c- v 
 
 
 
 
 *•* 
 
LONDON: 
 
 Printed by Schulze and Co., 13, Poland Street. 
 
 
ARTISTIC ANATOMY 
 
 OF THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 BY HENRY WARREN, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF DRAWING AT QUEEN’S COLLEGE, LONDON, HONORARY MEMBER OF THE 
 PENNSYLVANIAN ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, 
 
 AND PRESIDENT OF THE NEW SOCIETY OF PAINTERS IN WATER-COLOURS. 
 
 WITH TWENTY-THREE ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 DRAWN ON WOOD BY THE AUTHOR, AND ENGRAVED BY WALTER G. MASON. 
 
 FIFTH EDITION. 
 
 its praliat artifiriw. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 WINSOR AND NEWTON, 38, RATHBONE PLACE, 
 artists' Colour fttafcm, bp Special appointment, to J)ex fttafeatp, 
 anb to Jtj.U.Jl). iprincc albert. 
 
 1854. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The Author has endeavoured to make this little work 
 sufficiently comprehensive to be useful to the general 
 student in the art of drawing the human figure. 
 
 In reference to the plates, it may be observed that the 
 bones are marked by letters, the muscles by numerals. 
 To the same bones and the same muscles,—wherever they 
 may occur through each section,—the same letters or 
 numbers will apply. 
 
 The direction of the lines of shading in the plates is 
 made to correspond to the direction of the muscular 
 fibres; the consideration of this being necessary to that 
 dimpling and folding of the outer skin, which painters 
 more than sculptors love to indicate,—perhaps too 
 freely. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 The general construction of the human frame is as 
 follows: 
 
 The osseous (bony) structure is first overspread, es¬ 
 pecially - at the joints, by a tough covering called 
 periosteum. 
 
 On this are placed the different layers of muscles, 
 enclosed in thin sheaths, with their various aponeuroses, 
 or semitendinous portions. 
 
 The muscles are partly formed of fleshy fibres, taking 
 various directions, according to their requirements, and 
 partly of tendinous or sinewy portions. 
 
 The whole is enwrapped by the adipose [fatty] mem¬ 
 brane, vulgarly called the skin. 
 
 Through this pliable and soft but thick clothing, 
 the actions of the muscles are visible, more or less ac¬ 
 cording to their powerful development or otherwise; but 
 it is at all times difficult to detect their exact forms and 
 directions, and it is a vulgar error to display them in 
 exaggeration. The general sweeping lines of the figure 
 
6 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 are to be first and chiefly considered, the poise and pro¬ 
 portion of the skeleton being the ground for tins. 
 
 An affectation of grace is a common stumbling-block 
 to the student, while a rigid copying of the dead form, 
 to represent the living and moving figure, is no less an 
 error. 
 
 The antique statues are always the best models; and 
 with such aids, and a little study of the anatomy of the 
 human form, together with a knowledge and due con¬ 
 sideration of its perspective changes, the difficulties of 
 drawing the human figure will need but moderate practice 
 to overcome. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 IN 
 
 ARTISTIC ANATOMY. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 THE SKELETON. 
 
 A. Os frontis—the frontal bone. 
 
 B. Os parietale. 
 
 C. Os temporum. 
 
 D. Ossa maxillaria snperiora—bones of the upper jaw. 
 
 E. Maxilla inferior—the lower jaw. 
 
 F. The seven vertebra; of the neck. 
 
 G. The vertebral column. 
 
 H. The seven true and five false ribs. 
 
 I. Os sacrum. 
 
 K. Os ilium. 
 
 L. Os pubis. 
 
 M. Os ischium. 
 
 N. Sternum—breast bone. 
 
 O. Clavicula—collarbone. 
 
8 
 
 THE SKELETON. 
 
 P. Scapula—shoulder blade. 
 
 Q. Humerus or brachium—upper arm bone. 
 
 R. Radius. 
 
 S. Ulna. 
 
 T. Bones of the carpus—wrist bones. 
 
 V. Bones of the metacarpus. 
 
 U. Bones of the fingers. 
 
 W. Femur—thigh bone. 
 
 X. Tibia. 
 
 Y. Fibula. 
 
 Z. Bones of the tarsus. 
 
 AA. Bones of the metatarsus. 
 
 BB. Bones of the toes. 
 
 THE SKELETON. 
 
 By the skeleton is to be understood the framework of 
 the edifice, Man; the beams and timbers, as it were, upon 
 which the superstructure depends. The skeleton deter¬ 
 mines the size, power, and capabilities of the animal, and 
 is formed of a material sufficiently hard and solid for all 
 the mechanical powers of sustension and retension, co¬ 
 lumnar and lateral support, encasement and leverage. The 
 skeleton is a combination of two hundred bones, all of 
 which it is, however, not essential to give in a little work 
 like the present; and, indeed, if we take into consideration 
 the fact, that most of them are to be reckoned in pairs or 
 clusters, our number will be considerably diminished, as 
 far as nomenclature is concerned. 
 
THE SKELETON. 
 
 9 
 
 PliATE I. 
 
10 
 
 THE SKELETON'. 
 
 Of the forms of bones we have great variety, some are 
 triangular in section, others quadrilateral, others again 
 round; and in some bones all these forms are combined, 
 according to the uses and requirements of their different 
 portions. 
 
 So great indeed is the difference of form tliroughout the 
 bonv structure, that it were as useless as tedious to enlarge 
 upon it here; and I shall content myself with the general 
 distinctions given them by anatomists, as long, broad, and 
 short bones. 
 
 The combined mass or structure is simply divided into 
 the trunk and extremities. The former, the trunk, is com¬ 
 posed of the head, the thorax, or ribs, with the sternum or 
 breast bone, the bones of the hips and the great vertebral 
 column or back bone; the latter, the extremities, are 
 designated as superior and inferior, and are the arms and 
 the legs. 
 
 The bones of the head, divided into the cranium and 
 the face, will be given more at large further on. 
 
 The bones composing the spine or vertebral column 
 are twenty-four in number. Seven are given to the 
 neck— cervical, twelve to the back or ribs— dorsal, and 
 five to the loins— lumbar. The combined column, with 
 its intervening cartilages, measures on an average from 
 two feet four inches to two feet eight inches, independently 
 of its base the os sacrum and the terminating bones of 
 the coccyx. It has, when viewed in profile, a curved or 
 
THE SKELETOX. 
 
 11 
 
 serpentine form. In the neck it is slightly concave, in 
 the back convex, and in the loins again concave; ap¬ 
 proaching and united with the os sacrum, it again becomes 
 convex. There is also a slight curvature as seen from 
 behind or in front, its inclination being towards the left 
 side. The intention of this deviation from the straight 
 line is not satisfactorily explained. 
 
