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ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY; 
 
 DESIGNED 
 
 FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 FINE ARTS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES BIRCH SHARPE, 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, AND STUDENT IN THE 
 ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS. 
 
 LONDON : 
 PRINTED FOR R. HUNTER. 
 
 (SUCCESSOR TO MR. JOHNSON) 
 No. 72, ST. PAUL'S CHURCH-YARD. 
 
 1818. 
 
Printed by J. M'Creery, 
 
 Black-HorseCourt, London. 
 
TO 
 
 HENRY FUSELI, A.M. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMICIAN, 
 
 KEEPER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF PAINTING, 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 IS INSCRIBED, AS AN HUMBLE TRIBUTE OF RESPECT 
 
 FOR 
 
 HIS EXALTED GENIUS, 
 A MEMORIAL OF HIS KINDNESS AND CONDESCENSION, 
 
 AND 
 
 AS A TESTIMONY OF THE GREAT ADVANTAGES 
 AND HIGH HONOUR 
 
 DERIVED FROM 
 
 HIS INVALUABLE INSTRUCTION. 
 
 IN THE 
 
 Eopal acatremp of arte, 
 
 BY 
 
 HIS MOST OBLIGED SERVANT, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 Hoxton, Aug. H^th, 
 1818. 
 
r- 
 
 * 
 
 J 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 5. Line 14. 
 
 26. 20. V for obliqus, read obliquus. 
 
 27. 18. J 
 
 12. 12. "1 
 
 25. 14. Vfor grove, read groove. 
 
 29. 25.J 
 
 41. 3. dele and. 
 
 42. 37. for biceps, read triceps. 
 
 17. 33.") 
 
 for astiiigulus, read astragalus. 
 
 Note. — The description of Fig. 4, Plate 5. answers for Fig. 6 also. 
 
 if 
 
SECTION J. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 AND 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
SECTION I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Sfc. <Sfc. 
 
 By anatomy is meant that art which teaches the physical 
 composition and mechanical structure of animals. As ap- 
 plied to man it is called human: as applied to other animals 
 it is termed comparative. 
 
 Anatomy is one of the great elementary principles of 
 the art of design. Without anatomy the artist cannot de- 
 termine the correctness of his outline, he will be ever in- 
 volved in obscurities, and his figures must be destitute of 
 character. 
 
 It is presumed no question will, in the present day, be 
 raised upon the fact, that an intimate knowledge of the 
 osteology, and of the muscles, which go to the formation 
 of the exterior of the human figure, forms the basis upon 
 which the superstructure of an artist's education and fame 
 must be erected and established. 
 
 That dissection is necessary for the artist is yet with 
 some a subject-matter for discussion. But if it be requisite 
 for the artist to be able to distinguish bone from tendon, 
 and tendon from muscle, he who can convey as perfect an 
 idea of these parts by description only, as at present can be 
 obtained by sight and touch alone, will not only succeed in 
 performing that which all others have hitherto failed in 
 attempting, but will in fact establish a royal road to science, 
 and sweep our anatomic schools. 
 
 The student who imagines he will be able to obtain a 
 competent knowledge of anatomy by reading alone, without 
 dissecting, or examining dissections performed by others, 
 will, when too late, experience the mortification of his error. 
 Anatomy may be considered as a branch of experimental 
 and demonstrative philosophy ; and a knowledge of the 
 component parts of the animal formation is no more to be 
 obtained by description, than a knowledge of gold, silver, 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 or any other simple substance in nature. Independent of 
 obtaining a complete idea of the things themselves, the 
 student by dissecting, or carefully examining dissected 
 bodies, will have the opportunity of observing the recent 
 skeleton, of tracing all the cartilages and ligaments in their 
 natural state and situation, and of obtaining a correct know- 
 ledge of the mechanism of the joints, — advantages which he 
 cannot by any other means possess. 
 
 But some object that dissecting is the disgusting part 
 of anatomy, and that it is altogether unnecessary for the 
 artist. Js it not infinitely more painful to hear such an 
 opinion promulgated in the lectures of a professor, ap- 
 pointed expressly to teach the elements of anatomy to ar- 
 tists, than disgusting to witness a dissection conducted by 
 a sensible and intelligent mind, and to a philosophic pur- 
 pose ? Until a method of obtaining a similar knowledge of 
 that elegant and beautiful piece of mechanism displayed in 
 the composition of the human hand or foot is given to us 
 without dissection, we may, without much injustice, con- 
 clude such disgust (in a professor at least) arises either 
 from affectation or from indolence. 
 
 What more calculated to inspire the breast of man 
 with gratitude for the great advantages he possesses over 
 all the animal creation, or with veneration for the Author 
 of those advantages, than a knowledge of his extraordinary 
 organization, and a contemplation of the great and various 
 powers with which this organization is endowed? And can 
 any investigation into the nature of these things produce 
 disgust? As well might it be said the labour of learning or 
 investigating the theorems of our own Newton, of La Lande 
 or La Place, by which we may obtain an accurate know- 
 ledge of the harmony of the celestial spheres, was disgusting, 
 as that to obtain a knowledge of the harmony and admirable 
 contrivance in animal organization, by means of dissecting, 
 is only to produce disgust. He who considers the dissection 
 of the human body as calculated to excite disgust, entertains 
 very mistaken notions of philosophic investigations directed 
 to purposes of science; and may, without much risk of 
 error, be considered as utterly incompetent to decide the 
 merits of the question. The idea that dissection is neces- 
 sary for the student in the fine arts has prevailed in the mind 
 of the author throughout the whole progress of this work. 
 
s 
 
 Should the student be unable to obtain a human body 
 to dissect, he may easily convert to his purpose some other 
 animal. A dog or cat, if dissected with care, will convey 
 a clear idea of the nature and arrangement of muscles: he 
 will find the same means and the same component parts to 
 produce motion as are required for the action of man; 
 they differ but in the general form, number, position, and 
 magnitude. But it is hoped there are indeed but few in 
 London whose circumstances do not permit them to enjoy 
 the fine advantages so liberally offered by Mr. Brookes. 
 The permission which this gentleman gives to the students 
 of the Royal Academy of Arts to visit and make use of his 
 dissecting rooms, reflects upon him the highest honor, and 
 deservedly places him amongst our noblest patrons of the 
 fine arts. 
 
 It was intended on the first consideration of this work 
 to have given a sketch of the general formation and com- 
 position of the human frame; but as such a task would 
 necessarily occupy many pages in its performance, and ex- 
 tend this volume beyond its present limits, it must be 
 omitted. The student may obtain information tolerably 
 correct upon this head, in Paley's Natural Theology, Vol. I* 
 
 The first great object is to obtain a competent know- 
 ledge of the anatomy of the limbs and the exterior of the 
 body; after this is accomplished the student may proceed 
 in the philosophic investigations of the general economy 
 of animal organization. How deeply acquainted with 
 anatomy the artist should be, is perhaps a matter of some 
 difficulty to determine: that he may know too little admits 
 of no dispute ; but that he may know too much is yet a ques- 
 tion. The great secret, however, is not how much he should 
 know, but how much he should apply. This depends 
 upon judgment and taste, for the attainment of which the 
 statues of the antique give unerring rules. 
 
 The component parts of the human body are,, by anato- 
 mists, divided into the hard and soft parts, and into fluids; 
 by the hard parts are meant the bones and cartilages; by 
 the soft parts are meant muscle, skin, tendon, fat, &c. ; the 
 
 * There are in this work, of Paley some incorrect statements, but not of any 
 material consequence to the artist ; and as to the moral and religious senti- 
 ments which attend the anatomic description, the student may dismiss them 
 for a future occasion. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 blood and other secretions and excretions comprehend the 
 fluids; the bones constitute the skeleton, which forms the 
 basis and frame-work of the fleshy superstructure. The 
 skeleton is either recent or artificial ; by the recent skele- 
 ton is meant that preparation by which the bones are kept 
 in their relative and proper situations, by the means of the 
 ligaments of the joints and other tendons; the artificial 
 skeleton is understood to be the juxta position of the 
 bones by the means of wires, leather, cork, and other mate- 
 rials, necessarily supplying the place of ligaments. 
 
 Every student should possess the artificial skeleton, so 
 constructed as to remain in any position in which it maybe 
 placed, and not in the ordinary method of the present 
 adopted parallelism, which gives to the skeleton the horrid 
 appearance of a malefactor hung in chains, and renders it 
 of little use to the artist. 
 
 The skeleton is divided into the head, the trunk, and 
 the extremities ; these divisions apply also to the figure.* 
 Cartilage is a substance of an intermediate hardness, be- 
 tween bone and tendon : it is very smooth and delicate in 
 its appearance, and is applied to the extremities of the 
 bones to render them fit for the purposes of articulation and 
 motion ; it is sometimes loose and in a separate piece, 
 placed between the bones at the joints, as at the knee- 
 joint and the articulation of the lower jaw : sometimes it 
 forms the connecting medium between the bones, as between 
 the vertebrae of the spine; and in consequence of its elasticity 
 admits of the motion, or rather yielding of the vertebras one 
 upon the other. 
 
 Muscle is formed by a fasciculus or bundle of fibres, 
 united by a common medium; these fibres are as little 
 threads of various lengths, thickness, and direction. A 
 muscle is terminated at its extremities by a condensed 
 fibrous structure called tendon : it is white, and forms in 
 common language the leaders or strings, as are evident in 
 the leg of a fowl. Every muscle is divided into a body or 
 belly and two extremities ; some muscles appear all fibre 
 or flesh without tendon; others have a tendon but at 
 one extremity, and some at both extremities; and these ten- 
 dons are of various forms and lengths, as round, flat, broad, 
 
 * The common appearances of bone are too well understood to require 
 any particular description. 
 
5 
 
 short, or long. Ligament may be considered as a variety 
 of tendon, having the properties of tendon in a higher de- 
 gree. Muscles have obtained their names either from their 
 discoverer, their use, situation, form or magnitude, and di- 
 rection of their fibres, as the sartorius or taylor's muscle ; 
 the flexors, extensors, abductors, &c. the tibialis anticus, and 
 posticus before the tibia, behind the tibia, fyc. The peroneus, 
 so called from its attachment to the fibula, which the 
 French call the Perone, from its supposed resemblance to 
 a musical instrument. The deltoides, from its resem- 
 blance to the Greek Delta. The gracilis from its supposed 
 elegance. The vastus externus and interuus, from their 
 magnitude. The gluteus magnus, medius, and minimus, from 
 their relative size and situation. The rectus, the obliqus, 
 the transversalis, from the straight, oblique, and tranverse 
 direction of their fibres. Some are called penniforme, single, 
 or double, from their fibres taking a direction from a central 
 or lateral line, like the feathers on a pen. Others are named 
 from their situation and magnitude, as pectoralis major, the 
 greater pectoral muscle, serratus major anticus, the greater 
 front saiv-edged muscle. Some also from their form and 
 magnitude, as teres major, the greater round muscle, rhom- 
 boideus major, the greater rhomb-like muscle, &c. &c. 
 
 The terms origin and- insertion have, in anatomy, a 
 very limited signification. When it is said, as of the sar- 
 torius muscle, it arises from the ileum, and is inserted into 
 the tibia, it is not meant that the muscle arises actually out 
 of the one bone and is actually inserted into the other, 
 as in the common acceptation of the terms would be in- 
 ferred ; but it being obvious the sartorius is to move the 
 leg and not the body, the ileum is taken as the fixed point 
 to which one of its extremities is attached, and the tibia as 
 the moveable point to which the other extremity is attached ; 
 and in this and all other cases where the attachment of a 
 part of a muscle is to a point or bone, which it is not by its 
 action intended to move, that part or extremity is called its 
 origin, and it is said to arise from that point; and in all 
 cases, that extremity which is attached to the moveable 
 bone, or point intended to be put in motion by its action, 
 is designated by its insertion, and it is said to be inserted 
 into that bone or point. By the terms origin and insertion 
 nothing more is meant than the fixt and moveable points of 
 attachment of any muscle. The attachment of muscle to 
 
0 
 
 bone is generally expressed by a peculiar roughness, as in 
 the Unea aspera of the thigh-bone. The connexion of mind 
 with matter, aud the philosophy of muscular motion, are 
 points necessarily excluded in a work of this nature; but 
 it is necessary to observe upon a point or two relative to 
 muscular action. Every muscle, when quiescent, or in 
 a state of rest, has a form peculiar to itself; dissection, ana- 
 tomic plates, and casts, will be adequate to give a certain 
 knowledge of their appearance; but every muscle, in a state 
 of action, assumes a different character and appearance; their 
 forms vary as the force applied, and the energy of the will. 
 A muscle, when put into action, is swelled or contracted 
 in part or in the whole: to represent this accurately, in any 
 given action, constitutes one of the greatest difficulties in 
 the art of design. To obtain a knowledge of the various 
 forms assumed by muscles in action, the artist should be 
 Tery minutely acquainted with the mass and direction of 
 their fibres, the nature and direction of their attachments 
 and tendons, and their probable use and range of action, 
 in conjunction with a constant study of the antique, and an 
 attentive observation of nature. The muscles of men used 
 to daily and laborious exercises, as hammering, lifting, pull- 
 ing, &c. will, though in a state of rest, appear more strongly 
 swelled or contracted, than the muscles of those unac- 
 customed to such exercises, even when in a state of action. 
 A comparison of the arms of paviors and blacksmiths 
 with those of watch-makers and scriveners will illustrate 
 this fact. But the antique afford us a more beautiful and 
 forcible illustration in the Farnesian Hercules entirely at 
 rest, and the Discobolon, or Hamon in a state of action. It 
 matters not to the artist to know if a muscle has more or 
 less blood circulating through it w hen in action or when at 
 rest; all he has to observe is what part is shortened or ex- 
 tended, contracted or swelled. The tendons never vary, 
 they have no power of motion, and are to the muscle what 
 the rope is to the lever. A muscle attached but at its ex- 
 tremities may, when in action, be swelled throughout its 
 Avhole length and contracted; but a muscle, as the vastus, 
 which is attached, not only at its extremities, but along its 
 whole course, cannot be shortened, but may be swelled in 
 its action either in part or in the whole. The biceps bra- 
 ehialis et cruralis, the semi-tendinosus, the semi-membri- 
 nosus, and other muscles, attached but at their two extre- 
 
mities, are called loose muscles, and when in action become 
 swelled and shortened. No precise rule can be given for 
 the delineation of muscles in action ; study, with dissection 
 and experiment, can alone give confidence, or lead to ac- 
 curacy of design. 
 
