^P EotJoIfo ianciani. ANCIENT ROME IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DISCOVERIES. With 36 full-page Plates (includ- ing several Heliotypes) and 64 Text Illustrations, Maps, and Plans. 8vo, ^6.00. f ITINERARIO Dl EINSIEDELN E L' ORDINE Dl BENEDETTI CANONICO. Memoria di Ro- dolfo Lanciani. With Map, Plans, etc. 4to, paper, $2. 25. PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN ROME. Profusely Illus- trated with full-page Plates and Text Illustrations. 8vo, 56.00. THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF ANCIENT ROME. Profusely Illustrated. Crown Svo, Ji54. 00. HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. Boston and New York. THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS ANCIENT ROME Flg,l. HYDRO GRAPH V & CHOROGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ROM& Scale I: mO(W . lllitiide,s in me^erS Ji.J,anciant. de^ • SALARIA ^ 'tP NOME NT THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF ANCIENT ROME A COMPANION BOOK FOR STUDENTS AND TRAVELERS RODOLFO LANCIANI D. C. L. Oxford, LL. D. Harvard. PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT TOPOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ROME AUTHOR OF "ancient ROME IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DISCOVERIES,"' " PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN ROME,"' " FORMA URBIS ROMAE," ETC. ... Si quid novlsti rectius istis, candidus imperil : si non, his utere mecum. Horace, Epistles, i. 6. 67. BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY (Hbe Wtcrsibc l^rcss, CambtiDfle 1897 COPYRIGHT, 1897, BY RODOLFO LANCIANI AND HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PEEFACE In writing the present volume the author does not intend to publish a complete manual of Roman Topography, but only a companion-book for students and travelers who visit the existing remains and study the latest excavations of ancient Rome. The text, therefore, has been adapted to the requirements of both classes of readers. Students wishing to attain a higher degree of efficiency in this branch of Roman archeology will find copious references to the standard publications on each subject or part of a subject ; while the description of ruins and excavations will not be found too technical or one-sided for the ordinary reader. Special attention has been paid to tracing back to their place of origin the spoils of each monument, now dispersed in the museums of Rome, Italy, and the rest of Europe. The reader, being in- formed what these spoils are, when they were carried away, and where they are to be found at present, will be able to form a more correct idea of the former aspect of Roman monuments than would otherwise be possible. The volume also contains some tables, which will be found useful for quick and easy reference to the chronology of buildings, to events in the history of the city, and to the various aspects of Roman civilization. It may be observed, in the last place, that the illustrations of the text are mostly original, from drawings and photographs prepared expressly for this work. The publications of the author to which reference is constantly made are : — Ancient Rome in the Lif/ht of Recent Discoveries. Boston, 1889, Houghton, MifBin, & Co. London, Macmillan. — Pagan and Christian Rome. Boston and London, 1893. — Forma Urbis Romce, an archaeological map of the city, in forty-six sheets, scale 1 : 1000, published under the auspices of the Royal Academy dei Lincei, by Hoepli, Milan. Twenty-four sheets already issued. vi PREFACE The remains of ancient Rome can be studied in books or on the spot from three points of view, — tlie chronological, the topographi- cal, and the architectural. The chronological brings the student into contact, first, with the remains of the Kingly period, then with those of the Republic, of the Empire, of the Byzantine and Mediaeval periods. The topographical takes into consideration, first, the main lines of the ancient city, and then each of the four- teen wards or regions into which Rome was divided by Augustus. The architectural groups the monuments in classes, like temples, baths, tombs, bridges, etc. Each system has its own advantages, and claims representative writers. The chronological order helps us to follow