■■■I 
 
nJu / 
 
I 
 
 THE 
 
 PROGRESSIVE DRAWING-BOOK ; 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 DRAWING LANDSCAPE, ARCHITECTURE, THE HUMAN FIGURE, SHIPPING. 
 
 ANIMALS, &c. 
 
 WITHOUT THE AID OF A MASTER. 
 
 ALSO, A COMrLETE 
 
 TREATISE ON PERSPECTIVE. 
 mti) nearlp €i)vtt l^unUreD ^ngrabmgs* 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, CO VENT GARDEN. 
 
 MLCCCLIII. 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Archive 
 
 in 2013 
 
 littp://arcliive.org/details/progressivedrawiOOIond 
 
When alluding to perspective, Leonardo da Vinci, the celebrated painter, obserres : " The practice of 
 painting ought always to be built on a rational theory, of which perspective is both the guide and gate, 
 and without which it is impossible to succeed, either in designing or in any of the arts depending 
 thereon." 
 
 " That perspective is an essential requisite in a good painter," says Kirby, " is attested by all our 
 most eminent artists, and is moreover confirmed by almost every author who has wrote upon painting ; 
 nay, the very term painting implies perspective. For to draw a good picture is to draw a representation 
 of nature as it appears to the eye ; therefore the terms painting and perspective appear to be synonymous, 
 though I know there is a critical difference between the words. Yet this will serve at least to show the 
 near alliance between painting and perspective ; that if the one doth not comprehend the other, still 
 perspective may be said to be the basis upon which painting is built ; and, therefore, he who attempts to 
 paint a picture without having a general knowledge of it, will always wander in the mazes of un- 
 certainty, and be subject to the greatest errors. And what is said of the usefulness of perspective 
 to painters in particular, may be applied to artists in general, such as engravers, architects, statuaries, 
 chasers, carvers, &c. I would not be understood to mean, that a person is always to follow the rigid 
 Piiles of perspective, for there are some cases in which it may be necessary to deviate from them ; but 
 he must do it with modesty, and for some good reason, as will be shown in the course of this work. 
 
4 
 
 youth's progressive drawing-book. 
 
 and other parts of the drawing are improperly placed. On the contrary, if the lines are upright, and 
 the whole properly drawn, it will be a correct picture of the form of the building, without being 
 coloured at all. It is to drawing only, and the principles of hght and shade, that the student must 
 devote his attention in the early lessons contained in this Work. 
 
 PENCILS. — All the materials required are, black-lead pencils, of different degrees of hardness, 
 (except paper to draw upon.) The black-lead pencils most proper for drawing with are marked with the 
 letters H, HB, F, &c. to denote that they are hard, hard and black, or fine, without being black or hard. 
 The student will find those marked HB, F, and H, most useful. 
 
 The best paper for practising the early lessons is the hard cartridge-paper. It is much cheaper 
 than drawing-paper, and the sketches will look better upon it, than they would upon white paper. 
 Some students make the paper up in the form of a book, but it will be found more advantageous to 
 keep the sheets in a portfolio, as the drawings are not so liable to rub as they are in a book. The 
 expense of a stout portfolio is very trifling, and it answers the double purpose of a repository for 
 sketches, and a desk to draw upon. 
 
 It is of great importance to all students (particularly ladies) that they sit to draw in an easy, 
 upright position, so that the chest is not pressed against the edge of the desk or table, which is not only 
 prejudicial to health, but gives an awkward habit of stooping, and prevents the free use of the hand. 
 The using of a portfolio as a desk wiU be found very beneficial in preventing this evil, as it can be 
 raised or lowered, by putting books under it, to suit the sight and size of the learner. 
 
 MODE OF HOLDING THE PENCIL.— To obtain freedom of hand, the side of the second finger 
 should press against the pencil at the distance of, at least, one inch from its point, and the pencil should 
 
youth's progressive drawing-book. 
 
 be held in the same manner as the pen is in writing, but the hand should not rest exclusively on the 
 little finger. 
 
 TO COPY YOUR SUBJECT. — All being now ready, lay the drawing you wish to copy before 
 you, letting it rest against a book or reading-stand, in an inclined position ; calculate, as nearly 
 as you can, what parts on your paper particular points or lines in your original will occupy — as, for 
 instance, the corners of the principal buildings, or the ground line upon which they rest ; connect these 
 points by means of faint hues, and compare your rude sketch with the copy ; wherever you find it differ 
 correct it, and rub out the false line with the Indian-rubber or bread. As a general rule, begin the 
 sketch at the left-hand uppermost corner, and begin to finish your drawing from the same point ; 
 by following this plan, there is no danger of ' obliterating the pencil-mark with the hand. When 
 sufficiently correct, strengthen your outline, where necessary, not by making the lines hard and 
 continuous, as if drawn by the aid of a ruler, but light and sketchy, as if made by several attempts, 
 taking advantage of any irregularity in the object to break the line and again recommence it ; 
 observing, also, that the lines on the shadowy side of the object are to be drawn firmer and with 
 more decision than those on the side on which the light falls. We cannot too strongly impress upon 
 the mind of the youthful student the necessity that exists, as long as he continues to copy from other 
 drawings, of imitating his original exactly : not a line should be omitted or a line added : by attending 
 strictly to this advice, he will make sure of every step as he advances, and lay the foundation of a 
 correct style. 
 
 c 
 
6 
 
 youth's progressive drawing-book. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE EXAMPLES IN PAGES 1, 2, 3, & 4. 
 
 The first examples in these Plates are of the simplest nature, but, nevertheless, they contain every 
 arrangement of line necessary for the formation of the outline of an object, if we except the curved 
 line. In drawing the perpendicular lines first shown, only a small portion of each is drawn by one 
 movement of the pencil ; the hand is then moved downwards, and another portion is formed ; the same 
 rule applies to the horizontal and diagonal lines. If an endeavour were made to draw a lengthened 
 line at one stroke, the result would be a curved instead of a straight line ; for that part of the hand 
 which rests upon the paper would form, as it were, the point of one leg of a pair of compasses, while 
 the point of the pencil woidd stand in the place of the other. 
 
 When curved lines are drawn, the hand should scarcely touch the table, in order that there may be 
 more regularity in their curvature. 
 
 In drawing the harrow, remember that the lines of which the cross-bars are formed would, if con- 
 tinued, meet in two distinct points in a line with each other ; this will be fully explained in the part 
 devoted to Perspective. 
 
®Sf ILASf ®i© ®mAWEM©o 
 
 The student who has devoted much attention to the drawing of the human figure will find little dif- 
 ficulty in copying any of the forms which are to be met with in landscape, if we except the foliage of 
 trees, which requires a peculiar treatment, and much practice before perfection can be attained. 
 
 In landscape drawing the same attention must be paid to correctness of outline as in the case 
 of the figure ; and a competent knowledge of perspective is especially necessary. Without the know- 
 ledge of perspective, no landscape drawing can be well done, as the beauty and truth of the objects, 
 besides the spirit and character of the outline, depend much upon the proper inclination of the lines of 
 the various objects, according to their convergence to their respective vanishing points ; and, although 
 much careful practice may give a general correctness of pei'ception to the eye, which may prevent gross 
 mistakes, yet as the principles are wanting which give certainty and decision, perpetual errors will 
 intrude themselves ; and to the more inteUigent critic, the artist's ignorance of this indispensable 
 requisite will instantly display itself. 
 
 In commencing a landscape drawing, after the first arrangement of the perspective points, accord- 
 ing to the rules laid down in the section of this drawing-book which treats of that subject, the 
 pupil must direct his attention to the sketching in those great lines which bound the principal masses, 
 and afterwards proceed to the smaller ones. He will find when he reviews the various forms of the 
 objects in a landscape, that the want of uniformity in the nature of those objects, renders it necessary 
 
8 
 
 to treat their outlines in a different manner, according to the nature of the object it is intended 
 to represent In the human figure the outUne consists of a clean undulating line, but in landscape the 
 outline of most objects is broken and irregular, and the lines by which this outline is defined must be of 
 a similar nature. For instance, if the outline of a building, forming part of a landscape, were to 
 be drawn in with a ruler, the resulting figure would be stiff and formal ; but this would not be the case 
 if the boundary line were judiciously broken. Again, in the case of trees, a very peculiar touch is 
 necessary, which must vary according to the nature of the foliage ; and this variation ought to 
 be managed with sufficient art to indicate clearly the description of tree intended to be represented, and 
 the nearer the tree is placed to the foreground, the more decided should these distinctive marks 
 become. 
 
 In drawing in the masses, those parts which are bounded by straight lines should be first drawn in : 
 for instance, suppose the subject is an arch supported on two columns, in the first 
 place, draw the columns, then, having drawn a horizontal line across the summit 
 of the columns, draw another, parallel to it, across the spot where the top of the 
 key-stone of the arch is placed, as at A ; continue the outer perpendicular lines of 
 the columns until they reach this line, the oblong thus formed will bound the semi- 
 circle formed by the stones of the arch, and the semicircle, with this assistance, can 
 be readily drawn in ; the form of each separate stone may then be easily determined 
 by drawing lines at equal distances to the centre at B. 
 These directions may appear minute and frivolous, but if followed they will materially assist 
 the learner, who will thus be able to execute his work more readily, and with an unhesitating hand. 
 
9 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The plan we have laid down is as applicable to other forms as it is to the arch, for every form in archi- 
 tecture is either a rectangle, or can have its extremities bounded by 
 a rectangle. Thus, for instance, the spire of a church forms a rect- 
 angle, but if the square figure, B, C, D, E, is drawn, so as to enclose 
 it, the apex, A, can be readily found by dividing the line, B, C, and if 
 this square is put in perspective, the perspective form of the triangle 
 can be in the same manner found. So again with the circle, or 
 cylinder, (fig. 2,) in which the square-sided figure defines the perspec- 
 tive form of the cylinder. The lines of the outUne, when first drawn, 
 should be very Hghtly sketched, and strengthened by degrees, as the 
 details are determined. 
 