 The Gladiator repugnans, as by some called, or more 
 properly expressed by Fuseli, the "Warrior of Agasias," is, 
 as a single figure, the best model of the antique which the 
 young artist can select for anatomic study. In this cele- 
 brated figure the student will discover every muscle in 
 motion, or eager to move. The energy of a most determined 
 will animates the whole, and were it not for its colourless 
 mass the spectator would be unable to separate the statue 
 from real nature. Although every muscle is distinctly 
 marked, and many even to their minutest fibres, yet none 
 appear more prominent than living muscle will admit ; 
 each is in its proper place, and their swellings and con- 
 tractions undulate and glide into each other in the curves 
 and easy flow of nature ; and, unlike the figures of the first 
 sculptor of modern art, Michael Angelo, there is no osten- 
 tatious display, or capricious delineation of muscle. The 
 author dares not venture his critique upon the character of 
 this splendid relique of antiquity after the account and 
 description given of it in the learned and comprehensive 
 lectures delivered by the present eminent Professor of 
 Painting in the Royal Academy of Arts. 
 
 The author cannot but view this figure as the chef 
 d'ceuvre of ancient art ; be that however as it may, no 
 one will dispute its high claim to the constant attention 
 of the student, as a model of perfection in anatomic deli- 
 neation and muscular action; and under this impression he 
 has made frequent reference to it in the demonstration of 
 the muscles. 
 
 The artist cannot study the figures of the antique too 
 frequently, nor should any one presume to attempt the art 
 of design without taking for his immediate model these un- 
 equalled productions of human genius. On contemplating 
 the works of Phidias, Agasias, Glicon, and the chosen few, 
 we behold for the first and only time models of the human 
 race; and we exclaim with our immortal Shakspeare, 
 
 u What a piece of work is man! — how noble in reason ! 
 *f how infinite in faculties! — in form and moving how express 
 " and admirable !— in action, how like an angel!— in appre- 
 
8 
 
 w hension, how like a god !— the beauty of the world ! the 
 " paragon of animals !" 
 
 The difficulty which the author constantly experienced 
 in selecting from the anatomical works of surgeons, that por- 
 tion which appeared to him necessary for his purpose, as 
 an artist, and a knowledge that every student must neces- 
 sarily contend with similar disadvantages, suggested to him 
 the idea of this work. 
 
 In its composition he had to struggle with all the diffi- 
 culties of a new undertaking, if therefore it carries with it 
 the air of novelty, or claims the merits due to a first attempt, 
 it possesses, no doubt, too many of the usual accompany- 
 ing defects. 
 
 Utility being the grand object of all works of this de- 
 scription, the whole subject-matter has been compressed 
 into its smallest compass, and perspicuity and conciseness 
 have been the principal aim in the arrangement and de- 
 scriptions. 
 
 In works of general science it will readily be admitted, 
 much that is written cannot be new; and that which has 
 been once well described, should not by any whim or ca- 
 price be altered. 
 
 The author, therefore, has borrowed from the anatomic 
 works of others the greater portion of the demonstrative 
 sections. The only originality to which he can lay any 
 claim, is in the arrangement and application. The order 
 of arrangment here adopted, is the course in which the artist 
 should pursue this study ; commencing with the bones, 
 therfce to a consideration of the muscles, and concluding 
 with the joints, at the same time marking out their course 
 and situation on the celebrated statues of the antique. 
 
 This work being an elementary treatise, nothing more 
 has been given than is absolutely necessary to be well un- 
 derstood by the student in the fine arts, and all those who 
 pursue any branch of that elevated line of study. 
 
 [f this work should succeed in obviating the necessity, on 
 the part of the student, of a laborious, difficult, and tedious 
 research through anatomical works, written expressly for 
 other sciences, for that knowledge which he is desirous of 
 possessing in anatomy, or in any degree facilitate his ad- 
 vancement in the fine arts, the labours of the author will 
 obtain their ample reward. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY, 
 
 OR 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF THE BONES. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 The skeleton is anatomically divided into the 
 
 Head, 
 Trunk, and 
 Extremities. 
 The head is subdivided into 
 
 The Head, properly so called, and 
 The Face. 
 
 The extremities are further distinguished from each other, 
 into 
 
 The Upper, or arms, 
 The Lower, or legs. 
 The trunk is composed of 
 
 The Thorax, or chest, 
 The Spine, and 
 The Pelvis. 
 
 Of the Bones of the Head. 
 
 Of the bones going to the formation of head, six only 
 are necessary to be known by the artist ; 
 
 1. The Os Frontis, or forehead, 
 
 2. Os Occipitis, or back of the head, 
 
 3 & 4. Ossa Parietalia,oi- side bones of the head, 
 5 & 6. Ossa Temporum, or bones of the temples. 
 These bones are connected together by particular joints, 
 called Sutures, which may in some bald heads be traced on 
 the living subject. 
 
 On every bone there are certain inequalities to be care- 
 fully attended to, and some of them are of great importance, 
 since they take a considerable share in the contour of all 
 the joints, and form points of attachment for the muscles. 
 The particular parts to be observed are as follows : 
 
 A Process, or considerable projection from a bone. 
 
 A Tuberosity, or swelling, or nob upon the bone. 
 
 A Spine, or extended projection of bone in a line. 
 
12 
 
 Every bone is either long, short, or extended. The long 
 bones are divided into a 
 
 Body, and 
 
 Two Extremities. 
 The extremities of bones form the articulating surfaces, 
 which from a supposed resemblance, are sometimes called 
 the head of the bone ; there are other parts, but the names 
 sufficiently express their forms, such as 
 
 A Ridge, 
 
 An Angle, 
 
 A Depression, 
 
 A Grove, &c. &c. 
 
 Of the Skull. 
 
 The skull is, of all the other parts of the skeleton, the most 
 important and interesting. To the artist, the physiogno- 
 mist, and the philosopher, it is an object which alike excites 
 their highest interest, and demands their deep consideration. 
 
 Deprived of vitality, and deserted by the evanescent 
 ornaments of life, it addresses itself powerfully to thesenses; 
 and though there remains but the bare and mouldering walls 
 of the temple which held the sanctuary of a living soul, the 
 vovg, the mind, it yet bears the impress of divinity, and 
 proclaims the great character and leading passions of its 
 once inhabitant. 
 
 Nor is it merely because it is expressive of individual 
 character that the artist should make it a particular object 
 of his study. Independent of giving the particular charac- 
 ter of an individual, it is in fact an Archetype of the na- 
 tion to which it belongs, and thus becomes the standard of 
 National Individuality. The European and African 
 skull compared, presents a difference not less than the 
 eye distinguishes in the colour of their skins, or formation 
 of the lips. 
 
 Every skull possesses a character sui generis, but its in- 
 dividual character is never so excessive as to obscure the 
 greater lineaments of its national individuality; these are 
 facts which the simple inspection of the two skulls will ab- 
 solutely establish. 
 
 In the European skull (as in the vignette of the title 
 page) the frontal and parietal bones are arched, and con- 
 
13 
 
 siderably elevated above the basis, the occipital bone is 
 elongated, and the temporal bones lie in a line, slightly 
 dipping inwards towards the temporal fossa (or hollow). 
 
 The angle formed by two lines, the one drawn hori- 
 zontally along the basis, and the other vertically along the 
 profile of the face, is nearly a right angle;* and the whole 
 presents an oblate or ovated appearance; this skull is evi- 
 dently British. So various and so infinitely diversified are 
 the forms of the human skull, and yet so constant in cer- 
 tain localities, that from National individuality the philoso- 
 pher may trace the provincial, and from provincial the pre- 
 dominant characteristic of families. 
 
 This work being an elementary treatise will not admit 
 of further illustrations of the subject, and from the facts 
 already set forth, the importance of a complete knowledge 
 of the human skull is sufficiently obvious. 
 
 On a view of the skull the student has to notice parti- 
 cularly those parts which give the individual character, and 
 the following is the order of his studies. As a whole he 
 must first notice its roundness or ovated form, the - elevation 
 of the crown of the head, and its general dimensions, 
 smoothness, or asperity. 
 
 Of the os frontis;\ he must observe its elevation, arch, 
 width, angularity, and obliquity, with relation to a line 
 drawn parallel to the basis of the skull, through the root 
 of the nose. The presence and extent, or absence of the 
 frontal protuberances ( or sinuses ). The orbitary ridge, its 
 extent, flatness, or arch, and its projection over the external 
 angle of the eyes, proceeding as a ridge, or spine of bone, 
 along the side of the os frontis, and gently continued along 
 the os parietale, expressing the attachment of the temporalis 
 muscle. 
 
 In the os occipitis, its elongation, width, and the cru- 
 cial spine, which expresses the attachment of the strong 
 muscles of the back and nape of the neck ; the magnitude 
 and obliquity of the great hole through which the spinal nerve 
 (or marrow) passes, and the articulation with the first bone 
 
 * This angle in the Greek heads is generally a right angle, and in some 
 instances exceeds it. 
 
 + For a reference to the particular processes enumerated in these and 
 other bones, see plates I and II. 
 
14 
 
 of the spine, upon which the nodding motion of the head is 
 performed. 
 
 In the ossa parietalia, their arch, flatness, and. obli- 
 quity ; the elevation and extent of the attachment of the 
 temporalis muscle. 
 
 In the ossa temporum, the obliquity of their position, 
 flatness, and arch ; the extent and magnitude of the mastoid 
 processes, and the zigomatic process. 
 
 These are all important observations necessary to be 
 noted in the formation of every skull, since these points 
 form the essential difference of national and individual cha- 
 racter and sex. 
 
 But it will now become more evident the student will 
 not be able to make any progress in obtaining a knowledge 
 of the bones, either relatively to each other, or particularly of 
 themselves, unless he possesses a skeleton, or otherwise the 
 separate bones; and he should also possess, for frequent 
 observation, a set of skulls, commencing with those of in- 
 fancy, and terminating with old age, of both sexes. 
 
 The bones of the face do not in a less degree contribute 
 to the formation of these essential differences. 
 
 The width, length, arch, flatness, and obliquity of the 
 bones of the nose are all of the utmost importance to be 
 attended to; the distance and obliquity of the cheek-bones, 
 and the projection and curve of the upper jaw; the extent 
 and angularity of the basis of the lower jaw, and the length 
 of its ramus, or that part which terminates at its articula- 
 tion, must be particularly noted, since this bone presents 
 one of the strongest tests of national character, and it is 
 owing to its peculiar modifications in the antique statues 
 that so much dignity and beauty is preserved in their heads ; 
 the Apollo affords the finest illustration. 
 
 Of the Trunk. 
 
 The trunk is formed by the spine, or back-bone; the 
 costce, or ribs; the sternum, or breast-bone; and the pelvis, 
 or bones of the hip. 
 
 The spine is that long column of bones upon which 
 the head is placed, and which terminates by a broad base 
 upon one of the bones of the pelvis. The separate bones 
 of the spine are called vertebra?, and are twenty-four in 
 number; the cervical vertebra, or vertebra; of the neck, 
 
15 
 
 are seven in number ; the dorsal vertebra, or vertebra? of 
 the back, are twelve in number; and the lumbar vertebra, 
 or vertebrae of the loins, are five in number. 
 
 The spine, when viewed in front, appears in a right 
 line, but when seen in a lateral position, its true curvature 
 is apparent ; it first bends a little inward from the head to 
 the neck; at the shoulders it is drawn very backward to 
 allow room in the chest for the heart and lungs; and at the 
 loins it again stands forward in support of the viscera. 
 
 Between each vertebrae is a cartilaginous and elastic 
 substance, allowing motion in the spine. The motions of 
 the spine are limited; the cervical vertebrae allow a small 
 motion forwards, and a rotatory motion ; the dorsal verte- 
 brae admit still less a change of position; and the lumbar 
 vertebrae allow a bending forwards in a small degree. 
 
 Each vertebrae is a ring of bone varying in strength and 
 magnitude from the first, called the atlas, from supporting 
 the globe of the head, to the last of the loins. These bones 
 send out on each side and directly projecting backwards 
 processes, called spinous processes, which give attachment 
 to the muscles of the back. 
 
 The ribs are twenty-four in number, twelve on each 
 side; they present a conoidal appearance, the apex of which 
 is at the neck. 
 
 Each rib is attached, by one extremity, to a vertebrae, 
 and all but the two last are, at their other extremity, at- 
 tached to the sternum by means of their cartilages. The 
 eighth, ninth, and tenth ribs are connected to the sternum by 
 means of the cartilage of the seventh; and the tenth and 
 twelfth are loose at their anterior extremity; they have, 
 therefore, obtained the appellation of the floating ribs. The 
 cartilage of each rib lengthens from the first to the last of 
 the true ribs. The cartilage of the false ribs is short. 
 
 The sternum is that irregular long bone which is seen 
 passing along the breast, and terminating in a cartilage, 
 called, from its supposed resemblance to a sword, the ensi- 
 forme cartilage. It is composed of several pieces of bone, 
 which in the adult become united; but as this bone is 
 arched forward, and the action of respiration having, in a 
 small degree, raised each bone before they became perfectly 
 united, it retains several inequalities which accord with its 
 original number of pieces, and therefore the artist should 
 not fail to express them in the strong actions of muscular 
 
16 
 
 men. These inequalities may be traced in the Laocoon and 
 the Haemon. 
 
 The pelvis, so called from its resemblance to a basin, 
 completes the trunk ; it is formed of two large bones, united 
 at and forming* the pubis in front, and connected behind by 
 another bone of a triangular shape, called the sacrum, upon 
 which the spine rests. The pelvis forms the connecting* 
 medium between the trunk and lower extremities, by the 
 means of the hip-joints. The two large bones on each side 
 are called ossa innominata (nameless bones) and are divided 
 into three parts, the ilium, ischium, and pubis. (Vide plate I.) 
 The upper margin is called the spine of the bone, and 
 gives attachment to some of the abdominal muscles. The 
 angles in front are called the spinous processes, and give 
 attachment to the rectus and glutaeus muscles, &c. 
 
 The ischium, or under part of the bone, forms that part 
 on which the individual sits ; it also forms the largest share 
 in the acetabulum, or socket of the hip-joint, and gives at- 
 tachment to a great proportion of the muscles of the thigh. 
 