the progress of Roman architecture, from the rude attempts of Etruscan masons to the golden centuries of Agrippa and Apollodorus ; as well as the evolution of architectural tyj^es, from the round straw hut where the public fire was kept to the marble temple of Hestia, roofed with tiles of bronze ; from the Casa Romuli to the Domus Aurea of Nero. Dyer's History of Rome is founded mainly on this system. Compare also chapters iii. and iv. (pp. 24—59) of Richter's Topo- (frapJiie, Parker's Chronological Tables, and Lanciani's Vicende edilizie di Roma,^ The topographical system, which divides the city into regions and suburbs, is represented by Nardini and Canina.^ They de- scribe first the fundamental lines, — site, geology, climate, hydro- graphy, the seven hills, the Kingly and Imperial walls, the Tiber, the aqueducts, the military roads radiating from the gates ; and 1 Thomas H. Dyer, A History of the City of Rome : Its Structures and Monuments. London, Longmans, 1865. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Sidle ricende edilizie di Roma, reprinted from the Monograjia archeologica e statistica di Roma e camparpia. Rome. Tipogr. elzevir. 1878. — John Henry Parker, A Chronological Table of Buildings in Rome, with the Chief Contemporary Events, and an Alphabetical Index, reprinted from the Ai-chceology of Rome. — Otto Richter, Topographic der Stadt Rom. Sep.-Abdr. aus dem Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumwissenschaft, Bd. iii. Nordlingen, Beck, 1889, ch. iii., "Entwickhingsgeschichte," and ch. iv., " Zerstorungsgeschichte der Stadt." 2 Famiano Nardini, Roma antica di Famiano Nardini, fourth edition, revised by Antonio Nibbj', and illustrated by Antonio de Romanis. Rome, de Romanis, 1818 (four vols.). — Luigi Canina, Indicazione topografica di Roma antica, fourth edition. Rome, Canina, 1850. PREFACE vii then the monuments pertaining to the fourteen regions. Their accounts are founded mainly on otficial statistics of the fourtli century, of which we possess two editions (Redaktionen). The first, known by the name of Notitia regionum urbis Romce cum hreviariis suis, dates from a. d. 334 ; the second, called Curiosum urbis Romce regionum XIV cum breviariis suis, must have been issued in or after 357, because it mentions the obelisk raised in that year in the Circus Maximus. Literature. — Ludwig Preller, Die Regionen der Stadt Rom. Jena, 1846. — Theodor Mommsen, Abhandhmgen der sacks. Ges. d. W., ii. 549; iii. 269; viii. 694. — Heinrieh Jordan, Topographic d. Stadt Rom in AUerthum., Berlin, 1871, vol. ii. p. 1. — Ignazio Guidi, 11 testo sirtaco della descrizione di Roma, in Bull, com., 1884, p. 218. — Christian Huelsen, // posto degli Arvali nel Colosseo, in Bull, com., 1894, p. .312. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Le quattordici regioni urbane, in Bull, com., 1890, p. 11.5. The two documents give the number and name of each region, the names of edifices or streets which marked approximately its boundary line, the number of parLslies (vici), of parish magis- trates (vico magistri), the number of tenement houses (insulce), palaces (dotnus), public warehouses (Jwrrea), baths, fountains, bakeries, and the circumference of each regio in feet. For in- stance : — " Regio V, tlie Esquilise, contains : the fountain of Orpheus, the market of Livia, the nymphseum of (Severus) Alexander, the (barracks of the) .second cohort of policemen (firemen), the gar- dens of Pallans, the (street named from the) Hercules Sullanus, the Amphitheatrum Castrense, the campus on the Viminal, the (street called) Subager, the (street called) Minerva Medica, the (.street named from) Isis the patrician. The Esquilise contain 15 parishes, 15 street-shrines, 48 parish officials and two liigher officials (curatores), 3,8.50 tenement houses, 180 palaces, 22 public warehouses, 25 baths, 74 fountains, 15 bakeries. The Esquiliae measure 15,600 feet in circumference." Comparing these statistics with texts of classics, inscriptions, existing remains, accounts of former discoveries, plans and draw- ings of the artists of the Renaissance, and other sources of infor- mation, we are able to reconstruct, with surprising results, the topography of the whole city. Vlll PREFACE The system, therefore, is highly commendable, and