CONS TT 205 H35 1893 DYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS 6 89 H 274 (one shilling) THE Mechanic's Workshop Handybook p. N. H ASLUCK V Crosby Lock wo op & So n-j MA THE r F e BRIC I \ THE F ti ARC] C L F QUA F C c THE ^ pRflNKLm Institute Lidrart FHILflDELPHm Accession^ .^ l&O 0 Class Book Fifth Edition,' Enlarged, with 380 Illustrations. lamo, 3s. 6d. cloth. VENTILATION : A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art of Venti- lating Buildings. By William Paton Buchan, R.P., Sanitary Engineer. With 170 Illustrations. i2mo, 3s. 6d. cloth. GAS FITTING : A Practical Handbook treating of every Description of Gas Laying and Fitting. By John Black. With 120 Illus- trations. i2mo, 25. 6d. cloth. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.C. MANUALS FOR SPECIAL TEADES AND INDUSTRIES. HOUSE PAINTING, DECORATING, &c. HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING AND SIGN WRITING. With a Course of Elementary Drawing and a Col- lection of Useful Receipts. By Ellis A. Davidson. Sixth Edition. i2mo, 5s. cloth. SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES. By A. R. & P. Van der Burg. Folio. 18^ by 12J in. With Twenty-four full-size Coloured Plates; also Twelve Plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures, £\ iis. 6i, boards, ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN. By J. MoYR Smith. With Thirty-two full-page Plates and numerous other Illustrations, royal 8vo, iSs. cloth. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By G. Field. New Edition, adapted to the Use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer, by Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo, 3s. 6(i. cloth. THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By J. G. Badenoch. With Twelve full-page Engravings of Examples. Fifth Edition, is. 6i. cloth. ELEMENTARY DECORATION : A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Every-day Art as Applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of Dwelling-houses, &c. By J. W. Facey. i2mo, 2J. cloth, PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION: A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting. By J. W. Facey. i2mo, 2j. 6 00 lA M ^ ro lo M fO ro H O O (N CO •3BU1BIQ JO 'SbJ^ QPQpggQQQgp SpSSS PPPPPP uoisuBdxg jcauiq •}63H ograadg Tt- o M O VO N O O O O CTl O ■^O 00 Tl- VO lO N M ro M O CTi ro ro H ro M O O o M O ■jqBj; -330— sipjij vD O M CTi -^00 CTiM MOO lOTi-M rocnroioroCTiN ino ■o u-)0 O; N (M Ol OiyD ro r C3NVO (Tim coco m ro l> M fOfOM^cifOtf m'co ciroro '^-m'' tJ- .1 = JaiB^w : X)iAB.i{) ogioadg fO in -.4- ro rovO tn M ■<*■ ^D t^M cjinMinin-d-in ^t-vo tj-mctin o ror^ch VO {>-co covooo oioiroMco rot^o inoo 00 tnoo m in o m vo m N o in bi t» vb 00 (» b\ H t> M M 00 ro 00 M M ' no' HC>)M mmNMM M ^ ro M inoo -^vO M O awO OO^t-MMrooO o 1^ N in o N 01 6o rovb t^vb vb -^inodovb KbvVK rooo Tt- in N c^ !>. M M in invo ovCTvino cs ino ino oncoo o n moovo l-l MM MM N D MM MM MM 3 ' I 10 ••• „ 540" SOPT SOLDEkS. Tin 4 » 3 » 4 >, 5 6 „ 4 n 3 » 2 » I » 5 Bismuth Lead ;■> I .. I .. . Melts at !> 335 i - 340° >» I .. I> 355° 305 )5 I .. }) 375° >> I .. )) 3SO )) 4 •• >> 320° >> 3 •• » 310° )> 2 .. )J 290° >> I .. !> 255° j> >> 235° ii 3 • )> 2 00° Either can be melted in an iron ladle, and cast in strips for convenience in applying. Any of them will flow readily with the ordinary fluid. To cast strips of solder, pour the molten metal on a flat surface of stone or metal, drawing the ladle along the while, to leave a thread of metal of the desired substance. The following simple mode of making solder wire, which is very handy for small work, will be found useful : Take a sheet of stiff writing or drawing paper and roll it in a conical form, rather obtuse ; make a ring of stiff wire, to hold it in, attaching a suitable handle to the ring. The point of the cone must be cut off to leave an orifice of the size required. When filled with molten solder it should be held above a pail of cold water, and the stream of solder flowing from the cone will congeal as its runs and form the wire. If held a little higher, so that the streams of solder breaks into drops before striking the water, it will form handy, elongated *' tears " ot metal ; but, by holding it still higher, each drop forms a thin concave cup or shell, and, as each of these forms have their own peculiar uses in various purposes, many will find this hint very useful. 6o THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. In using ordinary tinner's solder for uniting surfaces that are already tinned — such as tinned iron plate and tinned copper — resin is the best and cheapest flux, but when surfaces of iron, brass, or copper, that have not been tinned are to be joined by soft solder, soldering fluid is by far the most convenient. Resin possesses this important advantage over soldering fluid, that it does not induce subsequent corrosion of the article to which it is applied. When acid fluxes have been applied to anything that is liable to rust, it is necessary to see that they are thoroughly washed off with clean w^arm water, and the articles carefully and throughly dried. Oil and powdered resin mixed together make a good flux for tinned articles. The mixture can be appled with a small brush or a swab, tied to the end of a stick. For soft solders the best flux is a soldering fluid, which may be prepared by saturating hydrochloric acid (spirit of salt) with zinc. The addition of a little sal-ammoniac improves it. A solution of phosphoric acid in alcohol makes, it is said, an excellent soldering fluid, which has some advantages over chloride of zinc. To prepare the latter put \ pint of muriatic acid (also called spirits of salts and hydrochloric acid) into a glass, and add small pieces of clean zinc, which will be dissolved by the acid. Let it stand for several hours, till the acid has ceased to act ; then add a small quantity of water — say a wineglass full — when ebullition will recommence. Let it stand undisturbed for a few hours, and again add a small quantity of water. Continue this until the quantity of water added equals that of the acid pint). When all action has ceased, add loz. of sal-ammoniac; let it stand 12 hours, then decant the clear liquid into a bottle, which should be kept well fastened when not in use. Throw away the sediment. Soft solders do not make malleable joints. To join brass, HARD SOLDERS. 6i copper, or iron, so as to have the joint very strong and malle- able, hard solder must be used. For this purpose equal parts of silver and brass will be found excellent, though for iron, copper, or very infusible brass, use silver coin rolled out thin, which may be done by any silversmith or dentist ; this makes decidedly the toughest of all joints, and as a little silver goes a long way it is not very expensive. When soldering work of copper, iron, brass, etc., the solder generally used is a fusible brass, and the work to be soldered is prepared by filing or scraping perfectly clean the edges or parts to be united. The joints are then put into proper posi ion and bound securely together with binding-wire or clamps ; the granulated spelter solder and powdered borax are mixed in a cup with a very little water and spread with a strip of sheet metal or a small spoon alorg the joint to be united. The work is then placed upon a clear fire and heated gradually, to evaporate the water used with the solder and borax and a'so to drive off the water contained in the crystal- lised borax, which causes it to boil up with a frothy appearance. If the work is heated hastily the boiling of the borax may displace the solder, and for this reason it is better to roast the borax before mixing with the solder. When the borax ceases to boil, the heat is then increased, and when the metal becomes a faint red, the borax fuses quietly like glass ; and shortly after, as the heat of the metal is increased to a bright red, the solder also fuses, which is indicated by a small blue flame, from the burning of the zinc. Just at this time the work should be jarred slightly by being tapped lightly with the poker or hammer, to put the solder in vibration and cause it to run into the joint. For some work there is no necessity to tap it, for the solder is absorbed into the joint without. Silver soldering, as appHed to silversmith's work, requires great care and practice to perform neatly and properly. The 62 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOI^. solder should in every way be well suited to the particular metal to which it is to be applied, and should possess a powerful chemical affinity to it ; if this is not the case, strong, clean and invisible connections cannot be affected, and that is partly the cause of roughness in goods, and not, as may more frequently be supposed, from the want of skill on the part of the workman. The best connections are made when the metal and solder agree as nearly as possible in uniformity as regards fusibility, hardness and malleability. The ordinary blowpipe is a tapering tube about eight inches long and one third of an inch diameter at the largest end. The small end is perforated with a pin hole. The uses of the blowpipe are various, but it is principally used in hardening and tempering, and in soldering. For soldering small articles of jewellery, the common blow- pipe, such as may be bought at any tool shop for about sixpence, is used. The solder is sold at dealers' in jewellers' requisites, ready for use. Of solder for silver goods, several sorts are used, in different qualities to suit different work. Only specify the purpose for which it is intended to be used when buying, and the correct quality will be given. Gold solder, to be used for gold jewellery, is subject to the same conditions. Gold solders are made from gold of the quality of the article, say i8 or i6 carats, to which is added -jV of silver and -^^ of copper ; or a larger proportion of silver and copper for ware of inferior fineness. The quality of the solder is always a trifle less than the metal on which it is to be used. This is necessary, in order that the solder may melt before the article does. The flux used with both gold and silver solders is borax. Working jewellers generally rub a lump of borax on a piece of slate with a few drops of water, just as water colours are ground, to a cream-like consistency. The solder is scraped clean, to re- SILVER SOLDERS. 63 move all trace of oxide, cut into little pieces and mixed with the borax. The actual process of soldering will be modified to suit the peculiarities of the article which is to be treated. Usually the edges to be soldered are cleaned, wetted with the borax fluid, and placed closely in contact. If possible the article is bound tightly together with binding-wire. This is fine wire of soft iron, made specially for such purposes. A piece of pumice-stone or charcoal is used to rest the work on whilst it is being heated. It is laid on this, with the joint uppermost ; a few pieces of solder and a little borax are placed along the joint, and the article is ready for being heated. So long as there is sufficient for the purpose, the less solder and borax used the better. Gas is generally used for heating with, but failing that, a spirit lamp will answer for all small work. A small lamp suited for the purpose, to burn methylated spirit, can be bought for a shilling. With the blowpipe direct a jet of flame along the joint, at the same time heating the entire article till the solder runs, then the soldering is accom- plished. Solders made from silver and copper only are, as a rule, too infusible to be applied to the general run of silver goods. Solders are manufactured of all degrees of hardness. Hard- est : Four parts of fine silver and one of copper; or three parts of sterling silver and one of brass wire. Soft : Two parts of fine silver and one of brass wire. Three-quarters of a part of arsenic is sometimes added at the close of the operation to make the solder whiter and more fusible ; but its poisonous vapours render its use injudicious. In applying solder, of whatever composition, it is of the utmost importance that the edges, or parts to be united, should be chemically clean ; and for the purpose of protecting these parts from the action of the air and oxidation during the soldering process they are covered with a flux, always borax, which not only effects the 64 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. objects just pointed out, but greatly facilitates the flow of the solder to the required places. Silver may be soldered with silver of a lower quality, but easy-running solder may be made of 13 dwt. fine silver, 6 dwt. of brass ; the composition of brass being so uncertain, it is best to fuse zinc and copper with the sil ver, and the following proportions make a very easy-running solder: 12 dwt. fine silver, 6 dwt. pure copper, i dwt. zinc. Brass sometimes contains lead, which burns away in soldering, and must be carefully guarded against. Solder for filigree work is prepared by reducing easy-flowing solder filings and mixing it with burnt borax powdered fine. In this state it is sprinkled over the work to be soldered, or the parts to be sol- dered are painted with wet borax, and the solder filings are sifted on and adhere to the borax. The flux which adheres to the work after soldering is removed by boiling the articles in a pickle of sulphuric acid and water, i part to 30. Steel or heavy iron may be united in the same way at a very low heat. For soldering iron, steel and other light coloured metals, and also brass work that requires to be very neatly done, the silver solder is generally used on account of its supe- rior fusibility and combining so well with nearly all metals, without gnawing or eating away the sharp edges of the joints. Silver solder is used a great deal in the arts, and from the sparing or careful way in which it is used most work requires but little or no finish after soldering ; so that the silver solder, although expensive, is in reality the cheapest solder in the end. For silver soldering the solder is rolled into thin sheets and then cut into narrow strips with shears. The joints or edges to be united are first coated with pulverised borax, which has been previously heated or boiled to drive off the water of crystallisation. The small strips of solder are then placed with forceps upon the edges or joints to be united, and the work is then heated upon the brazier's hearth. The process jEir£LLER-S SOLDER. 65 Of silver soldering upon the larger scale is essentially the same as the operation of brazing. For hard soldering small work, such as drawing instruments, jewellery, buctons, etc., the blowpipe is almost exclusively used, and the solder used is of the finest or best quality, such as gold or silver solder, which is always drawn into thin sheets of very fine wire, and it is sometimes pulverised or granu- lated by filing ; but solder should not be pulverised very fine ; a greater degree of heat is always required to fuse a minute particle of metal than is required to fuse a large piece. In soldering jewellery, the borax or other flux is usually applied in solution with a small camel's-hair brush. The solder is rolled into very thin sheets, and then clipped into minute particles of any desired shape or size, which is so delicately applied to the work that it is not necessary to file or scrape off any portion of it, none being in excess. The borax or other flux used in the operation is removed by rubbing the work with a rag that has been moistened with water or diluted acids. To obtain hard solders of uniform composition they are generally granulated by pouring them into water through a wet broom. Sometimes they are cast in solid ingots and reduced to powder by filing. Silver solders for jewellers are generally rolled into thin plates, and sometimes the soft solders, espe- ciilly those that are very fusible, are rolled into sheets and cut into nariow strips, which are very convenient for small work that is to be heated by a lamp. In order to do good work it is necessary to apply the heat as uniformly as possible, so as to have the solder melt uni- formly. This is done by moving the work about in the fire. As soon as the work has been properly heated and the solder has lused, the work should be removed from the fire, and aicer the solder has set it may be cooled in water without injury. Tubes to be soldered are generally secured by binding F 66 THE MECHANIC'S tVOR^CSHOP HAMDVSOOIt. wire, twisted together around the tube with pliers. All tubes that are soldered upon the open fire are soldered from within, for if they were soldered from the outside the heat would have to be transmitted across the tube with greater risk of melting the lower part of the tube, the air in the tube being a bad conductor of heat. In soldering long tubes the work rests upon the flat plate of the brazier's hearth, and portions equal to the length of the fire are soldered in succession. The best solder for platinum is fine gold. The joint is not only very infusible, but it is not easily acted upon by common agents. For German silver joints, an excellent solder is composed of equal parts of silver, brass and zinc. The proper flux is borax. 1 u to . Solders. 1 Gold. 1 Silver. 1 Coppe Tin. o" a N Lead. 1 Bismu 1 Brass Meltin point, Pewterer's 2 I 2 360° Pewterer's, soft 3 4 I 2 I Tinman's ... ... ... I ^ 393 Coarse ... I 3 500 Plumber's I 2 475 Hard Spelter Gold* 4 3 1,869 6 I 7. For Brazing Steel 19 2 Hardest Silver 4 I Hard Silver ... 3 I Soft Silver 2 I For Aluminium 2 2 I 2 In preparing solders, whether hard or soft, great care is requisite to avoid two faults — a want of uniformity in the melted mass,'and a change in the proportions of the constitu- ents by the loss of volatile or oxidable ingredients. Thus, * Various proportions are employed, according to the fineness cf the article, so as not to risk the test of assay. HARD SOLDERING. 67 where copper, silver and similar metals are to be mixed with tin, zinc, etc., it is necessary to melt the more infusible metal first. When copper and zinc are heated together, a large portion of the zinc passes off in fumes. In preparing soft solders the material should be melted under tallow to prevent waste by oxidation; and in melting hard solders the same object is accomplished by covering them with a thick layer of powdered charcoal. The common iron tubes for gas-pipes are soldered or welded from the outside. This is done by heating the tube in a long air furnace, completely surrounded by hot air, by which means the tube is heated more uniformly than in the open fire. After the tubes have been heated to the welding heat they are then taken out of the furnace and drawn through clamps or tongs to unite the edges, and are then run through grooved rollers two or three times, and the process is complete. The solder- ing or welding of iron tubes requires much less precaution in respect of the heat than some of the other metals or alloys, for there is little or no risk in fusing it. In soldering light iron- work, such as locks, hinges, etc., the work is usually covered with a thin coating of loam to prevent the iron from being scaled off by the heat. Sheet iron may be soldered at a cherry- red heat, by using iron filings and pulverised borax as a solder and flux. The solder and flux are laid between the irons to be soldered, and the whole is bound together with binding wire and heated to a red heat and taken from the fire and laid upon the anvil, and the two irons are united by a stroke upon the set hammer. , Hard solders are usually reduced to powder, either by granulation or filing, and then spread along the joints after being mixed with borax, which has been fused and powdered. It is not necessary that the grains of solder should be placed between the pieces to be joined, as with the aid of the borax r§ THE MECTTAmC'S WORKSHOP flAKDYSCOZ they will "sweat" into the joint as soon as fusion takes place. The same is true of soft solder applied with a soldering fluid. One of the essential requisites of success, however, is that the surfaces be clean, bright, and free from all rust. Soldering without heat, commonly called cold soldering, is a process not only possible but common, and after the first pre- paration is exceedingly simple. The process given has many uses for soldering all articles which cannot be exposed to heat, and for soldering parts together which cannot be got at with either a copper bit or a blowpipe flame. The process of cold soldering can be extended even to soldering two faces of dirty cast iron together. It may be done on blocks of any size without the slightest assistance so far as heating is concerned, by the following process. Although the first preparation is tedious a large quantity of the materials can be made at once, and the actual soldering process is simple and quick. Flux : i part metallic sodium to 50 or departs mercury. This must be kept in a stoppered bottle closed from the air. It has the property of amalga- mating (equivalent to tinning by heat) any metallic surface, cast iron included. Metallic sodium alloys with mercury by being shaken up in a bottle with it. If this is too much trouble the sodium amalgam can be bought ready made from any chemist or dealer in reagents. Solder : make a weak solution of sulphate of copper about loz. to I quart of water. Precipitate the copper by rods of zinc ; wash the precipitate 2 or 3 times with hot water ; drain the water off, and add for every 3 ounces of precipitate 6 or 7 ounces of mercury ; add also a little sulphuric acid to assist the combination of the two metals. The finely-divided copper combines with the mercury, and they form a paste which sets intensely hard in a few hours, and whilst soft this paste should COLD SOLDERING. be made into small pellets, which harden and have the property of softening by heat and again hardening in a few hours. When wanted for use heat one or more of the pellets until the mercury oozes out from the surface in small beads, shake or wipe these off, and rub the pellet into a soft paste in a small pestle and mortar, or by any other convenient means, until it is as smooth and soft as painters' white lead. This when put on the surface amalgamated by the sodium and mercury adheres firmly and sets perfectly hard in about three hours. The joint can be parted if necessary, either by a hammer and cold chisel or by a heat about sufficient to melt plumber's solder. If expense is no object there is no difficulty in making a much stronger solder, which will set hard in 15 minutes. For this quick setting solder to replace the copper and mercury use 8 silver, 10 tin, i bismuth, i platinum, melted together, cast into an ingot, and reduced to fine filings. When wanted mix about 3 parts filings and 1 mercury in a small mortar until it becomes a smooth paste. This sets in about 15 minutes, and cannot be made workable again by heat ; it must be mixed just as required. The omission of the platinum reduces the strength of the solder and lengthens the time required to harden to about I hour. The omission of bismuth makes a more granular mass, which is better for filling up crevices. With bismuth it is as smooth and plastic as potter's clay. CHAPTER VI. FILES AND FILING. ITLES are of very ancient origin, and these tools are mentioned in the Book of Samuel. They are made in endless variety for special purposes, but there are a few generally accepted peculiarities by which files can be classified. These are lcngth~\Ai\Qh is measured from the point to the heel exclusive of the tang ; kind—\\\i\Q\i really indicates the shape of the longitudinal and sectional forms ; cut — -which varies not only in coarseness but in kind. The five grades most in use are divided as follows :— Rough, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. The teeth of ordinary files called double cut are made by two separate series of grooves cut on the file, which form a diamond-shaped tooth. The first cut which is put on the file is known as the " over cut," and the second as the up cut." For saw files, only the "over cut" is used, the tooth being a sharp ridge of metal extending at a angle across the face of the file ; these are called single cut. The teeth are not intersected by any other stroke of the cutting chisel. Single cut files have two grades, bastard and second cut. The other tooth which is in use is that applied to horse rasps, wood rasps, cabinet rasps, and shoe rasps. This tooth is raised to a conical form by the use of a punch. On horse rasps it is too large to designate by any grade of cut. On wood and cabinet rasps it is graded as bastard, smooth, and sometimes second cut. As a matter of convenience, the number of teeth is given by counting only KINDS OF FILES. *ji one of the cuts of the file, and this is the " over cut," or first cut. Gradation of coarseness depends on the length of the file : thus bastard files of the undermentioned lengths have the number of teeth shown per running inch. 4 in. 8 in. 12 in. 16 in. long. 76 56 48 44 teeth per inch. The teeth of files may be single cut, double cut, or rasp cut, each of which is quite distinct. The length of a file gives no clue to any other dimension?, and the file may be of any section or substance. The kind is a term having technical significance as flat, square, round, etc. ; some are named from their transverse section, some from the purpose for which they are intended. Some of the files generally used are described below. Square— X double cut file, made up of the five grades of cut previously mentioned, namely, rough, bastard, second cyt, smooth and dead smooth. It is of equal width and thickness for about two-thirds its length ; from there to the end it is gradually drawn to a point, its square shape being retained. Frequently the point or end is left of the same thickness as the tang end. It is then called *' parallel square." Pillar— K file in cut and grade of cut the same as " flat." In other respects the same as a " hand," with two exceptions. It is only from | to f the width, and in proportion to its width is of greater diameter than a "hand." Cotter ov Pivot— A file in cut and grade of cut the same as a "flat." In shape a very narrow " pillar." Hand.—K file in cut and grade of cut the same as "flat." It is of the same width at the point or end as at the shank or tang end. It is gradually drawn down in thickness from about two-thirds its length to the end, leaving it at the end about 72 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HAND VBUVK. one-half its original thickness. Sometimes it is drawn very shghtly from the centre to the tang as regards its thick ness. One edge of the file is left uncut, and given the name of " safe edge." These files are sometimes made with two safe edges. Flat. — A file in cut and grade of cut the same as " square." The double cut applies to the sides of the file, the edges being single cut ; on special orders the file is made with single cut sides and of the five above-mentioned grades. In shape, this file is, as a rule, of parallel sides and thickness for two- thirds its length, and from that distance to the end is drawn to a blunt point, in a gradual decreasing width and thick- ness. Warding File.— A file in cut and grade of cut the same as "flat." It is seldom made over eight inches in length. In appearance very much like a flat file— differing in three ways. It is forged more to a point than a " flat," and compared with the same length of " flat " file, is not so thick but has more width. Equaling.— k file in cut and grade of cut the same as " flat." In every other respect, with one exception, the same as "hand." It is not only of parallel width, but of parallel thickness. Joint File.— In shape a thin " equaling." It is cut on the edges only, and is sometimes made with round and sometimes with square edges, according to the wishes of the buyer. It is known also as a " drill " file. As regards thickness it can be ordered by numbers, according to Stubs's metal gauge. Round.— K file in grade of cut the same as " flat," the cut being made up or comprising a number of rows of single cuts extending from shank to point, the rows slightly intersecting. It is gradually drawn to a point, from about two-thirds its length tQ the end. Sgmetimes Ih? file is left th^ same tLick- A'lXDS OF riLES. 