 It is a maxim which cannot be too frequently repeated, that the successful execution of a drawing 
 depends entirely on the correctness with which the outHne is in the first instance traced out. It is true 
 that a correct outUne will not necessarily ensure a good drawing, but a good drawing cannot be the 
 result of the artist's efforts without a correct outline : with as much propriety might the architect expect 
 to raise a symmetrical building upon irregular foundations. 
 
 The outline of the drawing being complete, and all the superfluous lines erased, either by the use 
 of crumbs of bread or India-rubber, the principal shadows may be laid in ; this can be done either by 
 means of lines crossing each other at various angles, or, in some peculiar cases, by parallel lines alone, 
 or the first indication of the shadows may be obtained by the use of the stump. The stump is a piece 
 of soft leather rolled up tight, and cut to a point at each end. A little powdered chalk or black-lead, as 
 
 D 
 
10 
 
 the case may be, is scraped over the centre of any of the principal shadows, and rubbed into the paper 
 by means of the stump. This process is continued until the general effect of the drawing is produced, 
 and all the shadows covered more or less with the chalk or black-lead ; the drawing can then be finished 
 by lines and hatches, the outhne being sharpened where necessary, and the texture of the objects of 
 which the subject is composed being carefully attended to when the last touches are added. 
 
 Sometimes a chalk drawing is made upon a tinted paper, the colour of the paper taking the place 
 of the middle tints, and the high lights being drawn in with white chalk, A dravdng executed in this 
 manner, when properly managed, is very effective ; but great care must be taken not to allow the black 
 and the white chalk to mingle with each other ; when this accident takes place the clearness of the 
 drawing is materially injured. 
 
 The examples we have given in this Drawing-book are more particularly adapted for^Ciopying in 
 chalk, pen, or pencil, but the same subjects may be executed in Indian-ink or sepia, the latter colour is 
 to be preferred on account of its more mellow tint. Before a sepia drawing is begun, the paper must 
 be properly strained upon a board ; first with a wet sponge damp one side of the paper, apply a little 
 strong paste to the edges of the dry side, and press them down carefully to the board until they adhere 
 firmly ; but while this is being effected the centre of the paper will become dry, and by its contraction 
 would draw tlie edges from the board ; to prevent this, either sponge the centre afresh, and keep it 
 damp until the paste is nearly dry, or lay a piece of damp blotting-paper upon it. In executing a sepia 
 drawing, the great masses of shadow must be laid in first, after the outline has been faintly but carefully 
 sketched in with a black-lead pencil ; if the broad masses of shadow are not applied at once, the different 
 tints are liable to lap over each other at the edges and produce an unseemly mark, and the drawing vdil 
 
1 1 
 
 appear dry and hard ; as large a brush, also, as the subject will admit of must be used, and if not too 
 full of colour, the learner will be astonished to find how readily he can execute a small drawing with a 
 large, well-made camel-hair pencil. The advantage of using a large brush arises from the colour flowing 
 more freely, and spreading more equally over the surface of the paper. 
 
 In going over the great shadows in this manner the student need not heed the loss of many small 
 touches of light, which he will be unable to preserve, as they can afterwards be put in, and that with 
 much more effect, in the following manner, when the drawing is nearly finished : — Wet the spot where 
 a small light is wanting by means of a camel-hair pencil dipped in water, allow it to remain for an 
 instant, apply a piece of blotting-paper to absorb the superfluous moisture, and if the place is rubbed 
 instantly with the crumb of bread, the colour will be removed, and the white surface of the paper 
 exposed, and that without it being in the least injured. 
 
 In drawing from nature, it is necessary to begin fixing the boundaries of each side, which in general 
 ought not to extend further than what can be conveniently seen at one view without turning the head, 
 the reason of this will appear by referring to the term, the plane of the picture, as defined in our treatise 
 on Perspective. If a man stands on a hill overlooking the surrounding country, by 
 turning round he can take in a panoramic view of the whole, but at one glance he 
 cannot see more than one-sixth of the whole, or sixty degrees of a great circle. The 
 annexed diagram will explain this. Let A, D, B, be the great circle of the horizon, 
 divided, as all great circles are by mathematicians, into three hundred and sixty 
 degrees ; a man standing at C, in the centre of this cu-cle B, is not able to see at 
 one glance more than the distance from A to D, or sixty degrees, one-sixth of the circle of the horizon, 
 and to such a portion of the view a picture ought to be always limited. 
 
12 
 
 If the learner attends to these directions, he will be able to regulate the proportion and quantity of 
 the subject he means to introduce, according to the size of his paper. By dividing it between those 
 boundaries, and observing what lines or objects coincide with those points and their subdivisions, he 
 will easily find their places and relative distances, and the heights of the several objects will be readily 
 found by proportioning them to their breadth, or by regulating them by the situation of any other 
 object which may be on the same level. For this purpose the horizontal line already spoken of is very 
 convenient, as by its help the height of the several objects, whether they occur above or below the line, 
 may be decided according to the distance of their different parts from the line. 
 
 On the choice of a subject for a landscape Mr. Nicholson, the celebrated teacher of drawing, says : 
 " Those subjects are to be preferred which are composed of few parts and large forms. The point of 
 view should be that where the objects combine together and group to the greatest advantage ; if the 
 composition consists of three masses, that is, of one principal, and the others subordinate to it, with 
 such opening as may be requisite to show the distance, of which a small portion may be sufficient, it 
 will be found more proper for picturesque representation than such as are composed of many small 
 parts, which a beginner will be apt to prefer." 
 
 To judge of what is a fit subject for representation, and what is improper for the purpose, the same 
 artist recommends the use of a blackened convex mirror. " Considerable help," he observes, " may be 
 derived from its use, as it takes in as much, or nearly so, as should come into the picture ; many sub- 
 jects, particularly those which are near and strongly illuminated, will by this means be found to possess 
 great beauty and such picturesque effect as a person of httle practice would overlook. 
 
 The effect of objects seen in the mirror will be like that in the camera obscura, and for the same 
 
13 
 
 reason, the dark parts reflecting less than the hghts, the opposition of the Hght and shadow will be 
 greater than in nature ; but there is nothing to be apprehended from this circumstance that can affect 
 a beginner. 
 
 We have already given a rule for determining how a great portion of the landscape (in width) should 
 be taken into the picture, we have now to point out the method of choosing the line where the foreground 
 is to commence with the best advantage — this will depend materially on circumstances. " The artist," 
 says the author we have already quoted, " cannot draw the ground he stands on, for the obvious reason 
 that he cannot see it and his subject at the same time. How far he may remove it will depend on cir- 
 cumstances, as, if the objects are elevated, or the scene be in a mountainous country, he will find, that 
 unless the nearest part of his foreground be at a sufficient distance from his station he will exclude the 
 sky ; therefore, holding up the paper on which his drawing is to be made at as great a distance from 
 the eye as the paper is wide, he will raise it until it covers so much of the sky as will be requisite to the 
 picture, and observing what part of the ground coincides with the lower edge, that may be considered 
 as the hne of the nearest foreground and the bottom of the picture." 
 
 When objects of great altitude are to be delineated, as it frequently happens, it will be found 
 best to make the sketch in what is called the upright form, that is, with its depth greater than its 
 length or width. 
 
 Perhaps as simple a rule as any for choosing the height of the horizontal line, on which, in fact, 
 the determination of the place of the foreground of the picture depends, is to place it one third of the 
 height of the picture from the bottom when a view of near objects is taken, or two thirds when distant 
 scenery is represented. 
 
 E 
 
f 
 
 14 
 
 Mr. Nicholson gives the following mechanical rules for ascertaining the place of the different 
 objects in the landscape on the picture ; they will certainly enable an artist to sketch in his outline 
 with more rapidity and correctness, but a beginner had better by far trust to his eye, although there can 
 be no harm in resorting to these means to prove the truth of his sketch. 
 
 " The size of the sketch having been determined — suppose the length to be sixteen inches — pro- 
 vide a ruler of the same length, divided into any number of equal parts ; to the middle of this ruler 
 fasten a string ; a knot being tied on it at that length, namely, sixteen inches, when taken between the 
 teeth will allow the ruler to be removed to such a distance from the eye as will cause it to cover just 
 the length of the space to be represented. If it be requisite to take in a little more or less, the knot 
 may be a httle nearer to or further from the ruler. The knot being taken between the teeth, and the 
 ruler held at its distance, in that situation the ends must correspond with the objects terminating the 
 view at either end, the intermediate objects will then correspond with some of the divisions of the ruler, 
 and that being of the length of the paper prepared for the sketch, will, on being applied to it, show the 
 place of every object, always taking care to bring the ruler to correspond at its end exactly with the 
 same object or part of an object which is to terminate the scene." 
 
 " The apparent height of any part may be found by holding the ruler perpendicularly, at the same 
 distance from the eye, with its lower end at the line of the foreground ; the division corresponding with 
 the height of the object is to be laid upon the sketch in the same manner.' 
 
 " If to this ruler a slip of wood be added, of any convenient length, moveable upon a joint-pin at 
 one end, to open like a carpenter's rule, and sufficiently stiff to remain in any position it is set to, it may 
 be used in ascertaining apparent angles, or in finding the vanishing points ; if the ruler be held so as to 
 
15 
 
 coincide with any perpendicular line, the moveable slip being brought to correspond with a vanishing 
 line in nature, will show the direction in which that line tends to its vanishing point." 
 
