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Paper i 00 Cloth I 50 No. 39.— EL INSTRUCTOR FOTOGRAFICO.— Paper covers i 00 Library Edition i 50 No. 40.— THE AMERICAN ANNUAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC TIMES ALMANAC FOR 1892.— Out of Print. No. 41.— THE CHEMISTRY OF PHOTOGRAPHY.— By W. Jerome Harrison. Cloth bound 3 00 No. 42.— PICTURE-MAKING IN THE STUDIO. By H. P. Robinson. Paper covers, 50c. Library Edition . i 00 No. 43.— THE AMERICAN ANNUAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC TIMES ALMANAC FOR i893.-Paper covers (postage extra, 15 cents) 50 Library Edition ,jpostage extra, 15 cents) i 00 No. 44.— THE LIGHTING IN THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIO.— By P. C. DucHocHOis. A new edition. In press. For sale by all dealers in Photographic goods, and sent, post-paid, on receipt of price, by the publishers, THE SCOVILL & ADAMS COMPANY, Send for Book Catalogue. 423 Broome St., NEW YORK CITY. THE LIGHTING IN Photographic Studios (ILLUSTRATED.) BY P. C. DUCHOCHOIS, Photographer. Author of "Photographic Reproduction Processes," "The Photo- graphic Image," etc., etc. {Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged.) II y a des gens qui veulent toujours artialiser la nature, il vaudrait mieux naturaliser V Art— Michel Montaigne. Light is our palette ; we must never cease to study it.— Adam Salomon. NEW YORK: THE SCOVILL & ADAMS COMPANY. J 893. Copyrighted, 1890. By p. C. Duchochois. 1892. By The Scovill & Adams Co. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. General Principles — Balance — Repetitions — Rules to be observed in making Portraits — Examples — Composition of Groups — Examples — The Expression— How to obtain it — The Line of Horizon — The Distance— The First Studies. CHAPTER II. The Lighting — Different Modes of Distributing the Light. CHAPTER III. Rules and Effects of Lighting. CHAPTER IV. The Glass House— How the Light plays into it — Its Construction — Ap- pliances to direct and regulate the Light and to modify its actinic Action. CHAPTER V. The Backgrounds — Their Lighting — Vignette Background — Back- ground and Posing Apparatus combined — The Landscape and Interior Backgrounds. CHAPTER VI. The Lighting of the Model— Examples— Rembrandt's Style— Defects to be avoided — Profiles— Cartes Russes — Vignetting — Ferrotypes — The Head Reflector. 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. Treatment of the Eyes— Direction of the Vision — The Lighting of Blue Eyes — A simple Rule to place the Model in the Light — Man- agement of the Eyes. Concludmg Remarks. — Retouching — How to Study the Effects of Light and Shade — Importance of Long-Focus Lenses — The Focus — The Lighting in Relation to the Lenses — Conclusion. APPENDIX. The Development in Relation to the Lighting — The Use of Orthochro- matic Plates in Portraiture — The Lighting in Open Air and in a Parlor. THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. CHAPTER 1. General Principles to be Observed in Making Portraits. The object of this book, and its extent permit me only to give the principal rules to be observed in posing and some advice to guide the student, referring the reader to the works on the esthet- ics of the fine arts for more complete instruc- tion. Nothing seems so easy as to make a portrait, nothing is more difficult. Among the great painters very few excel in this branch of the art. The first principle to be borne in mind, and indeed it is the most important, is that to make a portrait is to represent not an action, but a person with his proper character and as he ap- pears every day to his friends. Therefore a 6 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. portrait must be composed by very simple means, avoiding too many and too showy acces- sories, especially those of a light color, because they divert the attention from the principal subject by attracting the eyes to them. The attitude should be calm, without the least ap- pearance of strain or of ''posing" the head, the subject, and, therefore, everything should be subordinate to it. The shoulders should be straight, or very nearly so; the hands visible; the form of the composition generally that of a pyramid; the lines graceful, prolonged, without exaggeration and well balanced ; that is to say, supporting each other. Successive parallel lines are unpleasant and inartistic. A line is said to balance or support when it ends at another line running in an opposite di- rection. It is a rule from which no artist can de- part that the lines — whether formed by the atti- tude of the model, or the accessories, or the folds of the dresses — be so compensated as to give stabil- ity and contrast to the whole. Imagine a group of persons placed in rows one over the other, a lady and a gentleman standing erect side by side, or a person leaning alongside a column! Is it to say that the repetition of lines, of forms, of lights and shades should be divided ? Cer- tainl}^ not, for the repetitions impart harmony to the composition; but they should not be THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. ^ treated with the same importance as the princi- pal subject. The Descent from the Cross," by Rubens, and the ''Charity," painted for King Francis I. by Andrea del Sarte, are splendid ex- amples of grouping and of well-balanced and repeated lines. When not requested to do, avoid taking stand- ing pictures of gentlemen. Our cylindrical and round-shaped hats, our dress may be very con- venient in which to attend to our daily occupa- tions, but are entirely inartistic. Were we not used to see ourselves so dressed a la mode, it would seem very queer, to say the least. On the whole, it is very difficult to make a picture of a man ; all is straight, angular, even in a sit- ting attitude. A bust only is tolerable. How- ever, by some artifice, a draped mantle or the like, a good picture can be composed. Full length and sitting portraits of ladies are easily made. The body a little turned, the head placed in another direction, to give diver- sity and animation; the attitude simple, the eyes looking at you, make a composition with that evenness and serenity, not devoid of dis- tinction and grace, which are the characteristics of a good likeness and of an artistic picture. It is a great error to think that such a compo- sition is common and not susceptible of variety. A slight difference in the movement of the head 8 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. and in the position of the body, another ar- rangement of the draperies, other effects of light and shade, and especially the features of the model, compose quite another picture. All pretentious, twisted and strained atti- tudes, those with the head turned so as to look over the shoulder, so to say, which