73 ress at the point or end as at the tang end ; it is then called " parallel round." Half Round— K file in gr^ade of cut the same as " flat." It is cut on the flat side the same as a " flat " file, or double cut. On the half round side is a series of rows of single cuts from shank to point, completely covering it. Some of the rows intersect at difi"erent angles; where this occurs it gives the file the appearance of being double cut. In shape, of the same width as the various sizes of "flat" files; and drawn to a point in the same way as a «' flat " file, only diff'ering from a '* flat " in being between a half round and half oval. Crossing— A file graded the first as flat. Oval in shape, with two sharp edges, being forged and drawn gradually, from about two-thirds its length to the point. It is cut the same as the back or half round side of the " half round " file. Triangular, generally miscalled Three Square, — A file in cut and grade of cut the same as " flat." It is in dimensions of triangular shape, giving the file three sharp corners, which vary in sharpness according to grade of cut. It is of uniform dimen- sions for about two-thirds its length, and is drawn gradually to a point from that distance to the end. There are also " parallel triangular " files, these files being the same thickness at the point as at the tang end. Saw. — A single cut file, generally of two grades ; bastard and second cut, and sometimes a smooth cut. It is flat in shape, slightly drawn at the point, both in thickness and in width, and though of about the same width as a flat file is not so thick. It is generally cut with one round and one square edge, very often with both edges square, and sometimes wiih both round edges and with one safe edge. By machinists it is often called a " float file." Taper Saw. — A file sold largely under the following heads : Taper saw, single cut, slim taper saw single cut, band taper 74 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. saw single cut, and taper saw double cut. As a rule a file of single cut graded as second cut. It is often cut in all its shapes with a double cut graded as second cut. It is triangular in shape, being forged to a point the same as a " triangular." Ta^er Saw Single Ciit.—h. file graded as "second cut," triangular in shape, being cut on the three sides, also cut on three edges. As a rule, cut within a short distance of the end. Slim Taper Saw Single Cut. — The same in every particular as the ''taper saw," only made from steel two-thirds as heavy. Band Taper Saw Single Cut.— Is the same as " taper saw " in shape; the sides are cut the same as "taper saw." Its edges are ground, rounding and cut with two rows of teeth to each edge. Double Cut Taper Saw. — A file in shape the same as "taper saw," the edges being cut, and the sides receiving a double cut " second cut " instead of single cut. Wood Rasps.— In shape, both flat, round, and half round, and corresponding in this particular to the "flat," "round" and " half round " files. The tooth is conical, being raised from the surface of the rasp with a punch, raising a tooth about equal to the space it removes from the surface. As regards grade of cut, is generally known as " bastard." Cabinet Rasps. — In every respect but two the same as a "wood rasp." Instead of being "half round" it is scant " half hollow," and in grade of tooth it is a " smooth," some- times a " second cut." Cabinet File. — In shape like a cabinet rasp. On flat side it is double cut, and grade of " bastard." On the oval side it is the same grade of cut or bastard half round. Small single cut files or "floats" of various shapes not hardened may be met with at some of the dealers in watch- maker's tools, which are useful in finishing small articles iji MANUFACTURING FILES. ^TS hard wood, ivory, and also in gold and silver ; they are used sometimes by jewellers for finishing, on account of their leaving a smooth surface behind them instead of a rough one, as a double cut file does. In the manufacture of files the pieces of steel, or the blanks intended for files, are forged from bars of steel that have been either tilted or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections required, so as to leave but little to be done at the forge ; the blanks are afterwards annealed with great caution, so that in neither of the processes the temperature known as blood-red heat may be exceeded. The surfaces of the blanks are now rendered accurate in form and quite clean in surface either by filing or grinding. For smaller files the blanks are mostly filed into shape as the more exact method ; for the larger, the blanks are more commonly ground on large grind- stones as the most expeditious method ; in some cases the blanks are planed in the planing machine, for those called dead-parallel files." The blank, before being cut, is slightly greased, that the chisel may slip freely over it. The file cutter is seated before a square stake or anvil, and places the blank straight before him, with the tang towards his person; the ends of the blank are fixed down by two leather straps or loops, one of which is held fast by each foot. The chisels commonly used in cutting files vary considera- bly. The largest is a chisel for large rough files ; the length is about 3in., the width about 2|in., and the angle of the edge about 50° \ the edge is perfectly straight, but the one bevel is a little more inclined than the other, and the keenness of the edge is rounded off, the object being to indent rather than cut the steel ; this chisel requires a hammer of about 7 or 8 pounds weight. The smallest is the chisel used for sma^l superfine files ; its length is 2in., the width |^in. ; it is very thin, and sharpened at about the angle of 35°; the edge is 76 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. also rounded, but in a smaller degree ; it is used with a hammer weighing only i or 2 ounces ; as will be seen, the weight of the blow mainly determines the distance between the teeth. Other chisels are made of intermediate propor- tions, but the width of the edge always exceeds that of the file to be cut. The first cut is made at the point of the file ; the chisel is held in the left hand, at a horizontal angle of about 55° with the central line of the file, and with a vertical inclination of about 12° to 4° from the perpendicular. The following are the usual angles for the vertical inclination of the chisels, namely : For rough rasps, 15° beyond the perpendicular; rough files, 12°; bastard files, 10°; second cut files, 5°] and dead smooth cut files, 4°. The blow of the hammer upon the chisel causes the latter to indent and slightly to drive forward the steel, thereby throw- ing up a trifling ridge or burr ; the chisel is immediately re- placed on the blank, and slid from the operator until it encoun- ters the ridge previously thrown up, which arrests the chisel or prevents it from slipping further back, and thereby deter- mines the succeeding position of the chisel. The chisel having been placed in its second position, is again struck with the hammer, which is made to give the blows as nearly as possible of uniform strength, and the process is repeated with considerable rapidity and regularity, 60 to 80 cuts being made in one minute, until the entire length of the file has been cut with inclined parallel and equidistant ridges, which are col- lectively denominated the *' first course." So far as this one face is concerned, if intended to be single-cut, the file would be then ready for hardening. The teeth of some single cut files are much less inclined than 55°; those of floats are in general at right angles across the face. Most files, however, are double cut, and have two series of coufses Of chisel cuts, and for these the suifacS Of the file is now smoothed by passing a smooth file once or twice along the face of the teeth, to remove only so much of the roughness as would obstruct the chisel from sliding along the face in receiving its successive positions, and the file is again greased. The second course of teeth is now cut, the chisel being in- clined vertically as before, or at about 1 2°, but horizontally about 5° to 10° from the rectangle. The blows are now given a little less strongly, so as barely to penetrate to the bottom of the first cuts, and consequently the second course of cuts is somewhat finer than the first. The two series of courses cover the surface of the file with teeth which are inclined toward the point of the file, and when highly magnified they much resemble in character the points of cutting tools generally. If the file is flat and to be cut on two faces, it is now turned over, but to protect the teeth from the hard face of the anvil a thin plate of pewter is interposed. Triangular and other files require blocks of lead having grooves of the appro- priate sections to support the blanks, so that the surface to be cut may be placed horizontally. Taper files have the teeth somewhat finer toward the point, to avoid the risk of the blank being weakened or broken whilst being cut, which might occur if much force were used in cutting the teeth at the point of the file as in those at its central and stronger part. Eight courses of cuts are required to complete a double cut rectangular file that is cut on all faces, but eight, ten, or even more courses are required in cutting only the one rounded face of a half round file. There are various objections to em- ploying chisels with concave edges, and in cutting round and half round files, the ordinary straight chisel is used and applied with its edge as a tangent to the curve. It will be found that in a smooth, half round file i in. in width, about 20 courses ?S The MECHAmC'S WORKSHOP HAmYB06}C. are required for the convex side, whilst two courses alone serve for the flat side. In some of the double cut, gullet-tooth saw- files, as many as 23 courses are sometim.es used for the convex face, and but two for the flat. The same difficulty occurs in a round file, and the surfaces of curvilinear files do not there- fore present, under ordinary circumstances, the same uni- formity as those of flat files. Hollowed files are rarely used in the arts, and, when required, it usually becomes imperative to employ a round-edged chisel, and to cut the file with a single course of teeth. The teeth of rasps are cut with a punch, which, for a fine cabinet rasp, is about 3|in. long and square at its widest part. Viewed in front, the two sides of the point meet at an angle of about 60°; viewed edgewise, the edge forms an angle of about 50°, the one face being only a little inclined to the body of the tool. In cutting rasps, the punch is sloped rather more from the operator than the chisel in cutting files, but the distance between the teeth of the rasp cannot be determined, as in the file, by placing the punch in contact with the burr of the tooth previously made. By dint of habit, the workman moves— or, technically, hops — the punch the required distance; to facilitate this movement he places a piece of woollen cloth under his left hand, which prevents his hand from coming im- mediately in contact with the anvil. The teeth of rasps are cut in rather an arbitrary manner, and to suit the custom rather than the necessities of the workmen who use them. Thus the lines of teeth in cabinet rasps, wood rasps, and farriers' rasps are cut in lines sloping from the left down to the right-hand side; the teeth of rasps for boot and shoemakers and saddle- tree-makers are cut in circular lines, or crescent form. These directions are quite immaterial, but it is important that every succeeding tooth should cross its predecessor, or be interme- diate to the two before it, as, if the teeth followed one another PIlM CUTTim, 79 in right lines, they would produce furrows in the work, and not comparatively smooth surfaces. In cutting files and rasps, they always become more or less bent, and there would be danger of breaking them if they were set straight while cold; they are consequently straightened while they are at the red heat. Previously to their being hardened the files are drawn through beer grounds, yeast, or other sticky matter, and then through common salt mixed with cow's hoof, previously roasted and pounded, which serves as a defence to protect the delicate teeth of the file from the direct action of the fire. The compound likewise serves as an index to the temperature, as on the fusion of the salt the hardening heat is obtained ; the defence also lessens the dis- position of the files to crack on being immersed in the water. , The file, after being smeared over as above, is gradually heated to a dull red, and then straightened with a leaden hammer on two small blocks, also of lead ; the temperature of the file is afterwards increased until the salt on its surface just fuses, when the file is immediately dipped in water. The file is immersed quickly or slowly, vertically or obliquel}^, according to its form, that mode being adopted for each variety of file which is considered best calculated to keep it straight. It is well known that, from the unsymmetrical sec- tion of the half round file, it is disposed on being immersed to become hollow or bowed on the convex side, and this ten- dency is compensated by curving the file while soft in a nearly equal degree in the reverse direction. It nevertheless commonly happens that, with every precaution, the file becomes more or less bent in hardening, and, if so, it is straightened by pressure, either before it is quite cold, or else after it has been partially reheated. The pressure is variously applied, sometimes by passing one end of the file under a hook, supporting the centre on a prop of lead, and bearing down the go TilR M ECU Abie's WORk'StiOP HAMDVjBOOk'. opposite end of the file, at other times by using a support at each end and by applying pressure in the middle by means of a lever, the end of which is hooked in the bench. Large files are always straightened before they are quite cooled, after the hardening, and while the central part retains a considerable degree of heat. When straightened, the file is cooled in oil, which saves the teeth from becoming rusty. The tangs are now softened to prevent their fracture. This is done either by grasping the tang in a pair of heated tongs, or by means of a bath of lead contained in an iron vessel, with a perforated cover, through the holes in which the tangs are immersed in the melted lead, which is heated to the proper degree. The tang is afterwards cooled in oil, and when the fi'e has been wiped and the teeth brushed clean, it is con- sidered fit for use. The superiority of the file will be found to depend on four points— the primary excellence of the steel, the proper forging and annealing without excess of heat, the correct formation of the teeth, and the success of the hardening. To choose a good file, hold it between your eye and the light, point towards you, and you can see the cutting edges of every tooth. See if they are all clean, smooth and sharp. If notched, cracked, uneven and irregular, they indicate a poor file. Look all over for fire-cracks, hold up to the light as before, but reverse the ends and see if the file is all one colour. If it shows a chequered appearance, it is uneven in temper, hard and soft in spots. Strike the file with some hard substance. If there are any flaws in it, the ring of the steel will betray them. Filing is an operation that mechanics frequently require to practise. Whenever the use of the file can be avoided, by the use of the lathe, the milling machine, or the planer, it is cer- tainly desirable. Considerable skill is required to smooth surfaces of large area by means of files alone, more especially when these surfaces are required to be accurately flat. The FILING. Si metliod of preparing surface plates, as detailed by Sir Joseph VVhitworth, is most valuable information to anyone desirous of excelling in this particular branch of practical handicraft. In engineering works, filing is superseded by the planing and shaping machines for almost all work of large size. The speed and accuracy of the planing machine cannot be approached by the file when there is a great quantity of material to be removed. Files are then only used for the purpose of " fitting," and to smooth up those parts which are inaccessible to the planing tool. A planing machine is one of those expensive and heavy pieces of machinery frequently beyond the reach of mechanics, and it therefore becomes necessary to learn how to dispense with its valuable aid. Cast iron usually forms the bulk of the material used by engineers, and this is the metal on which we will proceed, metaphorically, to operate. The hard outside skin on cast iron, and the sand adhering to its surface, make it somewhat formidable to attack. If a new file is used for the purpose, it will be assuredly spoiled, and to no purpose. One which has been very nearly worn out will be nearly as effective, and will not be much deteriorated by the use to which it is put. There are several ways of removing the " skin." One is to "pickle " the casting, that is, immerse it in a bath of sulphuric acid and water for a couple of days. This will dissolve the outer crust of the casting, and liberate the sand adhering to the surface Another plan is to remove a layer of the casting from that part which has to be filed by means of a chipping chisel. This is a very good plan where much material has to be removed from some particular part of a large, unwieldy piece of machinery, though some practice will be required with the hammer and chisel before they can be used satisfactorily. The art of filing a flat surface is not to be learned without considerable workshop practice. The file must be used with G 82 lim MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP lIANDYBOOl^. long, slow and steady strokes, taken right from point to tang, moderate pressure being brought to bear during the forward stroke. The file must be relieved of all pressure during the leturn stroke, otherwise the teeth will be liable to be broken off, just in the same manner that the point of a turning tool would be broken if the lathe were turned the wrong way. It is not necessary to lift the file altogether off the work, but it should only have its bare weight pressing during the back stroke. One of tlie chief difficulties in filing flat is that the arms have a tendency to move in arcs from the joints, but this will be con- quered by practice. Work which has been filed up properly will present a flat, even surface, with the file marks running in straight parallel lines. Each stroke of the file will have been made to obtain a like end, whereas work which has been turned out by a careless or inexperienced workman will often bear evidence that each stroke of the file was made without any regard to any others, and the surface will be made up of an unlimited number of facets, varying in size, shape and position. Those who have never received any practical instruc- tion in the use of files generally have a bad habit of pressing heavily on the tool continuously, during both forward and backward stroke, and at the same time work far too quickly. These habits, combined, will almost invariably spoil whatever is operated on, producing surfaces more or less rounding, but never flat. The position of the vice at which we are to operate is a most important point to be decided before commencing our filing proper. The vice should be fixed at the correct height, and so that the work held in the jaws will lie level. As to what is really the correct height, some slight difference of opinion exists. This is, probably, owing to the fact that the height of people varies. For filing general work the top of the vice jaws should be placed so as to be level with the Position for filing. §3 elbow of the workman, which will be found to range from 4oin. to 44in. from the floor; therefore 42in. may be con- sidered as an average height best suited for all heights of workmen, when the vice is to be permanently fixed. If the work to be filed is small and delicate, requiring simply a movement of the arms, or right hand and arm alone, the vice should be higher, not only in order that the workman may more closely scrutinise the work, but that he may be able to stand more erect. If the work to be filed is heavy and massive, requiring great muscular effort, its surface should be below the elbow-joint, as the operator stands further from his work, with his feet separated from loin. to 3oin., and his knees somewhat bent, thus lowering his stature; besides, in this class of work it is desirable to throw the weight of the body upon the file, to make it penetrate, and thus, with a comparative fixedness of the arras, depend largely upon the momentum of the body to drive the file. It will, therefore, be seen that in fixing the height of the vice, the nature of the work and the stature of the operator should be considered, if it is deemed necessary to apply the principle correctly. Having the vice fixed properly, the correct position to assume, when filing, is the next consideration. The left foot should be about 6in. to left and 6in. to "front" of the vice leg; the right foot being about 3oin. to front, that is to say, 3oin, away from the board in a straight line with the vice post. This position gives command over the work, or, rather, over the tool, and is at once characteristic of a good vice-man. The file must be grasped firmly in the right hand, by the handle. When the object is to remove a mass of metal, the file requires to be as large as can be conveniently handled upon the work, and this for machinists' use need not, for the largest work, exceed a 2oin. file, which, to make it bite well and drive a fair cut, -will require all the power a man can exert continu- 8.} THE M£ClIANic^S WORKSHOP ilANM'BOOi't. ously. The cut of the file should be, for roughing wrought iron, a bastard cut ; for steel, a second cut ; and for brass, a rough file. To obtain the greatest amount of duty, the file, if a large one, requires applying on the forward stroke with all the power the operator can put on it ; while, if a small one, with as much power as can be without danger of breaking the file. The end of the file handle should abut against the palm of the hand, so that the file is pushed, and not dragged. The work should be about as high as the operator's elbow, and for full duty with, say, a i4in. file, the left foot should be near the front of the vice, while the right one stands at least 2 6in. behind. The left hand must just hold the point of the file lightly, so as to guide it, and, when taking the forward cut, a fairly heavy pressure must be applied, proportionate to the size of the tool in use and the work being done. On the forward stroke the front foot should be almost entirely relieved of the operator's weight, which will fall on the file, while on the back stroke the front foot should take most of the weight, so that the file may be relieved. The file strokes should not all be made parallel one to another, but first at one angle and then at another, so that the file marks will cross and recross each other, which enables the tool to cut easier. The speed of the file may be as quick as it can be pushed, providing the file is pressed to the work with all the weight possible, or if a small one, with all its strength will stand. For filing to shape a smaller file must be used, so that even while removing the mass of the metal, the shape of the work can be readily observed by a slight lateral motion of the file, without entirely removing it from the work, or without stopping the file strokes. In filing to fit lies the greatest art of filing, for here it is necessary that the file be of true outline, and to be so applied that it touches the work at the required spot only. FIL ING SMA LL S URFA CES. 8 5 It is as well here to make a few remarks on handles ; they should always be proportionate to the files to which they are fitted. The hole in the handle should be properly squared out, to fit the " tang," by means of a small " float," made from a small bar of steel, similar to those used by plane-makers and cab'net-makers. The handles should always have good, strong ferrules on them, and the files should be driven home quite straight and firm, so that there is no chance of the tool coming out. Each tool should have its handle permanently fixed ; it is very false economy to be continually changing, considering the low price of handles. The operation of filing a casting just home from the foundry should be preceded by thoroughly brushing the casting with a hard brush, so as to remove all the loose sand. Then take an old file and file away steadily at the skin till you come to a surface of pure metal. Having by then removed those parts which spoil files, the old file, with which but slow progress is made, can be changed for a better one. The best as well as the most economical will be one which has been used for filing brass till it has become too much worn for that material. Such a file is in first-class con- dition for working on cast iron after its sandy skin has been removed, and when worn out on that it will serve first-rate fur steel- When it is necessary to file up a small surface — say 2in. or 3in. square — the file must be applied in continually changing directions, not always at right angles to chops of the vice. In that case, though the work might be made perfectly straight in that direction, yet there would not be any means of assuring a like result on the part lying parallel to the jaws. When the surface is fairly flat, the file should be applied diagonally both ways ; thus any hollow or high places, otherwise unobservable, will be at once seen, without the aid of straight edges. This 85 THE MECHANICS WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. method of crossing the file cuts from corner to corner is recommended in all cases. The file should invariably travel right across the work, using the whole length of the file, not just an inch or so at some part, as is too often the case. When in use the file must be held quite firmly, yet not too rigid, so that the operator cannot feel the work as it progresses. The sense of touch is brought into use to a far greater extent than the inexperienced would imagine, and a firm grasp of the tool, at the same time preserving a light touch to feel the work, is an essential qualification for a good filer. In filing out mouldings and grooves which have sections resembling, more or less, arcs of a circle, a special mode of handling the file becomes requisite. The files used are generally rats'-tails or half rounds. These are not used with the straightforward stroke so necessary in using the ordinary hand files, but a partial rotary motion — a sort of twist axially — is given to the file at each stroke. This screwlike motion, given alternately from right to left, and vice versa, serves to cross the file cuts and regulates the truth of the hollow. Files which have become clogged with minute particles of metal, dirt and grease are not fit to use, and the following directions will enable anyone to keep them in proper order. The most generally used tool for cleaning files is the scratch brush ; but this is not very efficient in removing those little pieces of hard metal which get firmly embedded and play havoc with the work. File cards are also used ; they are made by fixing a quantity of cards — such as a pack of playing cards — together by riveting, or by screwing to a piece of wood. These file cards are used in the same way as the scratch brushes— transversely across the file in the direction of its cuts — and though neither tool produces much effect yet both are often used. When files have been clogged with oil and grease, the best CLEANING FILES. 