 The pubis is formed by that part of the ossa innominata, 
 which extends horizontally for about two inches on each 
 side of their junction in the front; this bone also gives at- 
 tachment to muscles. 
 
 Of the Lower or Inferior Extremities. 
 
 The inferior extremities are formed by 
 The Os Femoris, or thigh-bone, 
 The Tibia, ) 
 
 The Fibula, >or bones of the leg, and 
 The Patella, ) 
 The Foot. 
 
 The femur or thigh-bone, is the largest of the long bones in 
 the human skeleton, and forms the upper division of the leg. 
 The upper extremity of this bone is formed into a ball, and 
 is called its head ; this is so constructed for the purposes 
 of extended motion at the hip-joint; externally is a tube- 
 rosity called the trochanter major, or great trochanter. 
 The student must constantly bear in mind this process, as 
 it forms the contour in the hollow of the thigh at the hip- 
 joint, and gives attachment to important muscles. Opposite 
 to this and a little lower is situated a similar, but smaller, 
 process, called the trochanter minor, or lesser trochanter. 
 The femur is rounded and smooth in front, but is rough 
 
17 
 
 behind. (Vide plate II.) This roughness is called the linea 
 aspera, and gives attachment to several muscles. At the 
 lower extremity this bone extends on each side, forming 
 what are called its condyles; these are evidently for the pur- 
 pose of articulation with the bone of the leg. It must be 
 observed the inner condyle is the largest and longest, which 
 occasions that inkneed appearance so conspicuous in the 
 skeleton. 
 
 The leg is composed of two bones, named the tibia and 
 largest, the fibula and smallest. 
 
 The tibia is a long angular bone, the larger extremity 
 of which is the upper, so constructed as to receive the 
 condyles of the femur; the front angle of the bone runs in 
 a waved line, and is called its spine; it passes from a little 
 projection of the bone, called the tuberosity, at its upper 
 extremity, to the inner ancle: this bone at its lower extre- 
 mity forms the inner ancle; the roughness on this bone is 
 expressive of muscular attachment. At the knee-joint, and 
 lying over the junction of the femur with the tibia, is placed 
 the patella, or knee-pan; this is a small irregular and qua- 
 drilateral bone ; it is kept in its place by means of a 
 strong ligament attached to the tuberosity of the tibia. 
 
 The fibula, or smaller bone of the leg, lies on the out- 
 side of the tibia, and is attached to it at both its extremities 
 by an articulating surface. The upper extremity, or head 
 of the bone, may be felt on the living model, but its lower 
 extremity projects considerably, and forms the outer ancle. 
 
 The foot is anatomically divided into the tarsus, meta- 
 tarsus, and the phalanges of the toes. 
 
 The tarsus is composed of seven bones of irregular 
 shape, and so constructed as to form an arch, the convexity 
 of which constitutes the instep. 
 
 The first, and most important, is the astragulus; this bone 
 is articulated with the tibia, and extends on to the instep. 
 
 The second, and next in importance, is the os calcis, 
 or heel-bone, to which the tendo achillis is attached. 
 
 The third is the os naviculare, or boat-like bone ; this 
 is attached at the fore extremity of the astragulus ; it is a 
 flattened circular body, placed vertically in the instep. 
 
 The fourth is the os cuboides, or cubical bone; it is situ- 
 ated on the outer side of the astragulus, and very materially 
 assists in the arch of the instep. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 The three remaining bones are called ossa cuneiformia, 
 or wedge-shape bones ; these are placed like the key-stones 
 of an arch, the largest is at the base of the great toe, the 
 next in magnitude is at the base of the third toe, and the 
 least is situated between the two former, and receives the 
 metatarsal bone of the second toe. 
 
 The metatarsus is composed of five bones, long and 
 slender; they spring from the tarsus, and are attached by 
 means of separate articulations to the instep ; their extre- 
 mities at the tarsus are large, the bodies of these bones are 
 small, and their extremities at the toes are rounded, to form 
 joints for the purpose of the extended motion of the toes. 
 
 The metatarsal bone of the little toe projects consider- 
 ably beyond the tarsus, and forms a conspicuous projection 
 on the outer side of the foot. 
 
 The toes are five in number, and consist of three rows, 
 or phalanges of bones, one before the other; these bones di- 
 minish in size as they approach to the extremities of the 
 toes ; the great toe has but two of these phalanges. The 
 form of these bones, in the first rank, is similar to those of 
 the metatarsus, in the second rank they are very short; 
 and the last rank, or those forming the ends of the toes, 
 which, not being adapted to the purposes of articulation, 
 are rounded off to a thin flat termination. 
 
 Of the Superior Extremities. 
 
 The superior extremities are composed of three parts, 
 The Shoulders, 
 The Arms, and 
 The Hands. 
 
 The scapula, plate or shoulder bone: this is a thin, 
 triangular bone, situated on the upper and back part of the 
 chest, having its most acute angle placed downwards; one 
 side is smooth and concave, adapted to the arch of the ribs 
 upon which it moves; the outer side is convex and princi- 
 pally concerns the artist. The edges of this bone are called 
 its costee, the superior costa gives attachment to muscles 
 which elevate the arm, the inferior costa is covered by 
 muscles which depress the arm. The principal parts to be 
 observer! are its spine, terminating in a process called the 
 acromion, its articulating cavity for the head of the arm- 
 bone, and the coracoid process. 
 
 Just below the articulating cavity is called the neck of 
 
19 
 
 the bone, from which proceeds the coracoid process, to 
 which is attached the coraco brachialis muscle. 
 
 The spine crosses the scapula in an oblique direction, 
 and hangs over the shoulder-joint, forming the acromion ; 
 to it is attached the trapezius muscle. 
 
 The clavicle, or collar-bone connects the scapula to the 
 trunk. It is a thin long rounded bone, of the form of an 
 italic S; one extremity is attached to the acromion, and the 
 other to the upper part of the sternum, lying over the first 
 rib. This bone gives attachment to a portion of the mas- 
 toideus and pectoralis muscles. 
 
 The os humeri, or bone of the arm. This bone is long 
 and rounded ; its upper extremity is called its head, being 
 in part globular, for the purpose of allowing every degree 
 of motion to the shoulder-joint. This bone has two tuber- 
 cles situated anteriorly, and separated by a groove. These 
 tubercles are for the attachment of muscles, and the groove 
 receives the long tendon of the biceps muscle. Towards 
 its lower extremity it is flattened, and extends laterally 
 into two condyles for the purpose of affording attachment 
 to the flexor and extensor muscles of the fore-arm ; and 
 also for the articulation of the ulna and radius. 
 
 The fore-arm is composed of two bones named the radius 
 and ulna. 
 
 The radius is situated upon the outer part of the arm, 
 and is articulated at each extremity with the ulna, upon 
 which it is moved, performing the supination and pronation 
 of the hand, and to which it is principally attached at its lower 
 extremity. This bone is also articulated with the humerus, 
 for the purpose of going along with the ulna, in the flexion 
 and extension of the arm. At the upper extremity it is 
 small, and a tubercle appears on its inner side, giving in- 
 sertion to the biceps muscle. The lower extremity is ex- 
 tended for the purpose of articulation with the bones of 
 the carpus. 
 
 The ulna lies on the inner side of the fore-arm ; it is a 
 long and rounded bone, becoming gradually smaller as it 
 descends to the wrist. The upper end of this bone pro- 
 jects considerably backwards, forming that process called 
 the olecranon. This process gives attachment to the tri- 
 ceps. A large cavity in the back part of the humerus receives 
 the olecranon, when the arm is in a right line. At th g 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 lower extremity of this bone, and on its outer-side, is a 
 little projection called the styloid process, from it a ligament 
 passes to the carpus, for the protection of the wrist-joint. 
 
 The carpus, or wrist, is composed of eight little bones, 
 connected together in the form of an arch ; two only of 
 them are necessary to be remarked particularly by the 
 artist. The first, called the os pisiforme, or pea-shaped 
 bone, is that bone which may so easily be felt on the inner 
 edge of the wrist ; from it passes a strong ligament to the 
 second of these bones, called the trapezium, it may be felt 
 on the inner side, at the base of the thumb. 
 
 The metacarpus is formed of four bones, very similar 
 but more slender than the bones of the metatarsus. They 
 are articulated at one extremity to the bones of the carpus, 
 and the other to the bones forming the phalanges of the 
 fingers ; these bones form the palm of the hand, and diverge 
 from their bases towards their articulation with the fingers. 
 
 The fingers, like the toes, are formed of three rows or 
 phalanges ; and the same description answers to both : 
 they are, however, longer and more stout. The thumb, by 
 some, is said to possess but two rows of bones ; but then, 
 under these circumstances, there are reckoned five metacar- 
 pal bones : the thumb is not connected to the metacarpus, 
 but is loose, and free to be moved in every direction, being 
 attached only at its basis. 
 
SECTION UL 
 
 MYOLOGY, 
 
 OR 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 OF THE NECK. 
 
 Immediately in front of the neck is situated the organ 
 of voice, a singular and beautiful piece of mechanism, 
 formed principally of cartilage. Jt is this which causes the 
 projection commonly called Adams apple: a vulgar desig- 
 nation given to it in ignorance, and supported by super- 
 stition. On each side of the organ of voice, which anato- 
 mists term the larynx, is situated a muscle, termed 
 
 The Sterno-cleido-mastoideus, 
 
 So called from its attachments to the sternum, the cla- 
 vicle, and the mastoid process of the temporal bone. This 
 muscle, which gives so much beauty and elegance to the 
 human neck, passes down from behind the ear to the ster- 
 num in a fine and gently waving line ; at about two-thirds 
 of its length from the ear it divides and sends off a 
 similar column of flesh to the upper and anterior part of 
 the clavicle. 
 
 Use. — When they both act, they bend the head for- 
 ward. When one only acts, it turns the head to one side, 
 and in this case the other will appear in an oblique line, 
 from the ear to the sternum, very strongly marked, even in 
 the female neck. 
 
 Over these muscles is another on each side, called 
 
 The Platysma Myoides, or musculus cutaneus, or muscle 
 of the skin. This muscle is composed of very slender 
 fibres loosely united. It arises from the cellular substance 
 covering the upper part of the deltoid and pectoral muscles. 
 The fibres form a thin broad muscle, which runs obliquely 
 upwards, and is inserted into the skin and muscles cover- 
 ing the lower jaw. 
 
 Use. — To draw the skin of the face downwards ; and, 
 when the mouth is shut, to draw the skin of the neck 
 
24 
 
 upwards. This muscle gives a degree of softness to the 
 markings of the former one. 
 
 The hack of the neck is described along with the mus- 
 cles of the back ; but there is a small space between the 
 upper attachment of the trapezius and the stemo-cleido- 
 mastoidetis ; this space the artist may consider as filled up 
 with fat, though a slight hollowness will always appear. 
 
 A vein will sometimes appear in the course of the stemo- 
 cleido-mastoideus, — it is called the jugular vein. 
 
 Of the Muscles of the Head and Face. 
 
 One large and tendinous muscle, called the occipito- 
 frontal, covers the whole head. 
 
 A portion of another muscle, called the temporalis, is 
 seen situated on the temples. And one strong and tleshy 
 muscle called the massetur, descending from the cheek- 
 bone to be attached to the side of the lower jaw, as far 
 as its angle. This muscle forms a swelling on each side 
 of the lower jaw when the mouth is firmly shut. 
 
 The muscles of the face are very slender and delicate, 
 and, when in action, do not appear after the manner of 
 the other muscles of the body. They lie under a consi- 
 derable mass of fat, so that their form cannot be seen ex- 
 teriorly. The character of the face does not depend en-/ 
 tirely upon the soft parts : but it is necessary to shew 
 these muscles, that the anatomical formation of the face 
 may be understood. 
 
 These muscles are described in the table to the fifth 
 plate. 
 
 Those who wish to go deeper into this subject may 
 consult Mr. Bell's Treatise on the Anatomy of Ex- 
 pression. 
 
 It is nevertheless true, that the individual character is 
 pourtrayed powerfully in the face ; but unless the indi- 
 vidual can be seen when alone, or when unconscious of 
 being seen by any person, no certain judgment can be 
 formed upon information drawn from this source. 
 
 It is in the osteology of the head and face that the true 
 character of the individual is to be traced ; and a judg- 
 ment formed from this source is more likely to be correct, 
 because over the bony structure of the physiognomy no 
 
25 
 
 one can have the least control. But this is a subject fo- 
 reign to the present purpose : the artist must consult 
 the great woj/k of the immortal Lavater, and compare his 
 rules with nature, and well authenticated biography, if 
 he means to pourtray the energies of the mind upon his 
 canvas. 
 
 Of the Muscles situated upon the front of the 
 body, between the collar-bone and the pelvis. 
 
 1. The Pectoralis Major — Arises from the whole exter- 
 nal surface of the sternum, from the 5th, 6th, and 7th ribs, 
 and from two anterior thirds of the clavicle. The fibres 
 run obliquely across the chest, and, forming a flat tendon, 
 is inserted into the ridge of the os brachii, on the outside 
 of the grove of the long head of the biceps flexor cubiti. 
 
 Observations. — The tendon of this muscle is covered 
 by the anterior edge of the deltoid ; it forms the anterior 
 fold of the arm-pit. In the living model it forms a rounded 
 border to the arm-pit, arising partly from the twisted 
 course of its fibres at this edge, and partly from a quan- 
 tity of condensed cellular substance, and some fat. This 
 should be very carefully dissected away, to expose the 
 whole of the muscle. This muscle forms that mass of 
 flesh which covers the entire chest on each side of the 
 sternum, and upon which the breasts are situated. 
 
 Use. — To move the arm forwards and obliquely upwards, 
 toward the sternum. 
 
 Next in order follow the rectus and oblique muscles 
 on each side of a perpendicular line drawn from the ster- 
 num to the symphysis pubis. 
 
 2. The Rectus Abdominis — Arises by aflat tendon from 
 the fore part of the os pubis ; as it ascends, its fleshy belly 
 becomes broader and thinner, and is 
 
 Inserted by a thin fleshy expansion into the ensiform 
 cartilage terminating the sternum, and into the three in- 
 ferior true ribs. 
 