force the eyes into the corners, should be avoided, al- though you may be induced to do it by the ad- mirable portraits of Michael Angelo, of Raphael and Van Dyck, painted by themselves; for the artist has at his command certain artifices to alter the lines without looking unnatural, or to conceal what is exaggerated and appears awk- ward, while the photographer can reproduce nature only as it is, and is, besides, restricted by the exigencies of the lens. Generally, portraits exactly full face or profile are not very gracious. The most advantageous position is that which artists call three-quarters-, moreover, it admits of producing better effects of light and shade. But the head should not be in the same direction as the shoulders ; it should have a certain inflection to the right or to the left if the shoulders are facing, and vice versa. The foreshortening is one of the greatest shortcomings of photography. What is on the foreground is either out of focus or too large in proportion to the other parts, unless using THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 9 lenses of very long focus. Hence in a sitting pose the legs and arms should be placed almost in the same plane as the body; indeed, the en- largement of the foreground produces the most deplorable effects in large heads taken directly from nature* and sadly interferes with the com- position of groups, for all the persons should be placed in planes nearly adjacent to each other, and in a semicircle, to be in focus. Above an 8 X ID size, groups are seldom good. If larger ones are wanted, it is better to make enlarge- ments from small negatives. As a rule the attitude must be in repose. Any gesture, smile or contraction of the face, when not the result of a real action, of a true emo- tion, appears exaggerated, often ridiculous. Ac- tors alone can pose in action, and yet it has to the observer the appearance of ''posing" for the same reason. It is only on the stage that it can be effective, because the spectator, being interested in the play, fails to notice that the attitudes, the animation, are conventional, studied and generally the same; moreover, they are of a momentary duration. Compose your picture according to the indi- viduality of the person to be represented, that *If, for example, the body is placed in profile, or nearly so, the shoul- der in the foreground is entirely out of proportion and both shoulders badly out of focus. lO THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. is, according to his character, his age, his pro- fession and condition, and with appropriate back- grounds and accessories. The portrait of a soldier and of a savant, that of a statesman and a clergyman, cannot be treated in the same manner. Let, for instance, the soldier have a commanding or buoyant attitude, with a frank, open expression, and let the light play around him to give relief to the figure. An old savant may be lighted by broad and contrasted effects of lights and shades to impart greater character to the head, the attitude being reposed, the ac- cessories simple and appropriate to his studies. As to the statesman — but everybody has a fa- miliar attitude resulting either from his temper- ament, his occupation or standing in society, which does not escape the observation of an ar- tist. Observe the model while conversing with him during the necessary preparations on some subject which may interest him, for, certainly, by the force of habit, he will take the pose which suits him best. The relation of the parts to the whole, the ac- cordance of the parts between themselves and of the whole to the parts, or unity and harmony, the two fundamental constituents of all the works of art, are in photography of difficult ap- plication for the composition of groups, owing to the exigencies of the lens; and it requires all THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. II the ingenuity of an educated photographer to surmount the difficulties and to apply the princi- ples when a great number of persons must enter into the picture ; for, in portraits, simplicity and repose are essential conditions which admit of a simple action or motive excluding move- ments often awkward and expressions always forced, unnatural, borrowed. To the painter pertains the representation of animated scenes, not to the photographer; a moment's reflection will convince any one of the truth of this ob- servation. In groups the principal subject should be pre- dominant; not necessarily in the centre of the picture, nor in the foreground, but at once it should attract the attention. The form, that is, the arrangement of the lines, depends on the number of individuals which must compose it. For a group of three the best form is, as for a single figure, that of an irregular pyramid — which is most convenient to balance the lines — like, for instance, the well-known group of Longfellow's children. Four or five persons may be introduced in this form, or the arrange- ment may be that of a lozenge and even a diag- onal; but, then, the secondary forms are gener- ally triangular, and when the number of persons necessitates separate groupings, they should be united by some artifices and the principal group 12 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. not lost in the ensemble, but always predominant. Hence the subjects should not be scattered, and, whatever be the arrangement, they should enter into the same action or be connected with it. The Last Supper," by Leonardo da Vinci, and ''The Entombment of Jesus," a bas-relief by Daniele di Volterra, are admirable examples of unity of action. Whenever a composition deviates from these rules the effect is destroyed and the spectator fails to be impressed, for the attention is divided and the eyes wander from one group to another instead of being forced, so to say, to uncon- sciously return to the real subject. The result is often a picture from which others, forming a whole by themselves, can be cast off without altering the character of the principal scene. As an example, one can cite a great master's work, '' The Transfiguration," by Raphael; the scene above — the motive of the picture — is en- tirely put into the shade by the dramatic action below, which seems to be the real subject. For examples of compositions, appropriate to portraiture, two are selected to guide the stu- dent. The first one is the family of a cultiva- tor, Le pere Gerard, by Louis David. A little girl preludes before playing on the harpsichord — the motive — and now turns her head to look at you, a friend not seen in the picture. By THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 13 her, on the right of the picture, sits the father, full face, holding between his knees his young- est son, who, with a book in one hand, the