 Each vertebra is supplied with transverse processes or 
 projections articulating with the ribs, as well as others 
 called oblique, which serve to connect the vertebrae with 
 one another. The most prominent, however, and those 
 which are most essential, as being most visible to the 
 artist, are the spinous processes, having various directions 
 according to their various amounts or directions of le¬ 
 verage in different vertebrae, and it will be well to note 
 carefully the place of the seventh of the neck, called from 
 its greater projection, Yertebra prominens. The fifth also 
 of those of the loins is worthy of notice, as most easily 
 distinguishable. 
 
 The os sacrum, forming the base of the vertebral column, 
 -<!—in an advanced stage of life—but one bone, composed 
 of five parts or vertebrae which have grown together. 
 The whole col umn owes its flexibility to the discs of 
 cartilage placed between each bone, and which are so 
 elastic as to allow the column to move in all directions 
 without injury to the spinal marrow which runs nearly 
 through its whole length. The greatest amount of move- 
 
12 
 
 THE SKELETON. 
 
 ment takes place in those of the loins and neck. The 
 bearing of the figure—more or less upright—is dependent 
 on the curvature of the spinal column. 
 
 To this column—against small smooth surfaces on the 
 sides of the vertebrae, are attached the ribs; twelve on 
 each side; partly bony, partly cartilaginous. The upper 
 seven are called true ribs, the lower five false ribs, as 
 not being joined—like the upper seven—to the sternum 
 or breast bone. Their direction and arched shape down¬ 
 wards, together with their increasing inclination, will be 
 best seen by the figure of the skeleton given at the head 
 of this chapter; and though the mass or basket of the 
 ribs presents a form so opposite to that of the living 
 figure when enveloped in its fleshy covering, it should 
 nevertheless be well considered as the foundation upon 
 which must be built the true form of the principal part of 
 the trunk. 
 
 The sternum, or breast bone, forms at the centre and 
 front of the chest—as the vertebral column does posteriorly 
 —the bond of support for the seven true ribs, to which 
 it is attached by cartilaginous articulations. In early 
 youth, the sternum is composed of several bones; but 
 in the adult it lias acquired the solidity of a single bone, 
 though its higher and chief point of original division may 
 in most cases be traced by a change in its angle. The 
 general direction of the sternum is forwards and down¬ 
 wards, its angle varying much according to climate or 
 
THE SKELETON. 
 
 13 
 
 race, or according to the habits or occupations of indi¬ 
 viduals. The standard average angle for the sternum has 
 been fixed at from twenty to twenty-five degrees. In the 
 female the angle is greater than in the-man; and so, in 
 proportion, is the direction of that portion of the vertebral 
 column constituting the neck, more upright in a woman 
 than in a man. 
 
 To the upper end of the sternum are attached the pair 
 of claviculae or collar bones, slightly curved outwards 
 at first and then inwards ; they are usually more prominent 
 in a man than in a woman, in whom we find them thinner 
 and straighter. At their junction with the sternum they 
 leave the small hollow between them,—usually termed 
 the pit of the neck,—which forms so useful a point for 
 the adjustment of a true balance in the figure. The out¬ 
 ward end of the clavicle is connected with the acromion 
 and coracoid processes of the scapula, as will be further 
 explained when we treat of the shoulder and arm. 
 
 The pelvis comprehends the mass of large and strong 
 bones forming the great cavity which occupies the middle 
 of the human structure. Of these we may chiefly consider 
 the os ilium which forms on each side the great projection 
 of the hip. Spread out in a basin-like form, it presents 
 a capacious curved wall of bone, projecting in a strong 
 crest forward and downward; and, extending around the 
 form posteriorly, it is surmounted by a powerful rounded 
 edge or spine for the attachment of large and strong 
 
14 
 
 THE SKELETON. 
 
 muscles. The figure of the skeleton will sufficiently 
 describe the forms and positions of the other bones of this 
 region. On the whole, the pelvis is larger and more 
 capacious in the female than in the male; and it differs 
 in form also, being comparatively less protuberant between 
 the two crests of the ilia. 
 
 The arm,—which together with the wrist and hand 
 is designated, by anatomists, the superior extremity,—is 
 appended to the clavicle and scapula or blade bone, to 
 which it is attached by strong ligaments. The bone of 
 the upper arm, called the humerus or os brachii, is a long 
 bone, round in part and somewhat twisted, enlarging 
 at top into certain tuberosities and a rounded head, which, 
 enveloped by the usual cartilage, rests against the glenoid 
 cavity of the blade bone, fittingly hollowed out, and lined 
 also with cartilage, to receive it. The lower end of the 
 humerus becomes enlarged transversely, and by a peculiar 
 joint of beautiful mechanism is fitted to articulate with the 
 two bones of the fore arm, called the radius and the ulna, 
 in such a way as that the one—the radius—can be made 
 to twist over the other in the act of turning the hand from 
 back to front, or vice versa. This double action is called 
 pronation and supination. 
 
 To these are attached the numerous small bones of the 
 carpus, or wrist, followed by those of the metacarpus—the 
 space occupied by the back and the palm of the hand;— 
 to which succeed the bones of the fingers. 
 
THE SKELETON. 
 
 15 
 
 The inferior extremity—so called from its relative po¬ 
 sition—is comprised in a similar number and arrangement 
 of bones. The longer, called the femur, or thigh bone, 
 like the superior bone of the arm, is in part round and 
 twisted on its axis. Like the humerus too, it is furnished 
 with a globular head, which fitting into a glenoid cavity 
 forms a powerful ball and socket joint. It has further 
 similarities to the before-named bone of the arm, in 
 the tuberosities about its head and neck. The chief of 
 these, called the trochanter major is of great importance 
 in its position, as regards general form, as well as 
 in the fact that it gives attachment to several powerful 
 muscles. 
 
 At the lower end, the femur, like the humerus, widens 
 into two projections or condyles, forming the hinge 
 of attachment to the main bone of the leg, called the 
 Tibia; and as the bones of the carpus and metacarpus 
 intervene between the fore arm and the fingers, so the 
 bones of the tarsus and metatarsus, at the ankle and instep, 
 are the media of junction between the bones of the leg 
 and the toes. 
 
 The forms and uses of these several bones of the ex¬ 
 tremities, with others which make part of their structure, 
 will be explained at large in their proper places, and the 
 differences existing in the male and female specimens 
 pointed out. Suffice it here then to remark, that the same 
 just proportion and balance of the figure is to be attended 
 
16 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 to in drawing the skeleton as in the living man, for all 
 the different directions of limb and joint are adjusted in 
 conformity to the intended erect and duly poised posture 
 of man in his state of natural dignity. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 The head is divided by anatomists into the cranium and 
 the face; but it will be perhaps more convenient to con¬ 
 sider it here under one term—the head; the face being 
 so intimately connected with the forehead, which, indeed, 
 we shall consider as forming part of it. 
 
 The skull, in its upper part, gives the complete form of 
 that portion of the head; and if we take the cheek bone, 
 together with the lower jaw, we shall have a tolerably just 
 notion of it as a whole, save that the ears and lower portion 
 of the nose will be wanting. 
 
 Of the skull—we take the European as the standard- 
 two plates are here given, a front and a profile view, figured 
 in reference to the names of the several bones which are, 
 for the most part, separated by irregularly toothed or 
 zigzag lines called sutures. 
 