 As we have already said, we do not recommend the above plan for the adoption of the student, 
 but merely notice it as a ready means of performing the work rapidly in case of need. Young artists, 
 when first sketching from nature, are very apt to make their sketch too slight, by bestowing too little 
 pains upon it; this is generally done through vanity, to be enabled to say in how short a time they 
 were enabled to make a drawing, but such a sketch is generally little better than a scrawl, and quite 
 useless as the foundation of a correct drawing. It ought to be remembered, that " by doing quickly 
 you will never learn to do well, but by doing well you may learn to do quickly." 
 
 Perhaps the best practice for those who study from nature for the first time is to copy carefully 
 detached objects, such as the stems of trees, broken ground, foliage, &c. ; on these subjects he may 
 bestow as much pains as the time will permit of, observing with great attention all the markings and 
 effects of light and shade which subjects of this nature exhibit in so much profusion and beauty. 
 
 Thus far we have chiefly treated of the outline of a landscape drawing, but one of the principal 
 charms of a painting is the varied effect of light and shade, and on the proper arrangement of light and 
 shadow the success of a drawing materially depends. 
 
 The first thing to be considered, is how to arrange the principal light of the picture, for there must 
 be one hght greater and brighter than the rest, and to which the others must be subservient. In deter- 
 mining on the position of this light, it should be borne in mind that much of the beauty of a drawing 
 depends upon the form of this light and the 'place it holds in the picture, — in every case a formal array 
 of straight lines should be avoided, nor should it be placed directly in the middle of the picture. When 
 
16 
 
 the subject in hand is a daylight scene, the artist, by a varied arrangement of clouds and sky, may, 
 without departing from nature, produce almost any effect he pleases. We have said that the principal 
 light should not be placed directly in the centre, neither should it be placed close to the extremities ; it 
 should be so managed, also, that the objects in the full glare of this principal hght should be those to 
 which the greatest interest is attached. 
 
 The secondary lights are supposed to have most effect when they are equal in brightness and vary- 
 ing in size. 
 
 With respect to the principal shadows, they obey exactly the same laws, whether we have regard 
 to their magnitude or depth. It is good practice for the beginner, after having distributed the lights 
 and shadows to the best of his judgment, to make another outline of his drawing, and alter their distri- 
 bution, by throwing those objects into shade which were in the light, and vice versa. 
 
 In finishing a drawing, whether in chalk, sepia, or colours, much depends upon its size, and on the 
 nature of the subject ; if the drawing is large, it must be held at so great a distance from the eye as to 
 render minuteness of detail unnecessary, and the same observation applies to subjects of a romantic 
 nature, such as rock scenery. Another objection to minute detail, excepting in the immediate fore- 
 ground, is to be found in the fact of its being contrary to nature. Knowing the real forms of distant 
 and well-known objects, the mind fills up their rude outlines, and we imagine the eye informs us of 
 their detail ; the error is seldom suspected, but if, entering upon new scenes, new objects meet our sight, 
 we are absolutely unable to make out the minor parts, even at a moderate distance, for the mind, 
 unacquainted with the subject, cannot assist the eye. Thus we see that many of those laboured works 
 of art, in which every leaf is made out or every hair of the head defined, are untrue to that nature they 
 pretend to represent, and records of the patience, not the judgment of the artist. 
 
V 
 
 Although this little Work is necessarily confined in its examples to drawings in pencil or chalk, a 
 description of the mode of proceeding with a coloured drawing in water-colours may not be uninterest- 
 ing or useless to the student ; but we must in the first place observe, we do not recommend the learner 
 to attempt to apply colour to his drawing until he has perfectly mastered the art of drawing in chalk, 
 and shadowing in sepia or Indian-ink ; he must not, when proceeding with a drawing in colours, make 
 his paper the field for experiment. If he has not acquired the art of laying on a wash of colour evenly 
 in any particular form, he had better practise upon a separate piece of paper, and he will not find his 
 labour thrown away when he begins to colour his drawing. 
 
 In applying a broad wash of colour, the brush should be as large as can be conveniently used, but 
 jLot filled too full of colour, the board on which the paper is stretched should be placed in a somewhat 
 slanting direction, and the brush applied in the first instance to the upper part of the drawing ; if, when 
 the lower part of the tint is nearly covered, the brush should be still full of colour, it will be necessary 
 to press out a portion, so that the tint may be uniformly spread. He must also, on the other hand, 
 take care that his brush is not exhausted before the space is filled, or before he supplies it with fresh 
 colour ; in either case the application of fresh colour with a fuller brush will cause a hard, irregular 
 line at the place of junction, and the colour will not be spread equally over the whole surface. 
 
 F 
 
18 
 
 If possible, he should never pass his brush over the same spot a second time, foi* if the colour will 
 not spread evenly of itself, no assistance, by retouching or otherwise, will cause it to do so. Much also 
 depends on the kind of water employed ; spring water is to be rejected, as several of the colours will 
 curdle in it, and not readily blend with each other ; soft water is the best, and it is improved, also, by 
 boiling and being afterwards suffered to cool. 
 
 When a gradation of tint is required, the colour must be softened off: — this is done by applying to 
 the edge of the tint another brush, charged with clean water, the tint will then gradually unite with 
 this, until at last, if the operation has been dexterously performed, it will be lost in the pure white of 
 the paper. 
 
 Although many colours are employed by the artist, in point of fact the three primitive colours, red, 
 blue, and yellow, are in general sufficient, but for particular purposes different kinds of these three 
 colours are to be preferred. Tints are said to be compound when composed of any two of the primi- 
 tives ; thus red and yellow make orange, and yellow and blue produce green. When the three primitive 
 colours are united, the result is said to be a hroTcen colour ; this broken colour varies according to 
 the predominance of any one or two of the primitive : when used in certain proportions, a shadowy 
 tint, approaching to black, called a neutral tint, is produced. 
 
 For landscape drawing the following colours may be selected for use : Blues, indigo and cobalt 
 blue, or smalt. Yellows, yellow ochre and raw sienna. Reds, Indian red and light red. Browns, burnt 
 sienna and Vandyke brown. These are sufficient for the landscape painter for general practice, but 
 cases may occur in which one or two of the brighter reds may be used to advantage, but they must be 
 always a])plied with a sparing hand. 
 
19 
 
 A neutral tint is of great service in harmonizing the various colours ; it may be produced in either 
 of the following ways, — by the combination of indigo and Indian red — indigo, lake, and burnt sienna — 
 or indigo and Indian-ink. The tints thus produced vary materially, according to the proportions of each 
 colour employed. 
 
 The easiest method of proceeding with a water-colour drawing is as follows : having sketched in 
 the outline, slightly damp the face of the paper with a sponge, have ready two saucers, in one let some 
 Indian red be rubbed, in the second indigo, pour a little of each of these colours into a third saucer, 
 and mixing the two colours together, add more of one or the other until the requisite tint is obtained. 
 
 Lay in the clear blue of the sky with the indigo, wash over every part of the drawing, except the 
 high hghts on the clouds and those parts of the landscape which are to receive a pure or a compound 
 colour, with a very light wash of the neutral tint ; when the moisture has sunk into the paper, that is, 
 when the paper no longer shines, a darker wash of the same tint may be applied, in the same manner, to 
 those parts of the drawing which are in the shade ; this is to be repeated, and the neutral tint gradually 
 strengthened until the required depth of effect is produced : if any of the parts appear too harsh, or too 
 dark a tint, let the paper first be thoroughly dry, then with a brush and clean water damp the spot that 
 requires alteration, and wipe down the colour with a damp sponge. 
 
 The light and shadow being now properly arranged, he may throw a light warm colour, as light 
 red or burnt sienna over all the drawing, except those places where the pure blues and clear greens are 
 intended to be placed. The local colours, such as the green on the trees and the browns in the fore- 
 ground, are next to be applied to the different objects, and spread over the shadows as well as the 
 lights. Indigo and yellow ochre will produce the distant greens, while for those which are near at 
 
20 
 
 hand Roman ochre may be substituted for the yellow ochre : the touches which are required in the 
 foreground to distinguish the texture and detail of the nearer objects may be now put in with Vandyke 
 brown. The whole subject is now to be carefully gone over, and touched and retouched until it appears 
 satisfactory. The sharp hghts in the foreground may be picked out in the manner we have already 
 described. This process is the easiest, and best fitted for a young beginner, but the following method 
 will produce a drawing of much more depth and vigour. 
 
 The drawing is to be forwarded in the same manner as in the last process, but the middle tints 
 alone are to be laid in with the neutral tint, the local colours are to be applied on the lights only, and 
 the shadows in the middle distance touched upon with Indian red ; for those in the foreground burnt 
 sienna may be used, or asphaltum for the sharper touches. The whole is then to be retouched, the 
 colours being made more vivid as they approach the foreground. 
 
 The drawings of some artists have a kind of granulated appearance, which adds much to their 
 softness and delicacy, this is accomplished in the following manner. The shadows are laid in as we 
 have already described, though not completely finished ; the paper is then allowed to become quite 
 dry ; the whole surface of the drawing is then wetted with a large flat brush ; by working this brush 
 over the face of the drawing a part of the colour is loosened, and may be removed : in the foreground 
 a wet sponge may be also employed ; the effect of this operation is to harmonize the tints and soften 
 them down ; at the same time, if the paper, as it ought to be for this process, is rough, the prominent 
 parts of its grain have the colour more completely washed away than the other parts of its surface, and 
 thus a beautiful granulated appearance is gained. When again dry, the drawing is to be finished in 
 the usual manner. 
 
21 
 
 In a drawing of this description great clearness is obtained in the grey shadows by breaking a 
 warm colour over them with nearly a dry brush. 
 