 Observations. — There are two of these muscles, one pas- 
 sing on each side of a central tendon, called the linea alba. 
 This line is gracefully disposed in the Mercury, and is 
 most delicately delineated in all the antique" These 
 muscles are intersected by four similar, but horizontally 
 
26 
 
 disposed tendons, called linece transversa. One of these 
 cross lines is situated at the navel, two above; and one 
 not so strong as any of the others, below the navel. In the 
 antique, however, the student will find thes>e transverse 
 lines represented but in three places ; one at the navel, 
 one between it and the chest, and the other below the 
 navel, about one-third part distant from the pu bis. It is 
 thus delineated in the Farnesian Hercules, the Laocoon, 
 the Torso, the Gladiator, and in the anatomical figure in 
 the Royal Academy. But all the four-lines are expressed 
 in the statue of a Faun, formerly in the Villa Borghese. 
 These muscles are inclosed in a tendinous sheath, which 
 gives them greater strength and a regular flow of out- 
 line. 
 
 Use. — To compress the fore-part of the a bdomen, and 
 to bend the body forwards, or to raise the pel vis. 
 
 Situated on each side of the recti, and separated from 
 them by a narrow tendinous line on their exterior edges 
 are two muscles, called 
 
 3. The Obliqus descendens. — The obliqus descen- 
 dens — arises by eight triangular fleshy slips from the lower 
 edges and exterior surfaces of the eight inferior ribs, at a 
 little distance from their cartilages. — The Jive superior 
 slips meet on the ribs an equal number of slips, being the 
 attachments of the serratus major anticus ; and the three 
 lowermost slips are connected with the attachments which 
 the latissimus dorsi has with the ribs. The muscular 
 fibres proceed obliquely forwards and downwards, and 
 terminate in that narrow tendinous line, wMch runs down 
 on each side of the belly, called the linea semi-lunaris. 
 
 Inserted into the two anterior thirds of the upper edge 
 of the os ileum, into Pouparfs ligament* and into the os 
 pubis. 
 
 Observations. — From the above description, the student 
 cannot mistake the situation and connexions of these mus- 
 cles. By the digitations of these abdominal muscles, and 
 the projections of the ribs, the ancients produced that fine 
 arch, of the bo<dy below the breasts, giving a grandeur and 
 beauty to their figures which nothing but an accurate 
 
 * Poupart's ligatment, is a ligament which passes in a right line from the 
 symphasis pubis to the upper angle of the os ileum. 
 
27 
 
 knowledge of anatomy, regulated by a sound judgment 
 and a most refined taste, could possibly accomplish. 
 
 The young artist is too apt to consider this arched for- 
 mation in the antique to be more the result of a style pe- 
 culiar to the ancients, and of an ideal beauty, than the 
 legitimate imitation of beautiful nature. This erroneous 
 idea, the result of a superficial knowledge of the osteology 
 of the human frame, seems unfortunately to be possessed 
 by too many of those who deem themselves proficients ; 
 and hence, for this elegant arch, is substituted in their 
 figures a tortuous and broken line, amounting in fact to a 
 complete deformity. On a first view of the skeleton, the 
 meeting of the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th ribs make with 
 the cartilage of the sternum, an appearance similar to a 
 gothic arch : but, on a closer inspection, it will be found 
 that the cartilages of these ribs are considerably flattened 
 anteriorly, and the small motion allowed by the articula- 
 tion of these cartilages with the sternum, together with the 
 bony extremity of the ribs, form an obtuse angle. The 
 action of the muscles of the belly completely press down 
 these yielding cartilages, and the bony extremity of the ribs 
 become in the living subject more apparent. Thus this 
 obtuse angle, from the inflexible nature of the bone 
 being fixed, produces, in conjunction with the coverings 
 of the abdominal muscles, that fine elliptic arch in the 
 antique statues. 
 
 The student, perhaps, should be informed that there 
 are two other pair of muscles lying beneath these last de- 
 scribed ; but if he considers the obliqui as very thick and 
 fleshy, his purpose will be answered. 
 
 Use.— To assist in respiration by drawing down the ribs, 
 and to turn the body to one side. 
 
 There are two other little muscles situated on each side of 
 the linea alba, at the lower extremity of the recti ; they 
 are said to assist these larger muscles : perhaps, in a very 
 fleshy subject, they may, when in action, make more ap- 
 parent the central division of the body ; they are called 
 
 The Piramidales ; they are attached to the os pubis, at 
 their base about two inches wide, and terminate in an acute 
 point, midway between the navel and the pubis. 
 
 Before proceeding to describe the muscles situated on 
 tue back, it will be proper to notice the serratus major. 
 
28 
 
 The Serratus Major or Magnus — Arises by nine fleshy 
 slips from the nine superior ribs ; these slips or digitations 
 descend from the hollow of the arm-pit, and become more 
 fleshy when they interlace with the five digitations of the 
 obliqus descendens. 
 
 Inserted, under the latissimus dorsi to the base of the 
 scapula. 
 
 Observations. — The only part of this muscle which con- 
 cerns the student to know, is its connexion with the ribs. 
 This muscle is called the serratus, or saw-edged, from its 
 resemblance to the teeth of a large saw, at the point of its 
 connexion with the ribs. The fine statue of the Laocoon 
 will demonstrate this muscle : the Gladiator also, and the 
 sleeping Faun. 
 
 Use. — To move the scapula forwards ; and, when the 
 scapula is forcibly raised, to draw the ribs upwards. 
 
 Of the Muscles situated on the Back. 
 
 Two pairs of muscles cover nearly the whole external 
 surface of the back, from the occipital bone to the pelvis ; 
 the first is called 
 
 1. The Trapezius. — It arises, by a thick round tendon, 
 from the lower part of the protuberance in the middle of 
 the os occipitis, and by a thin tendinous expansion from 
 the superior transverse edge of that bone ; it is attached, 
 by the medium of a strong ligament, to the spinous pro- 
 cesses of the five superior cervical vertebrae, and by the 
 means of a tendon, to the two other cervical vertebrae, and 
 to all the dorsal vertebrae. The fleshy fibres running down- 
 wards and upwards are 
 
 Inserted into the posterior third of the clavicle; into 
 the acromion, and into the upper edge of all the spine of 
 the scapula. 
 
 Observations. — Beneath this muscle is a fleshy mass, 
 formed of many others, and appearing like a column on 
 each side the neck ; the names, and particular description 
 of which, are not necessary to be known by the artist. 
 The student should, however, be informed these concealed 
 muscles are principally attached between the head, ribs, 
 and vertebrae, filling up that deep chasm which appears in 
 the skeleton between the vertebrae and ribs. Their use is 
 
2y 
 
 chiefly to maintain the head in an erect position, and to 
 raise it when hanging forwards. Of course these fleshy 
 columns (one on each side) should be very strongly marked 
 in figures, where any resistance is made to the elevation of 
 the head. 
 
 ZT se . — To move the scapula in different directions ; the 
 descending fibres elevating it, the ascending fibres depres- 
 sing it, and those running horizontally will tend to move 
 the scapula backwards. It is evident this muscle will 
 contribute to the raising of the head, and will assist in its 
 rotatory motions. The second muscle is called 
 
 2. The Latissimus Dorsi. — It arises by a broad thin 
 tendon from the spinous processes of the sacrum, from the 
 spinous processes of the lumbar vertebra, from the spine 
 of the ileum, and from the spinous processes of the seven 
 inferior dorsal vertebra ; also, it is attached by four distinct 
 fleshy slips or digitations, which intermix with those of 
 the obliqus descendens of the abdomen. The inferior fibres 
 ascend obliquely, and the superior run transversely : they 
 pass over the inferior angle of the scapula, (to which this 
 muscle is not unfrequently attached by means of a few 
 fibres) to reach the arm-pit, where they are collected and 
 twisted in a manner similar to the pectoralis major. 
 
 Inserted, by a strong flat tendon, into the inner edge of 
 the grove in the os humeri, which receives the long head 
 of the biceps. 
 
 Use. — To pull the arm backwards and downwards, and 
 to roll the arm. 
 
 Observations. — The attachments of this muscle to the 
 dorsal vertebrae are concealed by the trapezius ; and it forms 
 the posterior edge of the arm-pit. Beneath this muscle, as 
 was observed of the trapezius, is (on each side of the spine) 
 a fleshy mass forming a large column, extending from the 
 loins upwards, till it is met by the muscles forming the 
 columns in the neck. This mass of flesh is formed prin- 
 cipally by one muscle, so very thick, as to place the spine, 
 which in the skeleton appears prominent, in a deep groove ; 
 it is called the longissimus dorsi, and is attached very simi- 
 larly to the latissimus dorsi, but confined to the spine and 
 ribs. Its use is to place and to maintain the body in an 
 erect position. In the Gladiator and Farnesian Hercules, 
 it is forcibly expressed. The latissimus dorsi being a thin 
 
30 
 
 muscle, the edge of the last ribs will be seen to swell it ; 
 and the longissimus dorsi appears almost as an external 
 muscle. 
 
 There is yet a little space in the back that remains to 
 be demonstrated. It is formed by the posterior edge of 
 the deltoid; the external side edge of the trapezius, and the 
 upper horizontal edge of the latissimus dorsi. In this space 
 the inferior portion of the body of the scapula appears ; 
 but covered by muscles, three of which claim some at- 
 tention. 
 
 1. The Rhomboideus ; — of this muscle a very .small por- 
 tion is seen, and that only when the scapula is carried 
 forward ; it is attached to the base of the scapula and ribs, 
 and becomes superficial at the angle formed by the lower 
 point of the trapezius, and upper edge of the latissimus 
 dorsi. 
 
 Use. — To draw the scapula obliquely upwards, and di- 
 rectly backwards. 
 
 2. The Infra Spinatus; — but a little more of this 
 muscle is seen than of the former; it is attached to the 
 scapula below the spine : the other attachment to the great 
 tuberosity of the os humeri is concealed by the deltoid. 
 This muscle appears between the deltoid and trapezius. It 
 will assist in raising the arm, and in rolling it outwards. 
 
 3. The Teres Major — Arises from a rough, flattened 
 surface, at the inferior angle of the scapula. It forms a 
 thick belly, which passes forwards and upwards towards 
 the inside of the arm : to be 
 
 Inserted, by a broad and thin tendon, into the ridge of 
 the ob humeri, at the inner side of the grove of the long 
 head of the biceps. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is inserted along with the 
 tendon of the latissimus dorsi, and its belly passes over the 
 long head of the triceps ; both these tendons pass under 
 the coraco-brachialis and short head of the biceps. The 
 tendon of this muscle extends a little lower down than 
 that of the latissimus dorsi. Thus it forms with the latis- 
 simus the edge of the arm-pit. The Gladiator beautifully 
 displays these muscles. 
 
 Use.— To roll the humerus inwards, and to draw it back- 
 wards and downwards. 
 
31 
 
 Of THit Thigh. 
 
 The student, in dissecting the lower extremity, will 
 discover, on removing the ski n, a strong ligamentous and 
 tendinous covering closely embracing all the muscles of 
 the thigh, called by anatomists the Fascia Lata Femoris, 
 the broad or great fascia of the thigh. This fascia, on the 
 outer part of the thigh, is very strong and tendinous, but 
 becomes thinner and more deiicate on the anterior and 
 inner part ; it dips down between the muscles, preserving 
 to each its separate place and sphere of action. It is this 
 fascia which so greatly contributes in forming that beau- 
 tiful undulating line of the thigh, when at rest. Before 
 proceeding to dissect $ie muscles, this fascia should be 
 carefully removed. A large vein, called the Vena Sa- 
 phena Major runs up the inside the knee and thigh imme- 
 diately upon the fascia, and dips below it on arriving in the 
 groin. It is necessary to observe, very accurately, the po- 
 sition of this vein, as in strong and active men it is gene- 
 rally very conspicuous, and should by no means be omitted 
 in the naked figure. 
 
 This vein is beautifully delineated in the Farnesian Her- 
 cules, the Laocoon, the Gladiator repagnans, and the 
 sleeping Faun. 
 
 Muscles situated on the Fore-part of the Thigh. 
 
 1. Tensor Vaginae Femoris — Arises by a narrow, ten- 
 dinous, and fleshy origin, from the external part of the 
 anterior superior spinous process of the os ileum : it forms 
 a considerable fleshy belly, and is 
 
 Inserted into the inner side of the great fascia, where it 
 covers the outside of the thigh, and a little below the tro- 
 chanter major. 
 
 Observations. — The origin of this muscle lies between the 
 origin of the sartorius, and the anterior fibres of the gluteus 
 medius ; it descends between these muscles, and its inser- 
 tion lies anterior to that part of the great fascia which arises 
 from the tendon of the gluteus maximus. 
 
 Use. — To stretch the great fascia, to assist in the abduc- 
 tion of the thigh, and in its rotation inwards. 
 
32 
 
 2. The Sartor i us — Arises b y short tendinous fibres from 
 the anterior superior spinous process of the os ileum; 
 soon becomes fleshy, extends obliquely across the thigh' 
 and passes behind the inner condyle. 
 
 Inserted, by a broad and t hin tendon, into the inner side 
 of the tibia, immediately below its anterior tubercle. 
 
 Observations.— The origin of this muscle lies between 
 that of the tensor vaginae femoris, and the outer attach- 
 ment of Poupart's ligament. It lies upon the muscles of 
 the thigh, crossing them like a strap, about two inches in 
 breadth ; it runs down, for some distance, along the rectus 
 femoris, crosses the vastus internns, and triceps. At the 
 lower part of the thigh it runs between the tendons of the 
 triceps and the gracilis : it is inserted above the tendons of 
 the gracilis and semi-tendinosus, o^er which it sends an 
 aponeurotic expansion. 
 
 Use. — To bend the leg obliquely inwards on the thigh, 
 and to bend the thigh forwards. 
 
 3. The Rectus Femoris — Arises by two strong tendons 
 from the inferior anterior spinous process of the os ileum, 
 and from a little above the acetabulum ; the tendons unit- 
 ing form a fleshy belly, completely penniform, which runs 
 down over the anterior part of the thigh, and terminates 
 in a strong flat tendon, which is 
 
 Inserted into the upper extremity of the patella ; it then 
 sends a thin aponeurosis over the fore part of this bone, and 
 ultimately terminates in that strong ligament which con- 
 nects the lower part of the patella to the tibia. 
 
 Observations. — To obtain a view of the exact origin of 
 the tendons of this muscle, the tendons of the tensor vagina? 
 femoris and sartorius must be raised. This muscle lies 
 superficially upon the vasti and cruraeus ; its upper part is 
 covered by the sartorius, and to allow that muscle to slide 
 over it, it is tendinous. Its insertion lies between the two 
 vasti. 
 