 A. Frontal bone —os fronds. 
 
 B. Parietal bone —os parietale. 
 
 C. Temporal bone —os iemporum. 
 
THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 ] 7 
 
 % 
 
 PliATE II. 
 
18 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 D. Malar, or cheek hone —os males. 
 
 E. Upper jaw bone —maxilla superior. 
 
 F. Lower jaw —maxilla inferior. 
 
 G. Occipital bone —os occipitis. 
 
 The ethnoid and sphenoid bones being deeply seated, 
 it is not necessary to give them. 
 
 In the forehead we find great variety, not only in dif¬ 
 ferent races, but in individuals of the same race. The 
 length of the nose, however, in Europeans, has been given 
 as the acknowledged standard of its height to the limits 
 of the hairy scalp. 
 
 The general spheroid form of the cranium is so little 
 changed by its thin muscular and membranous covering, 
 that it may be taken as the true form of that portion of 
 the head. Not so, however, of the face; for of all the 
 muscles of the human structure, those perhaps of the face 
 are the least satisfactory to the artist. So united are 
 they together in their fasciculi, as to form but, as it were, 
 a perplexing network of muscular fibre over the face. 
 Adhering as they do to the bones, the aponeuroses, and 
 the skin, their action is counter, generally speaking, to 
 their forms, causing wrinkles or markings in an opposite 
 direction to their fibres. 
 
 M.ATE III, 
 
 It is nevertheless necessary that these muscles be studied, 
 as a no less important matter than the expression of the 
 
THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 19 
 
 various passions is dependent on them. They will be 
 given, therefore, in as simple a form as possible, divested 
 
 PI.ATE III. 
 
 in a great measure of their complexities, and kept as 
 separate from each other as circumstances will allow. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Before giving the names and uses of the muscles of the 
 face, it may be as well to notice the many marked bony 
 prominences which give so much character to the human 
 countenance. 
 
 Tire prominent eminence of the occiput, at the lower 
 part of the head—so much larger in some than in others— 
 is particularly remarkable in bald persons; the mamillary 
 processes of the temporal bones behind the ears giving 
 attachment and powerful leverage to the pair of strong 
 muscles belonging to the neck; the frontal arched pro¬ 
 tuberances above the eyes, which, from their variety and 
 form of projection, give so marked a character to in¬ 
 dividual foreheads, as also the curved temporal line at 
 each side above the outer ends of the eyebrows; the 
 cheek bone more or less raised, and the coronoid pro¬ 
 cess of the lower jaw bone at its greatest angle—all 
 expressing more or less of mental or physical charac¬ 
 teristics. 
 
 PI.ATE IV. 
 
 Of the muscles of the face, the following will suffice as 
 most important and most easily understood. Their si¬ 
 tuation being fully described, it will be unnecessary to attach 
 numerals of reference to them on the plates. 
 
 The frontal muscle, musculus frontalis, originating at 
 the inner half of the upper ridge of the orbit of the 
 eye, runs upwards in an oblique direction, and becoming 
 
THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 21 
 
 tendinous above the middle of the os frontis, unites into 
 the galea aponeurotica capitis, which, covering the whole 
 skull, connects all its muscles. This muscle wrinkles the 
 
 FI.ATE IV. 
 
 forehead by its action; and drawing up the inner angle 
 of the eye, together with the eyebrows, gives to the face 
 an expression of pain. 
 
22 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 The temporal muscle, musculus temporalis, arises from 
 the parietal and frontal bones, and, passing under the 
 zygomatic arch, is inserted by a strong tendon into the 
 coronoid process of the lower jaw, which it raises and 
 compresses against the other in clenching the teeth. It 
 is thus an auxiliary to 
 
 The masseter, which takes its name from its use, chewing 
 or masticating;—it arises in the upper jaw and lower 
 fore-part of the cheek bone. It is a mass of muscular 
 fibres having place at the lower and inner part of the 
 projecting cheek bone, which it descends along the outer 
 side of the lower jaw and is attached to it all the way 
 from the coronoid process to nearly the corner of the 
 mouth. Its use has already been shown in conjunction 
 with the temporal muscle. With the assistance of the 
 temporal muscle, the masseter acts with amazing power, 
 and then, as may be observed, it loses its flattened surface 
 and becomes swollen. The two muscles, in fact, act 
 simultaneously, becoming swollen or contracted at the 
 same moment, at which time also the temporal artery 
 becomes very visible. Tliis happens in violent pain or 
 passion, or during any great effort of the mind or 
 body. 
 
 The orbicular muscle of the eyelids, musculus orbicularis 
 palpebrarum, is a collection of fleshy fibres encircling the 
 eyes, which it closes and draws together. It is not attached 
 to but lies upon the bony margin all round the orbit of 
 
THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 23 
 
 the eye, in the angle of which it has its origin, and—having 
 completed the circle—its insertion. 
 
 The elevator muscle of the nostrils and upper lip, 
 levator alee nasi labiique superioris, originates in a double 
 teudon at the nasal process of the upper jaw, and termi¬ 
 nates by spreading its fibres into the wings of the nose 
 and the upper lip, both of which it widens and draws up. 
 It serves materially, but also in conjunction with other 
 muscles, to produce the marked line, or furrow, between 
 the cheek and nostrils. 
 
 The compressor muscle of the nose, compressor narium, 
 originating at the root of the nostrils, is first united with 
 the last-mentioned muscle, but soon becoming mem¬ 
 branous, covers the whole ridge of the nose and terminates 
 in the forehead. 
 
 Its use is to compress the orifices of the nostrils, in the 
 act of smelling. It has the power also of wrinkling the 
 skin of the nose. 
 
 The elevator muscle of the upper lip, levator labii 
 superioris, commencing below the orbit of the eye, runs 
 obliquely down to the upper lip, which it draws upward 
 and outward. It thus produces the swelling of the cheek 
 in laughter and other passions, in concert with another 
 muscle called the levator anguli oris. 
 
 The zygomaticus minor, acting in concert with the last 
 muscle, has its place by its side, descending in a parallel 
 direction from the cheek bone. 
 
24 
 
 THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Of the several muscles which affect the action of the 
 mouth, those which have been already noticed have for 
 the most part the pulling of that feature upwards. Those 
 wliich have the opposite power are, first, the depressor of 
 the corners of the mouth, depressor anguli oris, wliich 
 lias its origin at the bottom of the lower jaw, where it 
 sets out broad, but becoming narrower upwards, has re¬ 
 ceived also the name of musculus pyramidalis. Running 
 round the angles of the upper lip, it has the effect of 
 drawing the corners of the mouth downward, as its name 
 imports. 
 
 The closing of the mouth is brought about by the muscle 
 called orbicularis oris ; but which, though its use—the 
 shutting of the mouth by drawing both lips together— 
 is important, is scarcely to be considered a distinct muscle, 
 so intimately are its fibres blended with, and indeed a part 
 of, other muscles in its vicinity. Its effects, however, are 
 peculiar in the several movements effected by its varied 
 action, as in constrained passion or deep meditation, when 
 the lips are compressed either against each other or 
 against the teeth; as also in antagonism to some of the 
 other muscles, in the suppression of laughter. 
 