 It is not to be expected that the simple instructions we have just given will render every part of 
 the process of making a water-colour drawing plain and intelligible to a beginner, but they will furnish 
 him with so many hints to assist his progress, and enable him when examining a well-executed drawing 
 to discover in what manner the effect has been produced, and thus render his endeavours to copy it 
 more easy ; but with the best instruction and every opportunity for study he will find the necessity for 
 perseverance, for there is no more a royal road to the practice of drawing than there is to any other 
 branch of human knowledge. 
 
Our young student, having proceeded thus far, will, if he has carefully attended to the printed instruc- 
 tions, be sufficiently master of the art to sketch in the outline of any subject offered to his notice with 
 considerable facility, whether he is copying another drawing or imitating the figure of a natural object. 
 He will also be able to copy with considerable truth the effect of light and shade as it is represented in 
 the examples furnished in this Drawing-book ; but without further instruction he would find it a diffi- 
 cult, if not an insurmountable task, to put in the shadow and proper effect to a drawing made directly 
 from nature. To enable him, therefore, to understand the reason of the various effects of light and 
 shadow, as illustrated in the examples before him, and to render him capable of applying his knowledge 
 on this subject to practice when studying from nature, we shall devote a few pages to an endeavour to 
 show the principles by which the artist is guided in selecting a certain arrangement of lights and 
 shadows, for without a proper understanding of this part of the subject the most careful draftsman will 
 find himself unable to produce a pleasing picture. 
 
 The principles which guide an artist in his efforts are technically known as breadth, opposition, and 
 harmony ; and unless these three essential points are attended to, no picture, properly so called, can be 
 produced, and a mere diagram would be the result of even the greatest care. By breadth is meant the 
 arrangement of the light and shadow in masses^ properly opposed to each other, of approuriate forms, 
 
23 
 
 and so placed as to cause the most interesting features of the picture to offer themselves at the first 
 glance to the notice of the spectator. By opposition we mean the placing a light object against a 
 dark one, or a dark object against a light, so as to render one or the other more distinct. By harnioni/ 
 is intended the blending of the different lights and shadows with each other, so as to avoid any abrupt 
 transitions, and to produce a pleasing effect. Having thus given the definition of these three terms, 
 we shall endeavour to point out their practical use by reference to the examples already given, or 
 otherwise. 
 
 If we look caref\illy upon a landscape or a building, especially while the sun shines, we shall 
 perceive that many of the objects of which the first is composed, and some of the parts which form 
 the building, reflect the light very strongly ; while others, either from their natural colour or from 
 some other cause, appear dark. A draftsman, copying a subject of this nature without the knowledge 
 of effect, would produce a drawing covered with spots of light and shadow, unpleasing to the eye, and 
 imperfect as a picture. An artist, with a proper understanding of his subject, would arrange the 
 objects out of which his picture is to be formed in such a manner as to bring together all the light 
 forms, and oppose them to a mass of shadow formed by the darker parts of the picture. If, on making 
 the attempt, it be discovered that this arrangement could not be readily effected with the lights and 
 shades offered to his eye by nature, he would subdue the unnecessary light parts by throwing over 
 them an adventitious shadow, so as to exclude them from the mass of light with which he had been 
 unable to combine them. For the same purpose he would, if necessary, Ughten up the shadowed 
 parts of the picture where they interfered with his idea of the necessary breadth. In his arrangement 
 of light and shade he would have other matters also to attend to — namely, the relative quantity of 
 
24 
 
 each, the form of the masses, and the place in the picture each should occupy. Tne relative quantity 
 of light and shade will depend so much upon the subject, and the kind of effect intended to be 
 produced, that no regular rule can be given for its division. In broad daylight the light must neces- 
 sarily predominate. A stormy or twilight effect will require a greater proportion of shadow ; but the 
 form of these masses may be more readily made the subject of rule. 
 
 Harmony, as we have already said, is produced by softening down the violent oppositions of light 
 and shadow where they are unnecessary, or by adding a focus of depth to the darkest shadow, for 
 the deepest shade has one part darker than another, and the brightest mass of light becomes brighter 
 near the side from which the light is supposed to proceed. In distributing the effect of light upon any 
 illuminated object, it must be remembered that the brightest point can never be in the centre of that 
 object, nor on the edge, but always on one side ; and if the object is in the shade the deepest part of 
 that shade must also be in the same relative situation. This can be better understood by suspending a 
 white ball by a string, and bringing it near to the light of a candle, when it will be seen that no possible 
 position of the candle will cause the focus or bright spot of Hght in the ball to appear in the centre of 
 that hemisphere which is nearest to the spectator ; if the candle is held behind the ball, the darkest 
 part also of the shady side will appear on one side of its centre. 
 
 In the case of a pencil or chalk-drawing, in which the effect is produced by means of lines, 
 much of the effect of the drawing will depend on the direction in which these lines are drawn, 
 and the manner in which they cross each other. With respect to their direction, one series at 
 least should follow the curves or undulations of the object : thus, if the surface they have to 
 represent is flat, the Hues of the shadow must be straight : if curved they must also be curved, and 
 
25 
 
 if the surface is full of inequalities the lines must also partake of the same form. When a deeper 
 shadow is required than one series of Hues is capable of producing, the Unes by which they are 
 crossed must never form right angles with the first series ; they must always be slanting, so as to form 
 acute or obtuse angles. There is one other matter to be noticed, to which, however, we can at present 
 merely allude, as it will be the subject of more extended remarks in a future part ; we mean perspective : 
 without some knowledge of its principles the artist would feel great uncertainty in making a sketch from 
 nature, more particularly if the object were a building of any kind. We shall at present merely refer 
 to one fact in this science, which, when well understood, will prevent the pupil falling into any gross 
 errors. 
 
 There is an imaginary line much employed in perspective drawings, which is supposed to be drawn 
 on a level with the eye of the spectator, and parallel to the horizon ; this line is called the horizontal 
 line, and the appearance of the drawing depends greatly on the position of this line. Suppose A. B. 
 
 to be this hne, it will be seen that all the lines of the objects which are above it, and which recede from 
 the spectator, are directed downwards, until they reach it in some particular point ; while all those lines 
 which are below it mount upwards, until they reach it also. The height at which this line is placed in 
 a landscape drawing is a matter of some moment : it should be about one-third of the height of the 
 picture from the base, or the same distance from the top of the picture ; it never should be imagined in 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 H 
 
26 
 
 the middle of the painting. A low horizontal line is best adapted for objects which are aear the 
 spectator, and one near the top of the painting for a subject representing an extensive landscape, or a 
 sea view. 
 
 In the course of the work, as occasion offers, we shall revert to the instructions we have just given, 
 and point out their practical application to future examples as they appear. 
 
 The Fisherman Returning Home, in page 1 8, is a good illustration of the preceding observations. 
 The gradation of tint by which the distance of the different parts of the picture is expressed, must be 
 carefully attended to ; great force is employed in drawing the man, less in the figure of the boy, and 
 less again in the rocks of the background, while the extreme distance is touched very slightly. Pencils 
 of three degrees of hardness may be used with great advantage in executing this subject 
 
 The large subject in page 43, with the old tree in the foreground, will be more effective if chalk is 
 used instead of pencil. The use of the stump may be dispensed with in this instance, except in the 
 shadow immediately under the rustic bridge, and the small portion of sky which is visible. Be 
 extremely careful in copying accurately the touch on the trunk of the tree, and the herbage in the fore- 
 ground, as much of the smart appearance of the drawing will depend on this circumstance. 
 
 The subjects on the next page are more adapted for the use of pen and ink than pencil, but they 
 are also good practice with the Conte crayon. 
 
Architectural drawing is perhaps one of the most useful branches of the art, and the most general 
 in its apphcation. A knowledge of architectural drawing is necessary to the artist, the architect, the 
 carpenter, the mason, and, indeed, to all who are engaged in the construction of any kind of building or 
 the manufacture of any description of furniture ; it is not necessary that all should be acquainted with 
 the higher branches of the art, but a competent knowledge of the principal schools of architecture will 
 materially assist the workman in his labours ; it will enable him to entertain some definite idea of the 
 style of art in which the building on which he is engaged is constructed, and he will be able to avoid 
 any gross errors in the details of the mouldings, &c. 
 
 The earliest schools of architecture with which we are acquainted are the Egyptian, Hindoo, and 
 Persian ; the only one of these three which at the present time comes practically under our notice is 
 the Egyptian, and that but rarely. The Grecian school followed the Egyptian, and the Roman was in 
 its turn a modification of the Grecian. Upon the revival of the arts in Europe, after the fall of the 
 Roman empire, a style of architecture prevailed which has been termed Gothic, and most of our ancient 
 religious edifices are constructed on its model. 
 
 The architectural remains of Egypt which have escaped the effects of time or the assaults of invad- 
 ing armies appear to have been all devoted to religious purposes. They are all of a massive character. 
 
28 
 
 and in many instances excavated out of the solid rock. Most of them also partake ot the form of the 
 pyramid, being widest at the base, and tapering gradually towards the summit, a form admirably calcu- 
 lated to resist the ravages of time. The columns by which these buildings are supported vary much in 
 proportion and in the nature of their ornaments, and they were frequently decorated with colours. The 
 arch, so prominent a feature in the more recent varieties of architecture, appears to have been scarcely 
 known : we have given several specimens of this style in the plates. 
 
 The Grecian and Roman style of architecture is divided into five orders, and the characters of these 
 orders are taken from the different proportions and forms of the column and its component parts. 
 The first plate represents the most solid and simple of all the orders, the Tuscan ; it is entirely 
 without ornament. The general dimensions of the Tuscan order are as follows : — The height of the 
 shaft of the column is about six times its diameter ; the height of the whole entablature is one 
 diameter and three-fourths. If the entablature is divided into ten equal parts, it will be found 
 that the architrave is equal to three parts, the frieze three, and the cornice to four ; the base is equal to 
 one-half a diameter of the shaft. 
 