 Use. — To extend the leg and thigh, to bend the thigh on 
 the pelvis ; to bring the pelvis and thigh on the leg, when 
 the leg is the fixed point; that is, when the foot is firmly 
 placed upon the ground. 
 
 Next in order, we have three large and extensive muscles 
 tolerably distinctat their upper parts, but inseparably united 
 a little above the patella ; they are called the vastus exter- 
 nus, the vastus interims, and the cruraeus. Now it is the 
 
33 
 
 combined action of these three muscles, which form those 
 rolls of flesh immediately above the patella, crossing the 
 thigh obliquely upwards and outwards, and which are so 
 distinctly to be seen in the Farnesian Hercules, the Gladia- 
 tor repngnans, and more or less in all the antique statues, 
 according to the energy of their actions. Of course they will 
 be more prominent when the leg is straight or extended. 
 
 4. The Vastus Externus — Arises tendinous and fleshy 
 from the anterior surface of the root of the trochanter ma- 
 jor, from the outer edge of the linea aspera ; its whole 
 length, from the oblique line running to the external con- 
 dyle, and from the whole external fiat surface of the thigh 
 bone. The fleshy fibres run obliquely forwards. 
 
 Inserted into the external surface of the tendon of the 
 rectus, and into the side of the patella, an aponeurosis is 
 sent from a part of it (like the rectus) over the side of the 
 knee, and is attached to the tibia and capsule of the knee- 
 joint. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle forms the large mass of flesh 
 on the outside of the thigh ; it is in part concealed by the 
 rectus, it laps over the crurseus, where it arises from the 
 linea aspera. It is situated anterior to the tendinous in- 
 sertion of the gluteus maximus, and to the origin of the 
 short head of the biceps flexor cruris. 
 
 Use. — To extend the leg, or to bring the thigh forwards < 
 upon the leg. 
 
 5. The Vastus Internus — Arises tendinous and fleshy, 
 from the fore-part of the root of the trochanter minor, from 
 all the upper edge of the linea aspera, from the oblique line 
 running to the inner condyle, and from the whole internal 
 surface of the thigh-bone. Its fibres run obliquely down- 
 wards and forwards. 
 
 Inserted into the internal lateral surface of the tendon of 
 the rectus, and into the side of the patella; it also sends 
 off an aponeurosis, which is continued down to the leg on 
 the inner side, similar to the vastus externus on the exter- 
 nal side. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle forms the fleshy mass on 
 the inside of the thigh, but smaller than its fellow on the 
 outside; it is in part covered by the rectus. The sartorius 
 passes obliquely over it, and it laps over the crurams. 
 
 Use. — The action of this muscle is the same as the last. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 6. The CrurjEUS or Cruralis — Arises fleshy from 
 between the two trochanters of the femur from the fore-part 
 of the bone, and from the outside, as far back as the linea 
 aspera. 
 
 Inserted into the back surface of the tendon of the rectus, 
 and the upper edge of the patella. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle in no part forms the contour. 
 But it particularly requires the attention of the artist, for 
 otherwise it would be impossible to account for the swell- 
 ing and rotundity of the front of the thigh, the rectus alone 
 being insufficient to produce that effect. 
 
 Use. — It acts in conjunction with the two last. 
 
 7. The Gracilis — Arises by a broad thin tendon from 
 the under part of the symphysis pubis ; it grows fleshy, 
 and becoming narrower as it descends, it terminates in a 
 tendon, which passes behind the inner condyle of the fe- 
 mur, and is reflected forwards ; to be 
 
 Inserted in the inner surface of the tibia. 
 Use. — To bring the thigh inwards and forwards, and to 
 assist in bending the leg. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is so delicate, that its swell- 
 ing, when in action, will not distinguish it from that large 
 mass of flesh the triceps, in which it appears to be merged 
 in the living figure. There is another muscle under simi- 
 lar circumstances, called the pectinalis ; it is more deeply 
 situated, and though its upper extremity is visible in the 
 anatomical figure ; yet, in the living model, it is entirely 
 obscured by a number of glands, and a considerable quan- 
 tity of accompanying fatty and cellular substance, which 
 together fill up the hollow of the groin. 
 
 8. The Triceps, or Triceps Adductor Femoris, con* 
 sists of three distinct muscles, which passing from the 
 pelvis to the thigh, lie in different layers, one upon 
 another, and have nearly the same use : for all useful pur- 
 poses the artist may consider these as one muscle. 
 
 It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the os pubis, near 
 the symphysis, on the lower part, and from the descending 
 ramus of the ischium. It forms a large triangular and 
 fleshy belly, which, as it descends, becomes broader but 
 thinner ; the fibres running outwards and downwards, with 
 various degrees of obliquity, to be 
 
 Inserted into the whole length of the linea aspera. 
 
35 
 
 Use. — To approximate the thighs to each other, to roll 
 them outwards : it assists in bending and extending the 
 thigh. 
 
 Observations.— It is this muscle which forms that round 
 and shelving mass of flesh at the upper and inner surface 
 of the thigh, extending considerably backwards. It is 
 beautifully displayed in the Torso. 
 
 Muscles situated on the Back-part of the Thigh. 
 
 1. The Gluteus Maximus — Arises fleshy from the pos- 
 terior third of the spine of the os ilium, from the lateral 
 surface of the sacrum, and from the lateral surface of the 
 os coccygis, and is 
 
 Inserted by a strong flat tendon into a rough surface, 
 at the upper and outer part of the linea aspera, immediately 
 below the trochanter major; also, very extensively into the 
 fascia lata. 
 
 Observations. — The consideration and accurate know- 
 ledge of this muscle is of considerable importance to the 
 painter, inasmuch as it forms a part of the contour in al- 
 most any position of the body. The fleshy fibres run 
 obliquely forwards and downwards, forming a thick broad 
 coarse muscle, which, gradually converging, terminates in 
 a strong flat tendon. This tendon slides over the pos- 
 terior part of the trochanter major ; and sends off a great 
 quantity of tendinous fibres to be inseparably joined to 
 the fascia lata of the thigh. Of course its situation is su- 
 perficial, and it entirely covers a number of other muscles, 
 except a portion of the gluteus medius. Were it not for avery 
 considerable quantity of fatty substance, by which nearly 
 the whole of this muscle is surrounded, it would appear, 
 when in action, as a fasciculus of muscles, instead of 
 that fine smooth rotundity, as invariably represented in 
 the antique. Towards its insertion, however, its divi- 
 sions are gently marked in the Gladiator and Farnesian 
 Hercules. 
 
 Use. — To extend the thigh, and body, and to keep the 
 thigh in its proper position when the body is erect. To rotate 
 the thigh outwards. 
 
 2. The Gluteus Medius. — This muscle is similar (but 
 
 d 2 
 
3(5 
 
 lower generally in its upper attachments or origin) to the 
 gluteus maximus : and it is 
 
 Inserted into the upper and outer part of the great 
 trochanter. 
 
 Observations. — The insertion of this muscle, and the pos- 
 terior part of its belly, is concealed by the former; but 
 the anterior, and largest part is superficial, and of course 
 forms a part of the contour, 
 
 Use. — To draw the femur outwards, and to separate 
 the thighs. Its posterior fibres will rotate the thigh out- 
 wards, and its anterior fibres inwards ; and in walking it 
 will assist in supporting the erect posture. 
 
 3. The Biceps Flexor Cruris — Arises, as its name im- 
 ports, by two heads, the one short, the other long. The 
 long head arises in common with the semi-ten dinosus, by a 
 short tendon, from the outer part of the tuberosity of the 
 ischium, and descending forms a thick fleshy belly. The 
 short head arises from the linea aspera, immediately below 
 the insertion of the gluteus maximus ; and from the 
 oblique ridge running to the outer condyle. These two 
 heads unite at an acute angle, a little above the external 
 condyle, and terminate in a strong tendon which is 
 
 Inserted in a rough surface on the outside of the head 
 of the fibula. 
 
 Observations. — The long head is concealed at its upper 
 part by the inferior fibres of the gluteus maximus; below this 
 it is situated quite superficially, running from the pelvis 
 to the knee, between the vastus externus and semi-tendin- 
 osus. — It forms the outer ham-string. 
 
 Use. — To bend the leg, and to draw it a little outwards. 
 
 4. The Semi-tendinosus — Arises tendinous in common 
 with the long head of the biceps, from the tuberosity of the 
 ischium. It is connected for two or three inches in its de- 
 scent to the inside of the tendon of the biceps ; it forms 
 a thick belly, and terminates in a long round tendon, three 
 or four inches from the knee, and is 
 
 Inserted by a flat tendon passing under the head of the 
 tibia into the anterior angle of that bone, some way below 
 its tubercle. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is covered above by the 
 gluteus maximus. Its belly lies between the biceps and 
 the gracilis, and it is entirely superficial. The tendon is 
 
37 
 
 inserted below that of the gracilis. The belly of this 
 muscle is intersected about its middle, by a narrow trans- 
 verse tendinous line. 
 
 Use. — To bend the leg backwards and a little inwards. 
 
 5. The Semi-membranosus — Arises by a strong round 
 tendon from the tuberosity of the ischium ; it forms ob- 
 liquely a fleshy belly, which terminating in a flat tendon, 
 is 
 
 Inserted into the inner and back part of the head of 
 the tibia. 
 
 Observations. —This is a semi-penniform muscle; its belly 
 is at first concealed by the two last muscles, but projects 
 at its lower part; it lies in contact with the posterior sur- 
 face of the triceps. 
 
 Use. — To bend the leg backwards. 
 
 The student who dissects should observe the fascia before 
 mentioned proceeding from the thigh, and attached, like 
 the great fascia, to every projecting point of bone, closely 
 investing and binding down the muscles, and dipping be- 
 tween them. It is this fascia which, at its lower extremity 
 becoming more condensed, forms what is termed the an- 
 nular or transverse ligament. This ligament appears to 
 proceed from the outer ancle across the instep, to the upper 
 part of the inner ancle, and dividing upon the tendon of 
 the proper extensor muscle of the great toe; it is also at- 
 tached by a separate slip to the os calcis. This ligament 
 seems designed for the purpose of binding down the seve- 
 ral tendons of the muscles, extending the toes and foot, 
 and which, but for such a restraint, would start up and 
 form an unpleasant appearance to the eye, and very pro- 
 bably occasion considerable inconvenience to the individual. 
 A knowledge of this ligament is important to the student in 
 the fine arts, as in a general action of the extensor muscles, 
 it will, of necessity, produce an enlargement and very 
 apparent swelling at the bend of the instep. It is also 
 necessary to observe another vein, called the saphena 
 major, running up the inside of the tibia : in different in- 
 dividuals it runs in various directions, but generally its 
 course is similar to the expression as given in the legs of 
 the Farnesian Hercules. It is also conspicuously made 
 out in the sleeping Faun, 
 
38 
 
 Muscles situated on the Fore-part and Outside op 
 
 the Leg. 
 
 In demonstrating these muscles, the course here pur- 
 sued, is the order in which their tendons appear, commenc- 
 ing at the tibia, and terminating at the fibula. A consi- 
 deration of the great importance of these tendons, forming, 
 as they do, the greater part of the contour of the upper- 
 part of the foot, in almost every point of view, led to the 
 adoption of this plan. 
 
 1. The Tibialis Anticus —Arises from the exterior sur- 
 face of the tibia, from its anterior angle or spine, and from 
 two-thirds of the tibia. Its fibres descending obliquely ter- 
 minate in a strong tendon, which crosses from the outside 
 to the fore part of the tibia, passes through a distinct ring 
 in the annular ligament, near the inner ancle, and running 
 over the astragulus and os naviculare, is 
 
 Inserted into the os cuneiforme internum, and base of the 
 metatarsal bone supporting the great toe. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle, throughout its whole course 
 is superficial, and its tendon should be well studied. 
 
 Use. — To bend the ancle-joint, giving an inward turn 
 to the foot. 
 
 2. The Extensor Proprius Pollicis Pedis, or the 
 proper extensor of the great toe — Arises from a part of 
 the smooth surface between the anterior and internal angles 
 of the fibula; the fibres pass obliquely downwards and 
 forwards into a tendon, which inclining inwards (under 
 the annular ligament) passes over the fore-part of the astra- 
 gulus and os naviculare, and over the junction of the os 
 cuneiforme internum and medium, to be 
 
 Inserted into the base of both the falanges of the great 
 toe. 
 
 Observations. — The belly of this muscle is concealed 
 almost entirely ; but the tendon is first presented to view 
 about four or five inches above the bend of the instep. 
 
 3. The Extensor Longus Digitorum Pedis — Arises 
 from the outer part of the head of the tibia, from the head 
 of the fibula, and its anterior angle, during almost its whole 
 length. Below the middle of the leg it splits into four 
 round tendons, which pass under the annular ligament, and 
 are 
 
39 
 
 Inserted into the root of each of the three bones, form- 
 ing the four small toes, passing along their upper sur- 
 faces. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is entirely superficial, and 
 lies close to the tibialis anticus, between it and the peroneus 
 longus ; but its tendons lie on the outer side of the exten- 
 sor proprius pollicis pedis. 
 
 Use— To extend all the joints of the four small toes, 
 and of course to assist in the extension of the foot gene- 
 rally. 
 
 4. The Peroneus Tertius, or Nonus Vesalii. — This 
 muscle may be considered by the artist as a part of the 
 outer edge of the last described ; but its tendon, after 
 emerging from under the annular ligament, separates, at a 
 very small angle, from the tendon of the extensor longus, 
 to be attached to the metatarsal bone, which supports the 
 little toe. 
 
 Observations. — The only claim which this muscle has 
 upon the artist's attention is, that in very old or emaciated 
 subjects, it is possible to trace its tendon from the annular 
 ligament to its insertion. 
 
 5. The Peroneus Longus — Arises from the fore-part 
 and outside of the head of the fibula, and along one-third 
 part of this bone ; it is also attached in some small degree 
 to the tibia. The fibres run obliquely down to a tendon 
 which passes behind the outer ancle, through a groove 
 in the extremity of the fibula, and passing along the inside 
 of the calcis, is ultimately 
 
 Inserted into the metatarsal bone, supporting the great 
 toe. 
 