87 plan is to boil them fur a few minutes in some strong soda water ; this will dissolve the grease and, as a rule, set most of the dirt and filings free. A little scrubbing with an old tooth brush will be beneficial before rinsing the files in boiling water and drying them before the fire. These methods will prove efiective in removing ordinary accumulations of dirt, but those " pins " which are so much to be dreaded when finishing work can only be removed by being picked out with a scriber point, or, what is better, a piece of thin, very hard, sheet brass, by means of which they can be pushed out very easily. These "pins" may be to a certain extent avoided by using chalk on the file, if it is used dry, or a drop or two of oil will sometimes help matters. With regard to finishing filed work, such as has to be made particularly presentable to the eye, there are many ways of polishing and burnishing, but, properly speaking, these are not filing. Nothing can exceed the beauty of well-finished work, perfectly square and smooth as left by the file, untouched by any polishing materials. In such work the filing must be got gradually smoother by using files of finer cut. When the work is deemed sufficiently finely finished for the purpose, the lines should be carefully equalised by "draw filing." For this the file is held in both hands, in a manner similar to a spoke-shave> and drawn over the work in the same way, producing a series of fine parallel lines, the beauty of which it would be difficult to exceed for the purpose of high-class engineering work. CHAPTER VII. TOOL GRINDING. ECHANICAL operations are most successfully carried BagJI out with the most suitable tools. Edge-tools are em- ployed in many mechanical operations ; keen edges, properly shaped, always give the best results, so that all those who em- ploy edge-tools will find tool-grinding a subject deserving close study. A cutting edge is formed by the line of junction of the two facets of a wedge. The angle of these two facets one to the other is determined by considerations of strength or of shape. As a rule, the harder the material to be cut the more the approach of the two facets to a right angle, one with the other ; and so likewise the greater the strength required, the nearer the facets to a right angle. Thus, while the facets of a graver may stand at an angle of 50", those of the cutters for a pair of shears or a punching machine will stand at an angle of about 85°, though both may be used to cut iron and steel. In this latter case, the strength being the main consideration, it must be obtained at a sacrifice of keenness, whereas, if we take the case of a razor or a lance, sharpness is the main consideration, and strength is disregarded. There are, however, certain con- siderations in the production of the cutting edge itself, regard- less of the angles of the facet, which affect all cutting edges, and these considerations we propose to discuss. Grindstones of various sizes, forms and textures are employed for grinding and shaping edge-tools. A flat circular disc of sandstone or sandstone grit has been GR/NDSTONES. ' 8q iified for sharpening in generations past. The ancient warrior put an edge to his bronze spear-head by the means employed by the modern cutler to give the keen edge to a razor. Probably no workshop tool pays better for the care bestowed upon it, or affects the work of an entire factory more than the grindstone. It is, however, almost an exceptional occurrence to find a good stone, properly hung, running true and in perfect order. The workshop stone generally has a trough beneath it to hold the water. Being left with a portion of its edge immersed, that part becomes softened, and the stone wears •unevenly. The out-of-doors grindstone soon becomes a worth- less wreck from the effects of the weather; the sun's rays warping the wooden frame, and making the stone itself too hard for use. Although the applications of a grindstone are limited, stiU, in its sphere it acts to perfection. No machine or proce s has yet been devised to supersede the grindstone, and improve- ment has added but Hitle to this primitive tool. Science has produced artificial compounds which take the place of the original natural stone ; and they are often used advantage- ously. They are, however, new only in the method of manu- fdctute. Emery compounds are now used very extensively for all purposes of grinding, and they have many advantages over the natural stones. Probably the employment of emery grinders will become universal at an early date. Even now they aie fast displacing nitural stones in Government workshops and oil er large factories where economy is studied. Every employer of edge-tools should endeavour to get a grindstone that will do its allotted work well, and in the quickest time. A good grindstone, to replace one that is hard and flinty, is always a paying investment. A writer on the economic conduct of workshops recommends that a bad stone should be immediately broken up as the best means of saving time 90 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. and trouble, besides earning the thanks of those who would otherwise have to use it. Only those who have used a good stone, properly mounted, with its edge running perfectly true, can appreciate the true worth of a grindstone. Those who have used only lumpy, badly-kept stones cannot form a just estimate of the value of grindstones, as applied to the produc- tion of the edges of hardened steel tools. The requisites of a good grindstone are uniformity of texture, a keen bite, freedom from cracks and flaw, and sufficient cohesion to hold together and withstand the enormous centrifugal force to which it is often subjected. Newcastle stones are widely known and excellent. They vary in their texture, and coarse or fine grit may be chosen as desired. Artificial stones are made by binding together silicious particles with silicate of lime. The grindstone for general purposes should be at least eigh- teen inches in diameter, though two feet is a better size. It is then large enough to form its own fly-wheel, the stone being mounted in a frame of its own. A treadle is far preferable to a hand-winch for turning the stone, as the latter generally neces- sitates the services of two persons to grind. Even the most simple tool, as a rule, requires the use of both hands to guide it on the stone. When an attempt is made to turn the winch by one hand, and hold the tool by the other, unsatisfactory results are obtained. The speed at which grindstones are driven in some cases amounts to a surface velocity of three or four miles per minute, but to attain such a speed it is of course necessary to employ multiplying gear and steam power. For ordinary tool grinding sufficient speed is got by turning a two-foot stone as fast as convenient by a treadle, but when a hand crank is used the stone goes far too slow, and the remnants of a worn out grind- stone only a foot or so in diameter, sometimes to be seen in use turned with a handle of that radius, are quite unfit for any use- TOOL GRINDING. 91 ful purpose. By putting a fly-wheel on the spindle and driving at a good speed, such a stone might be of some use, but the trouble it would involve is not worth the saving in a new stone. Ransome's patent free-grit stones, made by the method pre- viously mentioned, are asserted to have a tensile strength of about six hundred pounds per square inch, and the best results are attained with a surface velocity of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet per minute. When tools are ground the operation should always be conducted on scientific principles, so as to produce the best results. The application of the tool to the work must also be correct. A properly shaped tool, improperly applied, will probably not be more effective than one applied on correct principles, having a badly formed edge. Well-ground tools, properly applied, are the essentials of economic workshop practice. First comes the question : On which side of a stone a tool should be ground ? This depends upon the shape of the tool, the amount of metal requiring to be ground off, and the con- dition of the grindstone. If the tool is held in such a position that the revolving surface of the stone runs towards the operator, the operation can be performed quicker, and as a rule, better ; but it is in many cases quite dangerous, because the edge of the tool is liable to catch in any soft part or a spot in the stone, and to be dragged from the fingers, carrying them with violence down to the rest (every grindstone should be provided with a rest), and rendering them very liable to injury by being caught between the rest and the stone. In determining upon which side of the stone any given tool should be ground, the work- man takes into consideration : — The shape of the tool, the amount of metal requiring to be ground off, and the condition of the grindstone. 92 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. In ordinary shop parlance, the side of the stone on which the face of the stone enters the trough is always called the side with the stone running to you, because all grinding which re- quires performing with the stone running to you is performed on that side, and in conjunction with the use of the rest. There is no excuse, and it is very dangerous, to grind on that side of the stone without using the rest as a steadying point and as a safeguard. With the rest, the grinding can be more delicately, truly and accurately, as well as expeditiously performed, because of the extra force with which the tool can be held steadily to the stone. To true-up a grindstone, firmly fix a rest on the grind- stone frame, and use, as a turning tool, a piece of wire about fin. thick ; or, if a large stone, a piece of small iron gas barrel, applied at a slight angle horizontally and pointing downwards. AVhen using, roll the wire over towards the cut. and thus present continually a fresh sharp edge. Hang the water-trough on a joint, and let the water in it be clear of the stone; when it requires wetting lift up the trough. A grindstone will turn best when slightly wetted. For small tools the Bilstons, quarried in Staffordshire, have an excellent reputation, as they possess the requisite quahties of a fine even grain, without hard patches. Newcastle stones are more widely known, and are excellent ; they vary in their texture, and coarse or fine-grained may be chosen as desired. Sheffield stones have a hard coarse grit, and are used princi- pally for rough grinding. Stones of coarse grain and large size are obtained from Yorkshire and Derbyshire, but through the want of cohesion and toughness especial care is necessary in selecting from these varieties, as they are liable to break up from centrifugal force, accidents of a most serious nature generally resulting from such mishaps. Artificial grindstones (compounded as already stated) are ARTIFICIAL GRiNDSTONIiS. 93 fnlde in moulds, so that they are turned out perfectly true, circular and flat; there are no pebbles, hard spots, coal flaws, clay seams, or like defects incidental to natural stone. The process of manufacture is this : Silicate of soda, which is a kind of water glass, is first made by dissolving flints with caustic alkali. Silicious sand of fine and even grain is then mixed with the plastic mass, and the whole is moulded to the proper shape. In some cases the stone is treated chemically to render it hard ; hydraulic pressure is employed to solidify the material. Some stones acquire their hardness by simple exposure to the atmosphere. According to the fineness of the grains of sand used the texture of the stone is modified, and emery may be used in its stead, resulting in a grindstone of exceptionally good quality ; and these artificial stones are in many cases cheaper than the natural stone to quarry and shape, which necessitates the expenditure of considerable time, sometimes with a useless result. Other kinds of artificial stones have been made in which the grit is held together by various hard-setting cements, but those resulting in a plaster-like surface are of little use, lack- ing as they do the sharp cutting properties of the natuial stone. Emery and sand are mixed with various substances with a view to obtaining a useful whetstone ; clay is used in a plastic state, and then baked with the cutting material incorporated in it ; shellac and similar substances have the admixture made whilst they are liquefied by heat. The following receipts for artificial grindstones are from an authentic source : Melt one part of shellac and add to it three times the quantity of washed silicious sand ; emery may be used instead of sand. Boiled linseed oil is said to form an all sufficient agglutinant, and merely requires to be subjected to the influence of the air after the abrading material has been mixed with it When the mass approaches solidity it is 94 Tim MECHANIC'S Workshop HANDVBooie. subjected to pressure in moulds and finally hardened by heating. It would be impossible to give a list of the number- less formulae which have been tried with varying success in the manufacture of emery wheels, which have now taken a very prominent place in tool grinding. Glazing wheels are made of wood, covered with leather charged with emery, and are used by cutlers, especially for grinding and sharpening knives, tools, etc. They are also used for levelling and surfacing many metallic articles, for removing the scale fiom castings, and for trimming small castings such as builder's hardware. A wooden wheel without any leather covering is used by lapidaries in smoothing soft and rounded stones. These wheels are fed with flour-emery and water. Glass-cutters employ similar wheels, with pumice- stone and water, for smoothing, and with putty-powder and water for polishing. These wheels, commonly called glazers, are made of wooden discs built in quadrants, so arranged as to present the end of the grain on the edge. They are fed with emery, and mahogany is said to be a good wood to use. The modern emery wheel would be preferable in many respects. Laps, made of soft metals, such as lead and copper, are very extensively used for grinding tools of peculiar form. The metal lap is turned to the desired shape, and is then charged with emery, or some other abradent, and oil ; the particles become embedded in the surface of the soft metal, and make of it a " grindstone," which preserves the shape originally given to it, and requires to be continually supplied with fresh cutting material in its powdered form. Similarly, discs of wood are used, and to coat the edge of one with glue, and whilst that is yet soft to press emery into it by rolling the disc in some powder, is an expedient for quickly obtaining a substitute for a grindstone, and it answers its purpose for a time. Laps and honms. §5 The natural grindstone is, however, the one which ganerally does duty in the mechanic's workshop, and to this one we wish to direct our attention especially. Small stones may be bought complete and ready for use, fitted in a cast-iron frame, forming at the same time its water trough. They are also used on a spindle, and driven between the lathe centres, but this is a practice to be most emphatically condemned. The first cost of a grindstone is but a trifling consideration, when the long time that it will last and the amount of work that it will do are reckoned ; and thus it is well to select as good a stone as can be get, as the extra cost, if any, will be amply repaid in the time saved in producing a like, and generally a better, effect wiih the superior stone. Grindstones mounted on frames, turned true on the edge and ready for use, are sold by most ironmongers at prices varying from about 2$s. for a 24 in. stone; and the plain, unmounted, rough circular stone of that diameter costs fiom about ^s. 6d., according to the thickness, the cost of conveyance from the quarries, and the rate of profit charged by the seller. Such a grindstone will answer all the requirements of engineers, car- penters and others, and will be found equal to most of the tool-grinding that is likely to be done in a small workshop. We now proceed to the processes of grinding performed after tools have been sharpened on the grindstone. By means of hones of fine grit a keener edge may be produced. Hones or oilstones are usually of some slaty stone. They are obtained from the varieties of metamorphic schists, which are sufficiently compact, and in which the particles of quartz are extremely minute and regularly disseminated, thereby giving them a fine and uniform texture. This texture, and also the hardness of the stone, differs considerably in the various kinds employed. A good stone is often thrown away as worthless when the trouble is that it is merely oil-soaked. If 96 TIIR MECHANICS WORKSHOP HANDYBOOk". lliis is tlie case, lay it in benzine to soak from one to three days, until the old oil is eaten out ; then on using it to polish again, with fresh oil, it will be found as good as new. Instead of oil, which thickens and makes the stones dirty, a mixture of glycerine and alcohol is used by many. The proportions of the mixture vary according to the instrument operated upon. An article with a large surface — a razor, for instance, sharpens best with a limpid liquid, as three parts of glycerine to one of alcohol. For a graving tool, which is very small, employ glycerine almost pure, with but two or three drops of alcohol. Turkey oilstones, which are obtained from the interior of Asia Minor, are in very general use for imparting a fine edge to every kind of edge tool used by workers in both wood and metal. This stone is of very fine grain. As a whetstone it surpasses every other known substance, and possesses, in an eminent degree, the property of abrading the hardest steel. It is, at the same time, of so compact and close a nature as to resist the pressure necessary for sharpening a graver or other small instrument of that description. Little more is known of its natural history than that it is found in the in- terior of Asia Minor, and brought down to Smyrna for sale. The white and black varieties of Turkey oilstone differ but little in their general characters. The black is somewhat harder, and is imported in larger pieces than the white. It is often cracked and flawed, and for this reason is generally cemented to a slab of slate, or sometimes embedded in wood. Sir Thomas Gresham paved the old Royal Exchange with Turkey stone. In the catalogue of a large Sheffield firm it is now priced at fifteen pence a pound. Arkansas stone, imported from North America, is perhaps the finest variety of oilstone to be found in the market ; its high price — about five shillings a pound — being the chief bar ARA'ANSAS AXD WASHITA STONES 97 to its general introduction. It is a fine white stone, com- posed of upwards of 99*5 per cent, of silica, rather brittle, and having an excellent bite. Stones of this kind, and other ex- pensive varieties, are used as thin slabs, mounted on a back- ing of inferior value. Also as small slips sometimes, about the size of a goose-quill. Ouachita (or Washita) stone somewhat resembles the last- named, but is of a coarser grain. The price is about eighteenpence to two shillings a pound. It is quarried in blocks of from two to four feet square, often of irregular shape, which are then split and shaped into oblong slabs. This stone comes from the same quarries as the preceding variety. A cheap and excellent stone for general purposes is called Nova Scotia oilstone, and nearly resembles the Washita or Ouachita stone already spoken of, the price being about one- third. Norway ragstones are adapted for rapid grinding, they being the coarsest variety of hone slates. Scotland and Russia also furnish ragstones, which are merely highly silicious tough portions of mica schist, obtained from the metamorphic or crystallised schists. Snakestone and water-of-Ayr stone are used principally with water, and are of a decidedly slaty nature. A hone now widely known as the Tam O' Shanter, and manufactured by Mr. Montgomerie, of Dalmore, Ayrshire, is obtainable at most tool dealers'. These stones hxve stood the test of years, and are highly approved by practical men. The Tam O' Shanter hone is made in several grades of grit. All the stones previously spoken of may be used dry or lubricated with oil or water. Amongst other varieties of stone possessing useful qualities may be named Charnwood Forest stone, quarried in Leicester- H 9S THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOIC. shire, and forming a strong, useful hone; Welsh slate, a tough, fine-grained slate of rather unequal texture; Hindostan stone appears to be not so well known in commercial circles, though it is an excellent stone, and sells at a moderate price ; German razor hones, imported from the slate mountains in the neighbourhood of Ratisbon, on the left bank of the Rhine, sometimes cut in thin slabs, which are cemented to slate, though sometimes the combination is natural. Used dry the hone soon becomes filled with particles of the abraded metal, and ceases to cut satisfactorily. Water will to an extent obviate this, and it has the advantage of cleanliness and costlessness. Oil gives a finer cut, and has almost universally superseded water in every trade. The edge produced is finer, and the liability to rust is removed. The hone used for tool grinding, whatever may be its kind, should be of perfectly even texture. Hard and soft places will be a source of continual annoyance, and will tend much to mar the success of the operation. In any case, oilstones will wear irregularly, and it is necessary to occasionally re-grind them flat. Wide chisels, plane irons, and such tools cannot be ground on a rugged stone, and in every case a flat surface will produd?e the best results. There are several ways of levelling a stone. It should first be wiped dry, and be as free from oil as possible. The grinding may be done with sand on a flat stone slab, or on a sheet of coarse emery paper laid on a flat board. It is sometimes convenient to grind the oilstone against the side of the ordinary shop grindstone. This, or any of the methods here given, will be found effective. The keen edge which is to be produced by means of the oil- stone can only be ensured on a tool which has been previously properly ground on a grindstone. The bevel produced by nONES. 9g that means has simply to be ground on the oilstone at its extreme end, so that a much smaller facet, at a slightly greater angle, is made on the bevel. There is considerable art in the manipulation of tools on the oilstone to produce the desired result. The wire edge left from the grindstone has to be reduced, by grinding, till it finally breaks off; then a few more strokes of the tool on the stone will make the edge perfect. The flat side of the tool, forming the edge opposed to the bevel, is generally gently applied to the oilstone to remove any trace of a wire edge on that side. The process of sharpening a chisel on the oilstone will serve as a guide to the method pursued for many other tools. The stone, which has been wiped quite clean, and having a flat surface, is laid upon the bench with one end toward the operator, and a few drops of olive oil are placed upon it. The chisel, held by the handle with the right hand, and steadied with the fingers of the left grasping its blade, is placed on the stone, bevel downwards, somewhat slanting towards the breast. A few strokes, taken the entire length of the stone, will distribute the oil upon it evenly, and also enable the operator to notice the correct angle at which to hold the tool whilst sharpening. The motion given to the chisel must be parallel to the top of the stone, and this is somewhat difficult for an unpractised hand. The hands have a tendency to place the chisel more upright at the further end of the stroke, and to depress the handle as it is drawn nearer to the breast. If a wide chisel is placed on the stone with its blade edge- ways towards the operator, and in that position worked back and to by the hands, as though sharpening, the faculty of moving parallel to the stone will be rapidly acquired. This done, a straight flat facet may be ground on any tool, no matter how thin its edge may be. It is frequently conducive 100 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP IIANDYBOOK. to producing a good edge if the tool be moved on the stone ill small circles, the position and size of which are continually varied. The small bevel made on the oilstone should be equally as flat as the large one. A rounding facet is not only indicative of bad workmanship on the part of the sharpener, but also has a detrimental effect on the cutting powers of the tool. In many of the smaller tools used in the mechanical arts it is highly advantageous to have duplicate cutting edges precisely alike in every respect. In some tools this is essential, and in a few it is necessary to re-grind them, so that the new cutting edge is precisely like the former one. Various forms of fancy drills and cutters used for ornamental purposes, also those used for producing the barleycorn engine-turned pattern on the backs of watch cases, maybe cited as examples of these latter tools. An apparatus is specially designed for this purpose. It is called a goniometer. The same name is applied to an instrument used for measuring the solid angles of crystals, etc., but the goniometer used in tool grinding consists of a receptacle in which the tool to be operated upon may be fixed. This receptacle is jointed to a frame in a manner that it may be swung over on either side, and also slanted backwards as much as required, the amount of each motion being duly registered on graduated arcs. The instrument rests upon two legs, and when in use the point of the tool fixed in it forms a third, so that each is always in contact with a flat surface, the tool resting on the face of a hone, the two legs on a surface level with it, but not abrasive. The entire goniometer is then moved in a circular direction, rubbing the surface, and by this means the point of the tool is ground perfectly flat. Whilst the legs are kept upon the surface it would be impossible to grind otherwise than flat. When an angular-pointed tool is COXIOMETER. 