 The column and its appendages are ornamented by a variety of mouldings ; these are eight in 
 number, and bear the following names : the fillet, the astragal, or head, the torus, the scotia, the ovolo, 
 the ogee, the cyrna, or cyma recta, and the cavetto. The engravings on these plates will sufficiently 
 explain themselves. 
 
 The Doric column is next in strength to the Tuscan ; it is considered the most ancient of all, and 
 is seen, in some very old structures, without a base, representing, as it were, the mere branchless trunk 
 of a tree ; the triglyphs in the frieze, also, represent the ends of the joists of a wooden building con 
 
29 
 
 structed in the same form, for the buildings of Greece were evidently built of wood long before the 
 more solid material, stone, was employed for the same purpose. The Doric column is about eight 
 diameters in height, the entablature being equal to two ; if these two diameters are divided into eight 
 parts, the architrave will occupy two, the frieze three, and the cornice three. 
 
 The Ionic column is slenderer than the last, being nine diameters in height; it has little orna- 
 ment, and has been compared to a matronly female in appearance : the entablature is equal to two 
 diameters and a quarter. 
 
 The Corinthian column is still more slender, and has been called the virginal order ; it is ten 
 diameters in height, and the capital is richly decorated : the entablature is equal to two diameters. 
 
 The Composite column has the same proportions as the Corinthian, and is still more highly 
 enriched with ornament : it is of Roman origin. 
 
 Pilasters are very prominent objects in ancient architecture ; they have the same proportions as 
 columns, but are square, and placed close against the wall. 
 
 All that part of the building which is seen above the cornice is called the attic : it is never more 
 than one-third the height of the order, and never less than one-fourth. The figures which are some- 
 times used to support the entablature are of two sorts; the female figures are called Caryatides, and 
 the male Persians ; the first should never exceed the size of life, but the latter may be of any size the 
 architect pleases. 
 
 The Ionic column is distinguished from the others by an ornament with which its capital is deco- 
 rated, called a volute — this ornament also occurs, but smaller in size, in the Composite capital. The 
 mode of drawing the volute is shown in a subsequent part of the work. 
 
 I 
 
30 
 
 Although we have noticed five orders of architecture, strictly speaking the number is but three, 
 namely, the three Grecian orders, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The other two orders, 
 the Tuscan and Composite, are of Roman origin, and merely altered from the Greek by combining, as 
 is more particularly seen in the Composite, the characteristics of two orders in one. 
 
 Although this drawing-book contains representations of the columns of the five orders, it may not 
 be amiss to point out the most striking distinctions of each, so that the mere glance at a building may 
 enable the learner to declare to what order it belongs. 
 
 The Doric is known by its want of a capital, and by the triglyphs on the frieze. 
 
 The Ionic cannot be mistaken, on account of its four large volutes and want of brackets under the 
 cornice. 
 
 The Corinthian is easily distinguished from its enriched capital, small volutes, intertwined with each 
 other, and by brackets under the cornice. 
 
 The Tuscan nearly resembles the Doric in the want of a capital, but is known by its want of 
 triglyphs on the frieze. 
 
 The Composite might be mistaken for the Corinthian at first sight, on account of its capital, but 
 its volutes resemble those of the Ionic capital. 
 
 We have already mentioned the proportions of the several orders, but the remains of antiquity 
 offer many departures from the general rule 
 
 The fall of the Roman empire was followed by the entire neglect of architecture in Europe : at 
 length, after many years, the spread of Christianity occasioned its partial revival in the construction of 
 religious edifices, and of the strongholds of the nobles. The style of architecture resorted to, is that 
 
31 
 
 generally known as Norman : in the buildings thus constructed the arches were circular, and the 
 columns on which they were supported were short and clumsy. 
 
 The POINTED STYLE, or Gothic, succeeded the Norman ; but at first we find the pointed arch sup- 
 ported by short and clumsy Norman columns ; this was called the mixed style. At length the 
 pointed style, with its long and slender columns, became general, and most of our ancient cathedrals 
 were built upon this plan. 
 
 The theory of the origin of the pointed arch, or rather of Gothic architecture in general, is thus 
 ingeniously described by Sir James Hall, who imagined he couid trace the origin of this style of archi- 
 tecture to a rustic dwelling constructed in the following manner : — Two rows of posts are thrust into 
 the ground opposite to each other, the intervals between the posts of each row being equal, and each 
 post rising to the height of about three of those intervals. 
 
 A set of slender rods of willow are then applied to the inside of each post, and thrust into the 
 ground along with it : these rods being rather longer than the posts, are bound together by two tyings, one 
 near the ground and another about two-thirds of its height, the rods from this last binding upwards 
 being entirely loose, and free to be moved in any direction. The loose summits of the rods are 
 then made to meet, and are bound together, so as to form the frame-work of a roof, fit to bear a thatch. 
 This was efi'ected in three diff'erent ways. — First, two loose summits are made to meet from each pair of 
 opposite posts, crossing each other in the middle, and producing the form of the Gothic pointed arch, 
 as seen in plates 48, 49 ; an horizontal rod or pole (which in this system is called the ridge-bar) is then laid 
 upon the forks of the crossing-rod, and bound to each of them, thus producing a continued Gothic 
 arcade Next, two loose summits are made to meet from every neighbouring pair of posts in the same 
 
32 
 
 row, a set of arches, similar to those first mentioned, being thus produced, and standing opposite to each 
 other in pairs. 
 
 Each pair of opposite arches being connected by a transverse ridge-bar laid upon the forks, two 
 loose summits now remain to be employed in each post ; these are made to meet diagonally from the 
 opposite corners of each rectangle, but in meeting they are not made to cross, as in the two cases last 
 mentioned, but are applied side by side, so as to form a continued curve or semicircle, and are joined 
 together after the manner of a hoop ; these diagonal branches cross each other at the centre, and at 
 their crossing touch the under side of the ridge-bar. 
 
A CORRECT knowledge of the proportions of the human figure is the best foundation for future ex- 
 cellence in an artist : without this knowledge, in addition to a ready hand, a quick eye, and frequent 
 practice in drawing the outline of " the human form divine," the young artist will find his hand unsteady, 
 and incapable of readily sketching in any complicated form. The beautiful curves which the contour 
 of the body offers to our view, as the muscles rise and fall in gentle undulating lines, afford in their 
 delineation such excellent practice that the pupil, when he has once conquered this part of the subject, 
 finds little difficulty in drawing any other object that may be offered to his notice. 
 
 There are certain relative proportions between different parts of our frame from which the human 
 form seldom varies to any great extent ; these the learner will do well to study : they have been deduced 
 from those statues of antiquity which are looked upon as the standards of beauty. The rules laid down 
 for drawing the figure according to these proportions are founded on the supposition that the human 
 figure is divided from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot into a certain number 
 of /aces, the face being considered equal in length to three-fourths of a head. The proportions of the 
 various parts of the body we will refer to presently, but in the mean time direct our attention to 
 the drawing of the human head. 
 
 The general form of the human head, leaving out the ears, resembles an egg, the small end 
 
 K 
 
34 
 
 forming the chin and the large the outline oi the skull. The proportions of this oval may be obtained 
 by, in the first place, drawing with a pair of compasses the upper or larger circle, as seen in page 65 ; 
 take off one-third of the diameter of this circle from the lower part, and with that distance in your 
 compasses strike the smaller circle, draw then the lines shown in the drawing to connect the two 
 circles, the required oval will be the result. If a line is now drawn horizontally, so as to touch the upper 
 edge of the smaller circle, it will necessarily divide the length of the oval into two equal parts, and the 
 line itself will pass along the upper eyelids ; the space from this line to the chin being divided also into 
 two equal parts again, will point out the length of the nose, and of the ears, and one third of the distance 
 from the nose to the chin will mark the place of the mouth ; of course these proportions vary in 
 different individuals, but, as we have already observed, rarely to any great extent. The horizontal line 
 which passes across the eyes may be divided into five equal parts ; the central part will mark the 
 distance between the eyes, each eye will occupy one of the divisions, and the two remaining spaces will 
 point out the interval between the outer angle of the eyes and the ear. When we wish to draw 
 a head in an oblique direction these guiding lines must be placed in perspective. 
 
 In page 62 the general proportions of the hand and foot are seen, the hand being twice as long as 
 it is wide, and the foot three times as long as its height from the ground to the instep. 
 
 The whole-length figures on page 64 will give a very good general idea of the proportions of the 
 human form ; in this instance the figure is supposed to be ten faces, or seven and a half heads in height ; 
 the trunk and head are equal to one half of the height, and the legs from the hip-joint downwards 
 occupy the other half, the distance being nearly equally divided between the thigh and the leg 
 and foot. 
 
35 
 
 The following description of the proportions of the human body will perhaps be interesting to the 
 learner ; it is copied from Du Fresnoy's Art of Painting. 
 
 The figure is usually divided into ten faces, from the crown of the head to the sole of the feet. 
 From the. crown of the head to the forehead is the third part of a face. 
 
 The face begins at the root of the lowest hairs on the forehead and ends at the bottom of the chin. 
 The face is divided into three equal parts ; the first contains the forehead, the second the nose, and 
 the third the mouth and chin. 
 
 From the chin to the hollow between the clavicles or collar-bones is twice the length of the nose. 
 
 From the hollow of the clavicles to a line crossing the nipples, one face. 
 
 From that line to the navel, one face. 
 
 From the navel to the groin, one face. 
 
 From the groin to the upper part of the knee, two faces. 
 
 The knee contains half a face. 
 
 From below the knee to the instep, two faces. 
 
 From the instep to the sole of the foot, half a face. 
 
 A man with extended arms measures from the longest finger of his right hand to tliat of his left 
 as wide as he is high. 
 
 Across the chest at the nipples, two faces. 
 The bone of the upper part of the arm is two faces in length. 
 The bottom of the foot is equal to the sixth part of the figure. 
 The hand is in length equal to one face. 
 