 Observations. — The belly of this muscle is entirely super- 
 ficial, and is closely attached at its upper extremity to 
 the tibialis anticus, and passes down between the soleus 
 and extensor longus. The tendon can scarcely be per- 
 ceived, as it lies deeply in the hollow under the external 
 ancle. 
 
 Use. — To extend the ancle-joint, and to turn the sole of 
 the foot outwards. 
 
 There is yet another muscle, called the peroneus brevis; 
 it is situated immediately under the peroneus longus, and 
 its use is the same. It assists in making up the roundness 
 of the leg from the back part of the outer ancle to the 
 
40 
 
 tendo Achillis. Its tendon passes in a straight line from 
 the bottom of the inner ancle to the metatarsal bone of the 
 little toe; it therefore forms the contour of that part of the 
 foot. The tendons of these two muscles, the peroneus 
 longus and brevis, appear in the Farnesian Hercules com- 
 bined as one strong tendon. In the left foot of the Gladia- 
 tor, and in the feet of the Laocoon the tendon of the pero- 
 neus brevis is singly delineated ; and in the other antique 
 figures it is traced with greater delicacy. In the female 
 foot it does not appear. 
 
 About a finger's breadth below the outer ancle, and 
 situated upon the instep on the outer side of the long- 
 extensor of the toes is a very prominent swelling, which is 
 formed by a muscle, called 
 
 6. The Extensor Brevis Digitorum Pedis, or the 
 short extensor of the toes. It arises fleshy and tendinous 
 from the upper part of the os calcis, cuboides, and astra- 
 gulus; it sends off four slender tendons to the four toes, 
 similar to the extensor longus. 
 
 Use. — To extend the toes. 
 
 Observations. — The student is reminded to draw fre- 
 quently, and to study very attentively, the feet of the Far- 
 nesian Hercules ; indeed it would be well to make finished 
 drawings from them, until the memory could supply the 
 place of the original. In this foot the fleshy part of the 
 extensor brevis is forcibly expressed. The student will find 
 it similarly made out in the left foot of the Gladiator, and 
 in the feet of the Laocoon. 
 
 Of the Muscles situated at the Back of the Leg. 
 
 I. The Gastrocnemius — Arises by two heads; the 
 first, or internal head, arises from the upper and internal 
 condyle of the os femoris, and from the oblique ridge 
 over that condyle. The second, or external head, arises 
 in the same manner from the external condyle and ridge. 
 Each of the heads forms a fleshy belly ; the two bellies, of 
 which the internal is the largest, are separated by a consi- 
 derable triangular interval, but descending, unite a little 
 below the knee-joint, in a middle tendinous line ; and below 
 the middle of the tibia they form a large tendon : this ten- 
 don is united with the tendon of a large muscle, called 
 
41 
 
 % The Soleus ; arising immediately under the gastroc- 
 nemius, and concealed by it till it arrives below its belly, 
 where it appears fleshy, of a triangular shape, and forms 
 the lower calf. Its tendon uuiting with that of the former 
 muscle is, with it, 
 
 Inserted into the back of the os calcis, together forming 
 the tendo Achillis. 
 
 Use. — To elevate the os calcis, and thereby to lift up the 
 whole body, as a preparatory measure to its being carried 
 forward in progression. 
 
 Observations. — The calf of the negro African is situated 
 a little higher up than that of the European. In the 
 Farnesian Hercules the calf is carried up too high upon 
 the thigh-bone, producing, on a back view of the leg, an 
 evident deformity. There is a tendon passing under the 
 inner ancle to be attached to the os naviculare; it is the 
 tendon of a muscle called the tibialis posticus, but the 
 belly of this muscle is entirely concealed by the soleus. A 
 portion of the belly of this muscle may be seen in the 
 anatomical figure in the Royal Academy. This tendon, 
 however, requires to be understood by the artist, as he will 
 find it expressed more or less in all the antique figures. 
 The use of the tibialis posticus is to extend the foot and 
 to turn it inwards. 
 
 There are also two other tendons passing under the inner 
 ancle ; the tendons of the long flexor of the great toe, and 
 the long flexor of the little toes. 
 
 Of the Muscles situated on the Arm. 
 
 1. The Deltoides — Arises from the posterior third of 
 the clavicle ; from the whole edge of the acromion, and 
 from the whole spine of the scapula. 
 
 Inserted tendinous into a triangular rough surface upon 
 the outer side of the os humeri, near its middle. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is formed of strong coarse 
 fibres, and frequently puts on the appearance of a double 
 muscle, as may be seen in the Farnesian Hercules, and in 
 the Haemon. The direction of these fibres pass from the 
 upper attachments obliquely downwards to form its ten- 
 don. The great bulk of the shoulder is formed by the 
 
42 
 
 deltoides. The student will observe this muscle arises 
 from the same extent of bone as the trapezius is inserted 
 into : where the one terminates, therefore, the other takes 
 its origin. This may be studied with most advantage in the 
 Gladiator.' 
 
 Use. — To raise the arm directly upwards, and to move 
 it a little forwards and backwards, according to the diffe- 
 rent directions of its fibres. 
 
 2. The Biceps — Arises by two heads; the first and outer- 
 most, called the long-head, arises by a strong tendon from 
 the upper edge of the glenoid cavity of the scapula ; and, 
 descending along the groove in that bone, forms a fleshy 
 belly, unites with that of the second or short head, which 
 arises from the coracoid process of the scapula. The two 
 forming one fleshy mass, terminate in a strong tendon, 
 which is 
 
 Inserted into the rough part of the tubercle of the 
 radius. 
 
 Observations. — In strong muscular men, the tendon of 
 this muscle is to be traced from nearly one-third part of 
 the arm, to its insertion in the hollow of the elbow-joint, 
 and its fleshy belly seems always in a state of contraction. 
 It is powerfully marked in the left arm of the Haemon. 
 Its position is in a direct line along the front of the os 
 humeri. 
 
 Use. — To bend the fore-arm, and to turn the hand su- 
 pine; and it will assist in raising the arm upwards. 
 
 3. The Coraco-brachialis — Arises from the coracoid 
 process of the scapula, in conjunction with the short-head 
 of the biceps : its fibres are attached to that tendon, and 
 form a fleshy belly, to be 
 
 Inserted, tendinous and fleshy into a rough ridge in the 
 middle of the internal part of the os humeri. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is situated on the inside of 
 the biceps, and is concealed by the pectoralis and deltoides, 
 excepting a small part, which is seen between the biceps 
 flexor and biceps extensor cubiti. It is inserted immedi- 
 ately below the tendons of the latissimus dorsi and teres 
 major. 
 
 Use. — To move the arm upwards and forwards. 
 
 4. The Brachialis Internus — Arises by two fleshy 
 
43 
 
 slips, one on each side of the insertion of the deltoid. Its 
 belly passes over the fore-part of the os humeri, under the 
 biceps, into the hollow of the arm ; to be 
 
 Inserted by a short tendon immediately below the coro- 
 noid process of the ulna. 
 
 Observations — But a small portion of this muscle is ex- 
 ternal, and it is seen as a narrow slip on the outer edge of 
 the biceps. It is to be traced in the arm of the Gladiator. 
 
 Use. — To bend the fore-arm. 
 
 5. The Triceps Extensor Cubiti— Arises by three 
 heads. The first, or long-head, from the inferior costa of the 
 scapula, near its neck ; and forms a large belly, descending 
 down the back of the os humeri. 
 
 The second, or short-head, arises on the outer and back 
 part of the os humeri, from a ridge which runs from the 
 back part of the great tuberosity, towards the outer 
 condyle. 
 
 The third head, called hrachialis externus, arises acutely 
 from the inside of the os humeri, above its middle, and 
 from a ridge extending to the inner condyle. These three 
 heads unite above the middle of the os humeri, and cover 
 the whole back part of this bone ; they form a thick strong- 
 tendon, which is 
 
 Inserted into the rough back part of the olecranon, and 
 partly into the condyles of the os humeri. 
 
 Observations. — The origin of the long-head is concealed 
 by the deltoid, and the teres major crosses it. The tendon 
 of the short-head is also concealed by the deltoid. The 
 brachialis externus, or third-head, begins to arise immedi- 
 ately below the teres major, and passes down between 
 the long-head and coraco-brachialis. The Gladiator and 
 the Laocoon will illustrate this muscle; and, generally, 
 every external muscle is beautifully and elegantly displayed 
 in those unequalled productions of human art. 
 
 Use. — To extend the fore-arm. The long-head will also 
 assist in drawing the arm backwards. On each side of 
 the arm, extending from the insertion of the deltoid to the 
 condyle on the outer side, and from the opposite point, to 
 the condyle on the inner side, a strong ligament runs ; it 
 gives origin to some muscular fibres, and serves as a line 
 of separation between the muscles. 
 
44 
 
 Of the Muscles situated on the inner and front 
 of the Fore-arm, and arising from the inner 
 Condyle of the Os Humeri. 
 
 The arm, like the leg, is covered by a strong fascia, which 
 is attached to the condyles of the os humeri, and the ole- 
 cranon. The fore-part proceeds principally from the ten- 
 don of the biceps, and the back part from the tendon of 
 the triceps. Its use is the same as in the leg. 
 
 it The Pronator Radii Teres — Arises from the ante- 
 rior surface of the inner condyle, and from the coronoid 
 process of the ulna. The fibres run outwards. 
 
 Inserted into a rough surface on the back part of the 
 radius, about its middle. 
 
 Observations. — Of the muscles which pass from the inter- 
 nal condyle this is situated the nearest to the outer edge 
 of the arm ; it forms the margin of the hollow of the arm, 
 and it passes under the belly of the supinator radii longus, 
 which forms the outer margin of that hollow. It lies im- 
 mediately on the inside of the tendon of the brachialis 
 internus. 
 
 Use. — To roll the radius, and with it the hand inwards; 
 that is, to produce a pronation of the hand. 
 
 2. The Flexor Carpi Radialis — Arises from the lower 
 and fore-part of the internal condyle. It forms a thick 
 belly, terminating in a flat tendon, which passes under the 
 annular ligament of the wrist, to be 
 
 Inserted into the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger ; of 
 course this insertion is concealed. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle lies upon the fore-part of 
 the arm, and is situated between the supinator radii longus 
 and pahnaris longus, below the insertion of the pronator. 
 
 Use. — To bend the hand, and to assist in its pronation. 
 
 3. The Palmaris Longus — Arises by a slender tendon 
 from the fore-part of the inner condyle. It forms a short 
 fleshy belly, which sends off a long slender tendon, to be 
 
 Inserted near the root of the thumb, into the annular 
 ligament, and the strong fascia covering the palni of the 
 hand. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle, vjhen present, lies between 
 
the former and the Jlexor carpi ulnaris, but it is sometimes 
 wanting - . 
 
 U se% — To bend the hand, and to stretch the palmar fascia. 
 
 4. The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris — Arises from the inferi- 
 or part of the internal condyle, and from the posterior ridge 
 of the ulna. The fibres pass obliquely forwards into a 
 tendon, which passes over the fore-part of the ulna, and is 
 
 Inserted into the os pisiforme. 
 
 Observatio7is. — This muscle arises behind all the former, 
 and passes along the inner edge of the fore-arm, upon the 
 extensor carpi ulnaris, at the back of the arm. 
 
 Use. — To bend the hand. 
 
 5. The Flexor Digitorum — Arises from the under 
 part of the inner condyle, from the radius and ulna. Jt 
 forms a strong fleshy mass, and divides into four long ten- 
 dons, which pass under the annular ligament, and are 
 
 Inserted into the second phalanx of the fingers. 
 
 Observations. — The origin of this muscle is concealed, 
 like its insertions ; but it assists in forming the general 
 mass of the arm, and a part of it is seen projecting to- 
 wards the inner edge of the arm. When the fingers firmly 
 clasp any object, or are bent closely to the palm of the 
 hand, the tendons of this muscle will enlarge the wrist. 
 To bend the fingers there is another assistant muscle placed 
 beneath this, and their combined action form that enlarged 
 appearance of the wrist in the left hand of the Apollo, and 
 the right hand of the Gladiator. 
 
 Use. — To bend the fingers. 
 
 The annular ligaments of the wrist consist of two parts. 
 The one is situated at the back of the wrist, and passes 
 from the ulna to the radius : it is broad, and under it the 
 tendons of the extensor muscles pass. The other is situ- 
 ated on the front of the wrist, passes in a similar way, 
 but is attached to the bones of the carpus, and under it pass 
 the tendons of the flexors. The use of these ligaments 
 are to confine the tendons in their proper channel, and 
 they greatly contribute to the convenience of the individual 
 and beauty of the part. 
 
46 
 
 Of the Muscles situated on the outer and back- 
 part of the Fore-arm, and arising from the ex- 
 ternal CONDYLE OF THE Os HUMERI. 
 
 These muscles are more distinct at their origins than 
 those of the inner condyle ; and they will be found uni- 
 versally in the antique more distinctly marked towards the 
 elbow-joint, than the former. 
 
 1. Supinator Radii Longus — Arises tendinous and 
 fleshy from the external ridge of the os humeri, which 
 leads to the outer condyle. It begins to arise nearly as 
 far up as the middle of the bone, and does not adhere 
 to it above two inches above the condyle. Jt forms a thick 
 fleshy belly, which passes over the elbow-joint ; becomes 
 smaller, and terminates about the middle of the fore-arm, 
 in a flat tendon, and is 
 
 Inserted into a rough surface of the inferior extremity of 
 the radius. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is situated upon the outer 
 edge of the fore-arm, and forms the outer edge of the 
 hollow at the elbow-joint. Its tendon is crossed by the 
 extensors of the thumb. 
 
 Use. — To roll the radius outwards, and to turn the 
 palm of the hand upwards ; producing supination. Also 
 to bend the fore-arm. 
 
 2. Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior — Arises from 
 the external ridge of the os humeri, beginning below the 
 origin of the supinator radii longus. It forms a thick, 
 short fleshy belly, which passes over the side of the elbow- 
 joint, and terminates above the middle of the radius in a 
 flat tendon, which passes through a groove in the back part 
 of that bone, to be 
 
 Inserted into the posterior and upper part of the meta- 
 carpal bone of the fore-finger. 
 
 Observations. — Only a part of the belly of this muscle is 
 seen projecting under the supinator ; and its tendon passes 
 under the annular ligament. 
 