101 ground by the aid of this tool one angle is first operated upon, then the tool receptacle is swung over to a position exactly corresponding on the other side, and thus the second angle is made precisely similar to the first. Tools of similar construc- tion are used for many analogous purposes. Watchmakers use them to hold various steel pieces whilst polishing, so that they may be perfectly flat. Inexperienced hands, or those who from some cause fail to produce a level facet on the end of a graver, frequently improvise a rough form of goniometer, using a block of wood split to the right angle required, to which the graver is fixed with a simple metal clip held with a wood screw. Such a makeshift contrivance may be made in a few minutes, and its use will for ever remedy the unworkman- like rounding faced tools now sometimes seen. A plane iron may be judiciously set finally for accurate work by wedging it in such a position that it projects some- what less than an eighth of an inch from the sole of the plane stock, and then carefully oilstoning the edge with the end of the stone resting on the wood. It is advisable to cover this latter with a sheet of paper, or to take some other precaution to pre- vent the oil and dirt usually found on an oilstone soiling the plane and subsequently the work. There are special forms of grinders used for sharpening moulding tools, and others of peculiar, irregular, and special forms, which are not more conveniently ground from the top Hollow beading tools used to shape a half-round moulding— sometimes in a plane stock, at others in a handle used as a turning tool— are ground on a conical grinder, the diameter of which corresponds with the radius of the hollow, the amount of taper being sufficient to give the necessary clear- ance to the cutting edge. These grinders are usually made ot metal— lead, iron, brass and others being employed. The cutting material is applied together with the oil, and adheres 102 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP ttAl^byBOdC. to the grinder, into which it is subsequently embedded by the tool laid upon it. Thus far a general insight into the method of grinding small edge tools has been given, and the subject is an important one to all who use edge tools. It has been truly said that a well-sharpened tool is not only typical of good workmen, but also goes a long way towards producing good work. The ultimate result of tool-grinding is to produce a sharp cutting edge, and this will be fine according to the fineness of the stone on which the tool is ground. Rough grinding is suited to heavy edge tools, and light edge tools require finer abradents. All grinding, however fine, leaves a serrated edge, which will correspond with the texture of the stone on which the grinding was done. As a coarse-toothed rip saw is unsuited to cut hard wood across the grain, so will a coarsely- ground edge tool be misapplied on fine work. To sharpen a meat-axe on a fine oilstone would be labour wasted, whilst to use a razor which has not the keenest edge possible would be labour in vain. The art of tool-grinding depends much for its success on the judicious selection of the grindstones or hones employed, so that the edge produced may be suited to the purpose to which it is to be applied. No mechanical operation can appear to be more simple than that of grinding a tool to a cutting edge, and very few persons have any idea of the large amount of knowledge as well as skill that may be displayed in simply sharpening a tool. To give a tool a suitable cutting edge, one must under- stand the nature of the material to be cut, and must have had some experience in cutting it, so as to know what varia- tion to make in the tool to suit the variations in texture, closeness of grain, hardness, etc. The axe, sword, chisel, knife, and needle, each require whetting to suit their special purpose. OhjRCT OF TOOL GRIl^DlNd. i63 in a succeeding chapter, information will be furnished on the various abrasive and finishing processes with which the worker in metal needs to be acquainted ; and much that has been said in the present chapter in relation to the grinding of tools will be found of useful application in dealing with the material and appliances which are involved in those pro- cesses. CHAPTER VIII. DRILLS AND DRILLING. URTNG the last thirty years many attempts have been made to introduce a better system of drills and drill- ing, and on this subject very much might be written. Mr. Ford Smith, the Manchester engineer, read an interesting paper on the subject before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. That paper contains numerous practical details of actual work, which, together with the remarks elicited ift the discussion which followed, are mostly incorporated with this chapter. Many engineers have used square bar-steel, which the blacksmith has twisted and then flattened at one end to form a drill. The object of the twisted stem was to screw the cut- tings out of the hole ; and to some extent this succeeded, but not perfectly. The twisted square section revolving in the round hole had a tendency to crush or grind up the cuttings ; and if they were once reduced to powder, it was difficult (especially in drilling vertically) for the drill to lift the pow- dered metal out of the hole. In most cases, the lips of these drills were of such form that the cutting angle or face of each lip, which ought to have been about 60°, was 90°, or even still more obtuse ; this being an angle which would scrape only, and could hardly be expected to cut sweetly or rapidly. Again, there were attempts to make the cutting angles of the two hps of much the same number of degrees as that given by the twist itself in a good twist drill. This was done by forging or filing a semicircular or curved groove on the FLA T DRILLS. I05 lower face of each lip. For a short lime, lips thus formed cut fairly well, but a very small amount of re-grinding soon put them out of shape and made them of such obtuse cutting angles that good results could no longer be expected from them ; and to be constantly sending such drills to the smith, and then to the fitter, to file into form again before they were re-hardened, was found to be too tedious and too expensive. Again, to arrive at the best results in drilling, each of the cutting lips should make the same angle with a central line taken through the body of the drill ; in other words, the angles should each have exactly the same number of degree?, say 60°. The clearance angles also should be identical, and the leading point should form the exact centre point of the drill. From practice, it is found that if these proportions are not correct, the drill cannot pierce the metal it is drilling at more than about half the proper speed, and the hole produced will also be larger than the drill itself, as will be exemplified a little later on. For some purposes, the flat drill— if properly made, with the same care and precision as were expended in makmg twist drills— may be superior. Hitherto, one of the great advantages of the twist drill had been that so much care and pains had been expended in making it ; but using flat drills, and taking the same amount of care to ensure the sides being p irallel and the angles cut even, and also pointing the edge truly, so as to do away with the blunt nose, the drill would work freely, and the shavings come off" as from the twist drill. Such work can be done by a flat drill, which was machined all over and finished with great care, thus costing probably quite as much as a twist drill could be purchased for. All parts of the drill were made true and concentric ; and it would therefore be practicable to grind the cutting lips by machine so accurately, and to flute the cutting angles of to5 THE MECHAmc'S WORKSHOP HaNDVBOOI^. the lips so accurately, as to produce excellent cutting results for the short space of time the two flutes would keep in order. But when the drill was worn, say half an inch shorter, the proper angles for cutting would be found no longer existing ; and to restore them, a quarter of an inch of the length ol the drill would have to be ground to waste, before two new flutes could be again ground into the lips, so as to restore the proper cutting angles. Ov, vrorse still, where the flutes could not be ground in mechanically, the drill would have to be heated to soften it. Immediately this was resorted to, the finished accuracy of the drill was more or less destroyed ; whereas in a good twist drill, used with care and re-ground mechanically, the cutting angles remained the same, however short the drill might be ground. This, coupled with the fact that the wear took place only at the end of the drill, and that the drill was hardened its whole length, produced the result that softening never had to be resorted to ; the grinding or shortening of the drill was exceedingly slow ; and there being no waste or expense in repairs, the cost of the twist drill, spread over its lifetime, was exceedingly small. A flat drill, used in drilling through cast steel, about 1 1 in. deep, would bring shavings out, on either side of the drill, from I o to 12 in. long, or even more ; and a twist drill would not do much more than accomplish that. There was this dif- ference between the plain drill and the twist -drill, that in forming the latter, a great quantity of material was sacrificed in cutting out the groove, and it was a more expensive tool to get up, In the flat drill there was little waste of material, and it could be drawn down when it got too short ; whereas, when a twist drill got too short, it became valueless. In going through bad castings, no doubt the twist drill would make a straighter hole. Many trials have been made from time to time with \m. Flat DRILLS. drills of ordinary form manufactured by different engineers who had wished to see the effect of working a common flat drill against a twist drill. The result has been that if a feed were put on the common drill, approaching that used for the same size of twist drill, the former was invariably fractured, while the twist drill escaped fracture. The feed used was often so heavy that the spindle of the drilling machine could be observed visibly descending. Drilling machines originally provided with self-acting feeds, as coarse as could safely be applied for feeding forward the common drill, had been found to accomplish so much more work with the twist drill in a given time ; all the feeds having been increased by about 90 per cent. A common drill may " run," as it is usually termed, and so produce a hole which is anything but straight. This means that the point of the drill will run away from the denser parts of the metal it is cutting, and penetrate into the opposite side, which is soft or spongy. This is especially the case in cast" ings, where, for instance, a boss may be quite sound on the one side, while on the other a mass of metal may be full of blow-holes, or so drawn away by contraction in cooling as to be very soft and porous. In such cases it is not possible to prevent a common drill from running into the soft side. This sort of imperfect hole is most trying to the fitter or erector, and if it has to be tapped to receive a screwed bolt or stud, is most destructive to steel taps. The taps are very liable to be broken, and an immense loss of time may also take place in attempting to tap the hole square with the planed face. A twist drill, from its construction, is bound to penetrate trul)', and to produce holes which are as perfect as it is possible to make them. The difficulty of boring with a large drill which had a thick point was by many engineers overcom.e by first drilling a small io8 THE MECHANICS WORKSHOP HAND YBOOtC. leading hole, and afterwards opening it out to the required size by using a large diill, the point of which, entering into the small hole, had no cutting to perform. There were two objections to that plan ; the first being that the point of the larger drill, not having any metal before it to support or steady it, was free to run eccentrically, oscillate transversely, and revolve with a series of jerks, thus producing a badly-finished hole, which, upon examination, would be found to be much jarred, and anything but round. The second objection was, that it was too tedious and expensive to drill a small leading hole first, as a considerable amount of time would be occupied in changing the speed of the drilling machine from the slew speed, which had last been used for the larger drill, to a speed quick enough for drilling advantageously the smaller or leading hole. The change of speed entailed the altering of the strap on the cones of the drilling machine, and in many cases the disengaging and again engaging of the double gearing of the machine. Both these objections were surmounted by using a twist drill. If preferred, its point might be thinned down, in a grinding machine with small emery-wheel, to any degree of thinness which might be found best for penetrating without fracturing ; this was a simple mode of reducing the blunt end between the two grooves to any extent. By this system the point only needed to be thinned after about every sixth time the lips were re-ground ; of course, each re-grinding of the lips gradually caused the point to become thicker, until it was found advisable to reduce it again by grinding. With this system very heavy feeds might be employed, and a twist drill 2in. diameter had drilled one inch deep in wrought iron for every 62 revolutions ; such a feed, however, may be considered too heavy for every-day practice, and a feed of 100 revolutions per inch for drills over |in. diameter may be preferred. FLA T DRILLS. lo^ Flat drills should always be made thick at the shoulders of the drill and coming to a thin edge at the point. Drids used for the last twenty years had been made to that shape ; and then there was very little of that forcing the point into the metal. A difficulty in twist drills was that there was in these drills no means of reducing the blunt point between the two grooves, which did not cut at all> but merely squeezed itself into the metal. There must be proportionately much more work concentrated on that little spot than on all the rest of the metal being drilled. It was of more importance in small drills than in large ones; because that blunt point in the smaller drills bore a much larger proportion to the whole area. There was part of an ordinary flat drill, close to the point, which did not cut at all. If it was looked at from below, there was an oblique line forming the connection of the two ground edges of the drill. That line was not cutting ; it merely ran round and rubbed ; and that was the part which required all the force on the top of the drill to drive it into the metal. However much the cutting angle of the drill might be improved at the edges, that would not improve the connecting line ; hence, in any material, if you had a small core-hole to start with, you could employ at once a feed four times as rapid as you could employ when drilling through a solid piece. However quickly the drill was rotated, it did not give too high a cutting speed at the point ; it was too near the centre for that. It was not for the sake of the cutting edges, even if they were not particu- larly good, that you needed so low a rate of downward feed as one hundred cuts to the inch ; but it was for the sake of pre- serving the point and giving it time to force itself into the metal, that you were obliged to employ fine feeds. The drills revolve with a circumferential speed of about 20ft. per minute, and about 100 revolutions to the inch, of downward traverse— or 200 revolutions to the inch of downward traverse, and cutting i:o THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. speed of 40ft. per minute, in cases where water could be used. A new drilling machine, recently made, for dealing with the couplings of propellers, in which the bolt holes were to be drilled out of the solid, each at one operation, showed cuttings which came from a flat drill, 3in. diameter at the rate of -Jg in. of feed per revolution, and they were equal to anything that would come from a twist-drill. No doubt one advantage of the twist-drill was the maintenance of shape and size ; but the readiness with which the workman could deal with a flat drill would keep it always in the workshop. Ordinary flat drills should have their cutting ends shaped so that the cutting edges form an angle of from 90° to 120°. The blade of the drill should be about one fifth of its diameter at that part where it is widest, and the point should be thinner down to about one-eighth. The thinner the point the easier will the drill enter. These proportions hold good for drills of about |in. diameter. About a quarter of a century ago both the late Sir Joseph Whitworth and the late Mr. Greenwood, of Leeds, made some twist drills ; but it is to be presumed that a large amount of success was not achieved with them, as for some reason the system was not persevered with. After that period the Man- hattan Firearms Company, in America, produced some beauti- fully-finished twist drills. Though the workmanship in these was of a superior description, the drills would not endure hard- ship. It was found that the two lips were too keen in their cutting angles, and that they were too apt to drag themselves into the metal they were cutting, finally to dig in and to jam fast, and to twist themselves into fragments. Mr. Morse then took the matter up, and by diminishing by about 50 per cent, the keenness of the cutting lips of twist drills, made a great success of them. He used the grinding line, and an increasing TWIST DRILLS. m twist. In such a drill of the standard length, and before it is worn shorter by grinding, the twist is so rapid towards the lips that the angle they present, or what has been already referred to as the angle of the cutting surface, is very nearly the same as that which had been previously estabHshed for cutters' cutting metals. If the angle of twist is made to increase towards the lips, it will decrease towards the shank. The shorter the drill is worn the more obtuse the cutting angle becomes, and the less free- dom will it have, supposing, of course, that the angle, when the drill was new, was the most efficient. Suppose this decrease of twist were carried still further by lengthening the drill, a cutting angle of 90° would eventually be arrived at. The old common style of drill usually has a cutting edge which is so obtuse as not to cut the metal sweetly, but to have more of a tearing action, and thus put so much torsional strain on the drill that fracture is almost certain to take place, even if what would now be considered a moderate feed was put on by the drilling machine. It is therefore obviously advantageous to adopt from the first the best cutting angle for all twist drills, and to preserve this same angle through the whole length of the twisted part, so that, however short the drill may be worn, it always presents the same angle, and that the most efficient which can be obtained. This cutting angle is easy to fix, and becomes an unalterable standard which will give the best attainable results. The next important step in twist drills has been to fix a standard shape and angle of clearance for both lips, which should also give the best attainable result. This angle might be tampered with if the re-grinding were done by hand, and too much or too little clearance might easily be imparted to the drill from want of sufficient knowledge on the part of 1 1 2 THE MECHANIC 'S WOI?KSHOP HAND YBOOK. the workman. If too little clearance, or in some cases none at all, is given to the drill, the cutting lips then cannot reach the metal ; consequently they cannot cut. The self-acting feed of the drilling machine keeps crowding on the feed until either the machine or the drill, usually the latter, gives way. Again, if too much clearance is given, the keen edges of the lips dig into the metal and embed themselves there, and of course break off. The grinding line was introduced in the States to' assist the operator in keeping both lips of the drill identically the same. To arrive at this, however, is more than can be accomplished by hand-grinding, as not less than three points have to be carefully watched, viz. : ist. That both lips are exactly the same length. 2nd. That both have the same clearance angles. 3rd. That both make the same angle with the centre line on the body of the drill. If these are not attended to, the drill lips may, for instance, be both ground so as to converge exactly to the grinding lines at the point or centre ofthe drill, and may still be of such different lengths and angles as to produce very bad results in drilling. To give an idea of the extreme accuracy which must be im- parted to a twist drill, we must bear in mind that even a good feed is only y^oi"- each revolution ; and as two lips are era- ployed to remove this thickness of metal, each lip has only half that quantity to cut, or 2-^0^^- This is as much as can be taken in practice by each lip in drills of ordinary sizes. It will, therefore, be readily understood that if one lip of a drill stands before the other to the extent of x^o^"- o^^y> prominent lip, or portion of a lip, will have to remove the whole thickness of the metal from the hole at each turn. The lip of a drill will not stand such treatment ; and it is, therefore, obvious that if this were attempted, the prominent lip would either break or become rapidly blunted. To get over these difficulties, the driller would no doubt reduce his feed by one- DRILL GRINDING MACHINE. 113 half, or to ^ J oin. per turn, which would mean about half the number of holes drilled in a given time. This nice accuracy, although absolutely required, cannot be produced by hand- grinding ; neither can a common drill, having a rough black stem more or less eccentric, be ground accurately, even by aid of a grinding machine with mechanism for holding it. To grind any drill accurately, it must be concentric and perfectly true throughout with the shank, as that part has to be held by the drill-grinding machine. If the drilling is to be done in the most rapid manner— in other words, at the smallest cost— and if the best class of work is also desired, it seems certain that a twist drill, with all the accuracy which can possibly be imparted to it in its manufacture, and the greatest care employed in the re-sharpening, is the only instrument that can be employed. Much ingenuity has been expended on machines for the grinding of the two lips with mechanical accuracy. The one which has been the most successful in the United States has three motions, ingeniously combined with each other. So many motions, however, entail complication, and this, added to a system of holding the drill which was not sufficiently reliable, failed to produce the extreme accuracy it is requisite to impart to the two angles. The grinding line, too, is found to be more or less a source of weakness. It is, therefore, advisable to dis- pense with it, if possible ; and where a good twist drill grinding machine is used, the grinding line is seldom or never looked at, and in that case is useless. If it is still desirable to have grinding lines (as in some cases where hand-grinding has to be relied upon), they should be made as faint as possible, and not cut deeply into the thin central part of the drill, so as to weaken it. A simple and efficient twist drill grinding machine has been designed within the last four years. The twist drill in this machine has only one motion imparted to it to produce the I 114 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK". two lips of each drill as perfect facsimiles of each other, and with the desired amount of clearance. Many of these machines are now at work. That the drills ground by them are accurate is proved by the holes drilled being so nearly the size of the twist drill itself that in many cases the drill will not afterwards drop vertically through the drilled hole by its own gravity— in other words, the hole is no larger than the drill which has drilled it. This is the most severe test that can be made of the accuracy of re -grinding, and of the uniformity of all parts of the twist drill. The whole of the drilling in many establishments is now done entirely by twist drills. Since their introduction it is found that the self-acting feed can be increased about 90 per cent. ; and in some engineering works the feeds in some machines have been increased by fully 200 per cent., and, consequently, three holes are now being drilled in the same time that one was originally drilled with the old style of drill and with old machines. It may be interesting to give a few results out of numerous tests and experiments made withthetwist drills. Many thousands of holes |in. in diameter and 2|in. deep have been drilled, by improved |in. twist drills, at so high a rate of feed that the spindle of the drilling machine could be seen visibly descending and driving the drill before it. The time occupied from the starting of each hole, in a hammered scrap-iron bar, till the drill pierced through it, varied from I minute 20 seconds to i| minutes. The holes drilled were perfectly straight. The speed at which the drill was cutting was nearly 20ft. per minute at its periphery, and the feed was 100 revolutions per inch of depth drilled. The drill was lubricated with soap and water, and went clean through the 2fin. without being withdrawn ; and after it had drilled each hole it felt quite cool to the hand, its temperature being about 75°. It is found that 120 to 130 such holes can DRILLING SAfALL HOLES. 115 be drilled before it is advisable to re-sharpen the twist drill. This ought to be done immediately the drill exhibits the slightest sign of distress. If carefully examined, after this number of holes has been drilled, the proininent cutting parts of the lips which have removed the metal will be found very slightly blunted or rounded, to the extent of about of an inch; and on this length being carefully ground by the machine off the end of the twist drill, the lips are brought up to perfecdy sharp cutting edges again. The same-sized holes, \m. diameter and sfin. deep, ha^e been drilled through the same hammered scrap-iron at the ex- traordinary speed of 2fin. deep in one minute and five seconds, the number of revolutions per inch being 75. An average number of 70 holes can be drilled in this case before the drill requires re-sharpening. The writer considers this test to be rather too severe, and prefers the former speed. The drills in each case were driven by a true-running drilling-machine spindle, having a round taper hole, which also was perfectly true ; and the taper shank and body, or twisted part of the drills, also ran perfectly concentric when placed in the spindle, or in a reducer, or socket having a taper end to fit the spindle. When the drills run without any eccentricity, there is no pressure, and next to no friction, on the sides of the flutes, the whole of the pressure and work being taken on the ends of the drills. Consequently, they are not found to wear smaller in diameter at the lip end, and they retain their sizes, with careful usage, in a wonderful manner. The drills used were carefully sharpened in one of the twist drill grinders mentioned above. Upwards of 3,000 holes were drilled, fin. diameter, and fin. deep, through steel bars by one drill without re-grinding it. The cutting speed was in this instance too great for cutting steel, being about i8ft. to 20ft. per minute ; and the result is extraordinary. Many thousands of holes Ii6 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. were drilled, |in. diameter, through cast iron y^gin. deep, with straight-shanked twist drill gripped by a chuck in the end of the spindle by a quick-speed drilling machine. The time occupied for each hole was from nine to ten seconds only. Again, ^m. holes have been drilled through wrought copper, J fin. thick, at the speed of one hole in ten seconds. With special twist drills, made for piercing hard Bessemer steel rail, holes, \l\n. deep and |fin. diameter, have been drilled at the rate of one hole in one minute and twenty seconds, in an ordinary drilling machine. Had the machine been stiffer and more powerful, better results could have been obtained. A similar twist drill, ffin. in diameter, drilled a hard steel rail l^in. deep in one minute, and another in one minute ten seconds. Another drill, |in. diameter, drilled fin. deep in 38 seconds, the cutting speed being 22ft. per minute. This speed of cutting rather distressed the drill; a speed of i6ft. per minute would be better. The steel rail was specially selected as being one of the hardest of the lot. Small drills, such as are used by watchmakers, are generally made by filing the round steel wire slightly tapering, and then spreading the small end with a single blow from a tolerably heavy hammer. Using a light hammer, and effecting the spreading by a series of gentle taps, will effectually spoil the steel. There is no occasion to anneal the steel for hammer- ing, providing it is moderately soft. For all drills up to one- eighth of an inch diameter, the steel should not be forged, as the bulk of the metal is too small to heat any predetermined temperature with any degree of certainty. Very small drills can be made from good sewing-needles, which are of con- venient form to be readily converted into a drill. Firstly, the needle must be made suf?iciently soft for working by heating till it assumes a deep blue colour. The extreme end may be made quite soft, and filed, slightly tapering to a trifle less than SHARPENING SMALL DRILLS. 117 the size of the hole to be drilled. The point is now spread out by a sharp blow of a hammer — not by a series of gentle taps, which would cause the metal to crack — and filed up to shape, the point being made more blunt than would be used for drilling ordinary metal. For drilling tempered steel, the cutting angles must also be much less than usual. The thick- ness of the drill across the flattened part should be about a third the diametrical measurement. Finish up the end on a strip of Arkansas stone, a file being too coarse for such small work. It is the great difficulty of getting such a very small piece of steel to an exact predetermined degree of temperature — hot enough to harden, but not so hot that it is burned — ■ which makes the manufacture of these small tools uncertain ; and this is abundantly proved by the fact that of half-a-dozen drills made from the same wire, thereby assuring uniformity of quality in the material, it often happens that some are exceed- ingly good and others of no use whatever, the difference being caused by the manipulation during hardening. This does not apply to drills or other steel things which are of sufficient size to show, by the colour of their surface, how hot they are ; but it is the tiny pieces which by the contact with the flame are immediately rendered white hot that are difficult to manage. By heating the drill and plunging it into the body of a tallow candle, the hardening will be effected, but the steel will not be rendered so hard that it crumbles away under pressure in use. Thus, in one operation, the drill will be hardened and tempered. Instead of tallow, white wax, sealing wax, and such like materials, are adapted to the purpose. There is another method which finds favour with some : it is to envelop the thin point of the drill in a metal casing, and so get a bulk of metal which can be heated to a nicety, the drill inside being, of course, raised to the same temperature as the surrounding metal. The whole is then plunged into oil or water, Siill, ii8 THE MECHANIC'S WOkKSHOP HANDYBOOII there is the difficulty of tempering to overcome, though the danger of burning is avoided: burnt steel is of no use for tools. The best plan is to exercise the greatest possible care not to over-heat the drill, and harden and temper in one operation by plunging into tallow. Table of Speeds for Twist Drills. .Diam. of Drills. Inch, Revolutions per Minute Diam. of Drills. Inch. R evolutions per Minute. For Steel. For Iron. For Brass. For Steel. For Iron. For Brass. 