3R 
 
 The thumb the length of the nose. 
 The great toe is the length of a nose. 
 
 The thickness of the different limbs varies so much, according to the strength of the body that no 
 rules can be laid down to determine the point. ^ 
 
 In drawing the human figure the student is materially assisted by a knowledge of the form of the 
 bones, and the manner in which they are articulated to each other ; possessing this knowledge he perceives 
 at once what attitudes are possible and what impossible, and thus he is in less danger of making- 
 ridiculous mistakes in his drawing, and more readily understands the arrangement and action of the 
 muscles by which this framework of bones is moved. Possessing this preliminary knowledge of the 
 general proportions, the scholar had better, in the next place, carefully copy the examples of the eye, 
 nose, ear, hands, feet, and so on, of which a portion of the work consists : having carefully 
 studied these examples the figure itself may be attempted, first reading attentively the following 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The principal variations in the human figure arise from difference of sex and age : in children the 
 legs are much shorter in proportion to the body than in the adult, and the legs of a man are rather 
 longer than those of a female ; but the chief distinction between the general contour of the figure in the 
 two sexes, is seen in the different width of the body across the hips and shoulders ; in man particularly, 
 if his form is muscular, the shoulders are considerably wider across than the hips ; in women the 
 reverse is the case. 
 
37 
 
 Generally speaking, if the figure is erect it would occupy a space about four times as long as it 
 is wide : this is illustrated in page 63, where two figures are sketched within boundary lines of 
 these dimensions, and the variation in the outUne is readily seen. In man the muscles are strongly 
 marked, and the outline is somewhat angular ; but in woman the hollows between the muscles are filled 
 up with a deposit of fat, and they' consequently form a series of undulating curves, 
 
 The learner, we may suppose, is able by this time to draw in the general proportions and the 
 detail with tolerable exactness, and it will be his next task to represent the figure in various attitudes, 
 or in active exertion. In the first place, we will suppose a figure standing perfectly upright, his weight 
 resting equally on boj;h feet ; in this case if a bullet were suspended by a line from the centre of 
 the face, the line would divide the body into two equal jjarts, and it would remain firm, resting upon its 
 feet ; but if it was to lift a weight with one hand, and stretch out the arm, an alteration in the attitude of 
 the whole body would instantly take place ; the arm on the opposite side to the weight would be 
 extended, partly to counterbalance it, the shoulders on the same side would be thrust back for the same 
 purpose, and the feet partially separated, to enlarge the base on which the figure rests : if we now raise 
 a line from the centre of this base and perpendicular to it, we shall see that there will be an equal 
 weight on either side, and the figure will stand firmly ; if the artist, not attending to this alteration of 
 circumstances, had drawn the figure with the hand extended and holding a weight, and still had kept 
 the body and the other limbs in the same position, v/hoever looked at the picture would naturally say, 
 " the man could never stand in that position." 
 
 When a figure is at rest we can tell if it would be able to stand, by merely drawing a perpendicular 
 line, and ascertaining if there is an equal weight on either side : of this fact we may give many examples. 
 
 L 
 
38 
 
 The man with a burden on his back leans forward, to counterbalance its weight ; the female carrying a 
 loaded waiter leans back for the same purpose, and so does a person who is extremely stout. A woman 
 with a child on one arm leans to the opposite side, but if she has a child on each arm the one counter- 
 balances the other, and she stands erect. 
 
 If a man is represented running, this rule does not apply ; in that case the heaviest portion of the 
 body is forward, and he seems as if he would fall, and he certainly would if he did not bring forward his 
 other leg to his assistance : this unstable appearance of the figure evidently gives the idea of motion, at 
 which the artist aimed. 
 
 In drawing the figure the next thing to be attended to after attitude, is a correct representation of 
 the action of the muscles. Every muscle in the human body is formed of a bundle of muscular fibres ; 
 this biuidle is in general thicker towards the centre or belly, gradually tapering off at each end, 
 where in general it becomes tendonous ; these thin solid extremities are firmly attached to the bones 
 which they have to move, and when in action the belly of the muscle is thickened and is more plainly 
 seen through the skin ; so that whenever a figure is in action, those muscles which are in the act ot 
 exertion must be drawn more forcibly than those which are in a state of inactivity. 
 
 When the fore-arm is bent, a very powerful muscle, which is seen on the front of the upper arm, 
 is brought into action ; in strong men, when greatly exerted, it swells up to an extraordinary size. In 
 lifting a great weight with the arms, the pectoral muscles, those which cover the chest on either side, 
 are brought into use, and should of course be strongly marked. In running, all the muscles of the leg 
 are excited ; in rowing, the pectoral muscles and those on the back, as well as those of the leg. 
 
 From this, it appears that a competent knowledge of the anatomy of the muscles is essential to the 
 
39 
 
 painter ; but actual dissection does fall in tlie way of all, and in these cases the plaster casts of the 
 human figure exhibiting the muscles are of great service. 
 
 The three annexed diagrams represent the bones of the arms and legs, and illustrate the different 
 forms assumed by the elbow and knee when the joints are extended or bent. 
 
 Log straigTit. Leg bent. 
 
 The advantage of acquiring a knowledge of the form of the extremities of the bones of the joints, 
 when in different positions, and of anatomy in general, is well explained by Sir Charles Bell, when he 
 observes, " When I have seen a person, unacquainted vnth. anatomy, drawing from the naked figure or 
 from a statue, I have marked the difficulty which he experienced in representing the course of a 
 swelling muscle, or the little depressions and convexities about a joint ; and this difficulty I have traced 
 
40 
 
 to his total ignorance of the course and action of a muscle, the effect of which he was endeavouring to 
 make out. The same difficulty is also felt in drawing the knobbed end of a bone, or the insertion of a 
 tendon, which being under the integuments of the limb, appear to the uninformed only as unmeaning 
 variations in the outline, of the importance of which he has no means of judging, and in the imitation 
 of which he feels the greatest difficulty, and is exposed to continual mistakes. While the knowledge of 
 anatomy gives to the painter a spirit of minute observation, and leads him to mark those little niceties 
 which add to the beauty of the whole, it also enables him to preserve correctness and infuse vigour into 
 his drawing ; to catch that diversity which nature sets before him, and to avoid the representation of 
 what is monstrous and deformed." 
 
 " Again," he says, " suppose a young artist is about to sketch a figure or a limb, feeble indeed will his 
 execution be if without knowledge he endeavours merely to copy what is placed before him. In thus 
 transcribing, as it were, a language which he does not understand, how many must be his errors and 
 inaccuracies ! He sees an undulating surface ; the bones and processes of the joints but faintly dis- 
 tinguishable ; he neglects the peculiar swelling of the muscles to which he should give force, as im- 
 plying motion ; he makes swellings merely ; he is incapable of bestowing the elegant undulating outUne 
 of beauty, with force and accuracy, and of preserving at the same time the characters of motion or 
 exertion. Drawing what he does not understand he falls into imbecility, or deviates into caricature," 
 
 Among the valuable remains of antiquity which have been handed down to us, there are none 
 of which this country can more proudly boast than the Elgin Marbles ; from these works of art we shah 
 make a selection, and point out two or three of their numerous beauties. 
 
 The Elgin Marbles are for the most part basso relievos and fragments of sculptures which once 
 
41 
 
 adorned the celebrated Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva at Athens. They were collected at a great 
 expense, and with much labour and trouble, by Lord Elgin, when that nobleman was ambassador at 
 Constantinople : by him they were brought to England, and after remaining for some time in his posses- 
 sion, were purchased in 1815 by the nation, for the sum of £35,000. They are arranged in a large and 
 noble room, in the Gallery of Sculpture of the British Museum. These marbles have been greatly 
 admired, on account of the admirable truth of their anatomy, and the graceful and appropriate attitudes 
 and costume of the figures. 
 
 In these marbles the student will be enabled to study that most essential portion of figure drawing, — 
 drapery. Let the clothing be flung boldly over the figure, let the folds be large and carefully arranged 
 in accordance with the parts they are supposed to cover : if, after arranging the drapery in large and 
 simple folds, the shadows between the different parts should appear too broad, the large folds may be 
 united by the introduction of several smaller to fill up the vacancy ; but still it must be remembered 
 that their beauty does not consist in the quantity of the folds, but in their simplicity and natural 
 arrangement. The quality of persons represented must also be taken into consideration ; those in high 
 stations should be covered with draperies arranged in ample folds, which give breadth to the design, and 
 even point out the quality of the stuff of which the clothing is made. The finer kinds of clothing, in 
 which ladies of rank are dressed, will in most cases require a great number of small folds, which will 
 well represent the delicacy of their structure. The pecuUar manner in which the folds of silken stuffs 
 arrange themselves needs particular attention. 
 
 The texture of objects is represented by a peculiar touch, appropriate to the subject, and by a 
 particular arrangement of the lights and shadows. Thus, polished substances, such as metals, precious 
 
42 
 
 stones, and so forth, have a greater contrast between their lights and shadows than woollen stuffs, 
 leather, &c. 
 
 Nothing is so likely to prevent the solid improvement of the pupil as studying the principles of the 
 art under a bad master, or in an imperfect manner. Nor should he be in too great haste to apply him- 
 self solely to the study of nature : he should first know the proportions of the figure, and the dependence 
 of the different parts on each other, as shown in the examples of the best masters. 
 