 The buccinator, or trumpeter, tells its use in its name, 
 the contraction of the lips, as in blowing a trumpet or 
 wind instrument. 
 
 Before dismissing the muscles of the face, it may be 
 useful to observe generally of them, that whilst in the 
 
THE MUSCLES OE THE NECK. 
 
 op; 
 
 iw J 
 
 expression of pleasurable feelings, they may be said to 
 dilate or spread, they will be observed to contract or con¬ 
 centrate towards the middle of the face, in violent or 
 powerful emotions. 
 
 THE MUSCLES OF THE NECK 
 
 Are, as will be seen, connected for the most part with those 
 of the head and face, with which they are therefore given 
 in the plate. 
 
 The situation of the windpipe, asp era arteria, is too 
 well known to need being pointed out. 
 
 It may be observed here, that the two principal move¬ 
 ments of the head—the forward, or bowing movement, 
 and the rotatory movement—are chiefly dependent on two 
 separate bones of the neck. The first, or bowing move¬ 
 ment, is that which takes place principally at the articu¬ 
 lation of the skull with the first vertebra, called from 
 its bearing the globe of the head, atlas. The second, or 
 rotatory movement, takes place at the articulation of 
 the atlas and second vertebra, called the dentata, from 
 a tooth-like process, which being inserted into the 
 foramen, or hollow of the atlas, forms a kind of pivot 
 on which it turns. The movement of the head towards 
 either shoulder is limited to a quarter of a circle in each 
 direction. 
 
 The other movements, whether lateral or oblique, are 
 
26 
 
 THE MUSCLES OE THE NECK. 
 
 performed by the five other vertebrae, in conjunction with 
 the two already noticed. 
 
 The neck is formed of the following muscles, enclosing 
 the cervical vertebra, and acting upon their several joints 
 in many motions. They are all in pairs. 
 
 The sterno-cleido inastoideus is the powerful muscle so 
 prominently conspicuous from its position and volume. 
 Its front edge is rounded and prominent, while its hinder 
 portion is somewhat flattened or hollowed. Its attacliments 
 are to the inner portion of the clavicle and to the upper 
 front part of the sternum, whence rising obliquely towards 
 the occipital and temporal bones, somewhat twisted in its 
 fibres, it is inserted into the mastoid process behind the 
 ear. 
 
 It assists in almost all the actions of the neck. In 
 pulling the head towards the side, a wrinkling of the skin 
 on that side takes place, while a consequent tension of 
 the corresponding muscle occurs, on the opposite side, 
 with a strong development of the tendinous portion at 
 its junction with the sternum. In this action the pro¬ 
 minence caused by the thyroid cartilage of the larynx, 
 commonly called Adam’s apple, becomes very evident. 
 
 Eeference in respect to this action may be made to 
 the magnificent throat of the Apollo Belvidere where 
 the flatness or rather concavity produced by the space 
 between the lower end of this muscle and the trapezius 
 is so broadly and finely treated, and wdiere, too, the 
 
THE MUSCLES OE THE NECK. 
 
 27 
 
 wrinkling of the skin in front or towards the other side 
 is expressed with the delicacy always found in fine works 
 of antique Greek sculpture. 
 
 In old age, and in thin persons, this muscle becomes 
 so strongly marked as to be unsightly; while in the 
 tlu'oat of a beautiful female it is hardly visible, unless 
 the head be turned, or some violent effort shall call it into 
 energetic action. 
 
 The trapezius, so called from its quadrilateral form— 
 and sometimes cucullaris, from its resemblance to a monk’s 
 cowl (cucullus )—is a broad flat muscle, consisting of a 
 right and left half, covering the hinder part of the neck, 
 and running down the back in a point, as women wear 
 neck-handkerchiefs. 
 
 Its attachments are. 
 
 To the occipital bone ; 
 
 To the ligament, which binds the spinous pro¬ 
 cesses of the vertebrae of the neck; 
 
 To the last of these processes; and 
 To several of those of the back. 
 
 From this extended line of attachment, setting out 
 tendinous, but soon becoming fleshy, its fibres are sent 
 out in a radiated form; obliquely downward from the upper 
 part, obliquely upward from the lower, and laterally from 
 the middle towards the shoulder, where it fills up the 
 angle formed by the clavicle and the acromion process 
 of the scapula with its spine. Eventually it attaches 
 
28 
 
 THE MUSCLES OP THE NECK. 
 
 itself to the clavicle as far as its middle, and to the 
 superior angle and greater part of the spine of the 
 scapula. 
 
 With such a number of attachments, its actions—as 
 may be supposed—are many; the portions intervening be¬ 
 tween these attachments becoming swollen in proportion 
 to the energy of its contractions in the several parts. So 
 also the wrinkles or cavities at such attachments are, 
 generally speaking, at right angles with its fibres, as seen 
 on the outward surface of the skin. 
 
 The forward edge of the muscle may be traced, from its 
 adhesion at the occipital bone, downward to the collar 
 bone. 
 
 In pulling the head downward behind, many folds of 
 the skin are produced; but the projections of the spines 
 of the seventh, and mostly the sixth cervical vertebra, are 
 nevertheless visible. 
 
 It is this muscle which forms the beautifully curved 
 line of junction between the neck and the shoulder. 
 
 There are several muscles of the throat which lie under 
 those already named, but which it will not be here necessary 
 to describe. They are enwrapped, as well as the sterno- 
 hyoideus, by 
 
 The latissimus colli, which has attachments to the skin 
 of the upper part of the chest below the clavicle, and is 
 inserted into the lower jaw bone. A portion of it ascends 
 towards the ear. 
 
THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 29 
 
 It is a flat and broad muscle, as its name imports, and 
 serves as a wrapper to those beneath it. 
 
 It assists in drawing down the angle of the month and 
 part of the cheek, and it has also the power of drawing 
 obliquely downward the skin of the neck. 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 One of the most important, and certainly not least 
 difficult, portions of the body, is the shoulder joint, re¬ 
 quiring attentive study and keen observation, in respect to 
 its manifold movements. 
 
 It has been thought necessary to give several plates 
 of the shoulder, as seen in various directions and posi¬ 
 tions. 
 
 The first plate represents the scapula, or blade bone, 
 as seen in front, through the ribs, with its acromion 
 and coracoid processes, and its glenoid cavity, against 
 which is placed the head of the humerus, or upper arm 
 bone. 
 
 PL.ATE V. 
 
 The clavicle, or collar bone, is also given in its position 
 with reference to the other bones, as seen when the arm is 
 hanging down. The clavicle is attached to the acromion, 
 and coracoid processes by strong ligaments, forming an 
 arch under which the humerus is suspended; and the whole 
 
30 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 THE SCAPULA, WITH 
 
 ITS Sl’INE AS SEEN AT THE BACK. 
 
THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 31 
 
 is enwrapped, as it were, by tbe several muscles which 
 hold all together. 
 
 The scapula is free to move or slide over the posterior 
 surface of the ribs; and the clavicle , by its attachments 
 on the shoulder, is made to follow its motions upward, 
 downward, and forward. 
 
 The socket joint of the humerus at its head, gives it the 
 power of moving in almost every direction, independently 
 of, but almost always in conjunction with, the movements 
 of the other bones just named. Thus when the arm is 
 raised, the scapula rises with it, changing its angle. The 
 outer end of the clavicle also rises, and thus also 
 changes its angle, the inner or sternum end being its 
 fulcrum. 
 
 PiATE VI. 
 
 Eeference may be made to this action in the raised arm 
 of the Laocoon, and in that also of the Fighting Gladiator. 
 
 When the arm is thrust forward, as in pushing, or 
 pulling, or striking, the scapula is made to slide partially 
 round the side of the ribs, and the clavicle makes an 
 angle forward more or less according to the energy of the 
 action. 
 
 The statue of the Supplicating Youth may be instanced 
 as an example, where, as both arms are held forward, 
 the space between the scapulae as seen behind is much 
 augmented. 
 
32 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 In reference to the two actions of pulling and pushing, 
 it must be borne in mind, that while in the first the bones 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 % 
 
THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 •33 
 
 at their junctions are somewhat separated, giving increased 
 length to the arm, they are in the second thrust close 
 together, and the arm becomes proportionally shorter. 
 This of course will be the case but in a slight degree. 
 The muscles will be observed also to act and change 
 correspondingly. 
 
 When the arm is thrown back, as in the Emliting 
 Gladiator, or the Discobolos at the British Museum, then 
 the scapula slides hack over the ribs. Were both arms 
 tied or placed together behind, the two blade bones would 
 approach each other so as nearly to touch. 
 
 The Theseus of the Elgin collection is a beautiful illus¬ 
 tration of the action of the scapula, where, in addition to 
 the backward motion, the act of leaning on the elbow forces 
 the shoulder upward. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 The varied angles of the scapula and clavicle in their 
 several motions, cannot be too well studied ; nor can too 
 much attention be paid to the place of the bony knob of 
 the acromion on the top of the shoulder, but neither 
 should it be too strongly marked. Almost all the antique 
 statues may be referred to as examples, for in them we 
 find no vulgar exaggeration of these bony prominences; 
 yet are they marked, and always in their proper places. 
 
 The muscles, portions of which, as has been said, enwrap 
 the bones which form the shoulder joint, are, first— 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 The deltoid; so named from its triangular form, 
 like the delta A or D of the Greek alphabet 
 It is composed of seven, but may be simplified 
 into three, principal lobes or masses of fibres. 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 Its attachments are— 
 
 In front, to about one-third from the shoulder end 
 of the clavicle. 
 
 In the middle, to the acromion process. 
 
 At the back, to the lower edge of the spine of the 
 scapula. 
 
THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 35 
 
 The whole of the three portions combine downwards 
 into a point, and are inserted into the humerus or bone of 
 the upper arm at about its middle. 
 
 PLATE Till. 
 
 The deltoid is a powerful muscle, finely rounded about 
 the head ot the arm bone. By its threefold power, it 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 
 raises the arm laterally, or forward, or backward, according 
 as either portion of its fabric is more or less called into 
 energy; the active portion being always the most swollen, 
 while its antagonist portion becomes proportionably flat¬ 
 tened or extended. 
 
 When in the act of lifting the arm up, it swells around 
 
36 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 the acromion process which then, though still marked, 
 becomes a hollow in place of a projection. 
 
 The circumstance of its hindmost lobe being attached 
 to the spine of the scapula, and thus lower in position 
 than in front, causes a difference of form as to height, 
 when seen in profile, and a consequent flatness above the 
 scapular spine. This is more evident when the arm is 
 moved backwards, as then the rounded head of the arm 
 bone being pressed forward causes a greater protuberance 
 in front. 
 
 A proof of this is to be seen in the colossal statue called 
 the Farnese Hercules, which, though an exaggeration of 
 muscular development, is—and perhaps by the very fact of 
 such exaggeration—a most useful example in the studies 
 of an artist. 
 
 It may here be remarked, that when one arm is raised, 
 the head is naturally thrown over toward the opposite 
 shoulder, unless, as in peculiar cases, the muscles of the 
 neck are made to counteract such motion. In raising the 
 arm too, it must not be forgotten, that, in order to keep 
 up a just balance of the figure, the general line of the body 
 is changed. It is well to observe this general direction, 
 and to mark it in sketching-in the mesial line in front or 
 that of the spinal vertebrae behind. 
 
THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 37 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 In a woman, we mostly find tlie deltoid with a slight 
 depression in the middle outwards, perhaps in consequence 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
38 
 
 THE SHOULDER JOINT. 
 
 of its continuing to be fleshy nearer to its insertion than 
 in a man; or it may be caused by a greater thickness in 
 that part of the adipose membrane which covers the muscle. 
 Sometimes, too, it happens that at the articulation of the 
 outward end of the clavicle a too great elevation of the 
 integument is observed. These delicate differences, however, 
 are best appreciated through careful observation of the 
 antique statues or of the beautiful in nature. 
 
 The pectoral muscle, forming the breast, has attach¬ 
 ments— 
 
 To the collar bone, 
 
 To the inner half of the sternum, and 
 To the cartilages of the second, third, fourth and 
 fifth ribs, and to the body of the sixth rib. 
 
 Its bundles of fibres produce in a man a broad flat, 
 though slightly rounded, surface, and uniting together 
 outwardly, form a triangle by insertion into the humerus 
 immediately underneath the deltoid. 
 
 Contributing to the forward actions of the shoulder 
 joint, it pulls it towards the sternum either directly, or 
 obliquely upward, or obliquely downward, according as 
 the several portions of its fibres are made to contract. 
 There is always to be noticed, more or less, a slight depres¬ 
 sion or fold in this muscle as it approaches the insertion, 
 causing a secondary rise which is more observable and still 
 more beautiful in the female form. There are too, when 
 the muscle is stretched by the extended uplifting of the 
 
THE TRUNK. 
 
 39 
 
 arm, certain little inequalities of fibre and aponeurotic 
 portions observable in and through the skin, or adipose 
 membrane, which covers it. A deep hollow occurs under 
 the arm when stretched up laterally or forwards, but it 
 becomes less when the arm is raised still higher. In a 
 woman, the hollow thus formed is not so deep. 
 
 PJLATE X. 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 The two sides exactly answering to one another ex¬ 
 ternally, it will be sufficient to describe the set of muscles 
 composing one half of the trunk. 
 
 The mesial line, as it is called, divides the two halves, 
 beginning at the hollow between the collar bones, pro¬ 
 ceeding all down the surface of the sternum, and through 
 the whole of the trunk. 
 