other on the knee of his father, seems quite interest- ed in the play and looks at his sister. On the second plane, behind the little girl, is standing another son, one hand on the harpsichord and leaning forward to look at the music. Lastly, between him and Gerard, stands, looking at you, the oldest son, forming the apex of the pyramid. All the standing figures are seen in three-quarter view. The second example is a picture by Greuze. It is a group of three persons, and represents the family of a farmer, probably. The interior is simple, consequently, a ray of sunshine from a window on the right obliquely illuminates the middle of the wall, a plain ground, the other parts being in half shade and shadow, to relieve by contrast the lighting of the models. The figures are full sized, with the exception of that of the mother. Near a wooden table placed diagon- ally — one leg of which only is seen — the daugh- ter sits, on the left of the picture, holding with both hands a book in which she was reading — the motive — but who presently looks at you. On the other side of the table, also in the fore- ground, the father is seated in an arm-chair, the head resting on the left arm, which itself rests on 14 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. the table, and facing you. His attitude, with the other hand on his knee, repeats the lines formed by the attitude of the maiden. Close to him, one arm around his neck, the other on the table over which she bends, the mother lovingly gazes at her daughter. Nothing so simple as the com- position; nothing more pretty than the picture. As to the manner of obtaining expression, without which a portrait is valueless, no matter how technically well treated, there is a singular custom amongst many photographers, that of re- questing the model, just before exposing, to 'Vtake " a pleasant expression. The physiogno- my reflects the attitudes of the soul and cannot be composed at will; certain ideas should be suggested to animate it, otherwise any attempt from the model to ''take " an expression results only in imparting an unnatural, grimacing look to the features. On this subject Disderi, in his ''Esthetics of Photography," remarks, ''that the faculty of imitation is innate in man — sorrow or joy is contagious. If you observe a spectator at the theatre you will see his physi- ognomy put itself in unison with that of the actor who interests him ; you will see the vary- ing shades and changes of the scene pass over his countenance. The photographer has no other means of reviving the expression in the features of his model than by taking the ex- THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 15 pression himself. He must, therefore, identify himself with the moral situation that he desires to create in the person to be represented, which is the only way of giving to his physiognomy the necessary expression lor a perfect portrait." That is well said. But it does not suffice to "create" or to induce an expression, always so fugitive that it becomes stereotyped and unnat- ural when the model is told * ' to keep that ex- pression," and disappears entirely, or becomes serious and spiritless when he is requested ' ' to keep quite still," from the effect of the new order of ideas conveyed by these requests. It should be ''taken" the moment it is real, and this can be done only by exposing without the model knowing it. In the recent past, when the exposure had to be lengthened to from ten to fifteen seconds, and even more, this was impracticable; and whenever Adam Salomon and Mr. Robinson succeeded, as it is said, in securing a good ex- pression in this manner, it was certainly un tour de force they could not repeat every day. But now, with our rapid processes, the exposure being reduced to one or two seconds, all diffi- culties are removed, especially since the pneu- matic time-shutter dispenses with apparently uncapping the lens, and to thus attract the at- tention of the subject at the critical moment. Therefore, it depends on the skill of the photog- l6 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. rapher, on his learning and his knowledge of human nature, to secure a portrait which shall be a pleasing and striking likeness and an artis- tic picture. To the professional photographer we need not give any advice. To the student we will say : Study your model; make up your mind what the picture should be; have the accessories, the head-rest, everything, ready ; then pose the model in a simple and easy attitude, employing simple effects of light and shade, and, at the last moment, gently place the head-rest, unconcern- edly requesting the model to be still and to look ''there" for an instant, in order to allow you to make the final arrangements; then — continu- ing the conversation to interest him and induce a good expression — expose while he is still ex- pecting to be told ''not to move " and to "take a pleasant expression." Of course this demands a good deal of tact and some ability not to keep the model waiting too long. It should be done in a moment. To commence the study in a photographic studio one should first determine the line oj horizon,^ When it passes over the head the lines are deformed, the oval of the face short- ened and the angles too salient. If, on the other hand, it be placed on the middle height "The line of horizon is situated at the height of the eyes of the de- signer; the centre of the lens in photography. THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 1 7 of the model, the opposite effect is produced and the head will be too short. In a sitting attitude it is best at the height of the eyes of the sitter; in a standing figure it may be be- tween them and the breast. It should be ob- served, however, that if the camera be level the lens looks upward into the face, and that, con- sequently, the most unpleasing likeness is the result. The camera should always be inclined forward, no matter how little, and the picture placed on the ground-glass by means of the rising front and the parallelism restored by the swinging back. Next, to preserve the proportions in a given size, the distance between the model and the camera should be determined by taking into consideration the height of the body, for if the space over the head be too small or too great, the model appears either taller or shorter than he is in reality. The accessories may produce a similar effect. For example : a person stand- ing near a low table looks taller, while if placed leaning on a high balustrade, he seems to be of a smaller stature. All this demands taste and judgment, for it is sometimes advantageous to somewhat alter the proportions in order to em- bellish the model without impairing the resem- blance. Again, if you wish to impart motion you