940 1280 1560 54 75 95 460 660 785 52 70 90 A 310 420 540 Its 49 G6 85 I 230 320 400 46 62 80 A 190 260 320 I Ti- 44 60 75 a 8 150 220 260 ll 42 58 72 A 130 185 230 i,V 40 56 69 \ "5 160 200 39 54 66 A 100 140 180 iTff 37 .51 63 f 95 130 160 ^ H 36 49 60 85 115 145 34 47 58 f 75 I •35 130 38 45 56 \l 70 100 120 l\% 32 43 54 I 65 90 115 ll 31 41 52 \l 62 83 no III 30 40 51 I 58 80 100 2 29 39 49 Experience in the use of both twist and flat drills in boring holes of various sizes in different kinds of metals has proved the most advantageous velocities that their surfaces can be run— considering the durability of the drills, the amount of work they can do in a given time, and the cost of labour ex- pended in running them while boring holes in metals — to be as follows: — On steel, 15ft. per minute, when in the con- dition usually worked ; wrought, malleable and cast iron, 20 ft. per minute, when in their usual working conditions ; brass and kindred metals, 25 ft. per minute. The preceding table shows the diameters of twist drills, as usually made Sr^JSDS POR TiVlsT DRILLS. ii9 aiid sold in the markets, from of an inch upwards; also the number of turns per minute each size has to be run to have its periphery run on the scale of velocities per minute mentioned above, when boring holes in steel, iron and brass. The Morse Twist Drill and Machine Company publish the foregoing table, showing the number of revolutions per minute for drills from in. to 2 in. diameter, applied to steel, iron and brass respectively, in the usual way. To drill i in. deep in soft cast iron will usually require : For \ in. drill, 125 revo- lutions ; for I in. drill, 120 revolutions ; for f in. drill, icq revolutions ; for i in. drill, 95 revolutions. CHAPTER IX. ABRASIVE AND FINISHING PROCESSES, jBRASIVE processes range from coarse grinding for the 1 purpose of shaping the metal to fine polishing, which produces finish on the surface. Grinding, as practised in the production of edged tools, forms the subject of a previous chapter, which may be read with the present one. The whole process of polishing consists merely of substi- tuting finer scratches for those which are coarse, and so continuing till the desired finish is attained ; but even then the surface, if examined with a magnifying glass, will appear full of scratches. It is evident that great care must be taken to have the polishing materials uniformly fine, for even one or two grains of a coarser grit will produce ugly scratches instead of a perfectly uniform surface. Glaze wheels covered with leather and dressed with Tripoli powder, rotten-stone, oxide of tin or putty powder, crocus and rouge, or some other polishing material, are used to produce highly-polished surfaces. Emery-wheels are now manufactured in large quantities and retailed by shopkeepers throughout the kingdom. Grains of emery are consolidated into wheels of all sizes and forms, and a simple simile of their use is that the emery-wheel is to the file what the circular-saw is to the hand-saw. It is a rotary file whose cutting-points never grow dull. Emery-wheels used as files win, in one minute, do work equivalent to that produced by file-strokes a mile long. In other words the emery-wheel will do in one minute work that would employ a filer over one EMER Y AND OILSTONE. 121 hour. Emery-cloth is also largely used for grinding purposes, and, stretched over a flat surface, it will finish a surface better than a file. The Grecian and Turkish emery is shipped in blocks of various size, from i5olbs. in weight down to pieces the size of an egg. In its preparation, the blocks are broken up under hammers, until of a proper size to be placed in rock-crushers, which reduce the emery to fragments as small as walnuts. These are placed under stampers, rollers, and crushing machines until the whole is reduced to the required fineness. It is then conveyed to the sifting machines to separate the various grades of grain. The meshes of wire (or lawn for the finer) used for obtaining the various grades vary from sixty to many thousand holes to the square inch. The grades have sizes and numbers corresponding respectively to the number of meshes in a lineal inch of bolting cloth. The very fine emery is suspended in water, and then assorted by precipita- tion. The finest floats in the atmosphere of the stamping room, and is deposited on the beams and shelves, from which it is occasionally collected. Fragments of oilstone, when pulverised, sifted and washed, are much in request by mechanicians. This abrasive is generally preferred for grinding together those fittings of mathematical instruments and machinery which are made wholly or in part of brass or gun-metal ; for oilstone, being softer and more pulverulent than emery, is less liable to become embedded in the metal than the latter, which is then apt continually to grind and ultimately damage the accuracy of the fittings of brass works. In modern practice it is usual, however, as far as possible, to discard the grinding together of surfaces, with the view of producing accuracy of form or precision of contact. Oilstone powder is preferred to pumice stone powder for polishing superior brass work, t2± tse %tncHAmc's workshop hamdyboor. and it is also used by the watchmakers on rubbers of pewter in polishing steel. Pumice stone is a volcanic product, and is obtained principally from one of the Lipari islands, which is composed entirely of this substance. It is extensively employed in various branches of the arts, and particularly in the state of powder, for polishing the various articles of cut glass ; it is also extensively used in dressing leather, and in grinding and pohshing the surface of metallic plates, etc. Pumice stone is ground or crushed under a runner, and sifted, and in this state it is used for brass and other metal works ; and also for japanned, varnished, and painted goods, for w^hich latter purposes it is generally applied on woollen cloths with water. Nothing is more necessary to the successful use of polish- ing powder than equality in the grain. Fine dust clogs the action of coarse grinding powders, and prevents them from rapidly cutting the object to be ground ; coarse particles mixed uith fine polishing powder scratch the article and render the repetition of grinding and polishing necessary. To secure fineness and uniformity, no process equals that of elutriation, which is thus performed : — Suppose it were desired to separate the ordinary flour emery into three different degrees of fine- ness. Take three vessels, such as pails or jars, and mix the emery with a large quantity of water — say, one quart of water to i|oz. of emery. Stir the mixture until the emery is thoroughly diffused through the liquid, and allow it to stand five minutes. By this time all the heavier particles will have settled, and on pouring the fluid into a second jar only the finer portion will be carried over. So continue to wash the first residuum until nearly all the particles have subsided at the end of five minutes, and the water is left comparatively clear. You will now have the coarse portion (No. r) by itself. So from the sediment collection from washings of No. i you Poirsmm POWDERS. 123 may collect a portion (No. 2) having a second degree of coarseness. The last and finest will be obtained by letting the final washings stand ten or fifteen minutes, pouring off the liquid, and allowing it to settle. Slips of wood called buff sticks, covered with buff leather, are used in numerous polishing processes, some abrasive material being spread on them suited to the work in hand. The principal polishing powders are chalk or whiting, crocus or rouge, emery, oilstone powder, and putty, which latter consists chiefly of oxide of tin. Other powders, such as Tripoli, bathbrick, sand, etc., are rarely used for the finer kinds of work. Commercial whiting contains particles of silica of varying size, which cut freely, but are apt to scratch. Pure whiting, which is easily got by careful elutriation, has very poor cutting qualities, and is therefore used chiefly as plate powder for cleaning gold, silver, glass, etc., and for absorbing grease from metals which have been polished by other means. Chalk is usually prepared specially for polishing. The chalk is thoroughly pulverised and mixed with clear rain-water in the proportion of two pounds to the gallon. Stir well and let it stand about two minutes. In this time the gritty matter will have settled to the bottom. Pour the water into another vessel, slowly, so as not to stir up the settlings. Let stand until entirely settled, and then pour off as before. The settlings in the second vessel will be your prepared chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. Spanish whiting treated in the same way makes a very good cleaning or polishing powder. Some add a little jeweller's rouge, which gives the powder a colour, and adds to its value in the eyes of the uninitiated. In cases where a sharper poHshing powder is required, it may be prepared in the same way from rotten-stone. Chalk is frequently manufactured specially by adding a solution of carbonate of soda to a solution of chloride of calcium (both 134 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP IIANDYDOOK. cheap salts) so long as a precipitate is thrown down. The solutions should be carefully filtered through paper before being mixed, and dust should be rigorously excluded. The white powder which falls down is carbonate of lime, or chalk, and when carefully washed and dried it forms a most excellent polishing powder for the softer metals. The panicles are almost impalpable, but seem to be crystalline, for they polish quickly and smoothly, though they seem to wear away the material so little that its form or sharpness is not injured to any perceptible degree. Crocus or rouge is manufactured in the following manner crystals of sulphate of iron (green vitriol or copperas) are taken immediately from the crystallising vessels in the copperas works so as to have them as clean as possible, and instantly put into crucibles or cast-iron pots, and exposed to heat, without suffering the smallest particle of dust to get in, which would scratch the article to be polished. Those portions which are least calcined, and are of a scarlet colour, are fit to make rouge for polishing gold or silver, while those which are calcined or have become red-purple or bluish-purple, form crocus fit for polishing brass or steel. Of these, the bluish-purple coloured parts are the hardest, and are found nearest to the bottom of the vessels, and consequently have been exposed to the great- est degree of heat. Putty powder is the pulverised oxide of tin or generally of tin and lead mixed in various proportions. As a criterion of quality, it may be said that the whitest putty powder is the purest, provided it be heavy. Some of the common kinds are brown and yellow, while others, from the intentional admixture of a little ivory black, are known as grey putty. The pure white putty powder — which is used by the marble woikers, opticians, and some others — is the smoothest and most cuttin?. It should consist of the oxide of tin alone ; but to lessen the POLISHING CUTLERY. i?5 difficulty of manufacture, a very little lead (the linings of tea chests), or else an alloy called shruff (prepared in ingots by the pewterers) is added to assist the oxidation. The putty powder of commerce, of good fair quality, is made of about equal parts of tin and lead, or tin and shruff; the common dark- coloured kinds are prepared of lead only, but these are much liarbher to the touch, altogether inferior. Perhaps the most extensive use of putty powder is in glass and marble works, but the best kind serves admirably as plate powder, and for the general purposes of polishing. A little crocus is usually added to the putty powder by way of colouring matter, and it is then easier to learn the quantity of powder that remains on the pol- ibhing tool ; this is the polishing powder employed in making achromatic object-glasses for astronomical telescopes. The methods of finishing brass have been already mentioned. To obtain the finest degree of lustre on cutlery, the best cast-bar steel having a fine grain should be selected. After this has been forged, filed or otherwise shaped, to the required form— forg- ing always improves steel if care is taken not to burn it — it passes through the following processes in the order indicated : Grinding, glazing, fine glazing, lapping, buffing, and, in some cases, burnishing. If possible, it should be hardened and tempered at least to a dark brown temper, as hardened steel takes better polish than soft steel. The black steel is ground first on a grindstone, running at a great velocity from the operator, as do all the wheels in the subsequent processes. The size of the stone depends on the class of work : for large surfaces, or quick, cheap grinding, the stone being often lo ft. diameter and i ft. broad on the face; whilst for knives, razors, and scissors requiring to be hollow, it rarely exceeds I ft. and often only 6 in. diameter. Having uniformly ground off the scale and all protuberances, it is transferred to the glazing wheel, consisting of a wooden wheel, varying in size like 126 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. the grindstone, according to the character of the work, but rarely exceeding 2 ft. in diameter, generally only 12 or 15 in., and for small work 6 or 8 in. Round the periphery of this wheel is glued and fixed, with wooden pegs, a strip of thick leather, which is put on wet and allowed to dry ; on this a layer of glue is put, and it is then rolled in No. i emery. The work is cautiously applied to this glazer, as it is called, which is revolved with great rapidity, care being taken not to allow the work to become so hot as to lose its temper. From this it is removed to the fine glazer, which is a coarse glazer which has worn smooth. By this time the work will have a very good appearance, and, for many purposes, it is fit for the market ; but it is yet full of scratches. The next wheel is called the lap wheel, which consists of a wooden wheel, round the outer rim of which is cast a ring of lead about \ in. thick. This is turned up perfectly true, and then rolled with pressure in flour emery. This lap converts the large scratches into very fine ones, and as the lead is a good conductor of heat, less care is required to keep the article cool. At this stage, in most cases, comes the final buffing ; but, for the very best work, it is first polished on a leather-edged wheel covered with a paste of flour, emery and tallow. The grease must most carefully be cleaned off to ensure success in the final process. The wheel in this pro- cess is covered round the rim with thick buckskin, and turned up true with a sharp turning tool. For small work this is not necessary, provided the wooden part is turned true in its place, and thin leather is used. In putting on the leather, the two ends must be pared to a chamfer, so as not to cause a lump, and the direction of rotation is such as not to cause the work to open the joining. This wheel is charged with dry rouge powder. If the preceding operations have been properly performed, the work will readily assume an exquisite POLISHING MARBLE. 127 polish. If the work requires to be accurately flat on any part the wheels are replaced by discs, the surfaces of which take the place of the rims in the above wheels ; an experienced man, however, will do flat work of considerable size on the wheels without deteriorating much the truth of the surface. The process seems to be a long one, as knives and scissors are got up so cheap ; but it is surprising with what rapidity the successive operations are gone through ; and it must be remembered that some articles are often ground and glazed, a dozen at a time, by one man. A process of finishing brass, called bright grey, is effected by means of rotten-stone mixed with oil, and applied with a boxwood slip. The surface of the work is first prepared by greying with water- of- Ayr stone. The following is the process used by the mason to polish marble. With a piece of very fine grit sandstone rub the slab backward and forward, using very fine sand and water, till the marble appears equally rough and not scratched ; next use a finer stone and finer sand, till its surface appears equally gone over ; then with fine emery powder and a piece of felt or old hat wrapped round a weight, rub till all the marks left by the former process are worked out, and it appears with a com- parative gloss on its surface. Afterwards, finish the polish with putty powder and fine, clean rags. As soon as the surface appears to have a good gloss, do not put more powder on the rags, but rub well, and in a short time the marble will appear as fresh as when new. Japianning on metal is simply the process of laying a coat of varnish and afterwards drying by artificial heat. This second operation, the baking, is the essential part in japanning. The art was originated in Japan, whence we have derived the name. Many examples of japanning on papier mache may be seen at fancy repositories where various ornamental nicknacks I2S THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOIC. imported from Japan are on sale. In making this ware, the Japanese employ a lacquer which exudes from an indigenous tree. Successive coats are laid on, each one being thoroughly dried in the sun before the application of another. Thus a thick hard coating is made, which may be smoothed and polished by abrasive materials, though the natural lustre suffices for general requirements. Gilding and other orna- mentation is then made to adhere by means of boiled oil. The whole is finally finished by a coat of clear varnish. The above is a rough sketch of the art as practised by the origi- nators, but we have to deal with modern japanning, and con- fine our observations to its application to metal. The japanner's oven is a receptacle in which the work is placed when being heated. Usually the heat is appHed by means of external flues, in which hot air or steam is circulated. By this system the temperature may be regulated to great nicety, the supply of heat being controlled by dampers or stop- cocks. A sheet-iron box, encased by another of the same shape, but somewhat larger in size, so that an interspace of an inch or two exists between them, is the most simple form of oven. Heat is applied to the interspace, and thus an even temperature is maintained. A flue must be provided, to carry off the vapours which arise from the japan. A doorway, by which to introduce the articles, provided with a tolerably well-fitting door, is, of course, essential. Hooks or wire shelves are provided, by which the work is supported, so that the heat may take effect equally all round. Moisture, dust, and all other extraneous matter must be carefully excluded, so that the japanning may be kept perfectly clean and free from foreign substances. Thermometers are hung in the oven to indicate the precise degree of heat, which must be regulated to suit the requirements of particular work. Metals require no special preparation before laying on the JAPANNING METALS. 129 japan. After being wrought to the desired shape, and smoothed as much as may be considered advisable, the article has only to be made thoroughly clean to prepare it for japanning. The surface must be quite dry, or the japan will not adhere properly. Wood requires to be primed and other- wise prepared for japanning. Japan— that is, the paint-like material to be laid on the metal — is made of shellac varnish, with which should be incorporated the pigment necessary to produce a desired colour. Shellac varnish is made by dissolving shellac in alcohol. A better varnish for japanning is made by adding resin and shellac, 2 oz. of each, to a pint of methylated spirit. Any pigment may be added to such varnish to form japan of the colour required. A few formulae may be useful. Black : Mix lamp-black or ivory-black— this latter preferably— with the above varnish. Another Black : Melt i lb. of asphaltum, and mix with the same quantity of balsam of capivi, thin the mixture to a workable consistency with hot oil of turpentine. Another Black: Mix lamp-black with oil of turpentine, and grind smooth on a muUer ; thin the mixture with copal varnish. White : Flake white, or white lead, ground up with a sixth of its weight of starch; this must be thoroughly dried and mixed with mastic varnish. Vet/ow : King's yellow is used as the pigment, but the effect is considerably improved by dissolving turmeric in the alcohol before adding the shellac to form the varnish. Tortoiseshell japan is pretty, and comparatively easy to manipulate. The work is first coated with a japan made by boiling two pints of linseed oil, to which 1 lb. of umber has been added, till it becomes thickened; the mixture is then strained and further boiled till it becomes of a pitchy consistency. This is mixed with turpentine to a workable consistency, and then applied. On a the roughly dry coating K 130 THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. of this japan lay a quantity of vermilion spots to represent the clear portions of the shell. The vermilion japan is made by adding vermilion to shellac varnish ; it should be laid on thinly and dried. The whole surface is then finally coated with a thin layer of the above-described brown japan, still further diluted with turpentine. A long course of stoving will be necessary to thoroughly harden the japanning. The operation of japanning consists of driving off the solvents of the japan at a high temperature. When the article, covered with a coating of japan, is placed in the oven and submitted to a temperature of about 200° to 300° Fahren- heit, or even more, the solvents quickly evaporate. The residue, a gummy substance, with which is incorporated the colouring matter, is kept liquid by the heat, and in the semi- liquid state forms a smooth coating, filling any small inequali- ties of the surface. The baking process secures a very firm adhesion of the japan to the metal, far superior to that of ordinary varnish or paint. The japan is also made hard, and consequently better able to resist wear. When one coat is dried, another is applied and submitted to the action of heat. These operations are repeated, as may be deemed necessary, from one to six times. Each succeeding coat of japan will present a more uniform and glassy surface. The natural flow of the japan generally suffices to produce a good smooth surface, but in some cases a process of polishing is resorted to before the application of the final coat. The temperature for light-coloured japans must not be sufficiently high to scorch, or the surface will, of course, be discoloured. Dark japans are usually dried at a very high temperature, if the article is not likely to be injured by heat. The final coating of japan is generally a layer of clear varnish which will add to the lustre of the surface. INDEX. PAGE ABRADENTS, Crushing . . 121 Abrasive Processes . . ..120 Accuracy of Twist Drills .. iia Alloys, Chantrey's 46 Collins's, Red .. ..46 Collins's, White . . . . 46 — Collins's, Yellow . . ». 46 Definition of . . , . . . 10 Ductility of 11 For Soldering .. .. 58 Fusible.. .. .. 13 Hardness of .. .. .. 11 Melting Points of .. .. 11 Aluminium .. 2 Solder 66 Amalgam, Definition of , . . . 10 Ancient Files 70 Annatto for Lacquer 50 Annealing ..15 Steel 32 Antimony 2, 12 For Bronzing 53 Antique Bronzing 53 Arkansas Oilstone 96 Arsenic .. .. .. .. .. 2 Artificial Grindstone 92 Art of Tool Grinding 102 Atomic Weights of Metals .. ., 2 Axles, Carriage 5 BANDSAW File 74 Bar Iron 5 Bastard Files 70 Bathbrick 123 Bath Metal 46 Baths for Tempering Mel a!s.. .. 35 Bilston Grindstones 92 Bismuth 2, 12 Blanks for Files 75 Blowpipe for Soldering ., ..62 Boiling Steel 7 Borax for Soldering 62 Brass ii,44 Bright Grey for .. ..127 Common . . . . . . 46 Emerson's 46 German 46 Rusting 53 Soldering .. ,. ..64 Speed for Drilling .. ..118 Wire . . 46 Brassfinisher 46 Pace Brassfinishing, Emery for .. .. 47 Brassfinishing, High-class .. .. 47 Oilstone, Powder for . . 47 Brazing 56 Brick, Bath- 123 Bright Grey for Brass 127 Brittleness of Iron 5 Bronze 11 Bronzing, Green 54 • Hyposulphite of Soda for . . 54 Japanese .. .. ..54 Nitrate of Iron for . . . . 54 Nitrate of Tin for .. ..54 Olive Green 54 Perchloride of Iron for . . 53 Platinum 54 Brown Bronzing 53 Brush for Lacquering 52 BufiSng Cutlery 125 Buff Sticks 123 Burning together 56 Burnishing 87 Burnt Steel 29 Buttons, Soldering 6s Butt Weld 20 CABINET Files 74 Cabinet Rasps . . . . 70, 74 Cadmium 2 Cape Aloes, for Lacquer ,. .. 50 Carbon and Iron 4 Carriage Axles 5 Case Hardening 22 Castings, Chipping 81 Cast Iron, Filing 81 Cast Steel 7 Crucible 7 Chalk 123 Chantrey's Alloy 46 Characteristics of Metals .. .. 2 Charcoal Fire .. .. .. ..29 Charnwood Forest Stone . . . . 97 Chipping Castings before Filing .. 81 Chisel Temper . . 8 for File Cutting .. ..75 Sharpening gg Chloride of Antimony Bronzing .. 53 Arsenic Bronzing .. ..54 Gold Bronzing . . , . 54 Chocolate Bronzing 53 Choosing a Good File . . ... . . 80 Chromium .. .. 2,10 13* INDEX. PAGE Cleaning Files . . ^. .-. .. 86 Cleanliness necessary for Soldering 63, 68 Clogged Files 86 Coach Bolts, Forging 17 Coarseness of Files 71 Coarse Solder t6 Cobalt 2 Cock Metal U Coke Fire 29 Cold Lacquering 50 Cold Short Iron 4 Solder 68 Collins's Red Alloy 46 White Alloy 46 ■ Yellow Alloy 46 Common Brass 46 Conductivity of Electricity in Metals 2 Heat in Metals . . . . 2 Contraction in Hardening . . . . 35 Cooling Steel 33 Copper 2, 14 Forged 10 Cotter File 71 Crocus 123 — Making 124 Crossing File 73 Crucible Cast Steel 7 Crushing Abradents 121 Curling 48 Cut of Files 70 Cutlery, BuflBng.. .. .. ..125 — — — Grinding 125 Lapping 125 Polishing 125 Cutting Edges 88 Files, Chisels for .. ..75 DEADSMOOTH Files .. ..70 Definitions of Iron and Steel 6 Diamagnetic Metals . . . . 2 Die Temper 9 Dipping 52 Double Cut Files . . , . 70, 74 Dragon's Blood for Lacquer.. .. 50 Drawiiling 87 Drawing Instruments, Soldering . . 65 Drill File 72 Drilling 104 -7 Speeds for 118 "Drills 104 Accuracy of Twist .. .. 112 Hardening and Tempering 117 Machines for Grinding .. 113 Ductility of Alloys n of the Metals 2 EASY Running Solder Edges, Cutting.. Emerson's Brass Emery Grading Paper .. ■ Separating .. 64 .. 88 .. 46 .. r23 .. 121 .. 47 Eqnaling File .." .. !'. 72 Even Heating for Steel .. ..30 Expansion of Metals .. „ 2 F AGGOTIKG Iron Files Ancient PAGE 5. 21 ■ 70 ■ 70 70 70, 74 .. 86 ,. 80 .. 86 ,. 85 Bastard Blanks for 75 ^Cabinet Cards for Choosing Cleaning Clogged Coarseness of .. ..71 Cotter 71 Crossing 73 Cut of 70 Cutting 75 Dead Smooth 70 Double Cut . . . . 70, 74 Drill 73 — Equaling 72 Flat 72 Float 73 Half-round 73 Hammers for Cutting .. 75 Hand 71 Handles for 85 Hardening 79 Joint .. 72 Kind of 70 Length of 70 Manufacturing .. ..75 Over Cut 70 Parallel Round .. ..72 Parallel Square . . ..7^ Parallel Triangular . . ..73 Peculiarities of . . . . 7° Pillar 71 Pins in 87 Pivot 71 Rough 70 Round 72 Saw 73 Second Cut 7° Single Cut 70 Smooth .. ,. ,. 80 Softening Tangs ., .. 80. Three Square .. .. 73 Triangular 73 Up Cut 70 Warding 72 Filing, Art of 81 Chipping Castings for 81 Large Work 83 Mouldings 86 Small Work 83 Filing-out Grooves 86 Fine Glazing Cutlery 126 Gold 10 Silver .. .. ..10 Finest Grained Steel .. ..' .. 