 The pectoral muscles having been already described, 
 it is merely necessary to say, that between them (and 
 caused by their several prominences on either hand) is 
 the sternal groove, being the upper portion of the mesial 
 line. At the bottom of the sternum is a lozenge-shaped 
 hollow, caused by the projecting cartilage of the seventh 
 rib on each side. 
 
 In the antique statues generally, we find a broadly 
 arched prominence, answering in some measure to the 
 form of tire ribs, and surrounding the pit of the stomacb. 
 
40 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 It appears, indeed, to have been a convention of the 
 ancient sculptors to exaggerate and widen this arched form. 
 In some men, however, it is to be found much more nearly 
 approaching the antique form than in the generality of 
 persons, and it would be a bold measure, requiring the 
 nicest discrimination, to depart from an acknowledged 
 standard, such as the Greek antique. 
 
 Immediately on each side of the sternal groove just 
 named, are projections of the ribs, or their sterno-costal 
 articulations, the upper two being generally the most pro¬ 
 minent. In thin persons, these are, of course, more salient; 
 and, as in such case the body of the pectoral is flatter and 
 thinner, so in proportion are these prominences more 
 evident and more extensive. 
 
 The nipple in a man is generally on a line with the fifth 
 rib, or somewhat above it; but this is dependent on the 
 action of the muscle. 
 
 From the bottom of the sternum the mesial line con¬ 
 tinues down, as before stated, throughout the whole length 
 of the trunk, separating the two bodies of yiuscle which 
 form the abdomen longitudinally. 
 
 The rectus, or straight muscle alluded to, is attached 
 above, to the sternum, and to the cartilages of the fifth, 
 sixth, and seventh ribs ; and, running directly down, is in¬ 
 serted into the os pubis at the lower extremity of the body. 
 
 The outline of this muscle, as seen in profile, varies so 
 much in different individuals as well as in different actions, 
 
THE TRUNK. 
 
 41 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
42 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 that it will be best studied from the antique statues, where 
 it is given in its greatest purity of form. In its action 
 of pulling the upper part of the body downwards and 
 forwards, it produces many folds in the outer skin which 
 covers it, and this is further carried out by certain 
 transverse bands, uniting at their outer ends with the 
 tendinous expansion of its neighbour muscle. These bands 
 are tendinous on the surface, but not usually through 
 the whole thickness of the muscle. They are generally 
 three in number, and serve to divide the fore part of the 
 body very symmetrically. As they are not quite alike, 
 either in number or position, in all persons, the antique 
 statues may, as before mentioned, be adduced as examples 
 of the best form of this muscle. 
 
 The obliquus descendens, the great obliquely-descending 
 muscle, adjoins the last named, and gives, at and above 
 the hip or crest of the ilium,, that beautiful curved pro¬ 
 minence, so elegantly defined in the antique statues. Its 
 chief attachments are to the upper ridge of the ilium, and 
 to seven, or sometimes eight, of the lower ribs, in regular, 
 obliquely-disposed serrations. 
 
 The fibres constituting tliis muscle take such various 
 directions, that it would occupy too much space to par¬ 
 ticularise tjiem here. 
 
 The depression or indent at the junction of this muscle 
 with the ilium is caused by the sudden fleshiness of its 
 fibres, as compared with the aponeurotic attachment to 
 
THE TRUNK. 
 
 43 
 
 tlie bone itself; thus the projection of bone in the skeleton 
 becomes a groove or furrow in the living man, and the 
 fuller and stronger the muscle the deeper the groove. 
 This rule—which applies generally to the muscles at their 
 attachments to strong projections of bone in fleshy persons 
 —will nevertheless be found to have its exceptions in 
 emaciated forms. Thus too, it may be observed, that 
 although, in a general way, the larger projections of 
 the skeleton are those observable in the living being, 
 it must not be supposed that outlines drawn immediately 
 from point to point, or from one projection of bone to 
 another, will give the drawing of the human form; for 
 in addition to the layers of muscles enwrapping the bones 
 —in some places thinner, in others thicker—we have to 
 take into account the binding and uniting aponeuroses, and 
 above them the thick adipose membrane or skin—generally 
 so called—which constitutes the outer covering. 
 
 The serratus magnus is the saw-like muscle seen on the 
 side of the figure. It has tendinous attachments to the 
 outer sides of the ten uppermost ribs; its first digitation 
 to the first two; the other eight to the eight remaining 
 ribs in succession, forming a course of zigzag serrations 
 on a line obliquely backwards and downwards, interlacing 
 with those of the great obliquus muscle. Prom thence 
 running obliquely upward and backward, it is attached 
 to the scapula, which it draws forward and downward. 
 When, however, the scapula is held firmly in position, its 
 
44 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 power is that of raising or lifting the ribs outward, as in 
 actions where violent respirations are required. When 
 the arm is raised, this muscle is more apparent, as ex¬ 
 emplified in the Fighting Gladiator, and also in the group 
 known as Hannon and Antigone, as well as in many 
 others. 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 The latissimus dorsi, large broad muscle of the back, 
 wraps broadly over the portion below the blade bones. 
 Its attachments are to the vertebrae from about the sixth 
 of the back downwards, as well as to the lowermost four 
 ribs, from whence it runs upwards in many fibres to the 
 rough protuberance under the head of the humerus, where 
 it is inserted by a long, thin, but powerful tendon. 
 
 This muscle draws the scapula and upper arm down¬ 
 ward and backward, retaining the lower angle of the scapula 
 in its place, suffering it, however, to play upon the ribs, 
 and showing its form in its various changes of position. 
 
 Like the last muscle, and in like manner, it acts upon 
 those ribs to which it is attached, when the raised arm is 
 held firmly in position. 
 
 When the body is bent forwards, and this muscle con¬ 
 sequently stretched, the ribs make their appearance in 
 projections seen beneath it. 
 
 Beneath, and enwrapped by this broad muscle, we see 
 
THE TRUNK 
 
 45 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
46 
 
 THE THUNK. 
 
 the forms of the more fleshy and rounded long muscle of 
 the back, longissimus clorsi, attached to the ilium and os 
 sacrum at its lower extremity, and to the angles of the 
 ribs and the processes of all the vertebrae. 
 
 In bending the body backward, this muscle produces 
 many transverse folds; but in various positions of exten¬ 
 sion there are certain peculiar characteristics of protu¬ 
 berance or rotundity, or of edginess, according to circum¬ 
 stances of action, that can only be understood by reference 
 to nature or fine antique statues. 
 
 It may be remarked here, that the greatest flexibility 
 of the trunk is at the loins; and the tranverse folding of 
 the skin on the one hand, and its tension on the other, 
 according to the flexion or extension of the body, is 
 therefore most observable in this region. 
 
 The comparative width of the shoulders and the hips 
 in the male and female form, has already been pointed out 
 in treating of the skeleton. It is not necessary, therefore, 
 to enlarge on the difference of proportion thus produced; 
 but it may be as well to remark that there is a slight 
 difference in the form of the ribs, which in woman are less 
 curved. 
 