 These two muscles project from under each other similar 
 in appearance to steps, but of course rounded. As a con- 
 sequence of such a peculiarity of situation, they will, when 
 in action, form deep furrows between them. This is in- 
 
47 
 
 variably shown in the antique; and, indeed, from their 
 almost constant use in every operation of the hand and 
 arm, these furrows, or channels between them are suf- 
 ficiently obvious when they are in a state of rest. Ex- 
 amples of this may be advantageously taken in the Car- 
 toons of Raphael. 
 
 Use. — To extend the wrist : to move the hand back- 
 wards. 
 
 3. The Extensor Digitorum Communis — Arises from 
 the under part of the external condyle, and adheres to the 
 ulna, where it passes over it. Its fleshy belly terminates 
 in four tendons, which pass under the annular ligament, 
 and are 
 
 Inserted into the posterior part of all the bones of the 
 fingers by a tendinous expansion. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle forms the fleshy mass along 
 the middle of the back part of the arm. 
 
 Use. — To extend all the joints of the fingers. 
 
 4. The Extensor Carpi Ulnaris — Arises from the 
 under part of the external condyle. It crosses towards the 
 ulna, and arises fleshy from the back part of that bone. 
 It terminates in a strong tendon, which passes under the 
 annular ligament, to be 
 
 Inserted into the posterior and upper part of the meta- 
 carpal-bone of the little finger. 
 
 Observations. — This muscJe lies the innermost of all the 
 former, and is in contact with the fiexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 Use. — To extend the wrist, and to bring the hand back- 
 wards; but chiefly to bend the hand laterally towards the 
 ulna, as will appear by pulling its tendon in a dissected 
 subject. 
 
 5. The Anconeus — is a small triangular muscle, situ- 
 ated at the outer side of the olecranon. It arises tendin- 
 ous from the posterior and lower part of the external con- 
 dyle, forms a thick triangular fleshy mass, which adheres 
 to the joint, and is 
 
 Inserted into the concave surface on the outside of the 
 olecranon and posterior edge of the ulna. 
 
 Observations. — This muscle is situated between the 
 upper part of the extensor carpi ulnaris and olecranon. It 
 is partly covered by the tendon of the triceps extensor 
 cubiii, and is enveloped in a fascia sent off from that ten- 
 
48 
 
 don, so that it does not project when in action so materially 
 as otherwise it would do. 
 
 Use. — To assist in extending the fore-arm. 
 
 In describing the supinator radii longus, it was observed 
 the extensors of the thumb crossed it. The extensors of the 
 thumb are three in number, and their origin lies deeply 
 seated below the extensor of the fingers. The student has 
 only to observe their tendons, with a small portion of their 
 fleshy bellies, which pass over the tendon of the supinator, in 
 an oblique direction, from the back of the arm to the edge 
 of the radius, to proceed to their insertions into the back 
 part of the metacarpal-bone, and the two bones of the 
 thumb. In the extension of the thumb there is perceived 
 a triangular space on the edge of the carpus and metacar- 
 pus, formed by the projection of these tendons : this is 
 in consequence of one of the three being separated from 
 the other two tendons. When the thumb is powerfully 
 bent, a greater portion of the bellies of the ex ensors come 
 into view, over the edge of the radius, just below the belly 
 of the supinator, being brought forward in this action of 
 the thumb to allow of complete flexion. The student is 
 reminded of the situation of the muscles of the fore-ami. 
 The pronator and flexors lie on the inner and fore-part 
 of the arm, and arise from the inner condyle of the os 
 humeri. The supinator and the extensors lie on the outer 
 and back part of the arm, and arise from the external 
 condyle of the os humeri. 
 
 Two veins are necessary to be observed by the artist 
 with attention. The one takes its origin from the back of 
 the hand, along the metacarpal-bone of the little finger, and 
 may be traced running along the inside of the fore-arm 
 near the ulna ; it passes over the bend of the arm above 
 the inner condyle, and is lost sight of near the middle of the 
 arm. This vein may be seen in the left arm of the Haemon, 
 in the Farnesian Hercules, and the sleeping Faun : it is 
 called the basilic vein. The other is traced in a similar 
 manner from the base of the thumb, along the outside of 
 the arm, and is seen till it arrives just above the insertion 
 of the deltoid : it is called the cephalic vein. 
 
49 
 
 Of the Palm of the Hand, and Sole of the Foot. 
 
 The palm of the hand, like the sole of the foot, is co- 
 vered with a very thick, strong, and condensed fascia. 
 Under this fascia a number of muscles are situated, small 
 but powerful, for the purpose of giving strength and fa- 
 cility of action to the fingers and toes. To describe these 
 muscles to the student in the fine arts is unnecessary. In 
 order to obtain a correct knowledge of the form of the sole 
 and palm, he must dissect, study nature, plaister casts, and 
 the productions of the ancient masters. 
 
 But there is an eminent artist of the present day, an or- 
 nament and an honour to the age in which he lives, who 
 possesses the unrivalled talent of giving to the hands and 
 feet of his figures, the utmost power that human nature 
 can be supposed capable of exerting, or calculated to pos- 
 sess : and to every figure that his able hand delineates 
 upon the canvas, he seems to give a living soul. 
 
 The student, therefore, is earnestly recommended to 
 study the anatomic composition of the hands and feet in 
 the works of this eminent painter, immortalized by his 
 Milton and Shakespeare Gallery. 
 
 Of the back of the hand it is necessary to observe the 
 tendons of the extensors pass along the metacarpal-bones ; 
 at the articulation of the first bone of the fingers these ten- 
 dons are connected to each other by little slips of tendon : 
 it is this mechanism which gives the appearance of a ridge 
 of bone passing from one knuckle to the other, when the 
 fingers are powerfully bent. The appearances of the veins 
 are as various as individual expression, and can only be 
 learned by an attentive study of nature. The left hand of 
 the Laocoon affords a beautiful example of the disposition 
 of the veins : studies of this hand are as necessary to be 
 made, as from the foot of the Hercules ; they will teach the 
 student the importance which the ancients attached to the 
 minutest parts of anatomic expression. 
 
SECTION IV. 
 
 OF THE JOINTS, 
 
 AND 
 
 THEIR SPHERE OF ACTION. 
 
53 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 OF THE MECHANISM OF THE JOINTS. 
 
 " Raphael found, that in the construction of the body, 
 the articulation of the bones was the true cause of ease 
 and grace in the action of the limbs, and that the know- 
 ledge of this was the true cause of the superiority of the 
 ancients. 
 
 Pilkington's Dictionary of Painters, 
 
 Mote by Fuzeli, p. 482, edit. 1810. 
 
 The authority quoted at the head of this section is so 
 highly esteemed, that nothing further need be late to 
 enforce the necessity of an attentive study of this subject 
 on the part of the student in the fine arts. The wov?-:s of 
 Raphael, and his learned commentator, afford abundant 
 proof of the value of a correct knowledge of the anatomy 
 of the joints: but yet it appears a subject entirely ne- 
 glected, or but very little attended to by the generality of 
 students. 
 
 It is not within the powers of description to convey to 
 the mind an adequate idea of the beauty, delicacy, or me- 
 chanical contrivance displayed in the structure of the 
 joints : dissections only can satisfy the mind in these par- 
 ticulars. In the consideration of the joints, the artist has 
 principally to attend to the extent and direction of their 
 motions, and the prominent features of their composition. 
 The joints are formed generally of the extremities of the 
 bones, which are spread out into particular forms and sur- 
 faces, adapted to the peculiar nature of the „ articulation* 
 These extremities are covered by a thin layer of cartilage, 
 to allow of the easy friction of the bones upon each other. 
 For the purpose of keeping the bones in contact, every 
 joint is secured by strong restraining ligaments, which tie 
 them in their places, and give additional strength. The 
 
54 
 
 whole joint is surrounded and enclosed by a thin bursal 
 ligament, as a sack, by which means a particular appara- 
 tus is retained in its proper place, for the purpose of 
 affording an oily fluid ; thus further reducing the quantity 
 of friction, which otherwise would be constantly increas- 
 ing, and finally impede all motion. 
 
 Such are the parts which go to the formation of the 
 joints in general, but varied in form, strength, number, 
 and direction, according to the nature of each particular 
 articulation. 
 
 Of the Motions of the Head. 
 
 The motions performed by the head are that of nod- 
 ding, and turning side-ways. No part of the mechanical 
 apparatus of these joints appears in the contour ; but the 
 artist ought to be apprized of their nature, that he might not 
 represent an impossible position. The nodding, for bend- 
 ing) motions of the head may take place in three directions, 
 forward, backward, and side-ways. The extent forward 
 is limited by the chin touching the breast or upper ex- 
 tremity of the sternum ; the backward motion is limited 
 by the occiput lying upon the nape of the neck ; and in 
 the lateral bending, the ear cannot touch the body unless 
 the shoulder is elevated. When the head is represented 
 as touching the shoulder, which is not elevated, it is indi- 
 cative of a total relaxation of muscular fibre, and is a con- 
 sequent of the state of death : and in this case the head 
 generally inclines forwards. 
 
 The bending motions of the head are performed upon the 
 first vertebra. 
 
 The turning sideways is performed by the first vertebra 
 turning upon the second, which is constructed with an up- 
 right pivot ; it is called the dentatus, from its supposed re- 
 semblance to a tooth. This motion is limited by a quarter 
 of a circle from the centre to each shoulder, so that when 
 the figure is viewed in front, the face can be seen in profile 
 on either side ; but this is the utmost extent of motion, 
 and can only be carried so far by considerable exertion. 
 Therefore to show less than a profile face, when the figure 
 is in full front, would be to represent an impossible 
 position. 
 
55 
 
 Of the Motions of the Spine and Body. 
 
 The motions of the spine are very limited, arising from 
 its natural construction. The spinous processes extend- 
 ing on each side, and directly backward, obviously prevent 
 any freedom of motion in those directions : and the inter- 
 mediate substance, or that cartilaginous substance inter- 
 posed between the bodies of the vertebrae, though very 
 elastic, yet limits the motion forwards to a very small ex- 
 tent. The cervical vertebrae allow the greatest motion, 
 and the utmost extent of this will not make an angle with 
 the dorsal vertebrae of more than fifteen degrees forwards, 
 and about five degrees backwards. The lumbar vertebrae 
 admit a still smaller degree of motion. The dorsal ver- 
 tebrae may be said to yield in a slight degree one upoii the 
 other, the ribs being attached to them at one extremity, 
 and at the other the sternum, would independent of the 
 natural formation of these vertebrae, tend to limit their 
 motion. And in all positions and motions of the body, 
 the dorsal vertebra and the sternum must lie in the same 
 plane. 
 
 Bowing, or leaning backwards or to one side, are mo- 
 tions performed upon the hip-joints; but in all these 
 motions the spine yields a little, and forms a graceful line, 
 flowing into the general form of the whole body. 
 
 The bones of the pelvis have no motion between each 
 other, but the whole moves with the body in one mass. 
 
 Of the Motions of the superior Extremities. 
 
 The Shoulder-joint is composed of the scapula, the 
 clavicle, and the humerus. On the scapula there is a shallow 
 socket, in which the head of the humerus moves. The 
 clavicle and acromion guard the upper part of this joint, 
 and form the contour. When the shoulders are drawn 
 backwards, forwards, elevated, or slightly depressed, the 
 scapula enters into a considerable share of the motiou, and 
 always moves with the shoulder. The shoulder can be 
 put into motion in every possible direction. The humerus 
 may be carried upwards, or depressed ; it may be brought 
 close to the body, or extended outwards ; it may be car- 
 
56 
 
 ried forwards or backwards ; and, finally, put into a cir- 
 cular or rotatory motion. The head of the humerus in 
 no case forms any part of the contour, it is entirely ob- 
 scured by the deltoides, the biceps, and triceps ; and it is 
 too far removed from the arm-pit, to project, even when 
 the arm is elevated to its highest point. 
 
 The Joint of the Elbow is formed of the inferior 
 extremity of the humerus, of the ulna, and of the radius. 
 This joint admits of motion but in two directions, for- 
 wards, forming an acute angle, and backwards, extending 
 in a right line : the former is termed flexion, the latter 
 extension. This motion, resembling that of a door upon 
 its hinges, is termed " a hinge-like motion." The olecranon 
 process of the ulna projecting backwards beyond the joint 
 effectually prevents the arm being extended much beyond 
 a right line : but the cavity at the back of the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the humerus does very frequently admit a con- 
 siderable depression of the ulna, so that the arm may be 
 extended beyond a right line in a very small degree; thus 
 presenting an extended cavity at the back of the elbow, 
 when the figure leans upon the hand, the arm being ex- 
 tended in such a position to its utmost limit. 
 
 The processes which form the contour at this joint are 
 the condyles of the humerus on each side, and the ole- 
 cranon of the ulna at the back of the elbow. 
 
 So much of the radius as is concerned in this joint lies 
 hid under the muscles of the fore-arm, and it does not 
 take any important part in the construction of the joint: 
 the radius moving upon the ulna at both its extremities per- 
 forms the pronation and supination of the hand. 
 
 The Wrist-joint is complicated, being composed of 
 eight small bones, and the inferior extremities of the radius 
 and ulna. The points requiring the artist's attention, are 
 the extremities of the radius and ulna ; and two of the 
 bones of the carpus, the trapezium, and the os pisiforme. 
 The bones already have been introduced to his notice, it is 
 here necessary to speak of the motions of the wrist. The 
 principal motions are that of flexion and extension, but there 
 is also a lateral motion ; thus, when they are combined, the 
 rotatory motion may be produced. The extent to which the 
 flexion may be carried in infants, to an angle of ninety 
 degrees, in adults, about eighty-five degrees. The exten- 
 
57 
 
 sion may be carried to seventy or eighty degrees. The 
 lateral motions will form an angle of about fifteen or 
 twenty degrees. 
 
 The os pisiforme and the trapezium form the two pro- 
 minent points upon the inner surface of the wrist, the an- 
 nular ligament stretches across from one to the other ; and 
 between them pass the tendons of the flexors of the fingers. 
 At the back of the wrist the ulna, on the outer edge, and 
 the radius at the inner, form the contour ; and between them 
 pass the extensors of the fingers. , 
 
 The metacarpus is attached to the carpus in such a way 
 that nothing more than a yielding motion is allowed. The 
 motions of the fingers are flexion and extension, and in a 
 slight degree laterally ; but the fore-finger has a more free 
 / motion, and may be moved in a circular direction. 
 