 When endeavouring to imitate the smartness of touch so remarkable in some masters, he should 
 remember that this facility is not to be acquired until after years of practice and study. Du Fresnoy 
 gives the following advice to a young painter : — " Attend to the advice of talented men, and do not 
 proudly reject the opinions of others on your works : every man is blind when his own affairs are 
 concerned, and no man can be a proper judge in his own cause, nor can he avoid feeling a kind of 
 parental fondness for his own productions. But if you have no friend competent to advise you, take 
 time to consider ; let a few weeks, or at least days, pass by without seeing your work, and you will then 
 discover more clearly its faults and its beauties. Do not listen too eagerly to the opinions of people in 
 general, who frequently speak without knowledge ; and do not thus abandon your genius, by too readily 
 altering what you have done ; for he who flatters himself with the vain hope of pleasing all, injures 
 himself and pleases no one. 
 
 " Let not a day pass without practice. 
 
 " Observe carefully the attitudes and natural expressions of people as they walk along, for not 
 imagining they are observed they are free from restraint." 
 
 " A painter," says Leonardo da Vinci, " who scarcely sees any faults in the works he has executed, 
 
43 
 
 has little chances of improving in his art. When he perceives no difficulty, it is an infallible mark that 
 he has little skill, and that the work he has undertaken is above his powers ; but when a painter, by the 
 power and extent of his mind, perceives all the difficulty of his work, then day by day it becomes more 
 perfect in proportion to the new observations he makes, unless, indeed, he is obhged, on some peculiar 
 account, to complete it in a short time." 
 
 There is one portion of the anatomy of the human body to which we must direct the attention of 
 the pupil, namely, the anatomy of expression ; the various passions of fear, grief, joy, &c., are 
 chiefly expressed by the action of the muscles of the face : the annexed diagram exhibits these muscles. 
 
 A. is called the frontal muscle, it is extremely thin, covers the whole of the 
 forehead, and is inserted in the skin under the evebrows ; this muscle is at- 
 tached to another flat muscle, called the occipital muscle, which is inserted at 
 the back of the head, the two together cover the whole of the head. We see 
 schoolboys moving their hats on their heads by the motion of their skulls, this is 
 effected by the alternate action of these two conjoined muscles. 
 
 When the eyebrows are raised and arched, it is by the contraction of the 
 frontal muscle, and at the same time the skin of the forehead is wrinkled. 
 
 The two small muscles, marked B, {corrugata supeixilii,) are fixed at their inner extremities to the 
 bone of the forehead, the other ends being embedded in the skin of the eyebrows : when brought into 
 action they knit the eyebrows, and give an expression of ill temper or deep thought. 
 
 C C are the circular muscles of the eyehds ; they are brought into violent action in laughing and 
 crying. 
 
44 
 
 D D. The elevators of the nostrils and the upper h'p. 
 E E. The elevators of the corners of the mouth. 
 
 These two last pair of muscles, together with, three others which we have drawn but not named, 
 all assist to raise the mouth, make the cheek full and dimpled, and produce an expression of cheer- 
 fulness. 
 
 These are the principal muscles of the face employed in expressing the various passions of the 
 human mind ; but there are several others which are placed underneath those we have represented, 
 which also assist in expressing the various emotions of the mind. 
 
 In referring to what is already written, we shall see that, if we except the masseter muscles, which 
 move the lower jaw, all the muscles have at least one of their extremities attached to the skin : this 
 condition enables them to produce, by their varied action, all those beautiful variations of expression 
 which exhibit the different emotions of the mind. 
 
 " We have already had occasion to remark," says Sir Charles Bell, " that the expression which is per- 
 fectly human, affects chiefly the angle of the mouth and the inner extremity of the eyebrow ; and it is 
 to these points we have chiefly to attend in all our observations concerning the expression of passion. 
 These are the most moveable parts of the face; to these points the muscles are, as it were, concentrated, and 
 it is accordingly upon the changes which they undergo that expression is acknowledged chiefly to depend." 
 
 These parts, however, and all the features of an impassioned countenance, have an accordance 
 with each other. When the angles of the mouth are depressed in grief, the eyebrows are not elevated 
 at the outer angles, as in laughter. When a smile plays around the mouth, or the cheek is elevated in 
 laughter, the brows are not raised as in grief. The characters of such opposite passions are so distinct, 
 
45 
 
 that they cannot be combined where there is true and genuine emotion. When we see them united by 
 those who have a ludicrous control over their muscles, the expression is farcical and ridiculous. It 
 never is by the affection of an individual feature that emotion is truly expressed ; there must be a con- 
 sent and accordance of expression in the whole countenance, systematized (if the expression be allowable) 
 and united by the general tone of tension or relaxation. 
 
 Sorrow or languor are expressed by the action of the muscle which depresses the angle of the 
 mouth ; but it is frequently accompanied by the knitting of the brows, produced by the two small 
 muscles, the eyebrows being at times brought down by the action of the frontal muscle ; when this 
 takes place there is a peculiar acute turn upwards, given to the inner part of the eyebrow, which 
 conveys the idea of mental pain. 
 
 In the case of hodilj/ pain the same muscles are exercised as in grief, and in the same manner, but 
 much more energetically ; the mouth also is generally open and the eyes turned upwards. In the 
 extremity of pain the teeth are firmly clenched and the nostrils expanded. In a case like this a muscle 
 we have not yet noticed is brought into action : it is broad and thin, covers the masseter muscle ; being 
 fixed to the arch of the cheek-bone, and passing down the side of the neck, it is attached to the whole 
 length of the collar-bone : when brought frequently into action, as it is by those who carry heavy 
 loads on their heads, it produces a fixed unpleasant expression of countenance, called a sardonic smile ; 
 hence the muscle itself is sometimes called the sardonic muscle. 
 
 In laughter the frontal muscle draws up the eyelashes, the circular muscle of the eye is constricted 
 and half closes the eye, the skin is puckered at the outer corner of the eyes, the cheek-bones appear 
 prominent, the nostrils are raised by their muscles, all the muscles that are attached to the lips are in 
 
 N 
 
46 
 
 action, and in consequence the corners of the mouth are drawn upwards and sideways, and the cheek 
 dimpled by the raising of the flesh. 
 
 The smile brings the same muscles into play, but with greater variety of expression. " We have," 
 says Bell, " the placid smile of benignity, the contemptuous arching of the lower lip, the smile of sorrow, 
 the simper of conceit, the distorted smile of the drunken man, when the eyes with difficulty perform 
 their office, the leer, &c. &c. 
 
 " But there is an expression still more charming — a certain mobility of the features which 
 indicates the susceptible mind of a lovely woman, and is more enchanting than the dimpled 
 cheek — an evanescent illumination of the countenance which words cannot convey, and in the represen- 
 tation of which the painter has the superiority over the poet." 
 
 In weeping there is a convulsive action in the muscles about the eyes ; the eyes are closed, the brow 
 is drawn down, the cheek raised, the nostrils drawn up, and the mouth stretched laterally, and rather 
 downwards at the corners. 
 
 Discontent is expressed by a knitting of the brows, their outward extremities being drawn upwards, 
 the angles of the mouth are drawn down, and the lower lip thrust out. 
 
 Suspicion combines the attributes of melancholy and discontent : the eyes are directed obliquely, 
 and have an unsteady movement. Spencer characterizes suspicion as being, 
 
 " Foul, ill-favoured and grim. 
 Under his eyebrows looking still askance. 
 And ever as Dissemblance laught on him. 
 Lowering on her with dangerous eye-glance. 
 Showing his nature in his countenance. 
 
47 
 
 His rolling eyes did never rest in place. 
 
 But walked each where for fear of hid mischance. 
 
 Holding a lattice still before his face ; 
 
 Through which he stiii did peep as forward he did pass." 
 
 In jealousi/ the expression of countenance is the same, but with a deeper overhanging of the 
 eyebrows. 
 
 The simple feehng of fear is expressed by the eyeball being largely uncovered, the eyes glaring, tne 
 eyebrows raised to the utmost. A spasm of the muscles of the chest, a convulsive opening of the mouth 
 and dropping of the jaw ; the aspect is pale and cadaverous, and " the hair is lifted by the creeping of 
 the skin." 
 
 Wonder, terror, horror, and despair are all modifications of the same feeling, expressed with less 
 or greater degree of energy, as the case may be. 
 
 In drawing the human head, and in the expression of the passions we have been describing, a thorough 
 knowledge of the form and variation of the skull is necessary. 
 
 In the progress from infancy to youth tne 
 upper jaw-bone is greatly enlarged ; by this en- 
 largement a new character is given to the whole 
 countenance. The bones of the nose are raised, 
 the nose is lengthened, and the cheek-bone is 
 made to project. 
 
 But further, the growth of the teeth deepen 
 both the upper and lower jaw-bones, and one 
 
48 
 
 necessary effect of this is to make the angle of the jaw-bone under the ear recede further back. To 
 make room for a full set of teeth the jaws are also lengthened. By the growth of the teeth, and of 
 those processes of the jaw-bone which are necessary to support and fix them, the face is deepened or 
 made longer, so as to differ from the chubby face of a child, and by the lengthening of the jaw, 
 and particularly the receding of the angle of the lower jaw, a manly squareness is given to the chin. 
 The following show the varying angle at different ages : 
 
 In the case of the child, the little depth of the bone of the chin makes the face shorter and 
 rounder. As the teeth spring up this depth increases, and the face is lengthened. In old age the teeth 
 fall out, the bony sockets that held them waste away, and again the face becomes shorter, the chin and 
 nose approach, and the mouth becomes too small for the tongue. 
 
The different species of ornamental drawing in most common use, may be divided into Egyptian, 
 Grecian, Roman, Arabesque, and Gothic. In all these instances the most elaborate and best executed 
 specimens are to be found on the remains of their public buildings. 
 
 The ornamental decorations of the Effi/ptians, like their architecture and sculpture, were of a more 
 formal and massive nature than those of the nations of later times ; but still many elegant forms were 
 obtained from the varied representations of the sweet-scented lotus, and the more useful papyrus of 
 the Nile. 
 