I follow it myself, in my university course of lectures, as the one best calculated, from its simplicity and clearness, to make the student conversant with this branch of Roman archaeology. The third, or architectural, system takes each class of build- ings separately, and groups temples, theatres, fora, baths, etc., by themselves, irrespective of their position and their relation to other buildings. It might be compared with the study of a museum, like the Museo Nazionale of Naples, in which statues are arranged by subjects, one room containing only Venuses, another only Fauns, etc. The system facilitates the comparison of types and schools, and the study of the origin, progress, and decline of art among the Romans. The representative works of this kind are Nibby's Roma nelV anno 1838, and Canina's Edifizii di R. A.'^ It is impossible to deny that a system which may be use- ful for university work, and for a limited number of specialists, cannot also suit the student or the traveler who does not visit our ruins by regions, but according to the main centres of inter- est and of actual excavations. Were we to follow the architectu- ral system in the strict sense of the word, we should be compelled to study the Forum with no regard to the temples, basilicas, and triumphal arches which lined its border or covered its area, because they belong to another class of structures. Suppose, again, we were bound to proceed in our study strictly by regions : we should be compelled to separate the Coliseum from its accessory buildings, in which gladiators, athletes, wild beasts, and their hunters were quartered, fed, and trained ; from the armories, in which gladiatorial and hunting weapons were made, kept, and repaired ; from the barracks of the marines of the fleet of Ra- venna and Misenum, to whom the manoeuvring of the velaria was intrusted ; from the " morgue," whither the spoils of the slain in the arena were temporarily removed, — simply because the samiarium, spoliarlum, and armamentarium belonged to the 1 Antonio Nibbj', Roma neW anno mdcccxxxviii. Parte prima antica, vols. i., ii. Rome, 1838. — Luigi Canina, Gli tdijizi di R. A. e sua campagna/in six folio volumes. Rome, 1847-1854. PREFACE IX second regio ; the amphitheatre itself, the Caslra Misenatium, the Summum Choragium to the third; the Ampliitheatrum Castrense to the fifth ; the virarium to the sixth. To avoid these difficulties, the compilers of the Beschreihung, as well as Becker, Bum, Jordan, Richter, Gilbert, Middleton, and others,^ have adopted a mixed system, taking the best from each of the three methods described above. They have divided and described the city in large sections, more or less connected by topographical or historical relationship. Richter, for instance, cuts ancient Rome in four parts : " das Zentrura," which embraces the Palatine and Capitoline hills, the Velia, the Circus Maximus, and the great Fora of the Empire ; " die Stadttheile am Tiber," which comprises the Aventine, the market, the Campus ^lartius, and the transtiberine quarters ; " der sUdosten Roms," made up of the Caelian and of the suburbs on the Appian Way ; and lastly " der osten Roms," with the Esquiline, Viminal, Quirinal, and Pincian hills. Richter's scheme is plainly arbitrary, and might be varied ad libitum without interfering with the spirit or dimin- ishing the importance of liis work. The same criticism applies to the other manuals of the same type. Considering that " facile est inventis addere," and that the exi>erience of others must teach us how to find a better solution of the problem, I propose to adopt the following scheme : — In Book I. the fundamental lines of Roman topography will be described, — site, geology, configuration of soil, malaria, climate, rivers and springs, aqueducts and drains, walls and roads. The Palatine hill, on which the city was founded and the seat of the Empire established in progress of time, will be visited next (Book II.). In Book III. a description of the Sacra Via will be given, from its origin near the Coliseum to its end near the Capitolium. The 1 Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard, Rostell, Urlichs, Beschreihung der Stadt Rom. Stuttgart, 1830-1842. — Adolf Becker, Hnndburk der Riimischen Alierthumer. Erster Theil. Leipzig, 1843. — Robert Burn, Rome and the Campagnn, Lon- don, 1871; 0/rf /?