 The principal motion of the thumb is flexion, that it 
 might be opposed to the flexion of the fingers. It has also 
 a very extended sphere of action, and can be moved in 
 any direction. The knuckles are formed by the extremities 
 of the metacarpal bones ; but the knuckle of the thumb is 
 formed of the first bone, or (according to some) its metacar- 
 pal bone. 
 
 Of the Motions of the inferior Extremities. 
 
 The Hip-joint, like that of the shoulder, has a very 
 extended sphere of motion. It is not so elegant in its 
 composition, and no part of the bony structure of the arti- 
 culation enters into the composition of the contour. 
 
 In some particular instances, but by no means generally, 
 the thigh may be carried out at a right angle to the body in 
 a lateral direction ; the mass of the muscles will allow 
 the thighs only to be crossed in the opposite direction, and 
 as a consequent this extent will be in proportion to the 
 delicate structure of the figure. The thighs may be ex- 
 tended forwards, in a right angle to the body ; but back- 
 wards scarcely to an angle of twenty degrees, if the body 
 is erect 
 
 The Knee-joint is, to the artist, of great importance ; 
 so much of the beauty of the leg depending upon it. The 
 whole of the inferior extremity of the femur, and the head 
 of the tibia enter into its composition. The patella too 
 
68 
 
 adds to its importance. This joint requires particular at- 
 tention, and its parts should be well understood, or other- 
 wise distortion of the limb will generally follow all attempts 
 at its delineation. 
 
 When the figure stands upon one leg, as the Antinous 
 for example, the patella equally covers the extremities of 
 the two bones lying immediately upon their point of con- 
 tact : it is this bone which forms the most prominent point 
 upon the knee-joint, immediately below the patella, a 
 more gentle and rounder swelling occurs, somewhat simi- 
 lar in form but more pointed downwards. This is produced 
 partly by the sack of the joint with its contents, and partly 
 by the fascious productions* of the rectus and vasti mus- 
 cles, going to the formation of the ligament of the patella. 
 
 Below this swelling, and terminating at the tuberosity 
 of the tibia, is seen descending the important ligament of 
 the patella. It forms a broad, smooth, and rounded strap, 
 passing from the patella to the tuberosity, completing 
 the three projections invariably seen in nature, and con- 
 stantly expressed in the figures of the antique upon the 
 front of this joint. The projections on each side are the 
 condyles of the femur, of which the internal is the largest ; 
 and the head of the tibia. When the knee is bent, and 
 carried in this state of flexion beyond a right angle, the 
 patella, though still in the same relative position as to the 
 tibia, yet appears to be considerably lower ; this arises 
 from the disappearance of the swelling beneath it, as the 
 joint is bent to its utmost extent, and the skin is closely 
 stretched upon the bones ; and the thigh-bone resting upon 
 the posterior part of its condyles, the whole of their base 
 stands vertically and not horizontally, and the great cavity 
 between them is distinctly seen. Thus in this position the 
 knee-joint has two large protuberances of bone above the 
 patella; and the ligament of the patella being more flattened, 
 the tuberosity of the tibia is very conspicuous. 
 
 This joint, like the elbow, admits of motion but in two 
 directions, forwards, bringing the tibia and femur in one 
 right line, and backwards in an angle, to an extent deter- 
 minate by the bulk of the muscles. 
 
 * These fascious productions were explained as an aponeurosis, when des- 
 cribing the rectus and vasti muscles on the thigh, page 32, 33. 
 
59 
 
 The Ankle-joint is complicated in its composition, 
 being formed of the lower extremities of the tibia and 
 fibula, and of the several bones of the tarsus. 
 
 The tibia forms the inner, and the fibula the outer ankle ; 
 the inner ankle is always considerably higher up than the 
 outer, and by much the largest. 
 
 The flexion and extension of the foot is performed upon 
 the astragulns, and the foot possesses a small degree of 
 motion laterally. 
 
 The utmost extent of flexion forms an angle of about 
 eighty degrees with the tibia, and the limit of its extension 
 is about one hundred and thirty degrees. The artist will 
 observe, that when the figure rests firmly upon the sole of 
 the foot, this joint forms nearly a right angle ; that flexion 
 is performed by the bending upwards, and extension, by 
 the pointing of the toes to the ground. 
 
 The lateral motion of the foot is very limited. The 
 foot may be turned outwards to a greater angle than is 
 admitted in the contrary direction ; and, if the lateral 
 motion is made when the foot is raised from the ground, 
 it is always attended either with flexion or extension. 
 
 The most easy position in which the body can be placed 
 is the recumbent, when the limbs are in a mid state be- 
 tween flexion and extension. If in any action the limbs 
 are represented in too great a degree of flexion or extension, 
 angularity is produced, and the figure will be destitute of 
 ease or elegance, harmony of parts, or dignity in form. 
 Ease, elegance, and grace, will never appear in the figures 
 of that artist who cannot determine the precise points which 
 form the contour of the joints, or is ignorant of their sphere 
 of action. 
 
 Upon a complete knowledge of the bones, and their 
 processes, the joints and their range of action, chiefly de- 
 pends the power of the artist to express, with propriety, 
 the human form, when put into action by the will, or when 
 prostrate by the stroke of death. 
 
APPENDIX, 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 The Head. 
 
 A. The os frontis. 
 
 a, a. The external orbitar processes. 
 
 b, b. The frontal sinuses. 
 c. One of the sutures. 
 
 B. The os parietale. 
 
 a. The ridge, expressing the attachment of the 
 temporalis muscle. 
 
 C. The os temporis. 
 
 a. The zigomatic process. 
 
 b. The mastoid process. 
 
 D. One of the ossa malarum, or cheek-bones. 
 e. The orbitar process of the cheek-bone. 
 
 E. The superior maxilla. 
 
 F. The inferior maxilla. 
 
 a. The ramus of the bone. 
 
 b. The apex at the front edge of the base. 
 
 The Trunk. 
 
 G. The cervical vertebrae. 
 
 H. The sternum. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4. The several markings, expressive of the origi- 
 nal pieces of the sternum. 
 1, 2, 3 to 12. The ribs, or costee. 
 
 a, a, b, b. The two loose or floating ribs. 
 
62 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The lumbar vertebrae. 
 The pelvis. 
 a, a. The ossa innominata. 
 
 1. The anterior superior spinous process. 
 
 2. The anterior inferior spinous process. 
 
 b. The pubis. 
 
 c. The ileum. 
 
 d. The ischium. 
 
 c. The tuberosity of the ischium. 
 
 The superior Extremities. 
 
 K. The clavicle. 
 L. The scapula. 
 
 a. The acromion. 
 
 b. The coracoid process. 
 
 c. The articulating cavity. 
 The neck of the bone. 
 
 L. The humerus. 
 
 a. Its head. 
 
 b. Its body. 
 
 c. The internal condyle. 
 
 d. The external condyle. 
 
 e. The tubercle. 
 
 f. The groove for the tendon of the long head 
 
 of the biceps. 
 M. The radius. 
 
 a. Its head. 
 
 b. The tubercle for the inferior attachment of 
 
 the biceps. 
 N. The ulna. 
 
 a. The olecranon. 
 
 b. The styloid process. 
 O. The carpus. 
 
 a. The os pisiforme. 
 
 b. The os trapezium. 
 P. The metacarpus. 
 
 Q. The phalanges of the fingers. 
 
63 
 
 The inferior Extremities. 
 
 R. The os femoris. 
 
 a. Its head. 
 
 b. The trochanter major. 
 
 c. The trochanter minor. 
 
 d. The body of the bone. 
 
 e. The inner condyle. 
 
 f. The outer condyle. 
 S. The patella. 
 
 T. The tibia. 
 
 a. The tuberosity. 
 
 b. The spine. 
 
 c. The inner ankle. 
 
 [7. The fibula or perone. 
 
 a. Its head. 
 
 b. The outer ankle. 
 V. The tarsus. 
 
 «. The astragulus. 
 
 b. The os calcis. 
 
 c. The os naviculare. 
 
 d. The os cuboides. 
 TiF. The metatarsus. 
 
 X. The phalanges of the toes. 
 a, b. The two bones of the great toe. 
 
 . PLATE II. 
 
 A. A. The ossa parietalia. 
 z. One of the sutures. 
 JB. The os occipitis. 
 a. Its crucial spine. 
 
 C. The mastoid process of the temporal bone. 
 
 D. The orbitar process of the cheek-bone. 
 
 E. The lowe* jaw. 
 a. Its ramus 
 
 P. The spine of the scapula. 
 R. The acronion scapula. 
 
 F. The cervicil vertebrae. 
 
64 
 
 X. Y. The spinous processes of the vertebrae. 
 Z. The dorsal vertebrae. 
 
 G. The pelvis. 
 
 H. The sacrum. 
 
 i. The termination of the sacrum or os coccygis. 
 S. The tuberosity of the ischium. 
 /. The olecranon of the ulna. 
 K. The cavity in the humerus for the reception 
 
 of the olecranon. 
 L. The linea aspera at the back of the os 
 
 fern oris. 
 M. The os calcis. 
 N. The os cuboides. 
 
 O. The projection of the metatarsal bone of the 
 little toe. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Muscles of the Arm. 
 
 A, a. The deltoides. 
 
 b, b. The biceps. 
 
 c, c. The triceps. 
 
 d. The brachialis internus. 
 E, e. The pronator radii teres. 
 
 f, f. The supinator radii longus. 
 
 g, g. The edge of the extensors of the thumb. 
 
 h, h. The flexor carpi radialis. 
 
 i. The flexor of the fingers, 
 z. Upon this spot is the palmaris longus, when 
 present. 
 k, k. The flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 l, l. The ulna. 
 
 m, m. The internal condyle of the humerus. 
 n. Olecranon, 
 o. Brachialis externus 
 p. The external condyle of the humerus. 
 q. The anconeus. 
 r. The extensor carpi ulnaris. 
 s. The annular ligamsnt of the wrist 
 
65 
 
 Muscles on the Front of the Neck and Body. 
 
 1. The organ of voice (or Adam's apple). 
 
 2. The sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 
 
 3. 3. The pectoralis major. 
 
 4. 4. The rectus. 
 
 5. 5. The obliquus descendens. 
 
 6. 6\ The course of the linea alba. 
 
 7. 7. The linea semilunaris. 
 8. 8. 8. The lineae transversales. 
 
 9. 9. The pyramidales. 
 10. 10. The course of Poupart's ligament. 
 11. 11. 11. 11. The digitations of the rectus and obliquus 
 upon the ribs. 
 12. 12. The serratus major or magnus. 
 
 13. Part of the latissimus dorsi. 
 
 14. Part of the teres major. 
 
 15. Part of the infra spinatus. 
 
 Muscles situated on the Thigh and Leg. 
 
 x. The glutaeus medius. 
 
 a. The tensor vaginae femoris. 
 
 b. The sartorius. 
 
 c. The rectus. 
 
 d. The vastus internus. 
 
 e. The swelling produced by the rectus, vasti, 
 
 and crura? us. 
 
 f. The patella. 
 
 g. The swelling under the patella. 
 
 h. The ligament of the patella. 
 
 i. The gracilis. 
 k. The triceps. 
 
 l. The hollow at the groin, occupied by fat 
 
 and glands. 
 m. The gastrocnemius. 
 n. The soleus. 
 o. The tibialis anticus. 
 p. The peroneus longus. 
 q. The extensor proprius pollicis pedis. 
 R r. The annular ligaments. 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 Muscles situated on the superior Extremities. 
 
 a a. The deltoides. 
 b b. The triceps, 
 c c. The brachialis internus. 
 e e. The supinator radii longus. 
 f f. The extensor of the fingers. 
 g g. The extensor carpi ulnaris. 
 h. The extensor carpi radialis. 
 i i. The extensors of the thumb. 
 k k. The tendons of the extensors of the thumb. 
 l l. The anconeus. 
 m m. The ulna. 
 
 N n. Part of the flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 0. The external condyle of the humerus. 
 
 Muscles situated upon the Back. 
 
 1. 1. The trapezius. 
 
 2. 2. The latissimus dorsi. 
 
 3. 3. The infra spinatus. 
 
 4. 4. The teres major. 
 
 5. 5. The rhomboideus. 
 
 6. 6. The longissimus dorsi appearing through the 
 
 latissimus dorsi. 
 7. Part of the obliquus externus. 
 
 Muscles situated on the Thigh and Leg. 
 
 a. The glutaeus medius. 
 c The glutaeus maximus. 
 
 d. The tensor vaginae femoris. 
 
 e. The vastus externus. 
 
 f. The biceps. 
 
 h. The semitendinosus. 
 
 g. The semimembranosus. 
 
 1. Part of the vastus internus. 
 k. The tendon of the sartorius. 
 l. Part of the gracilis. 
 
67 
 
 m. The gastrocnemius. 
 
 n. The soleus. 
 
 o. The tendo Achillis. 
 
 p. The tendon of the peroneus longus. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 a. Occipito frontalis. 
 
 b. Attollens Aurera. 
 
 c. Anterior Auris. 
 
 d. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 E. Compressor naris. 
 
 f. Levator anguli oris. 
 
 g. Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi. 
 
 h. Zigomaticus major. 
 
 i. Zigomaticus minor. 
 k. Masseter. 
 
 l. Depressor anguli oris. 
 m. Sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 
 n. Platysma myoides. 
 o. Depressor labii inferioris. 
 p. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 a. Supinator radii longus. 
 
 b. Flexor carpi radialis. 
 
 c. Palmaris longus. 
 
 d. Aponeurosis palmaris. 
 
 e. Abductor pollicis manus, one of the muscles 
 
 of the thumb, making up the fleshy part of 
 the palm. 
 
 f. Palmaris brevis. 
 
 g. The flexor of the fingers. 
 
 h. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
68 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 a. Extensor digitorum communis. 
 
 b. Extensor carpi radialis. 
 
 c. Extensors of the thumb. 
 
 d. Flexor of the fingers. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 a. Tibialis anticus. 
 
 b. Extensor digitorum pedis. 
 
 c. Extensor proprius pollicis pedis. 
 
 d. Annular ligament. 
 
 e. Tendon of the tibialis posticus, and one 
 
 the restraining ligaments of the joint. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Back View of the Scapula. 
 
 a. Acromion. 
 
 b. Spine. 
 
 c. Coracoid process. 
 
 d. Articulating cavity. 
 
 J. M'Creery, Printer, 
 Blsck-Horse-Court, London. 
 
Plate 1. 
 
note, 3. 
 
r