 The Grecian designer of ornament also drew largely on the vegetable kingdom, and we find the 
 honeysuckle and the leaf of the thistle in endless variety : in almost all of their works, the vine and its 
 tendrils also assisted their fancy. The ornamented capital of the Corinthian column is said to have had 
 its origin in the appearance of the leaves of a plant called the acanthus, growing round a basket, which 
 had been accidentally placed upon it. 
 
 The ornaments of the Romans, like their architecture, resembled those of Greece ; but they 
 introduced, among the more simple designs of their predecessors, a variety of emblematical animals, 
 such as the dragon, the sphynx, the lion, &c. 
 
 The style called Arabesque was introduced into Spain by the Moors ; it is extremely rich in variety 
 
 o 
 
50 
 
 of detail ; but in the pure Arabesque the representations of any kind of living creature are carefully 
 excluded, in accordance with the commands of the Mahometan faith. 
 
 The Gothic decorations seem to have been imitated from the Arabesque, but are much more 
 clumsy in their execution, at the same time they are generally combined with a number of grotesque 
 figures, which, from their ludicrous nature and frequently indelicate expression, are sadly at variance 
 with the religious edifices they were intended to decorate. 
 
 Of all these styles of ornament we have given various specimens. But, in addition to these, there 
 are several other nations whose labours in this field of art deserve notice ; namely, China, with its 
 dragons, unmeaning monsters, and neat fret-work ; Hindostan, whose decorations are chiefly derived 
 from the objects of worship by its natives, and ancient Persia, whose ornamental designs have the same 
 origin. Of these we have not thought it suitable to our present plan to give any specimens, as they are 
 but rarely introduced in works of modern art. 
 
The greatest difficulty that lies in the way of the learner, when acquiring a knowledge of perspective, 
 is the obtaining a just and definite notion of the meaning of the term. The word perspective means, 
 literally, a seeing through ; thus, the perspective view of a building would be the appearance that 
 building would assume as seen through a pane of glass, supposing the picture to be formed upon the 
 glass by the rays of light proceeding from the building to the eye of the spectator. The art of 
 preparing by rule a picture of this description is called jjlane persjjective ; and the learner must always 
 bear in mind, that the paper on which a drawing is made is supposed to represent the imaginary plane 
 through which the picture is seen, and on which it is drawn ; so that when a j)erspective drawing is 
 spoken of, a picture drawn according to the rules of ^;/a>i<? perspective is meant. But it is not 
 necessary the picture should be formed on a flat surface ; in the case of a panorama the surface is 
 curved, and the rules for executing the drawing are of a different nature ; again, the dome of a building 
 forms part of a sphere, and the rules for making a drawing upon it again vary. 
 
 Those who have received instruction in the elements of plane geometry, will find it an easy matter to 
 comprehend the terms, and to construct the figures used in teaching perspective : as all, however, have not 
 been taught it, we will point out, in very simple language, the terms used in drawing, with their explanations. 
 
 A Point means a definite spot, merely used for lines to be drawn to. 
 
52 
 
 A Line is an evident mark, drawn from one line to another. 
 
 Horizontal Lines are those which are drawn straight across, from left to right. 
 
 Vertical Lines are those which are drawn perfectly upright. 
 
 A Cube is a solid square figure of six equal sides, and right-angles. 
 
 Centre, is the point in the middle of a circle. 
 
 An Arc is a line forming any portion of a circle. 
 
 A Radius is a line drawn from the centre of a circle to it^ circumference. 
 
 The Square is a figure which has all its sides equal, and all its angles right-angles. 
 
 Angles. Straight lines, forming right-angles, obtuse-angles, or acute-angles, as the case may be. 
 
 The figure at page 79, exhibits a chair and footstool : the learner will observe that the chair stands 
 with the corner of its seat nearest to the spectator, the point of sight being in the middle of the picture. 
 The receding sides of the chair have their respective parts regulated by diagonals, to their vanishing 
 points. The footstool stands on a line parallel to the base, and therefore its visual rays tend to the 
 point of sight in the centre of the picture. These may prepare the mind of the student to consider, 
 that objects, when differently situated, have each their vanishing points regulated by the angle at which 
 they are viewed. 
 
 Such familiar objects should be drawn as at plate 79, represented by the table, &c., &c., as it will 
 the more readily fix in the mind of the student the leading principles of perspective. Also the pave- 
 
53 
 
 ment in perspective, at page 80, which is illustrative of the manner in which a regularly constructed 
 pavement, with the corners of the squares towards the spectator, is put into perspective. This diagram 
 should be particularly observed, as it forms a basis on which a variety of objects may be easily 
 subjected to the rules of Hnear perspective. It is also calculated to give much pleasure in the drawing, 
 by its simplicity, by the fitness of the parts, and by the conviction of its just representation of nature. 
 
 After the learner has, in some degree, subdued what at first seemed obstacles, a httle attention 
 to perspective will introduce him, step by step, to a knowledge of the art ; the difficulties will vanish, 
 and the once apparently insurmountable obstacles be entirely removed, and that simply by his own 
 application. The next example which we wish to draw the student's attention to is at page 80, which 
 consists of the remains of a ruined church on an irregular surface, with a mass of trees in front, and 
 near it, as the principal, or leading feature of the scene, an arm of the sea, and remote hills forming the 
 background, or distance, and a rude foreground. On the supposition that such a scene can be visited 
 purposely to be sketched, select a station that will present a variety of forms, or opposition of 
 character, such as lofty objects contrasted by small objects, which will prevent the appearance of equal, 
 or parallels, and also prevent the scene from being crowded, or closed up. The church placed on one 
 side of the picture, and the distance on the other, so as to form an irregular diagonal mass, are in 
 better relief than if the building, with the trees, were more in the middle of the subject. The 
 opposition of angular to circular forms produces a pleasing effect in a sketch, and ^should be observed. 
 If the perpendiculars of a line be broken, the general appearance must be that of standing upright ; for 
 however mutilated towers or walls may be, there will still be evidences of their having been properly 
 constructed. 
 
 p 
 
© IL E A © 
 
 When a tree is near the eye, the leaves are distinctly separated from each other ; their particular 
 forms, and also their attachment to their branches, are both apparent. But remove to some distance, 
 and you will see that they assume masses, and the further off you are the more uniformity you perceive, 
 and the stronger will the indications of light and shade appear. Nature presents these appearences to 
 every inquiring eye ; the nearer the object the more distinct in character ; the further off the more 
 aerial and artistic. With respect to the examples given, they must be sketched in with a light hand, 
 using a pencil marked H. The landscape subjects at the end will afford excellent practice ; the 
 contrast of colour shown by the dark masses in the picture, as opposed to the lighter portions of the 
 subject, being very effective. The pupil will find that the eye will, by practice, acquire that faculty of 
 discrimination, so that every thing will be rendered easy that he may attempt, whether animals, trees, 
 or buildings. 
 
More art and method are necessary in mounting a water-colour drawing than people in general 
 imagine ; that is, when it is well done. 
 
 Having prepared a large stout and smooth board, of a sufficient size, (deal is, perhaps, the hestj 
 for oak and mahogany are apt to stain the paper,) take a sheet of drawing-paper, larger than the 
 intended mount, and having wetted it on both sides with a sponge, lay it upon the board where it is 
 intended to be fixed, turn up the edges all round, and paste them for about the width of an inch ; then 
 lay the edges down again, and rub them down to make the paste adhere : keep the centre of the paper 
 damp, as we have already explained, and when the whole is firmly fixed and dry, take a second sheet of 
 paper, and carefully pasting the back, allow it to remain a few minutes, till the moisture has well penetrated 
 its substance, and lay it carefully down upon the first sheet ; rub it gently, so as to press out all the air- 
 bubbles, and allow it to dry ; take a third sheet of paper, and paste it also down in the same manner. 
 
 When the whole is dry, spread a wash of any colour you think will harmonize best vnth 
 the dravdng over its surface, with a very large camel-hair brush ; then cut the drawing square, using 
 a sharp knife and ruler for the purpose, not a pair of scissors, and pasting it well on the back, allow it 
 to remain until the paper it is done on is softened ; paste it down carefully and rule the mount in any 
 manner you may think most likely to improve its appearance. The paper should then remain for two 
 or three days to become perfectly dry, before any attempt is made to remove the mount from the board. 
 
56 
 
 * In some cases it is advisable to varnish a water-colour drawing when framed, to avoid the expense 
 of glass, but it certainly does not improve the appearance of the drawing. The first part of the process 
 is to protect the paper from the varnish by covering it with size ; this may be either made of a solution 
 of isinglass, which will partially dissolve by being boiled in water, or of a solution of parchment- cuttings 
 prepared in the same manner ; whatever kind of size is used, it must be appUed at as low a tem- 
 perature as possible, so long as it will flow freely from the brush. The brush employed should be a broad, 
 flat, camel-hair. Having placed the drawing nearly perpendicular, draw the brush, filled with size, 
 briskly from top to the bottom ; do not repeat the stroke or the colour will rise ; again draw the brush 
 from top to bottom, but a short distance from the first stripe of size, and proceed in this manner until 
 you have gone from one side of the picture to the other. When these stripes of size are dry, size the 
 spaces left between them ; in the same manner the second coat of size may be applied without these 
 precautions, and the third coat will generally be found sufficient. The picture is now ready for the 
 varnish ; the best kind for the purpose is good mastic-varnish : a flat camel-hair brush is to be used in 
 this case also, but the picture must be laid flat until the varnish is dry ; for being extremely liquid it 
 would, if the picture was set on end, run to the bottom of the drawing. One coat is generally sufficient 
 where the varnish is only applied as a protection, but if it is intended to produce a gloss a second coat 
 is necessary, which had better not be given to it until after the lapse of twelve hours. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 Mary S. Rickerby, Printer, 15, Sherboum Lane, City. 
 
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