should place the figure on one side of the picture, leaving the greater space before it. l8 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. When the camera is placed at the proper height and the distance determined, try from memory to place the model in some of the atti- tudes you have observed to be taken b}^ persons in every-day life, and to compose a picture by applying the rules and principles of posing and lighting. This will not at first make a very original picture, of course, but little by little, as your artistic training progresses, it will become so, provided you can resist the influences that surround you. Then if your works are not technically good they will have the great and uncommon merit of being original ; you will be yourself, not a copyist or a mere adapter. Every true artist has his own originality, which de- pends less on his artistic education than his temperament and conception of the ideal beauty. Rembrandt does not treat subjects as Van Dyck, Leonardo da Vinci as Correggio, Reynolds as Gainsborough. It would have been impossible for Michael Angelo to idealize the Virgin with that feminine grace and the celestial expression of ''La belle Jardiniere,'' or of ''La vierge ati Chardonneret,'' which impress on your mind an indellible image of Peace, Happiness and Inno- cence ; but the divine Raphael could never have conceived the sublime and terrible poem of the Sixtine Chapel, one of the most prodigious monu- ments ever made by a mortal! CHAPTER 11. The Lighting — Different Modes of Distributing THE Light. The study of the effects of light and shade is as important as that of posing. It is the light- ing which gives the illusion of relief and im- parts character and variety to the composition, not less than the arrangement of the lines and the grouping of the different parts. However, the art of lighting is much neglected by pho- tographers. The pose attracts all their atten- tion. They place the model at one end of the studio — the light being regulated for that par- ticular place — and whatever be the character of the features of the sitter, it is invariably lighted in the same manner, or, in other words, by the light arranged once for all. That is a great error. The pose and the light- ing are closely allied; one gives value to the other; both are subject to the same rules and consequently pertain to the same order of studies. As it has been said, a portrait is composed according to the individuality of the person to be represented; that is. his moral character, which is reflected by the features, the expres- 20 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. sion of the face; his age, condition and profes- sion. The attitude should be simple; the face the subject, and everything else related to it. The lines must be varied, well balanced and nothing in the picture should divert the atten- tion of the observer from the subject and de- stroy the unity, but the eyes should be coerced, so to speak, to return to it. If we apply the JSrst rule to the lighting, one sees at a glance that the portrait of a child, that of a young woman, or a man cannot be lighted in the same manner, nor every child, woman and man treated alike to preserve their indi- viduality. A child, for example, should be brightly lighted with contrast of soft, well gradated shadows to faithfully render its delicate, rosy face. The portrait of a woman can be made some- what in the same manner, to impart a calm, pleasing and youthful appearance. For a man the contrast of light and shade should be more marked, to give firmness to his features. A man of mark with a characteristic face may be lighted a la Rembrandt. Not the Rembrandt of the photographer, which consists in placing the model nearly in profile and the broad side of the face in the shadow — a manner Rembrandt THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 21 never used in portraits — but by large effects of light and shadow, the smaller side of the face being in the shade, or partly so. The rules and examples of lighting which will be given should be studied by analyzing works of the great painters in the originals, if possible, or in good engravings, in order not to be misled and to produce proper effects ; for by an injudicious arrangement of light and shade one may entirely alter the beauty of the model or exaggerate the defects of the features, giving hardness to a pretty, smiling face and an unde- cided, insipid appearance to a round face already devoid of character, softness to energetic feat- ures, etc., and thus destroy the characteristics and, therefore, the resemblance, which not merely consists in exactly reproducing the lines or the form of the head, but also its expression and originalit}^ There are two principal modes of lighting a portrait, and, indeed, any picturCo The first one, which consists in distributing the light in masses by placing the whole subject in the light, is not devoid of grandeur. It has been and is still employed by artists, but the lights should be contrasted by half shade and deep shadows to give vigor and solidity to the whole, otherwise the pictures become grayish, monotonous, without character. 22 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. The other manner is personified by the great master in chiaro-oscuro,'^ whose works are for the artist an inexhaustible source of study. ''The portraits of Rembrandt," says Mr. Charles Blanc, t ''induce thought because they think themselves. Not only are they marvels of chiaro-oscurOy of touch and modelling, but the nationality of the man, his condition, his temper, his moral physiognomy, all are at once observed. Statesmen, physicians, burgomasters, savants, every one of the models of Rembrandt, are characterized, first, by the adjustment and the accessories, of which not one is not useful. Then the soul becomes visible in the features; the habits of the mind, the most intimate senti- ments, betray themselves by the expression of the regard, and it is therein especially that his portraits are living. The interior flame which lightens the eyes renders them more luminous still than the ray of light from which the master has made a pencil. Rembrandt represents life by the thought, and the personages of his paint- ings can say with the philosopher, je pense, done je suis f The characteristic manner of lighting by Rembrandt, that which produces those bold ^Chiaro-oscuro (or light-dark) is the art of combining the lights and shades to produce effect, depth, relief and color in a picture. \ L'CEuvre de Rembrandt, vol. ii., p. 47. THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 23 effects of shadows and lights in his paintings and his engravings, that which gives so much force to the scenes he represents, is very simple : a beam of light