((/» p, 1880. Second edition, 1895. — Heinrich Jordan, Topo- graphie der Stadt Rom in Alterthum, voL i., i.2, ii. Berlin, 1871. — Otto Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom. 1883-1885. — Otto Rich- ter, Topograph ie drr Stadt Rom. Nurdlingen, 1S89. — T. Henry Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome. Two vols. London, 1892. X PREFACE Sacra Via, the Forum (with its extensions), and the Capitoline hill contain the oldest relics of Kingly and Republican Rome. They are lined or covei'ed by the grandest monuments of the Empire ; they have been largely if not completely excavated since 1870 ; and every inch of ground they cross or cover is connected with historical events. Beginning, therefore, from such centres of interest as the Palatine and the Sacra Via, we follow the chronological and topographical systems. The rest of the city will be described in Book IV. by the regions of Augustus in the following order : — 1. The ruins of the Cselian hill and its watershed towards the river Almo (Regions I and II). 2. The ruins of the Oppian (Regio III). 3. The Viminal, the Cespiau, the Subura, and the Vicus Patri- cii (Regio IV). 4. The Esquiline (Regio V). 5. The Quirinal and the Pincian, and their watershed towards the Tiber (Regions VI and VII). 6. The Campus Martins (Regio IX). 7. The markets, the docks, the warehouses, the harbor on the left bank of the river. 8. The Circus Maximus (Regio XI). 9. The Aventine (Regions XII and XIII). 10. The Trastevere (Regio XIV). Each of these sections has a characteristic of its own. The Cselian may be called the region of barracks, the Esquiline the region of parks, the Quirinal and Aventine the abode of the aris- tocracy. The Coliseum and its dependencies occupied the greater portion of the Oppian. The Trastevere was the popular quarter par excellence. Their description, therefore, from a topographical point of view, is not only rational but lends itself to the grouping of edifices built for the same object, and sometimes by the same man and at the same time. At all events, as it may suit the reader to study the monuments in a different order, I have added two indexes, in the first of which the existing remains of Ancient Rome are named alpha- betically in architectural groups, and in the second according to PREFACE XI their chronology. The name of each is followed by the number of the page or section in which it is described. Before closing this brief preface, I must warn students against a tendency which is occasionally observable in books and papers on the topography of Rome, — that of upsetting and condemning all received notions on the subject, in order to substitute fanciful theories of a new type. They nuist remember that the study of this fascinating subject began with Poggio Bracciolini and Flavio Biondo early in the fifteenth century, and that in the course of four hundred and fifty years it must have been very closely inves- tigated. In the preface to the Indicazione topograjica, pp. 4-25 (1850), Canina registers 124 standard authorities, whose books would make a library of a thousand volumes. Since 18.50 the number of such volumes has doubled. See in Enrico Narducci's lilhUografia topograjica di Roma a list (imperfect) of those pub- lished between 1850 and 1880. The same bibliographer has given us a list (also imperfect) of over 400 works on the Tiber alone.^ In the fourteenth volume of the Arckivio della Socieia rnmana di storia patria, 424 publications on the history and topography of the city are catalogued for 1891 alone. How is it possible that, in four hundred and fifty years' time, the antiquaries of the Italian, (iernuin, and English schools, working harmoniously, should not have discovered the truth? This does not exclude the possibility that new researches, either on the ground or in libraries and archives, may reveal new data and enal)le the student to perfect the system of Roman topography in its details, but great innovations are hardly to be expected. Yet there are people willing to try the experiment, only to waste their own time and make us lose ours in considering their attempts. Temples of the gods are cast away from their august seats, and