 The difference of form, too, in the pectoral region of 
 the female is too obvious to need more than a mention 
 here. 
 
THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, OR ARM. 
 
 47 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, OR ARM. 
 
 The arm, together with the hand, is a most beautiful 
 piece of complicated mechanism, giving to man powers 
 which no other animal is gifted with. There is no part of 
 the exterior surface of the whole body that the hand 
 cannot reach, nor are there any bounds to the variety 
 and usefulness of its motions in combination with those 
 of other parts of the body. 
 
 The osseous structure of the arm, independently of the 
 scapula and clavicle, consists, like the lower limb, of tliree 
 bones—one belonging to the upper portion, two to the 
 lower. Those of the wrist and hand are more numerous, 
 as will readily be seen. 
 
 It may, however be noticed, that it is no uncommon 
 error of the tyro, in drawing the arm, to omit altogether the 
 consideration of the cluster of the carpal bones, as if the 
 hand were immediately attached to the fore arm -without 
 the intervention of those forming the wrist. 
 
 Great as is the similarity in general arrangement of the 
 upper and lower extremities, there is nevertheless a marked 
 difference in one peculiar action of the fore arm, in which 
 the one bone, the radius, is made to roll over and to cross 
 the other. Its joint, therefore, with the bone of the upper 
 arm is constructed suitably to this motion, and differently 
 to that of the knee. 
 
48 
 
 THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY; OR ARM. 
 
 PlATIi XII. 
 
THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, OR ARM. 
 
 49 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 When the bones are thus 
 crossed, the thumb is turned 
 inward and the palm of the 
 hand backward. This act is 
 called pronation; the hand 
 being thus prone or ready for 
 action. 
 
 When the bones are side by 
 side, the thumb is turned out¬ 
 ward, and the palm of the hand 
 is in front. This is called 
 supination, in antagonism to 
 the other. The muscles pro¬ 
 ducing these two motions are 
 therefore called, pronators and 
 supinators. So also it may as 
 well be borne in mind, that 
 * muscles, which bring about the 
 flexion or bending of the arm, 
 or any other part of a limb, 
 are designated flexors, while 
 those which cause the extension 
 of a limb are called extensors; 
 the first being for the most part 
 in front, the others at the back. 
 
 E 
 
 
50 
 
 THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, OR ARM. 
 
 It will be observed that the joint of the aim is not at 
 a right angle Math the direction of the shafts of the bones, 
 and that in the position referred to, as supination, an 
 angle like this ^ will be produced by the varied direc¬ 
 tion of the upper and lower portions of the arm. In 
 pronation, hou'ever, the general direction of the M'liole 
 arm is straighter when stretched out; as Mill be readily 
 observed in nature. 
 
 In the setting on of the hand, it may be remarked that 
 the greatest proportion is on the thumb side; thus, if a line 
 u r ere drawn continuous with the arm at the M T rist, it would 
 take the direction of the outside of the hand along the 
 edge of the little finger; whereas on the other side a 
 similar line would run with the second finger, leaving the 
 thumb and fore finger beyond, or on the outside of the 
 line. The hand as portrayed by the ancient Egyptians in 
 their painted sculptures, Mill illustrate this in exaggera¬ 
 tion. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 The back of the human hand is arched transversely, 
 while the interior is proportionably concave. Of the 
 knuckles, or bony prominences of the metacarpal bones at 
 
THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, OR ARM. 
 
 51 
 
 their junction with the fingers, that of the middle finger 
 is most prominent. In a fleshy female hand, or that of a 
 child, they become hollows, or dimples instead of promi¬ 
 nences. To these are directed the fan-lihe tendons of 
 the extensor muscles seen—particularly in a thin hand— 
 through the integument. That of the thumb is the most 
 distinct; and in addition to it, is also seen, passing round 
 over the radius, the tendon of another extensor of the 
 thumb, between which and the former is thus formed a 
 long triangular hollow. On the other side, the muscles 
 proper to the little finger forms a more fleshy mass. 
 
 When the fingers bend inwards, the tendency of each 
 is to incline towards the middle of the palm. The peculiar 
 direction of the joints of the thumb and of each finger, 
 as well as the angle, which the whole make in respect 
 to their junction with the metacarpal bones, must be 
 studied from the living hand to be properly understood. 
 
 The bony prominences on each side of the wrist are, 
 internally, the head of the cubit or ulna ; externally, the 
 lower end of the radius, this latter being somewhat lower 
 in position than the other. 
 
 At the elbow joint, the inner condyle of the humerus 
 forms the greatest projection, though even this in a fleshy 
 female arm frequently becomes a dimple, or hollow. 
 
 The projection of the olecranon, or elbow, itself must 
 be considered, as it regards proportional length in the 
 lower arm, which becomes greater when the arm is bent, 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, OR ARM. 
 
 on account of its continuing as a projection beyond 
 the lower end of the upper arm bone. When the arm is 
 straightened, this point or projection fits into a groove 
 between the condyles of the humerus, hollowed out to 
 receive it. 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 It were a vain endeavour to describe by words the 
 infinite variety of action and consequent change of form 
 which occurs in the human arm. Suffice it, therefore, 
 to give in a tabular form the names of the principal 
 muscles, such names being sufficiently expressive of their 
 functions. 
 
 The diagrams will point out their several attachments. 
 
THE ARM SEEN IN FRONT. 
 
 53 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 THE ARM SEEN IN ERONT. 
 
 (SUPINE.) 
 
 1. Deltoides. 
 
 2. Biceps brachii. 
 
 3. Triceps extensor cubiti. 
 
 4. Pronator radii teres. 
 
 5. Supinator radii longus. 
 
 6. Palmaris longus. 
 
 7. Plexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 8. Flexor carpi radialis. 
 
 9. Short muscles of the thumb. 
 
 10. Pahnaris brevis. 
 
 The deltoid has already been described as the cliief 
 muscular portion of the shoulder. Were the front of this 
 muscle removed, the biceps would be seen with its two 
 heads—whence its name; the shorter of these heads, or 
 tendons, would be observed attaching itself to the coracoid 
 process of the scapula; the longer entering the bicipital 
 groove of the humerus, to be attached to the upper margin 
 of the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The combined mass 
 becoming very fleshy, and then again tendinous, affixes 
 itself to the bicipital tubercle of the radius, and gives off 
 a fascia or sinewy membrane descending the fore arm to 
 the wrist. 
 
 When strong action is manifest, this muscle contracts 
 and swells out very much in its fleshy part, though a 
 flatness is still more or less observable in front. 
 
54 
 
 THE ARM SEEN FROM BEHIND. 
 
 PIiATE XVI. 
 
 The triceps brachii is 
 seen on either side of the 
 biceps continuing round 
 the back of the humerus. 
 Its three heads, to which it 
 owes its name, have in¬ 
 duced some to consider it 
 as three distinct muscles, 
 and as such it is seen in 
 the back view of the arm. 
 When acting together, they 
 extend the fore arm. 
 
 PIATE XVI. 
 