falls on the subject, and, being diffused or reflected as in nature, illuminates the secondary subjects, then melts into deep shadows, thus producing strong contrasts of light and shade without harshness, whilst vari- ety and balance are obtained by abrupt transi- tions, giving stability to the whole. This manner, as it has been observed by emi- nent critics, often costs too much, the rest of the picture being sacrificed to the principal sub- ject and to the brightness of effects. Those who have tried to imitate that inimitable master did not always keep within reasonable bounds, and applied this mode of lighting to subjects which did not comport with it. Photographers, if we except Adam Salomon and a few others, have exaggerated it to the very brink of the grotesque, not knowing either the principles of the chiaro-oscuro or the method of regulating the light in the studio. As examples of the manner of Rembrandt one should study the well-known ''Dr. Faus- tus/' ''Christ Restoring the. Daughter of J aims/' "Samson Menacing His Father-in- law" — better known in Germany as "The Prisoner — the portrait of an ' ' Old Gentleman " 24 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. (a jewel) in the Gallery of Dresden^ the cele- brated ''Night Watch/' and The Man with a Fur Cap/' at the Imperial Museum of St. Peters- burg, which are most characteristic of the style of the master.* Here we cannot refrain from again calling the attention of the student to the master work of the King of Antwerp, the Descent from the Cross," as an admirable example of unity and harmony in grouping and of lighting. All the characters in that sublime scene, the holy women, the apostles, concur in the same action, and all the lines, so thoroughly balanced, radi- ate as rays of light from the Saviour, whose body, the centre of attraction, is broadly lighted and relieved by a white sheet, whilst the actors are in a secondary light, melting into shadows to which half-tones give transparency. * All these paintings have been well engraved and fomi a collection of good studies. CHAPTER III. Rules and Effects of Lighting. In portraiture, the head is the principal sub- ject. It should, therefore, be the centre of illu- mination. That is not to say that it should be strongly lighted in the studio, which in photog- raphy would invariably destroy the half-tones, or details in the lighter parts, but that it should be comparatively so. The artifices which are employed to regulate and distribute the light, to modify its actinic action, will be explained further on. For the treatment of light, d la Rembrandt, one should avoid falling into exaggeration. It is the most difficult manner of lighting in photography, and one we do not recommend. Generally portraits so lighted are nothing but white and black patches, without half lights to connect the high lights to the half shades and the latter to the deep shadows, all being devoid of the penumbra necessary to soften the ensemble. The opposite fault is also common, the pic- ture being full of details, but deficient in con- trasts and insipid by its flatness. 2(5 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. When the lighting is in the main composed of lights and half lights, the shades and half shades appear to advantage. Hence, if the model be placed in the shadow, the greatest light falling on the secondary objects around it, the figure stands well out ; but being in the half shadow, it should be relieved by half lights and deeper shadows, else the picture is crude. This method is seldom employed for portraits. In landscapes it is quite effective, as may be seen in many of the etchings of Rembrandt.* The opposite lighting — that is, composing the picture with lights and half lights and relieving the whole by deep shadows — is well adapted for portraiture. Most brilliant effects are produced by oppos- ing light to dark, and vice versa ; for example, by placing the lighted part of the subject on the dark part of the ground, and the shadow part on the light part of the same. This artifice, recommended by Leonardo da Vinci, is gen- erally employed by artists, and to it is due, in a certain measure, the striking effects ob- served in their works. By such an arrangement the lights appear brighter, the shades darker, and, the whole be- * We have seen portraits of colored persons so treated which were quite effective. The difficulty in taking these portraits is the glitter of the skin, but this can be obviated easily. THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 27 ing well balanced, it acquires great vigor. This manner is specially recommended to photogra- phers ; moreover, it admits of shedding upon the face a subdued light or of softening the direct light by means of screens, as will be ex- plained, in order to preserve the half tints or modeU, without losing anything of the general effect. To impart relief to the picture, the shades should be contrasted by still darker shadows. And, as the lights should be relieved by shadows, so should the masses of shadows be relieved by repeating the lights, but subdued, not so bright as the principal one. When the lights are opposed to half lights, the darks to half darks, breadth, softness, har- mony is the result ; but the effect becomes in- sipid if they are not balanced by opposing stronger lights or darker shadows in some parts of the picture. It has just been said that the shadows appear so much darker as the light in opposition is brighter. The same effect, of course, occurs in nature ; but then the eyes, being strongly im- pressed by the brightness of the light, fail to perceive the delicate details in the shadows. This (which in photography is of such great importance, because it is reproduced and even exaggerated in the negatives) we shall have oc- 28 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. casion to practically demonstrate, and to sTiow how the details in the shadows, apparently ob- literated when the model is placed in a strong light, can be rendered visible by a proper regu- lation of the same. To give air, distance, relief, the subject—/.