9 Finishing Processes .. .. !! r2o Fire Charcoal 29 Coke 2Q Flat Files Filing 8i Drills 105, ICQ Float File . . 73 Fluxes for Soldering .. ..60 Forging i6, INDEX. 133 PAGE Forging Bolts i7 Copper Gold 10 Steel 28 Fracture of Iron 4 Fusible Alloys ''S GAMBOGE for Lacquer.. .. 5° Gas Pipe Soldering . . . . 67 German Brass 46 Hones 98 Silver Soldering ,. ..66 Glazing Cutlery - 126 ■ Wheels 94 Gold .. 2 Bronzing 54 Fine 10 Forged 10 — — ^ Lacquer 49 Manheim 46 Mosaic 46 Solder 62, 66 Goniometer 100 Good Welding 19 Grading Emery 121 Granulating Solders ,, .. 65,67 Green Bronzing,. ,. .. .. 54 Grinding Cutlery 126 Tools 102 Grindstones, Artificial 92 — Natural 95 Usefulness of 89 Grooves, Filing 85 in One HALF-ROUND Files .. Hammers for File Cutting Hand Files Handles for Files Hardening, and Tempering Operation . . Hardening, Contraction in Files .. Oil for .. Steel .. Hardness of Alloys , . of Iron Hard Silver Solder Soldering Spelter Solder Heat, Even, for Steel . . Soldering without Heating Steel to Harden Height of Vice for Filing High-class Brassfinishing Quality Steel. Hones • German ■ Levelling ■ Oil for . . ■ Tam o' Slianter ■ Water for Horse Rasps .. .. ,. ..70 Hot Lacquering 51 Short Iron 4 Hydrochloric Acid for Soldering .. 60 Hyposulphite of Soda for Bronzing 54 "7 35 79 36 26 II 5 66 56 66 30 68 29 83 47 32 95 PAGE INGOT Iron 7 Steel 7 Iridium % Iron 3 Bar 5 Brittleness of 5 Carbon and 4 Cold Short 4 Definition of 6 Faggoting 5 Fracture of 4 Hardness of 5 Hot Short 4 Ingot 7 Phosphorus and , . . . 4 Soldering . . . . 64, 67 Speed for Drilling ,. ..118 JAPANESE Bronzing ,. ..54 Lacquer .. .. 128 Japanner's Oven 128 Japanning Metal 128 Operation of 130 Japans, Formulae for 129 Jewellery, Soldering .. .. 62,65 Joint File 72 Jump Weld 20 KILLING Steel .. .. 7 Kind of Files 70 LACQUERING 50 Brush for .. ..51 Cold 50 Hot 51 Lacquers, Annatto for . . . . . . so Cape Aloes for . . . . 50 Dragon's Blood for . . . . 50 Gamboge for Gold 43 Japanese 128 Pale Gold . . . . • • 49 Proportions for . . • • 54 Red 49 Red Sanders fcr .. ..50 Saffron for 50 Sandarac for 50 Spirit so Turmeric for 50 Yellow 50 Lamp for Soldering 63 Lapping Cutlery 126 Laps . . . . . . . . . . 94 Large Work, Filing 83 Lathe Mandrels 5 Lead , . . . . . . . 2, 10, 12 Length of Files 70 Levelling Hones gg Linear Expansion of Metals. . .. a Long Tubes, Soldering .. ..66 Low Quality Steel 27 *34 INDEX. PAGE MACHINE or Grinding Twist Drills 113 Planing .. ..81 Magnesium 2 Magnetic Metals 2 iviaking Crocus 124 Chalk 123 Malleability of the Metals .. .. 2 Malleable Iron 3, 6 Mandrels, Lathe 5 Manganese z in Steel 8 Manheim Gold 46 Manufacturing Files 75 Marble, Polishing 127 Melting Points of Alloys .. ., 11 Points of Metals .. ., 2 Solders 67 Metals I Atomic Weights of . . . . 2 Baths for Tempering . . 35 Characteristics of .. .. 2 Diamagnetic 2 Ductility of .. .. .. 2 Electrical Conductivity of. . 2 Heat, Conductivity of .. 2 Japanning 128 Linear Expansion of . . 2 Magnetic 2 Melting Points of .. .. 2 Muntz's 46 Mushet's .. ., 46 Mercury 3 Methods of Soldering '.* 61 Mild Centred Steel .' 9 Mixing Solders .' !! 67 Mock Platinum !.' 46 Mosaic Gold ., .'! 46 Mouldings, Filing ,. .. .*.* 66 Muntz's Metal 4(5 Muriatic Acid for Soldering 60 Mushet's Metal 46 Mushroom Headed Bolt Forging ' ' 17 NATURAL Grindstones .. 05 Nickel 2 Nitrate of Iron Bronzing .. 54 Tin Bronzing . . . . 54 Norway Ragstones . . . . . 97 Nova-Scotia Oilstones 97 OBJECT of Tool Grinding .. 102 Oil for Hones 98 Hardening Steel .. 36 Oilstones 95 How to Use 99 Nova-Scotia . . . . . . 97 Ouachita .. .. ■•97 Powder for Brass-finishing 47 Turkey 96 Washita 97 Olive Green Bronzing. . ..54 Ormolu 46 Ouachita Oilstone .. ,. ..97 Oven, Japanner's 128 Overcut Files 70 PAGE Overheating ig Overworking .. .. .. ..19 Oxidation of Solders 67 PALE Gold Lacquer .. ..49 Palladium . . . . . . 2 Parallel Round File .. .. 72 Square File .. .. .. 71 Triangular File .. ..73 Peculiarities of Files .. .. ..70 Peculiar Kinds of Steel . . . . 9 Perchloride of Iron, Bronzing .. 53 Pewterer's Solder . . . . . . 66 Soft SolHer 66 Phosphoric Acid for Soldering . . 60 Phosphorus and Iron 4 Steel 8 Pickle for Soldering 64 Pickling .. .. .. .. ..54 Casting 81 Pizlron .. .. .. .. 4 Pillar Files 71 Pinchbec 46 Pins in Files 87 Pivot File. . . . . . . . . . 71 Plain Iron Setting loi Planing Machine 81 Platinum . a Bronzing 54 Mock 46 Soldering 66 Plumber's Solder 66 Polishing 87 Cutlery 125 Marble 127 Processes 120 Position for Filing 82 Pot Metal 14 Processes, Finishing 120 Properties of Metals 2 Proportions for Lacquers ., .. Puddled Steel .. 7 Pulverised Oilstone ! 96 Pumice Stone 122 Pure Iron .... 3 P"«y •• .. 123 Putty Powder Making 125 ^^UENCHING Steel .. ..33 RAGSTONES 97 Norway 97 Russian 97 Scotch 97 Rasps, Cabinet 70, 74 Cutting 78 Horse 70 Razor Temper 8 Red Alloy 46 Brass 46 Lacquer 50 Oxide of Iron Bronzing . . 54 Sawdust for Lacquer . . 52 Short Iron 4 INDEX. PAGE Re-lacquering 52 Resin for Soldering 60 Revere's Metal 46 Rhodium . . . . . . . . .. 2 Rolled Brass 46 Solders 65 Rottenstone for Brass-linisliing . . 47 Rouge . .. .. .. .. 123 Rough Files .. .. .. ..70 Round Files . . . . . . . . 72 Russian Ragstones .. .. ..97 Rusting of Brass 53 SAFFRON for Lacquer .. _ .. 50 Salammoniac for Soldering .. 60 Sand 123 Sand arac for Lacquer 5° Sawfile .. .. .. .. .•73 Taper 74 Temper 8 Scale on Iron 3 Scarf Weld 20 Scotch Ragstone .. .. ..97 Second Cut File 70 Seedlac .. .. .. ..49 Semilor .. .. .. .. ..46 Separating Emery 122 Setting Plane Iron ir.i Sett Temper g Shape of Flat Drills no Sharpening Chisels 99 Shellac .. .. .. ..49 Shoe Rasps . , . . , . . . 70 Silicon in Steel 8 Silver 2 ■ i-'ine . . 10 Forged 10 ■ Soldering .. 61,64 Single Cut File 70 Slate Stone, Welsh 97 Slim Taper Saw File 74 Small Drills 116 Small Surface, Filing 85 Small Tools, Grinding 102 Small Work, Filing 74 Smooth Files 70 Snakestone '..97 Soaking Heat 19 Sodium 3 Solder 68 Softening Tangs of Files . . . . 80 Steel 32 Soft Silver Solder 66 Solder 56 Aluminium 66 Coarse.. ., .. ,.66 Cold 68 Easy Running ,, ..64 Filigree 64 ■ Gold 62 • Granubting 67 ■ Hard Silver ..66 Hard Spelter 66 Melting 67 ■ Mixing.. 67 OxiJation of .. 67 PAGE Solder, Pewterer's 66 Plumber's 66 Rolled 65 Salammoniac for .. ..60 Silver 66 Silver, Soft 66 Silver, Various .. ..63 Sodium 68- Soft Pewterer s .. ..65 Steel 66 Sweating 57 Tinman's 66 Wire .. .. .. ..59 Soldering.. ,, ,. .. ..56 Alloys for 58 Bit 67 Borax for 62 Buttons 65 Cleanliness necessary 63, 68 Cold 68 Drawing Instruments ., 65 Fluxes for .. .. ..60 Gas Pipe .. .. ..67 German Silver .. ., 66 Hard 6b Hydrochloric Acid for .. 6a Iron ,. .. .. ,.64 Jewellery .. .. 62,65 Lamp for 63 Methods of 61 Muriatic Acid for .. .. 60 Phosphoric Acid for .. 60 Pickle for 64 Resin .. .. .. .. 60 Silver .. .. .. .. 61 Tubes 60, 67 Without Heat 68 Special Sizes and Grades of Steel .. 42 Specific Heat of Metals .. .. 2 Gravities of Metals . . .. 2 Speculum Metal 13, 48 Speed and Feed for Drilling loS, 114, 118 Spindle Temper 8 Spirit Lacquer .. .. .. ..50 Spirits of Salts for Soldering . . 60 Spontaneous Combustion of Iron .. 3 Square Files 71 Standing for Filing 83 Statuary Brass .. .. .. ..46 Steel . . 3, 6, 26 Definitions of 6 Even Heat for .. .. 30 Finest Grained .. .. g Forging 28 Grey Bronzing .. 54 Hardening .. .. ..26 Ingot 7 Killing 7 Low Quality 27 Manganese in .. .. 8 Mild Centred g Phosphorus in .. .. 8 Soldering .. .. ,. 64 Solders.. .. .. ..66 — • Table of Speeds for Drilling 118 Sticks, Bufl 123 Straightening Files in Hardening .. 79 Strong Cold Solder 68 136 INDEX, Sulphate of Copper Bronzing . . 54 Sulphur in Iron 4 in Steel 8 Surface Hardening .. .. • ■ 53 Symbolic Equivalents of the Metals 2 TABLE of Speeds forTwistDrills 118 Tarn o' Shanter Hone .. 97 Taper Saw File . . . - 73 Tear Solder 59 Temperature for Colours on Steel . . 39 Temper, Chisel 8 Die . . 9 Tempering in Metal Baths .. -.35 Tenacity of Alloys 11 of Metals a Tensile Streagth of Metals . . . . 2 Three Square " File .. ■ .. 73 Tin 2, 10 Tinman's Solder ., .. ..66 Tombac 46 Red 46 Tool Grinding ..88 Object of .. ..102 Tool Temper 8 Tortoiseshell Japan 129 Tough Brass 46 Triangular Files 73 Tripoli 123 Trueing Grindstones 92 Tubes, Soldering 65 Tungsten 2, 9 Turkey Oilstone 96 Turmeric or Lacquer 50 Tutenag 46 Twist Drills no UNIFORM Heat for Soldering 65 Universal Names . . . 6 Upcut Files 70 PAGE Up Setting 17 Usefulness of Grindstones .. ..89 Using Oilstones 99 VARNISH 49 Verdigris, Coating of.. .. 54 Versailles Brass . . . . 46 Vice for Filing 82 Violet Bronzing 53 WARDING File 72 Washita Oilstones .. .. 97 Water Cracks .. ..37 Water for Hones 98 Water-of-Ayr Stone . . . 48, 97 Weld, Butt 20 Iron 7 Jump .. .. .. ..20 Scarf 20 Steel .. .. .. .. 7 Welding 18 Iron 5 Welsh Slate Stone 97 Wheels, Glazing .. .. ..94 White Alloy 46 Brass 46 Whiting 123 Wire, Brass 46 Wolfram .. .. .. .. g Wood Rasps . , . . . . 70, 74 Wrought Iron 7 YELLOW Alloy 46 Brass . . ». . . 45 Lacquer .. 50 ^INC ..2,10 OGDEN, SMALE AND CO. LIMITED, PRINTERS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, E.G. 7, Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.G. February, 1892. A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS INCLUDING NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN ENGINEERING: CIVIL, MECHANICAL, AND MARINE, MINING AND METALLURGY, ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING, INDUSTRIAL AND DECORATIVE ARTS, SCIENCE, TRADE AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, LAND AND ESTATE MANAGEMENT, LAW, &c. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. JfCeiv Poclcet-Booh for 3Iechanical Engineers. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF TABLES, FORMULM, RULES AND DATA. A Handy Book of Reference for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst.C.E., Author of " Railway Machinery," " Tramways," &c. &c. Small 8vo, nearly 700 pages. With Illustrations. Rounded edges, cloth limp, ys. 6d. ; or leather, gilt edges, gs. lJust published. Meiv Manual for Practical Engineers. THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HAND-BOOK. Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers : Marine, Locomotive and Sta- tionary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certi- ficates of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By Walter S. HuTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 370 Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised, with Additions. Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., price i8s. Strongly bound. [just published. I^S" This work is designed as a companion to the Author's "Works' Manager's Hand-book." 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" A mass of information, set down in simple language, and in such a form that it can be easily referred to at any time. The matter is uniformly good and well chosen, and is greatly elucidatt d hy the illustrations. The book will find its way on to most engineers' shelves, where it will rank as 'oa(i Arrow. Field Fortification. A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wool- wich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of la Plates, 12s-. ^yi}ligue JUridges. A PR A CTICA L AND THEORETICAL ESS A Y ON OBLIQ UB BRIDGES. With 13 large Plates. By the late George Watson Buck, M.I.C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson Buck, M.I.C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Con- struction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M.I.C.E. 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LAND AND MARINE SC/iJFEF/ATG, in Reference to the Pre- paration of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. D. Haskoll, C.E., Author of " Bridge and Viaduct Con- struction," &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large cr. 8vo, gs. cl, " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommend- ing it, feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study ."—Mechanical World. "A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student. We can strongly recommend It as a carefuUy-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors." — Builder. "This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommended to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors."— ^mw;^- Journal. Tunnelling, PRA CTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail the Setting. out of the works. Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 30s. cloth. " The estimation in which Mr. SImms's book on tunnelling has been held for over thirty years cannot be more truly expressed than in the words of the late Prof Rankine :— ' The best source of in- formation on the subject of tunnels is Mr.F.W.Simms'swork on Practical Tunnelling.'"— ^rcAife.:;. " It has been regarded from the first as a text book of the subject. . . . Mr. Clarke has added immensely to the value ol the \>a<:i^."— Engineer. _ CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. II Levelling. A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP LEVELLING. Shewing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Seventh Edition, with the addition of Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, 8s. 6ii. cloth. *«* Trautwine on Curves may be had separate, ss. , „ _ . " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges. —Enj;tneer. " The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition ol Mr. Simms's useful work."— £»£i/(d. " Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument— no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work."— Bngineer. "Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fill on two of these cards, which he puts mto his own card-case, and leaves the rest hehiad."—.4 e/unaum. Earthwork. EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c.,of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. "The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is 'ms^mo\a."—Athenceu>n. Tunnel Shafts. THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS: A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M.Inst.C.E^ Resident Engineer, London and North-Western Railway. Illustrated with Folding Plates, royal 8vo, 12s. cloth. ■' Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason ; and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession."— Building News. " Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost veilue, and calculated to save much time and obviate many mistakes."— Co//t«>-j' Guardian, Girders, Strength of. GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COMPUTA. TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates By I. H. Watsoh Buck, M.Inst.C.E. On a Sheet, 2s.6d. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. River Engineering. RIVER BARS : The Causes of their Formation, and their Treat- ment by Induced Tidal Scottr ; " with a Description of the Successful Re- duction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. "We recommend all interested in harbour works — and, indeed, those concerned in the im- provements of rivers generally — to read Mr. Mann s interesting work on the treatment of river bars." — E}igineer, Trusses. TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of Sciencein Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By William Griffiths, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and Art. Oblong 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. " This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of roof trusses, that no student need be ig-norant of these matters."— /"rairrtira:/ Engineer. Railway Working. SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci- dents: Their Cause and Prevention ; with a Description of Modern Appliances and Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Vice-President and Con- sulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus- trations and Coloured Plates. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 3s. dd, cloth. [Just published. " A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for informa- tion on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working. "—Railway Review. " We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a uniform code and practice is advocated." — HerepatJis Railway Journal. " The author may be congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable information on the principal questions aflecting the safe working of railways."— ^a;V. Tvay Ejigineer. Field-Rook for Engineers, THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON- TRA CTOR 'S FIELD-BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without TheodoHte, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off- sets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 12s. cloth. "The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make k useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the sa.me."—Athenaufn. "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume."— ^at/waj' News, Earthwork, Meastirement of. A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. i8mo, 2S. 6d. cloth " A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, and available for rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineer's and contractor's offices." — Artizan, Strains in Ironwork. THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W, Sheilds, M.Inst.CE, Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5s. cloth. The student cannot find a better little book on this subject."— Engineer, Cast Iron and other Metals, Strength of. A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON AND OTHER METALS, By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Fifth Edition, including Hobgkinson's Experimental Researches. 8vo, las. cloth. CROSBY LOCK WOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Third Edition, Enlarged, with 59 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 4s. cloth. " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." — Builder, " No architectural student should be without ttis bandhook."— Architect, Villa Architecture, A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE : Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residencis in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, £1 us. 6d. half-morocco, gilt edges.' " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive." — Building News. Text-Booh for Architects. THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. &c. By Frederick Rogers, Architect, Author of " Specifica- tions for Practical Architecture," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 3vo, 6s. cloth. "As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., It would be hard to find a handier or more complete little \o\ume."— Standard. "A young architect could hardly have a better guide-book." — Timber Trades j^ournal, Taylor and Cresy's Rome. THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. New Edition, thoroughly Revised by the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Chap- lain of Gray's Inn. Large folio, with 13c Plates, half-bound, £3 3s. " Taylor and Cresy's work has from Its first publication been ranked among those professional books which cannot be bettered. ... It would be difficult to find examples of drawings, even among those of the most painstaking students of Go:hic, more thoroughly worked out than are the one hundred and thirty plates in this yolame."— Architect. Linear Perspective. ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE : The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large House in Linear Per- spective. Illustrated by 39 Folding Plates. By F. O. Ferguson. Demy 8vo, as. 6d. boards. pttblishecL Architectural Drawing. PRACTICAL RULES ON DRA WING, for the Operative Builder and Young Stttdent in Architecture. By George Pyne. With 14 Plates, 4to, 7s. 6d. boards. Sir Wm. Chambers on Civil Arcliitecture. THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. By Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. Revised and Edited by W. H. Leeds, with a Memoir of the Author. 66 Plates, 4to, 21S. cloth. House Building and Repairing. THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or. What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book adapted to the Use of Unpro- fessional People, as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By James D. Simon, A.R.I.B.A. Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, A.R.I.B.A, With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. "In two years it will repay Its cost a hundred times ovet."— Field. Cottages and Villas. COUNTRY AND SUBURBAN COTTAGES AND VILLAS How to Plan and Build Them. Containing 33 Plates, with Introduction, General Explanations, and Description of each Plate, By James W. Bogue, Architect, Author of " Domestic Architecture," &c, 4to, ids. 6d. cloth. ARCHITECTURE. BUILDING, etc. The JSTeiv Builder's Price Book, 1892. LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK FOR 1892. A Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, Architects, Engineers and Contractors. Re-co:istnicted, Re-written and Further Enlarged. By Francis T. W. Miller. ;oo closely-printed pages, crown 8vo, 4s. cloth. published. " This book is a very useful one, and should find a place In every English office connected witb the building- and engineering professions." — Industries. "This Price Book has been set up in new type. . . . Advantage has been taken of the transf&rmation to add much additional information, and the volume is now an excellent book of reference. " — A rchitect. " In its new and revised form this Price Book is what a -work of this kmd should be— compre- hensive, reliable, well arranged, legible and well bound.' — British Arc/iitect. " A work of established reputation." — Aihcnauni. " This very useful handbook is well written, exceedingly clear in its explanations and great care has evidently been taken to ensure accuracy." — Mortiing Advertiser. Designing, Measuring, and Valuing, THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- ING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS. Containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calcula- tion of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. With Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and a New Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contract?, by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. Sixth Edition, including a Complete Form of a Bill of Quantities. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown Svo, 7s. 6rf. cloth. " Well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students."— Bn^itieering . "This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published."— JSuitdtn^' A'ews. Poclcet Estimator and Technical Guide. THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER AND ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing Tech- nical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimat- ing the parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. Beaton, Author of "Quantities and Measurements," &c. Sixth Edition, Revised. With 53 Woodcuts, waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. gilt edges. \_Just published. " No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his ' Beaton.' ' — Building News. _ " Contains an extraordinary amount of information in daily requisition in measuring and estimating. Its presence in the pocket will save valuable time and ttouhle." -Building tVorld. Donaldson on Specifications, THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or. Practical Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En- gineers. By Professor T. L. Donaldson, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition, in One large Vol., Svo, with upwards of 1,000 pages of Text, and 33 Plates, £1 IIS. 6d. cloth. " In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given. Including the specifica- tions for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new RoyaJ Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document. It embodies, to a great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, 'the bill of quantities with the description of the works.' . . . It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. . . . Suflice it to say that Donaldson's ' Hsindbook of Specifications must be bought by all architects."— .ffKi/i/««. Ventilation of Buildings. VENTILATION. A Text Book to the Practice of the Art oj Ventilating Buildings. With a Chapter upon Air Testing. By W. P. Buchan, R.P., Sanitary and Ventilating Engineer, Author of " Plumbing," &c. With 170 Illustrations. i2mo, 4s. cloth boards. \_Juit published. Tfie Art of Flumhing. PLUMBING. A Text Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber, with Supphmenfary Chapters on House Drainage, embodying the latest Improvements. By William Paton Buchan, R.P., Sanitary Engineer and Practical Plumber. Sixth Edition, Enlarged to 370 pages, and 3S0 Illustrations. i2mo, 4s. cloth boards. ** A text book which may be safely put in the hands of every young plumber, and which will also be found useful by arcliitec^s and melical professors." — BiUlder. " A valuable text book, and the only treatise which can be regarded as a really reliable manual ■of the plumber's art." — Buildin^ir Neius. Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M. A., Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition. With 172 Illus- trations, demy 8vo, gs. cloth. " No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory." — Scots?nan. The Science of Geometry. THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6rf. cloth. " The treatise is a good one, and remarkable — like all Mr. Byrne's contributions to the science of geometry — for the lucid character of its teaching." — Building News. DECO RATIVE ART S, etc. Woods and Marbles (Imitation of). SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, iSi by 12^ in.. Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price £1 11s. 6d, List of Plates, Finished Specimen — ig. Mahogany : Si^eclmens of various Grains and Methods of Manipulation :o, 21. Mahogany: Earlier Stages and Finished T. Various Tools required for 'Wood Painting — a, 3. 'Walnut: Preliminary Stages of Graining Bnd Finished Specimen — 4. T ools used for Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation — 5. 6. St. Remi Marble: Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen — 7. Methods of Sketching different Grains, Knots, &c. — 8, 9. Ash: Pre- liminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 10. Methods of Sketching Marble (irains — 11, 12. Breche Marble : Preliminary Stages of Working and Finished Specimen — 13. Maple : Methods of Producing the different Grains — 14, 15. Bird's- eye Maple: Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 16. Methods of Sketching the dif- ferent Species of 'White Marble— 17, 18. 'White Marble: Preliminary Stages of Process and *,* Opinions of the Press. "Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage in consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the opportunity to study it." — Bicilder. "A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the Kudent who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of Building News. Specimen — 22,23,24. Sienna Marble: Varieties of Grain, Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood : Methods of producing Grain, &c. : Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 28, 29, 30. Vert de Mer Marble : Varieties of Grain and Methods of Working Unfinished and Finished Speci- mens — 3r. 32. 33. Oak : Varieties of Grain, Tools Employed, and Methods of Manipulation, Pre- liminary Stages and Finished Specimen — 34, 35, 36. Waulsort Marble: Varieties of Grain, Un- finished and Finished Specimens, DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 17 House Decoration, ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of Dwelling Houses, &c. By James W. Facey, Jun. With 68 Cuts. i2mo, 2S. cloth limp. PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION : A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and the principles of Decorative Design. With some Remarks upon the Nature and Properties of Pigments. By James William Facey, Author of " Elernentary Decoration," &c. With numerous Illustrations. lamo, 2S. 6d. cloth limp. N.B. — The above Two Works together in One Vol., strongly half-bound, 5s. Colour. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By Ellis A. Davidson, With New Coloured Diagrams and Engravings. lamo, 3s. W. cloth boards. "The book is a most useful resume of the properties of pigments." — Builder, House Painting, Graining, etc, HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN Wi?/27iVG, A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A.Davidson. Sixth Edition. With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. i2mo, 6s. cloth boards. " A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man.."— English Mechanic. "Simply invaluable to the youngster entering upon this particular calling, and highly service- able to the man who is practising 'H."—Furiiiliire Gazette. Decorators, Iteceijits for. THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De- corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Informa- tion for General Work connected witli every Class of Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Fourth Edition, Revised. 152 pp., crown 8vo, is. in wrapper. " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so fuU of varied information on the painter's art."- y^!/t?rfMig- yVsTuj. " We recommend tlie work to all who, whether for pleasure or profit, require a guide to decora- tion. —Plumber and Decorator. Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration. ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS. ANCIENT AND MODERN. By J. MoYR Smith. Super-royal Svo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous smaller Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price i8s. " The book is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true criticism and a good many good examples of decorative treatment."— 77ie Builder. " This is the most elaborate and beautiful work on the artistic decoration of interiors that we have seen. . . , The scrolls, panels and other designs from the author's own pen are very beautiful and chaste ; but he takes care that the designs of other men shall figure even more than his own." — Liverpool Albion. " To all who take an interest in elaborate domestic ornament this handsome volume will be welcome." — Graphic. British and Foreign Marbles. MARBLE DECORATION and the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H. Blagrove, Author of " Shoring and its Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown &vo, 3S. 6d. cloth. " This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and builder.';— i?!«'Mw.-^ lVo7-ld. " It is an excellent manuEil for students, and interesting to artistic readers generally."— 5a/!-i)ir«>-. Superficial Measurement. THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, by i to io3 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c By James Hawkings. Third Edition. Fcap.. 3S. dd. cloth. " A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any surface of which the hmits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will be found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building ooexAl\ons."—Scots>nan. " These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations in super- ticial measurement."— Mechanic. Forestry. THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. Designed to afford In- formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament 01 Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F.B. Hough. Large crown 8vo, los. cloth. Timber Importer's Guide. THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandy. Compris- ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. lamo, 2S. cloth limp. " Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws m, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &LZ."—Eiii^lish Mechanic. MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, etc. MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, etc. Chain Cables. CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Cham Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c. &c. By Thomas W.Traill, F.E.R.N., M. Inst. C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Beard of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin- tendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, £2 2s. cloth, bevelled boards. "It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothingr seems to be wanting to make it t complete and standard work of reference on the subject."— jVaw^jca/ Magazine. Marine Engineering. MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise on). By Robert Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, whh considerable Additions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E., Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. lamo, 5s, cloth boards. '• Well adapted to gfive the young- steamship engineer or marine engine and boiler maker a general introduction into his practical work." — Mechanical IP'orld. "We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue to be as popular In the future as It has been in the past, as, for its size, it contains more useful information than any similar tJreatise." — Industries. The infonnation griven is both sound and sensible, and well qualified to direct youn" sea- R-oing; hands on the straight road to the extra chiefs certificate. Most useful to survej ors, Kispectori, draughtsmen, and all young engineers who take an interest in their profession."— , , , , , , . Glasgcnu Herald. An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineering."— Zit/o-^o;;/ Mercury. Pochet-BooUfor Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKET-BOOK of Forniulce,Rules,andTables,and MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, Member of the Institution of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Fourth Edition, Revised. With numerous Diagrams, &c. Fcap., izs. 6d. stronglv bound in leather. Will be found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple iorm."— Engineer. " The professional shipbuilder has now, m a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work."— "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require to refresli his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's book."— £tt£-lisfi Mechanic. Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. A rOCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR- MULM FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N.A. Third Edition. Royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4s. "We recommend it to our readers .as going far to supply a long-felt vi3.nt."—Nava! Science. "A most useful companion to all marine angineets."— United Service Gazette, Introduction to Marine Engineering. ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING : A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. Sic. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By John Sherren Brewer, Government Marine Surveyor, Hong- kong. Small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. " Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in the chapters on the management of boilers and engines." — Nautical Magazine, '• A useful introduction to the more elaborate text books." — Scotsman. •• To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attain a thorough knowledge Mr Brewer offers decidedly useful help."— ^/As««Mwt. ' Navigation. PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ■ together with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by Henry Law, C.E., and Professor J. R. Young. Illustrated. lamo, 7s. strongly half-bound. 22 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE. MINING AND METALLURGY. Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom. BRITISH MINING : A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United King- dom. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records ; Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," &c. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2S. cloth. " One of the most valuable works of reference of modem times. Mr. Hunt, as keeper of mining records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoj'ed by anyone else, and has evidently made the most of them. . . . The language and style adopted are good, and the treatment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and %z\(tvX\fiC"—Eiigineerinfr. "The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical information on minin? subjects, and we know of no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the only merit of Mr. Hunts volume, it would be sufficient to render it indispens.nble in this library of everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical industries of this country." "A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may be interested in our great mineral industries." — Engineer, "A sound, business-like collection of interesting facts. . . . The amount of information Mr. Hunt has brought together is enormous. . . . The volume appears likely to convey more Instruction upon tlie subject than any work hitherto published."— yourr.al. Colliery Management. THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK : A Compre- hensive Treatise on the Laying-oiit and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal-Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By Caleb Pamelv, Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers ; and Member of the South Wales Insti- tute of Mining Engineers. With nearly 500 Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, about 600 pages. Price £1 5s. strongly bound. [Just published. Coal and Iron, THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribu- tion, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also an Account of the occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History ot the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meade, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With Maps. 8vo, £1 8s. cloth. " The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all Interested In coal and Iroa production, and in the iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries." — Etii^iiieer. " Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. . . A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his library." — Irmi and Coal Trades Review. Prospecting for Gold and other Metals, THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK : A Guide for the Pro- spector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New Caledonia." Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. "Will supply a much felt want, especially among: Colonists, In whose way are so often thrown many mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine." — Engineer. "How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the leading points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much practicaa detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size."— Mining Journal. Mining Notes and Formulce, NOTES AND FORMULA FOR MINING STUDENTS. By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo,2s. 6rf. cloth. " Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects."— Cffa/ and Iron Trades Review, "The author has done his work in an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book that will be of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations.' — Engineer. " A vast amount of technical matter of the utmost value to mining engineers, and of considej. able interest to students." — Schoolmaster. MINING AND METALLURGY. 23 Explosives. A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun- Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds. Including the Manufacture of Collodion-Cotton, By M. Eissler, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, Author of " The Metallurgy of Gold, &c. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, los. 6d. cloth. "Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasting and the use of explosives generally may at any time become a necessary auxiliary. —Aatnre. . "A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for mUitary, mming and blasting purposes."— ylrmy and Navy Gaze//e. i, „v ,r.ri " The book is clearly written. Taken as a whole, we consider it an excellent little book and one that should be found of great service to miners and others who are engaged ui work requiring the use of explosives."— Gold, Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD : A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting and Refining of Gold By M, Eissler, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, formerly Assistant Assayer of the U. S. Mint, San Francisco. Third Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. With 187 Illustrations. Crown Svo, 12s. 6d. cloth. " This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ' Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described m clear and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail. •—Saturday Review. " The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend it to all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry."— Journal Silver, 3Ietallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF SILVER : A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting and Lixiviation of Silver Ores, Including the Assaying, Melting and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler, Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold '• Second Edition, Enlarged. With 150 Illus- trations. Crown Svo, los. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected ■wilh tt\e industiies."— Mining' yournal. " From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable. —Colliery Gnarazan. "For chemists, practical miners, assayers and investors alike, we do not know of any worK on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive."— G/ai.T''™' /herald. Silver-Lead, Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD: A Practical Treatise cn the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on varioas Smelting Establishments and Descriptions of Modern Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Crown Svo. 400 pp., with numerous Illustrations, 12s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. Metalliferous Minerals and 3Iining. TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of "A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying." Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised. Crown Svo, 12s. 6d. cloth. " Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested in mines can have a better book for his companion and his guide."— yo'f'f^A . , , L'"i'">;^3' "^oria. " We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to this valuable work. - " As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, and it supplies an actual via.\\t."—Athenaum, Earthy Minerals and 3Iining. A TREATISE ON EARTHY 6- OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Uniform with, and forming a Com- panion Volume to, the same Author's " MetaUiferous Minerals and Mining. With 76 Wood Engravings. Second Edition. Crown Svo, 12s. 6d. cloth. "We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same amount of information packed in equaUy convenient form. —Academy. -^We should be inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades manuals which have recently appeared. "-£>-itoA Quarterly Review. 24 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. Mineral Surveying and Valuing. THE MINERAL SURVEYORAND VALUER'S COMPLETE r>Yfli/s« on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua- tion of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. JBy Wm Lintern Mining and Civil Engineer. Third Edition, with an Appendix on Magnetic and Angular Surveying," with Records of the Peculiarities of Needle D s- _turbances. With Four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c. lamo, 4s. cloth Tradif'^^inT"^ ^ "^''^^^^ thoroughly trustworthy guide ■■-Jron and Coal Ze^:^-clui7y^GfardZt' °^ highest value to colliery surveyors, proprietors and mana- Asbestos and its Uses. ASBESTOS : Its Properties, Occurrence and Uses. With some F?Z"ro?int'''' ^^'rf °^ ^i^'l and Canada. By Robert H. Jones. With Eight Col otype Plates and other Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth An interestnig and invaluable work."-Comerv Guardian • -f '■waders to get this exceedingly interesting work for themselves • thev will Bolder. " ^^"Sgestive, and a great deal that is ofimnTediate and pracTicll usefulness."- " A valuable addition to the architect's and engineer's Wbr^ry."— Building- News. Underground Pumping Machinery. MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip- tion of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and M^ch^lT 8vo™r/^cloTh ^ °^ Pumping Machinery, By Stephen ».>„J')?(^''' u*' li'SliIy esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining engineers and students 6 a most^ahf-,h1?wj;'J° ^=^"=5'"^^^^ with the best means of securing the Sainage of mUies. 1I C<;//S°^ ^ literature of stiam pumpi^ machinery."- valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive circulation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery."-^i,a„>- Journal. ^"'^"^"^^ Mining Tools. A MANUAL OF MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Students, &c. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Prac- tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. lamo, 2S. 6d. cloth limp ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above, contain- _ing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to scale. 4to, 4s. 6d. cloth nrarti,iyi-nnwllHLA^T"'''v'!''^"'"'l'*^' J""^ overmen, captains, managers, and viewers may gain A vi^^^H^'^ l'^ "',f "k ' ""^i''^ '""^y °' Morgans' manual. "-Co/rt.o' Guardi^ Journal "^'^ ■"ateriaUy to improve our mining literature."-Arw»>;i. Coal Mining. COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on. Bv M?nlT Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c.. Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 4s. cloth boards principal m^uS^ofwolw ^^"1 ^"^^^"/^-l^l'^ "^'^ °*er countries, as well as of the Mi^in^yournal^^ doubtless interest a very large number of readers."- Suhterraneoiis Surveying. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise o«, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick Surveyor of Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. Ulust. i2mo, 3.. cloth bol^ds.' Granite Quarrying. GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By George F. Harris, F.G.S., Membre de la Societe Beige de Ge'ologie, Lec- turer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institutionf&c. WUh I llistra- tions. Crown 8vo, 2S. 6d. cloth. vviiu luusiia -■irotfma"^^ well-written manual for persons engaged or interested in the granite industry." An interesting work, which will be deservedly esteemed. "-Cfl//«rr Guardian unaccounTOull L\ST„^,r'' H^'""''^" monograph on a subject whkhSfs hitherto received unaccountably little attention m the shape of systematic literary UeaxmenV-Scoitish Leader. ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 25 ELECTRICITY ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, ete. Electrical Engineering. THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF MODERN RULES, FORMULJB, TABLES AND DATA. By H. R. Kempe, M.Inst.E.E., A.M.Inst C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c. With numerous Illus- trations, royal 32mo, oblong, 5s. leather. L^'ws* published. " There is very little in the shape of formute or data which the electrician is likely to want In a liuiry which cannot be found in its pages."— Prac/tcal Engineer. . " A very useful book of reference for daily use in practical electrical engineering and its various applications to the industries of the present day." — Iron. " It is the best book of its ^mA."— Electrical Engineer. "The Electrical Engineer's Pocket- Book is a good one."— Electrician. _ ^ . , "Strongly recommended to those engaged in tne various electrical industries." — Electrical Reviezu. Electric Lighting. ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING : A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Manage- ment. By John W. Urquhart, Electrician, Author of " Electric Light," &c. With numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. [_Jwst published. " This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of electric lighting, and is addressed to m m who are already engaged in the work or are training for it. The work traverses a ereat dt al of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author's useful work on ' Electric l^ight.' "—Electi-ician. " This is an attempt to state in the simplest language the precautions which should be adopted in instat ing the electric light, and to give information. for the guidance of those who have to run the plant when installed. The book is well wor.h the perusal of the workmen for whom it is wiitten." — Electrical Revitiu. , ' Eminently practical and useful. . . . Ought to be in the hands of everyone in charge ot an electric light plant." — Electrical Engineer. ' ' A really capital book, which we have no hesitation in recommending to the notice of working electricians and electrical engineers.'' — Mechanical l^orld. Electric Light. ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use. Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment cf Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E., Author of "Electric Light Fitting," &c. Fourth Edition, Revistd.with Large Additions and 145 Illustiations. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. [_J"st published. "The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject." — Atheneeum. "It is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part to the ordinary reader, a general but concise history of the means which have been adopted up to tiie present time in producing the electric light." — Metropolitan. . "The book contains a general account of the means adopted in producing the electric light, not only as obtained from voltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length of the dynamo-electric machine in several of its forms." — Colliery Guardian. Construction of Dynamos. DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION : A Practical Haftdbook for the Use of Engineer Constructors and Electricians in Charge. With Examples of leading English, American and Continental Dynamos and Motors. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of " Electric Light," &c. Crown 8vo, ys. 6rf. cloth. [Just published. " The author has produced a book for which a demand has long existed. The subject is treated in a thoroughly practical mOLi\ner.''—A/ec/ianical World. Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism. THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D. Crown 8vo. 400 pp. With 130 Illustrations. los. 6d. cloth. I] ust publish. d. Text Book of Electricity. THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. With an Introduction and Additional Chapters, by W. H. Preece, M.I.C.E., Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. " We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indispensable." — Athencenm. •' An admirable text book for every student — beginner or advanced — of electricity."— Engineering. 26 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. Electric Ligliting. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT- ING. By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, Associate I.E.E. Second Edition, Enlarged and Revised. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, is. 6d. cloth. ' ' Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles of electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little vfOik."—£ra«(rd Gossip. Geology. RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the leading Principles of the Science ; and " Historical Geology," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. , &c. With 250 Illustrations. i2mo, 5s. cloth. " The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information is exhaustive and well arranged." — School Board Chronicle. Geology and Genesis. THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION ; or, Geology and Genesis : their Perfect Harmony and Wonderftil Concord. By George W, Victor le Vaux. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. cloth. " A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Vfoxd."— The Rock, The Constellations. STAR GROUPS : A Student's Guide to the Constellations, By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., M.R.I. A., &c., Author of "The Scenery of the Heavens." With 30 Maps. Small 4to, 5s. cloth, silvered. [Just published. Astronomy, ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. Robert Main, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Radcliffe Observer at Oxford. Third Edition, Revised and Cor- rected to the present time, by W. T. Lynn, B.A., F.R.A.S. lamo, 2S. cloth. "A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners." — Knowledge.. [tional Times. Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr. Lyna."—£duca- NATURAL SCIENCE, etc. 27 DR. LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- wriuen by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 lUustraUons. Post 8vo, " Thf pir^icuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had bewme ob^^^^^^ physics to the industrial arts, and to the pracUca business of lite. y^""''^^^^^ „_ "iVIr. Loewy has carefuUy revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements. ^""••Natural philosophy has had few exponents more, able or better skiUed I" 'jj^ o^P"?^' larising the subject tlian Dr. Lardner ; and Mr. Loewy is domg good service in fittmgthis treatise, and the others of the series, for use at the present tune. —Scotsman. THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.b. WUQ 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth. ••For those •wlio desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physlca s-^'e^^e .TvIlPll'Uaoted^' found n?ethods of matl^ematical investigatioiV this work is not merely intended, but weU adapted. -^"Sf'-Fii^totme before us has been carefully edited, augmented to nearly twi^, the buU.^ 0^^^^^^^^ former edition, and aU the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text dook. Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think. speciaUy suited to their requirements." English Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re- written by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. . 1 V '•The style !s always clear and precise, and conveys Instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind."— ^ j< „„,„„„^ n,at it- ran he "A most exhaustive book on the subject on which It treats, and is so arranged that it can Be understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of vM'^^}^"Z^,\.^standard Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and effects °(^<'''^:^fJ?J'%^^^;..;. ••A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general readers. -English Mecha7iic, THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. By Dionysius Lardner.D.C.L;, formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. New Edition. Edited by T Olver Harding, B A Lond., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 pages, 5s. cloth. a •' Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifuUy and elaborately Ulustrated. Mechanic's Magazine. THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. By Dr. Lardner. Ninth Thousand. Edit, by George Carey Foster, B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 5s. cloth. "The book could not Ivave been entrusted to anyone bettercalculated to preserve the terse and lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and brmgmg up his work to tlie present state ol scientific knowledge."— Pc/'K/aJ' Science Review. THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Companion to the " Handbook of Natural Philosophy.'' By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards ol 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, gs. 6iONVSius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College. London. With upwards of i.zcwTigrav- or Vo'y/"^^' ^ "^^^^ elegar^?doTh bind- ing; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 3 IS. 6rf. *^:* Opinions of the Press. the hum'bfe^^t'^l'n hf/i''^^ affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which mnn tmT,™' 1 ? i "'^ country ought to be acquauited, also undertakes that teachinrof ' Com S?. Jrv^nf^v every w;eU-wisher of his Icind is anxious to promote. Many thou3 codS of made T^^th^^?"Tfi Science and Arf is the most valuable contribution that has ever been ^iff^ VjlL^K^^'f,^. °' '"^'^ of society."