 THE ARM SEEN FROM BEHIND. 
 
 (supine.) 
 
 1. Deltoides. 
 
 ,Anconseus externus-. 
 
 3. < Anconseus longus [ * n ' 
 \Anconseus mternus J 
 5. Supinator radii longus. 
 
 7. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 12. Radialis extemus longus. 
 
 13. Radialis extemus brevis. 
 
 14. Extensor digitorum com¬ 
 
 munis. 
 
 15.1 Extensor muscles of 
 
 16. ) thumb. 
 
 17. Extensor carpi ulnaris. 
 
THE ARM SEEN AT THE SIDE. 
 
 55 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 A ligament—purposely omitted 
 in the illustrations—which binds 
 together the various tendons at 
 the wrist is called the ligamentum 
 carpi annulare. 
 
 THE ARM SEEN AT THE SIDE. 
 
 1. Deltoides. 
 
 2. Biceps brachii. 
 
 3. Triceps brachii. 
 
 5. Supinator radii longus. 
 
 9. Tendons of muscles of thumb. 
 12. Radial is externus longus. 
 
 11. Extensor digitorum communis. 
 
THE VEINS OP THE ARM. 
 
 PliATE XVIII. 
 
 I 
 
 The positions of the principal 
 veins are given at large. They 
 may be shown or not, as occa¬ 
 sion requires, but in all cases 
 are to be introduced with judg¬ 
 ment and sparingly. The an¬ 
 tique statues will serve us as sure 
 guides in this particular. 
 
 In the female, the bony tube¬ 
 rosities and muscular promi¬ 
 nences are less marked. The 
 muscles are less tendinous and 
 more gently rounded in their 
 fleshy masses, less divided by 
 furrowed and angular divisions, 
 which become more evenly filled 
 with soft integuments. 
 
 The biceps in particular is 
 less abrupt, and the deltoid has 
 a peculiarity of form, as best 
 described in the plate at page 
 37. In other respects, the 
 general form and disposition are 
 the same, unless indeed by the 
 comparative narrowness of the 
 
THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 57 
 
 {shoulders, and greater expansion of the hips, we find a 
 slight difference in the hanging down of the arm at the 
 side. 
 
 PI.ATE XIX. 
 
 THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The muscles of the lower extremities are for the most 
 part united with each other in their several functions as 
 well as fabric, and the limits of a little work like the 
 present do not admit of so tedious and complicated a 
 description as they might necessarily require. With the 
 following remarks, therefore, the reader is referred to the 
 tables of the muscles of the leg and tliigh given in 
 explanation of the plates, where their several forms and 
 positions are made sufficiently evident. It has been 
 thought necessary, however, to pay a little further 
 attention to the knee joint, as a portion of the human 
 form not less beautiful than important, and two views of 
 the muscles as they appear when the knee is bent are 
 given at page 60. 
 
58 
 
 THE INFERIOR, EXTREMITIES. 
 
 PEATE XIX. 
 
THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 59 
 
 PLATES XX. and XXI. 
 
 The marked difference which exists in the knee of the 
 woman as compared with that of the man, is chiefly 
 dependent on the skeleton form. In the female, as 
 the expansion of the hip bones is greater, so the in¬ 
 clination of the femur bones towards each other at their 
 lower extremities (in order to produce a just and beau¬ 
 tiful equilibrium), produces a necessary difference of angle 
 in the setting on of the bones of the lower leg, and a 
 consequent greater protuberance inwards at the knee. 
 In addition to this, the female knee is more abundantly 
 clothed with adipose membrane, and is thus propor- 
 tionably larger than in the man. 
 
 In hardly any action of the leg or arm does it occur 
 that the greatest protuberance of muscle on one side, is 
 answered by a corresponding opposite protuberance on 
 the other. The architect, in his works, is regular as to 
 contour -; the one side always answering the other for 
 uniformity's sake. The Great Architect of man has con¬ 
 structed with more picturesqueness and certainly not less 
 beauty. 
 
 This rule will be found to apply, not only to the leg 
 and arm, but pretty generally to the figure, taken either 
 as a whole or in its several parts, if we except that bi¬ 
 lateral symmetry which governs the whole figure. 
 
60 
 
 THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 PLATES XX. and XXI. 
 
 When the knee is bent, the patella or knee-cap recedes 
 partially into the space formed by the separation of the 
 femur and tibia bones at the joint. 
 
MUSCLES OE THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 61 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 (seen in front.) 
 
 18. Iliacus interims : oriliacus. 
 
 19. Triceps vel adclnctor longus. 
 
 20. Pectinalis. 
 
 22. Gracilis. 
 
 23. Sartorius. 
 
 24. Rectus femoris. 
 
 25. Tensor vaginae femoris. 
 
 26. Vastus intemus. 
 
 27. Vastus extemus. 
 
 28. Tibialis anticus. 
 
 29. Gastrocnemius. 
 
 30. Extensor longus digitorum pedis. 
 
 31. Abductor pollicis pedis. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 (seen at the side.) 
 
 32. Glutaeus maximus. 
 
 35. Glutaeus medius. 
 
 21. Biceps femoris. 
 
 27. Vastus extemus. 
 
 25. Tensor vaginae femoris. 
 
 29. Gastrocnemius. 
 
 28. Tibialis anticus. 
 
 24. Rectus femoris. 
 
62 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 PliATE XXII, 
 
MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR, EXTREMITIES. 
 
 63 
 
 PEATE XXIII. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 (SEEN AT THE BACK.) 
 
 32. Glutaeus maximus. 
 
 21. Biceps femoris. 
 
 19. Triceps vel adductor femoris. 
 
 33. Semimembranosus. 
 
 34. Semitendiuosus. 
 
 22. Gracilis—part of. 
 
 23. Sartorius—edge of. 
 
 29. Gastrocnemius. 
 
 The soleus, or lower portion of 
 the calf of the leg, with the gas¬ 
 trocnemius, ends in a strong sinewy 
 portion, called tendo Achilles, which 
 attaches itself to the bone of the 
 heel, and forms a marked protu¬ 
 berance. 
 
 In drawing the foot, it may be 
 remarked that the same rule obtains 
 with respect to its setting on to the 
 leg as the hand to the fore arm; 
 that is to say, it is not placed im¬ 
 mediately or directly under, but 
 somewhat obliquely with, the tilia 
 
64 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 bone; so that the inner ankle is made to project more 
 than the outer. Nor must it be forgotten that the tarsal 
 cluster of bones have here their place. In fact, it should 
 be observed that throughout the whole skeleton, the bones 
 are so arranged with respect to each other that there shall 
 not exist a right angle at their joints; and thus is avoided 
 the chance of violent concussion in sudden movements, as 
 of jumping, striking, or the like. A sinuous or slightly 
 undulating line is thus maintained tliroughout the struc¬ 
 ture, and it-is this line which gives the grace and elasti¬ 
 city of appearance so observably beautiful in the human 
 figure. 
 
 END. 
 
 LONDON 
 
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