^., the centre of illumination — should be relieved by the ground, and the secondary objects or ac- cessories placed in the half lights or half shades. This arrangement will be more effective if a strong shadow be cast in the foreground, which will greatly increase the luminosity. As it is seen, there is always a certain part in a picture which stands pre-eminent. ' ' It is necessary," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, ''that some part (though a small part is sufficient) should be sharp and cutting against the ground, whether it be light on dark or dark on light ground, in order to give firmness and distinct- ness to the work ; if, on the other hand, it is re- lieved on every side, it will appear as if inlaid on its ground." This is especially applicable in the treatment of backgrounds. To resume, a picture is made of light and shade blended with intermediate tints — that is, half lights and half shadows. Nothing in the face is entirely white. All is more or less shaded, with touches of shadow in the more receding parts and touches of light on THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 29 the prominent parts, as it appears in nature on the eyebrows, the arch of the nose, the chin, etc. Neither is anything entirely dark, the shadows being relieved by half shades and half lights, which depict the form of the face and show its anatomy. There must be one light only illuminating the entire picture."^ In a portrait it is that which falls on the head. That part of the face nearest to the source of light should be lighted the most, with gradation to shadow in the receding parts. Every light should have a focus or centre of illumination brighter than the rest. In a por- trait, the foci are on the prominent parts of the face, as mentioned above. No light, no shade exists in nature without a focus, without gradation. The shadows should not be vertical nor hori- zontal, which is unnatural and inartistic in effect. Hence, whatever be the lighting, the light should fall on the model at a certain angle and be repeated on the background, but in- versely, to produce vigor and brilliancy by con- trast of light and shade. A picture wholly composed of lights and half * This rule is seldom observed in " combination printing " by unedu- cated photographers. It is not a rare occurrence to see interiors, land- scapes and clouds lighted from one direction and the portraits from the opposite . 30 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. lights, shadows and half shadows, is weak, without character. If it consists of lights and shadows finishing abruptly — that is to say, without being blended by half tints — it looks spotted, unfinished, and can be effective only when viewed at a certain distance. This mode is employed in decora- tion ; in photography it is intolerable. The illumination of the face being the main object in portraiture, every other light should be subordinate to it. The principal light should be repeated, but not with the same brightness, in order to break the monotony and to impart variety, harmony and color to the picture. This rule holds good in regard to the shadows. For groups prin- cipally, the repetition of forms, of light and shade is indispensable. Merging the draperies or the accessories into nothingness in the shadow is objectionable as a rule, but sometimes resorted to for effect. Without sacrificing anything, brilliancy can be obtained in defining the outlines by still darker shadows. The shadows must be transparent and show the form of the objects upon which they are projected, otherwise they look flat, heavy, un- natural. There are few exceptions to this rule. By opposing light to shadow and shadow to THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 3I light, brilliancy, vigor and relief are produced. This rule is not absolute, however. Vigor and effect are as well rendered by opposing light to light and shade to shade. The rule to be ob- served is to relieve the figure so that it does not appear inlaid in the ground. Indeed, the principal object in distributing the light is to place everything in perspective and in relief. ''The first aim of the painter," says Leonardo da Vinci, in his treatise on paint- ing, '4s to make that on the flat surface of his picture a body which appears relieved, detached from the ground ; and he who in this surpasses others deserves to be esteemed as a great master in his profession. Now that excellence, or rather that perfection, that crowning of the art, arises from the just and natural distribution of the lights and shades which is called chiaro- oscuro, so that if the painter spares the shadows where they are necessary, he incurs disgrace and renders his work despicable to the connois- seurs, in order to acquire a false reputation with the vulgar and the ignorant, who in a painting only consider the brilliant and the fard, without taking note of the relief." 4r CHAPTER IV. The G l a s s - H o u s e . . Having described the different modes of light- ing and the rules to be observed, we must now explain what should be the construction of the photographic studio and how the light flows into it, in order that the student may produce and regulate the effects of light and shade de- scribed in the preceding chapter. The painter does not use a side light, but dis- poses the light so that it falls on the model at an angle of forty-five degrees. It is the classic lighting and answers admirably in showing the modeU ; and that is all which is necessary, for the artist creates in his mind a certain scene with certain effects of light and shade, and re- produces it with his palette often without regard to the lighting in the studio, although guided by it to some extent, his previous studies and observations of nature being the real and best guides. Not so with the photographer. He can pro- duce only what appears before him, and there- fore he should direct, alter, reflect the light on the model lo portray the picture he has con- THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 33 ceived ; in a word, he should design a natural, living scene, un tableau vivant, and then me- chanically, or nearly so, fix by chemical means the scene projected at the focus of his optical apparatus. The first part of this belongs to the artist, the other to the photographer. Photography is an art-science. • When a model is placed in a studio lighted from above only, one observes, whatever be the angle of light, that the wrinkles of the face are exaggerated, gi^dng an older, harsher appear- ance to the model ; the eyes are without fire, sunken ; shadows objectionably dark are cast under or on the side of the nose, under the lower lip and the chin, whilst the hair, being strongly lighted, appears snowy in the photo- graph. On the other hand, if the model be lighted entirely by a side light, the modele is injured, and consequently the form, the features, are much altered. The eyes are dull for want of contrasts, the delicate shading of the mouth disappears, the lighted side of the face is flat and the shaded one without form in deep shadow ; the whole face, in a word, has a hatchet shape. Therefore, to lessen these effects and to ob- tain a suitable lighting, the photographic studio 34 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. should be constructed with a top and side light in order to allow one to combine the two lights in just proportions and to have a perfect com- mand over the lighting. The