-Sir DAVID BREWSTErin or the^Ste int^Pr.Tif^'l "P,«'^"'y ^"'3 beauty of the iUustratlons, the charm of the writing, imont thf. niJi f "l^ mMer we .nust express our belief that there is hardly to befouifd .V Separate books formed front the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, etc. ^i^ ffs Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time. Snsfcl^th'gnr5r°''°"' ^'^ ^'^^ Illus- ^I'nH'^**"'''*''"-^^-^ Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Micfo- bcope. Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth ^fP^^iar Geology. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust of the Earth, &c. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. Popular Physics. Containins Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmo- sphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the 1 hermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, is. 6d. Steam audits Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and bteam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. Popttlar Astronomy. Containing How to observe the Heavens— The Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influ- ences, &c. 182 Illustrations, 4s. 6d. Ihe See and White A nts : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustra- tions ot Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. The Electric Telegraph Popularised. To render intelligible to all who can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various lorms ot Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt. Dr. Lardner's School HanclhooJcs. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6d. cloth. " A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convev ^r.iSre«arL'rr.ffS^'''''^ """""^ ^' '""""'"^ '^"'''"'^ °^ ^"^^'^^ Science."- ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardnep With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6d. cloth. " Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently Ulustrated."— Gor the press. Accounts for Manufacturers. FACTORY ACCOUNTS: Their Principles and Practice. A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No- menclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the Rating of Fac- tories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Third Edition. Demy 8vo, 250 pages, price 6s. strongly baund. " A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . the princip'e of assimilating- the Factory Accounts to the general commercial boolcs is one which we thorouirhly agree with.' —A ccoit>iia/Us' yo7tri!al. " There are few owners of Factories who would not derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." — Local Govei-iiment Chronicle. Foreign Commercial Correspondence. THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT: Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages— English, French, German, Italian and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Second Edition, Revised, Crown 8vo, 3s. _6d. cloth. ' ' Wlioever wishes to correspond'in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged."— v^tt^;^<^^<;«. "A careful e.xaraina'l)n has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and' rehable. The book is a thoroughly good one."— Schoolmaster. Intuitive Calculations. THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR ; or. Easy and Con- cise Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By D. O'GoRMAN. Corrected by Professor J. R. Young. Twenty-seventh Ed Revised by C. Norris, Fcap. 8vo, 2S. 6d. cloth ; or. 3s. 6d. half-bound. " It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book like this to everyone engaged in commerce or manufacturing industry."— ArVzotu/irf^f. •' Supplies special and rapid methods for all kinds of calculations. Of great utility to persons engaged in any kind of commercial transactions."— Modern Metrical Units and Systems. MODERN METROLOGY : A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the Present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lewis D'A. Jackson, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. " The author has brought together much valuable and interesting information. . . . We cannot but recommend the work." — Nature. "For exliaustive tables of equivalent weights and measures of all sorts, and for clear demonstra- tions ot the etfects of the various systems that have been proposed or adopted, Mr. lackson s treatise IS without a rival." — Academy. The Metric System and the British Standards. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand- ard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, ios. 6rf. strongly bound. " Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal."— .Si^Vrfer "Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other. —A thenceum. Iron and Metal Trades' Calculator. THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. For expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from IS. per cwt. to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to 100 tons. To which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration ot Superficies and Solids, &c. ; also Tables of Weights of Materials, and other Useful Memoranda. By Thos. Downie. Strongly bound in leather, 396 pp , as. " A most useful set of tables. . . . Nothing Uke them before existed."— Buitdmo- News Although specially adapted to the Iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful ia every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight."— iJasVwaj' Netus, CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined. THE NUMBER, WEIGHT AND FRACTIONAL CALCU- LATOR, Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a glance the value at 422 different rates, ranging from jl^th of a Penny to 20S. each, or per cwt., and £20 per ton, of any number of articles consecu- tively, from I to 470.— Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from i cwt. to 470 cwts.— Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 to 1,000 tons. By William Chadwick, Public Accountant. Third Edition, Revised and Im- proved. 8vo, price i8s., strongly bound for Office wear and tear. This work is specially adapted for the Apportionment of Mileage Charges for Railway Traffic. tS" This comprehensive and entirely unique and original Calculator is adapted for the use of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies, Canal Cotnpanies, Shippers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc. Ironfounders, Drassfounders', Metal Merchants, Iron Manufacturers,Ironmongers, Engineers, Machinists, Boiler Makers, Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery Proprietors, etc. Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneers Valuers, Brokers, Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants and General Wholesale Tradesmen. \* Opinions of the Press. "The book contains the answers to questions, and not simply a set of Ingenious puzzle methods of arriving at results. It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary, and the references are even more quickly made. For making- up accounts or esti- mates, the book must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and measure in any combination to &o."— Engineer. " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared."— C/ajyow Herald. CompreJiensive Weight Calculator, THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact Value of any Weight from 1 lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from td. to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a smgle addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will aftord an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calcu- lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry Harben, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vo, strongly half-bound, £1 5s. " A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of the kladv/ehs.veseen.' —Jronmouger. . , . „ c-j.,.- " Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in all mercantile oflices. —i^hej- field Independent. Comprehensive Discount Guide, THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowmg one or more Discounts ; to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from li to 00 per cent., Tables of Discount from to gSf per cent., and Tables of Com- mission, &c., from i to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant, Author of " The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrected, Demy Bvo, 544 pp. half-bound, £1 ss. "A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time means saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work is a mode of typographical clearness, and must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders."— -Uriiisfi Trade Journal. Iron Shipbuilders' and Merchants' Weight Tables, IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of up- wards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from i foot by 6 in. by J in. to 10 feet by 5 feet by i in. Worked out on the basis of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of i inch in thickness. Caretuily compiled and thoroughly Re- vised by H. BuRLiNSON and W. H. Simpson. Oblong 4to, 255. half-bound. "This work will be found of great utility. The authors have had much practical experience of what is wanting in making estimates; and the use of the book wiil save much time iu making elaborate calculations."— £»£-/tfA Mechanic, INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 31 INDUSTRI AL AND USEF UL ARTS. Soap-maMng. THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING : A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander Watt, Author ot " Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d, cloth. "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical SOip-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." — Che7nical News. "Mr. Watt's book is a thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature In our language. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical literature." — Nature, Paper MaMng. THE ART OF PAPER MAKING : A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw and other Fibrous Materials, Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By Alexander Watt. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. "This book is succinct, lucid, thoroughly practical, and includes everything of interest to the modern paper maker. It is the latest, most practical and most complete work on the paper-making art before the British public." — Paper Record. "It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuable in- formation. The 'Art of Paper-making,' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical class or for the private student." — Paper and Prindnjr Trades Journal. " Admirably adapted for general as well as ordinary technical reference, and as a handbook for students in technical education may be warmly commended." — The Paper Maker's Monthly yoicrnal. Leather Manufacture. THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, the Principles of Tanning Explained and many Recent Processes introduced. By Alexander Watt, Author of " Soap-Making," &o. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, Crown 8vo, gs. cloth, "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and Its accessories. This book is an eminently valuable production, which redounds to the credit ot both author and publishers." — Chemical tievieiu. "This volume Is technical without being tedious, comprehensive and complete without being prosy, and it bears on every page the impress of a master hand. We have never come across a better trade treatise, nor one that so thoroughly suppUed an absolute want." — Shoe and Leather Trades' Chronicle, Boot and Shoe MaJcing. THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING. A Practical Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. By John B. Leno, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe-Maker. With numerous Illustrations, Third Edition. lamo, -zs. cloth limp. "This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written on the subject. A new work, embracing all modern improvements, was much wanted. This want is now satisfied. The chapter on clicking, which shows how waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book." ■ — Scottish Leather Trader, Dentistry. MECHANICAL DENTISTRY : A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use- ful Formulae, Tables and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c. By Charles Hunter. Third Edition, Revised, With upwards of 100 Wood Engravings. Crown Bvo, 3s. 6d. cloth. " The work is very practical." — Monthly Review of Dental Surgery. " Wo can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students preparing for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dentist," — Dublin journal 0/ Medical Science, Wood Engraving. WOOD ENGRA VING : A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Study of the Art. By William Norman Brown. Second Edition. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, is, 6rf. cloth limp. "The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone wantirg to understand the first elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving."— GraMt'c, 32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. By PAUL N. HASLUDK. Metal Turning, THE MET A L TURNER'S HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances and Processes employed in Metal Turning. By Paul N. Has- LucK, Author of " Lathe-Work." With upwards of One Hundred Illustra- tions. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. " Clearly and concisely written, excellent in every way." — Mechanical 1-Foyld. Wood Turning. THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances and Processes Employed in Wood Turning. By Paui, N. Hasluck. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. " Wc recommend the book to youiisj turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry." — Mechanical World. WOOD AND METAL TURNING. By P. N. Hasluck. (Being the Two preceding Vols, bound together.) 300 pp., with upwards of 200 Illustrations, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. Watch Repairing. THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical M anual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Watchwork. By Paul N. Hasluck. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Cr. Bvo, 2S. cloth, "All youngf persons connected with the trade should acquire and study this excellent, and at the same time, inexpensive work." — Clerkeitiuell Chro7iicle. Clock Itepairing. THE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK : A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting, Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Clockwork. By Paul N. Hasluck. Withupwards of 100 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 2S. cloth. " of inestimable service to those commencing the trade." — Coventry Standard, WATCH AND CLOCK JOBBING. By P. N. Haslqck. (Being the Two preceding Vols, bound together.) 320 pp., with upwards of 200 Illustrations, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. J^attem ]\J^aJcing » THE pattern' MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Appliances em- ployed in Constructing Patterns for Founders. By Paul N. Hasluck. With One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s; cloth. " This liandy volume contains sound information of considerable value to students and artificers." — Hardware Trades Journal. Mechanical 3Ianipulation. THE ME CHA NIC'S WORKSHOP HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation. Embracing Information on various Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. By Paul N. Hasluck. Crown 8vo, is. cloth. " It is a book which should be found in every workshop, as it is one which will be continually referred to for a very great amount of standaird information." — Saturday Review. Model Engineering. THE MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK : A Practical Manual on Model Steam Engines. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Processes Employed in their Construction. By Paul N. Hasluck. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. " By carefully going through the work, amateurs may pick up an excellent notion of the con- struction of full-sized steam engines." — Teleg'7-aphic Jourjial, Cabinet Making. THE CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK : A Practical Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes employed in Cabinet Work. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of "Lathe Work," &c. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2S. cloth. [Glasjro7V Herald. " Thoroughly practical throughout. The amateur worker in wood w.l find it most useful." — INDUSTRIAL A ND USEFUL ARTS. 33 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc. ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descrip- tions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther- mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By Alexander ^ Watt. Third Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crovim 8vo, gs. cloth. "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in the workshop." —Engtneer. ^ Electro-Metallurgy, ELECTRO-METALLURGY ; Practically Treated. By Alexander Watt. Author of " Electro-Deposition," &c. Ninth Edition, Enlarged and Revised, with Additional Illustrations, and including the most recent Processes, lamo, 4s. cloth boards. "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful prosecution of electroplating."— Electroplating. ELECTROPLATING : A Practical Handbook on the Deposi- li?-\°t^^°PP^''' Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c. &c. With Descriptions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries and Dynamo Machines used in the Art. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Second Edition, with Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. " An excellent practical mnmia.\."—E>ioineenng; " An excellent work, giving the newest inioxmaxion."— Ho nlotrical Journal. Electrotyping. ELECT ROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print- ing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By T. W. Urquhart, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. " The book is thoroughly practical. The reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up to the final preparation of the work."— Journal. Horology. A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac- tice. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, by Julien Trip- PLiN, F.R.A.S., and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With 78 Woodcuts and 22 Coloured Plates. Second Edition. Royal 8vo. 2S, cloth ; £2 los. half-calf. • " JifS "° horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this produc- tion ot M. Saunier s for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and ^.^ -'r,'^'^?'^^ '""^ experienced horologist and skilled \ioiWma.n."—Horologiml Journal. 1 he latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren -in fact, the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's '1tedi\ix:"-iralchma/ier, Jeweller aniSilverstnith. Watchmaking. THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. A Workshop Com- panion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechanical Arts, From the French of Claudius Saunier. Enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Woodcuts and Copper Plates. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. '.' ^^'^^ P^rt '5 u'y ^ treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and concise. ^ It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker."- £?j?z)j«c>-2«^. " It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fulfiis every requirement in a hand- book intended ior the use of a workmaiu"— AFafcA ajid Clockmaker. " This book contains an immense number of practical details bearing on the daily occupation ot a. -watchmaker.'— iratcAmaier ami Melalwarier (Chicago). Goldsmiths' Work. THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged. i2mo, 3s. 6d. cl. bds. 'A good, sound educator, and will be accepted as an authority."— /for<7&^i?-//t BHtish Agriculturist. 36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. Flour Manufacture, Milling, etc. FLOUR MANUFACTURE : A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with Supplement. By H. H, P. Powlks, A.M.I.C.E. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, 25s. cloth. " This valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of miUing. . . The miller v/ho has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a suc- cessful career ; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modern milling in good, sound English, which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom." — The Miller. " The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers will, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages."~Millei-s' Gazette. Small Farming. SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING; or, The Lessons of my Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers in the Culture of Crops; The Feeding of Cattle; The Management of the Dairy, Poultry and Pigs, &c. &c. By Robert Scott Burn, Author of " Out- lines of Landed Estates' Management." Numerous Illusts., cr. 8vo, 6s. cloth. "This is the completest book of Its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer will read with pleasure and accept as a guide." — Field. "The volume contains a vast amount of useful information. No branch of farming is left untouched, from the labour to be done to the results achieved. It may be safely recommended to all who think they will be in paradise when they buy or rent a three-acre farm."— G/ajrfo7t/ Herald. Modern Farming. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming Economy — Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Management of Dairy, Pigs and Poultry — Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half- bound, profusely Illustrated, 12s. " The aim of the author has been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy, Mid In this aim he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit."— Morning Advertiser. " No farmer should be without this boo\!i."—£aH6ury Guardiaft. Agricultural Engineering. FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF. Comprising Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates ; Farm Buildings, their Arrangement and Con- struction, with Plans and Estimates; Barn Implements and Machines; Field Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, Levelling, &c. By Prof. John Scott, Editor of the " Farmers' Gazette," late Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, &c. &c. In One Vol., 1,150 pages, half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, 12s. "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The volume will be of great value to agricultural students."— Lane Express. " For a young agriculturist we know of no handy volume likely to be more usefuUv studied " —Bell s Weekly Messenger. English Agriculture. THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN : A Text-Book of Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). Second Ed., Revised, with Additions. i8mo, 2s. 64. cl. "A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of mformsX.\o-a."—A£rimltural Economist. It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains such a vast and useful fund of knowledge."— £i^Mca/iD«a/ Times. Tables for Farmers, etc. TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS for Farmers, Graziers, Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents Auc- tioneers, etc. With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. Selected and Arranged by Sidney Francis. Second Edition, Revised. 272 pp., waist- ^coat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. " Weighing less than i oz., and occupying no more space than a match box, it contains a mass of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole of M^sen^er " revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend if— Bell's Weekly "A marvellous little book. , . . The agriculturist who possesses himself of it will not be disappointed with his investment."— Farm, AGRICULTURE, FA RMING, GARDENING, etc. 37 Farm and Estate Book-keeping. BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS & ESTATE OWNERS. A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all Classes ot Farms. By Johnson M.Woodman, Chartered Accountant, Second _fcdition, Revised. Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6d. cl. bds. ; or 2S. 6d. cl. limp. " W-Ti r'^^^ a capital study of a most important subject."— yls-riaiUural Gazette. in«a«. Receipts for Gardeners. GARDEN RECEIPTS. By C. W. Quin. i2mo, is. 6d. cloth. A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable Information."— ^;A«««k»i. Market Gardening. MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING. By Contributors to "The Garden." Compiled by C. W. Shaw, late Editor of " Gardening Illustrated." lamo, 3s. 6d. cloth boards. " The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published."— Cottage Gardening. COTTAGE GARDENING : or, Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Small Gardens. By E. Hobday. i2mo, is. 6rf. cloth limp. Potato Culture. POTATOES : How to Grow and Show Them. A Practical Guide c.i General Treatment ofj the Potato. By James Pink. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. 38 CROSBY LOCK WOOD <^ SON'S CATALOGUE. LAND AND ESTATE MANAGEMENT, LAW, etc Hudson's Land Valuer's Focket-Boolc, THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: Being Tables on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c. By R. Hudson, C.E. New Edition. Royal 32mo, leather, elastic band, 4s, "This new edition includes tables for ascertaining the value of leases for any term of years; and for showing how to lay out plots of prround of certain acres in forms, square, round, &c., with valuable rules for ascertaining the probable worth of standing timber to any amount ; and is of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional aiBLn."— Farmers' Journal. Ewart's Land Improver's JPocket-BooJc, THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULA, TABLES and MEMORANDA required, in any Computation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property, By John Ewart, Land Surveyor and Agricultural Engineer. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s. "A compendious and handy little volume." — Spectator, Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pochet-BooTc. THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- PLETE POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of the above Two Works bound to- gether. Leather, gilt edges, with strap, 7s. 6d. " Hudson's book is the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and crops, and its combination with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the latter-mentioned. ... It is most useful as a manual for reference."— A^or^A 0/ England Farmer. Auctioneer's Assistant. THE APPRAISER, A UCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND EST A TE A GENT AND VAL UER'S POCKET A SSISTA NT, tor the Valua- tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, Valuer, &c. Fifth Edition, re-written and greatly extended by C. N orris. Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32mo, 5s. cloth. " A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture,&c." — Standard. " Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase, sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices for Inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other eSects."— Builder. Auctioneering. AUCTIONEERS : THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES. A Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By Robert Squibbs, Auctioneer. Second Edition, Revised and partly Re-written, Demy 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth. "The position and duties of auctioneers treated compendiously and clearly."— Suilder, "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent yiax\i"— Ironmonger, " Of great value to the profession. . . . We readily welcome this book from the fact that it treats the subject in a manner somewhat new to the profession." — Estates Gazette. Legal Guide for PawnbroJcers, THE PAWNBROKERS', FACTORS' AND MERCHANTS' GUIDE TO THE LAW OF LOANS AND PLEDGES. 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