 57, 64 Textile Weaving, 35 Thomas, W., 176, 201 Tiles, 31, 34 Toile de Jouy, 141, 164, 166*, 167* Torch, 163 Torrigiano, 99 Tortoise Shell, 150 Transition, 72, 139, 151, 154, 160*, 161, 162*, 163 Tudor Gothic, 8, 55, 61, 109* Turkish, 8, 39, 44* Turned-Rail Furniture, 95* Turned Wood, 28, 212 Tuscan, 7 Tyrol, 98 Tyrol Gothic, 53, 61, 68* Upholstered Chairs, 117, 118, 124, 212 Urns, 60 Van Brugh, 123, 176 Van Dyke, 103, 123* Vandermeulen, 132 Varnish, 118 Velvet, 22, 28, 75, 86*, 87*, 113, 125, 133' Veneering, 23, 119, 125, 229 Venetian, 70, 76 Venetian Damasks, 125 Venetian Renaissance, 8, 77, 123 Vernis-Martin, 118, 144, 147, 226 Verrio, 123 Vezier, 125 Victoria, Queen, 219 Victorian, 8 Vitruvian Scrolls, 22 Voysey Design, 220* Wagner, 219 Wainscoted Chairs, 212 Wainscoti ng, 57 Wallis, 176, 201 Wall-paper, 168, 204, 210, 222 Walnut, 8, 113, 119 Walpole, 176, 180 Ware, Isaac, 176, 204, 210 Watteau, Antoine, 139, 146* Webb, 123, 176, 221 Wedgwood, Josiah, 176, 198 White Woodwork, 179, 185, 210 Wicker, 105, 212 William and Mary, 8, 113, 116*, 121 213* Willow, 118 Window Traceries, 212, 215 Windsor Chairs, 202, 206*, 214 Winged Bulls, 18 Winged Dolphins, 13, 22 Winged Human Figures, 15, 18 Wood Carving, 83 Woods, Chronology of, 160, 234 Wood Finish, 118 Wood-paneled Chairs, 104 Wren, Sir Christopher, 103, 122*, 123 128*, 176 X Chair, 118 Yorkshire Chair, 105*, 194 Zigzags, 15 Zucchi, 176, 197, 201 238 /