glass-house represented in the annexed figure is generally recommended by artist- photographers. U/eet. Fig. 1. The room is 14 feet wide by 12 feet high, and painted orange-green,^ which is the most favor- able tint, being the complimentary color of violet. The pitch of the glazed roof (facing north) is about 47^ degrees. The side light * Prepared by mixing orange with pea-green. THE LIGHTING IN PHO I OGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 35 commences two feet from the floor and rises seven feet above, being 14 feet wide, which is even more than necessary. The room should be as long as possible — 35 to 40 feet — to allow the use of long-focus lenses for large figures, groups, etc. , in order to avoid exaggerated fore- shortening, one of the greatest defects usually seen in photographs. As to the glazing, clear glass is generally employed. Ground glass — polished side outward, of course — should be selected to practically get rid of reflections, especially from brick houses, when an open sky cannot be secured ; and even then, for the top light at least, such glazing produces a softer light without much diminishing its strength, and is more pleasant, less tiresome to the eyes of the sitter. To direct and regulate the light, a system of spring shades, curtains or shutters should be adapted to the glazed side and roof of the studio. The most simple and effective arrangement to control the side light consists of narrow spring shaded working upwards and arranged in sections to mask the light partly or entirely. This arrangement is well known and explains itself. The material must not be white or blue, but of a dark-gray or orange-green color, like the wall of the studio. All reflected actinic light should be avoided, except that managed by the artist. 36 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTCGRAPHIC STUDIOS. For the roof, curtains may be employed. They are troublesome to arrange and still more troublesome to work with cords and pulleys. Mr. Schaarwachter, one of the leading photog- raphers of Berlin, Germany, has devised an in- genious system for fixing and moving these curtains with the greatest ease, which Mr. Baden Pritchard thus describes : ^ " In the first place, Herr Schaarwachter has no lines or -cords for the moving of the blinds or curtains ; these, of blue linen, hang in very loose festoons from the roof. Brass wires run the whole length of the glass roof ; they are parallel, and perhaps two feet apart. They are taut — that is necessary — in the same way, pretty nearly, as our wire fencing — that is, each end of the wires passes over a roller (a), and this round a wheel furnished with a cog (d). On the face of the cog-wheel are two holes (c) into * " The Studios of Europe," American edition, p. 228. E. & H. T. Anthony & Co. , New York. We must observe that the arrangement of curtains attributed to Herr Schaarwachter wag first devised by Mr. Oscar Mason, the distinguished photographer at Bellevue Hospital. Fig. 2. THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 37 which a key, or winch, fits for the purpose of keeping the wire taut.^ The arrangement can be easily understood by our cut. Fig. 2. It is necessary that brass wires be employed, and not iron, for the latter rusts and then loses its smoothness, and, unless the wires are Fig. 3. smooth, the curtain rings will not run upon them with ease and facility, for, as we have said, the curtains are quite loose and baggy. Above is a transverse section of the roof (Fig. 3), showing how the wires are fitted and how the curtains are arranged. aa, aa, are sections of wires; b, b, b, the curtains, which are hung so as to overlap one another. Herr Schaarwachter simply uses a light bamboo pole to manipulate his curtains. 38 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. He pushes the curtains on this part of the roof, or makes them cover that part.^ The rings on the stretched brass wires move with exceeding facility, and a more simple plan of manipulat- ing curtains to control light and shade cannot be conceived." Besides this, some operators rightly recommend spring shades working half way upwards and half way downwards. Another excellent arrangement to direct the light is a system of shutters about two feet wide, revolving on pivots or on hinges. They are made of tin or zinc, painted white on the side facing the light and of a neutral color on the other ; or they may consist of light frames with calico stretched over them and papered white and gray-green, as mentioned above. Whatever they may be, those fixed on the glass-roof should move by sections, to lighten at will any part of the studio, by means of centre-pieces fixed to each other, and when shut they should project one over the other. This arrangement is similar to window-blinds. Generally the pitch of the glass-roof is not so inclined as to prevent the sun shining in the studio at mid-day and early in the morning in the long days of the fine season, whereby the dust always floating in the air, being illuminat- ed by the direct rays of light, form a mist in the studio which obscures the model, producing THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 39 on the negative an effect resembling a halo or fogginess, for which it is often mistaken. This should be obviated ; furthermore, when the sunbeam does not fall between the model and the camera, as in the case cited above, it is reflected by the floor and walls and thus badly interferes with the lighting. Several contrivances have been devised to that end, such as large frameworks, like blinds, constructed on the roof at the end and sides of the glazed part, or awnings similarly arranged, which latter are, by-the-by, objectionable on account of the wind, and necessitating their being moved by cords and pulleys. Light, narrow frames, covered with mineral paper of good quality — the ordinary kind rapidly turns yellow — revolving on pivots and placed inside near the glass, answer quite well ; moreover, they soften the light, intercept very little of it, and can hang down when the sun no longer shines on the roof. This arrange- ment is suitable when the roof is not glazed with ground-glass and the light not controlled by curtains, spring shades, shutters, etc., but by movable screens ; it is even preferable, for it permits one using the light from the clear glass to obtain a brighter illumination. We have just said that the light can be di- rected and regulated by movable screens as 40 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. well as by curtains and other contrivances fixed to the roof and side of the glass-house ; indeed, it is the best manner of contrasting the light to obtain delicacy of details in the lights and shades, together with vigor and effect, in a pho- tographic studio. Place a model under the light, the face a little turned away from the side light — which is a general rule — and at a certain distance from it, as it should be ; now, no matter how the light is distributed by the curtains or shutters, one side will always be brightl)^ lighted, while on the other the shadows will be too deep. Look at the face of the model, you can hardly see any modeM on the shadowed side ; but if we interpose a tinted cardboard near the lighted side so as to some- what obscure it, immediately all the details in the shadow become visible. Hence, it is evi- dent that it is not the shadow which is too strong, but that it is the lighted part which dazzles us by its brightness. Of course this effect will equally be reproduced in the nega- tive. It will even be exaggerated, for not only the lens concentrates the light, but strong and weak lights do not impress the silver compound according to their relative value, the former acting more energetically than the latter in comparison. Therefore the light should be bet- ter distributed to avoid this objectionable oppo- THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 41 sition of light and shade, not by turning the face of the model to the light, which would flatten it ; not by white reflectors, to throw light on the shadow, which would destroy the modele and project a false light (one which comes from another direction), but by screens to soften cer- tain parts by forcing, so to say, the light to be diverted from its original direction and to be- come diffused around the model. Various movable screens are emplo3^ed to thus regulate the light. All those described further on have their utility and should be at hand in every studio. To prevent the light falling directly from above on the head of the model, and therefore casting deep shadows under the eyes, the chin, etc. , or to throw a shadow on the hair, in order that the model does not look light-haired, a head-screen is employed. It is simply a light wooden frame, about three feet by two, covered with pale rose muslin, and fixed like a head- rest, to permit one to turn it at any angle, side- ways, downward or upward, and to move it up at any distance over the head of the model posed either in a sitting or standing attitude. Next comes a screen about forty inches wide, six or seven feet high, over which is attached by hinges another light screen or canopy of about the same length, which can be height- 42 THE LIGHTING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. ened to an angle of forty-five degrees, or lowered by means of a sliding arc, as seen in Fig. 4. This screen canopy is covered with light rose or pink very transparent muslin, on the side, semi-opaque on the top, and serves to control Fig. 4. both side and top light instead of by the use of curtains. Not less useful are the head side-screen and the upright side-screen. The former, devised by the writer, is a thin wooden hoop about THE LIGHIING IN PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS. 43 eight inches in diameter, covered with rose muslin, allowing a great deal of light to pass, and attached to a head-rest.'^ It exclusively serves to soften the lighting of the face by a slightly non-actinic color. The latter, equally covered with the same material, serves a similar purpose, but less effectively, for it also attenu- ates the white light reflected from the draperies, which generally should be avoided. It is excel- lent, however, to direct the light, when placed obliquely, to allow more side light in advance of the model. It would be a great error to think that modify- ing the quality of the light by means of the head-screen and by the side colored screen ne- cessitates lengthening the exposure, for one must expose long enough to obtain details in the draperies, generally of a less actinic color than the skin. Hence, in "coloring" the light illuminating the face, only,t by ''filtering" it through a colored medium, the half lights ac- centuating the modeles are preserved, solariza- tion is avoided, and, the darker and semi-dark shadows \>€\vl^ photographically in just propor- tion, there is no necessity for the use of the always objectionable white reflectors. * The head and side head-screens should be independent, /.plied for use in focusing when pictures of groups are being taken. The 11 X 14 Boston Imperial Camera is the same as an 11 x 14 Portrait Camera, with the addition of an 8 x 10 Carnage and an 8 x 10 Holder, and is used to make two imperials on an 8 X 10 or 4-4 plate, using one 4-4 lens • two cards on a 5 x 8 plate, using one 1-2 size lens; two large panel pictures. 6x10 inches in size, can also be made, and regular work from 11 X 14 to 1-4 inclusive. All with Double Swing-back and Waterbury Holder. No. 30.-11x14 Boston Imperial Camera, with 8x10 attachment and holder, $ 85 00 *• 31.-14x17 " " 8x10 " " 100 00 32.-17x20 " 8x10 " " 110 00 " 33.-18x22 " 8x10 " " 120 00 34.-20x24 •* •* " 11x14 " 140 00 For Sale by all Dealers in Photographic Materials and The Scovill & Adams Company. xiv THE AMERICAN OPTICAL CO.'S CABINET PLATE HOLDER ATTACHMENT Consists of a board the same size of the plate-holder of the camera. It is put in place the same as holders, upon pegs, with spring catch at top In center of board is an opening with hinged ground-glass to receive the holder selected, 4jixQ}i, 5x7, or 5x8. Can be fitted to any 8x10 or larger portrait camera by sending exact size of plate-holder. When wishing to use larger plates can be instantly removed. By the aid of this attach- ment and twelve single light-weight holders you always have a supply of plate-holders loaded and ready for use, save the expense of large extra holders and many a trip to the dark- room, and you are sure of always getting your subject in the proper position on the plate. Am. Optical Co. Best Portrait^Camera witb^one single Light-Weight Holder, price, $8 00 « u jQ 00 11 00 " n 00 " 12 00 " 13 00 " 13 00 " 14 00 Pop 8x10 " 10 x 12 11 X 14 " 12 X 15 " I4x 17 " 15 X 18 " 17 X 20 " 18 X 22 " 20 X 24 THE GREAT STUDIO PLATE-HOLDER. 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XV THE Scovill & Adams Company, 423 Broome Street, New York City, SUCCESSORS TO THE PHOTOGRAPHIC DEPARTMENT OF THE — Scovill Manufacturing Company, Are Manufacturers, Importers of and Dealers in An Unequalled Variety of PnotograDlilG * Goods, Embracing Every Requisite of the Practical Photographer, Professional and Amateur. Publication Department. Publishers of "THE SCOVILL PHOTOGRAPHIC SERIES" (40 publications), the "Photographic Times Annual," etc., etc. Latest Catalogue of Photographic Books and Albums, and a copy of " How to Make Photographs " sent free on application. W. IRVING ADAMS, H. LITTLEJOHN, President Treasurer. Secretary xvi