relegated to places never heard of before ; gates of the city are swept away in a whiiiwind till they fly before our eyes like one of Dante's visions ; diminutive ruins are magnified into the remains of great historical buildings ; designs are produced of monuments which have never existed. Let each of us be satisfied with a modest share in the work of reconstruction of the great city, 1 Sarjrjio di bibllograjia del Tevere di Enrico Narducci, Rome, Civelli, 1876. XU PREFACE remembering that both the Roma sotterranea Cristiana and Rome the capital of the Empire have long since found their Columbus. The periodicals and books most frequently quoted in this work are : — (Bull, com.) BulleUino della Commissione archeologica comunale di Roma, 1872-1895. 23 vols., superbly illustrated. — (Not. Scavi) Notizie der/li Scavi di anticMta pubblicate per cura della r. accadeviia dei Lincei, 1876-1895. 20 vols., illustrated. — (Bull. Inst.) BulleUino dell' Istituto di corrispondenza archeoloyica, 1829-1885. 57 vols. — (Ann. Inst.) Annali dell' Istituto di corrispondenza archeologica, 1829-1885. 54 vols. — (Mittheil.) Mittheilungen des kaiserlich Deutschen archaeol. Instituts, Roemische Abtheilung, 1886-1895. 10 vols., illustrated. — (.Tahrbuch) Jahrhuch des k. D. archaeol. Instituts, 1886-1895. 10 vols., illustrated (Denkmaler). — (F. U. R.) Forma Urbis Romm, consilio et auctoritate R. Academiw Lyncceorum . . . edidit Rodul- phns Lanciani Romamis, in 46 sheets.— (C. I. L.) Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- narum, vols, i., vi. 1, 2, 3, 4, xiv., and xv. 1. CONTENTS Book I. — General Information PAGE I. Site — Geology — Configuration of Soil 1 II. Geologj' 5 III. Malaria 6 IV. Climate 8 V. Hydrography — Rivers, Springs, Ponds, Marshes . . '.) VI. Bridges 16 VII. Traiectus (ferries) 2fi VIII. Objects of Value in the Bed of the River 2<) IX. CloaciP (drains) 28 X. The Quarries from which Rome was built .32 (a) Tufa (lapis ruber) .32 (b) Pepcrino (lapis Albanus) 34 (c) Travertino (lapis Tiburtinus) 3.5 (d) Silex (selce) ,38 XI. Bricks 38 XII. ]\Iarbles 42 XIII. Methods of Construction 43 XIV. Aqueducts 47 XV. Muri Urbis (the Walls) 59 XVI. Murus Romuli (Walls of the Palatine) 59 XVII. Other Walls of the Kingly Period 60 XVIII. The Walls of Servius TuUius 60 XIX. Walls of Aurelian and Probus, a. d. 272 .... 66 XX. Restoration of the Walls by Honorius 72 XXI. Gates of Aurelian and Honorius 73 XXII. Walls of Leo IV., Leopolis, .lohannipolis, Laurentiopolis . 80 XXIII. The Fortifications of Paul III., Pius IV., and Urban VIII. . 84 XXIV. Modern Fortifications 86 XXV. The Fourteen Regions of Augustus 87 XXVI. The Population of Ancient Rome 91 XXVII. The Map of Rome engraved on Marble under Severus and Caracalla 94 XXVIII. The Burial of Rome .98 Book II. — The Ruins and Excavations of the Palatine I. Hints to Visitors 106 II. The Origin of the Palatine City 110 III. Vigna Nusiner 118 xiv CONTENTS IV. Templum divi Augusti (Temple of Augustus) . . . 121 V. Fons Juturnae (the Springs of Juturna) 123 VI. The Clivus Victoriae 125 VII. The Church of S. Teodoro 126 VIII. Murus Romuli 126 IX. The Altar of Aius Locutius 127 X. ScalfB Caci (steps of Cacius) 129 XI. Casa Romuli (the Hut of Romulus) 1-30 XII. The Old Stone Quarries 131 XIII. iEdes Magna- Deum Matris (Temple of Cybele) .... 132 XIV. .(Edes lovis Propugnatoris in Palatio (Temple of Jupiter Pro- piignator) 135 XV. Domus Augustana (House of Augustus) 138 XVI. Domus Tiberiana (House of Tiberius) 144 XVII. House of Germanicus 147 XVIII. Domus Gaiana (House of Caligula) ..... 150 XIX. The Palace of Domitian 155 XX. The Gardens of Adonis (Horti Adonsa — Vigna Barberini) . 165 XXI. MediaBval Church Buildings 168 (a) Ecclesia S. Caesarii in Palatio 169 (b) Monasterium quod Palladium dicitur .... 170 (c) The Turris Chartularia 171 XXII. The so-called Stadium (Xystus) 172 XXIII. The Palace of Septimius Severus (fedes Severiaute) . . 178 XXIV. The Septizonium 181 XXV. The Water Supply and Reservoirs of the Palace . . .184 XXVI. The P.edagogium and the Domus Gelotiana .... 185 Book III. — A Walk through the Sacra Via from the Coliseum to the Capitoline Hill I. The Sacra Via 188 II. The Colossus (colossal statue of the Sun) .... 190 III. Meta Sudans 190 IV. The Arch of Constantine 191 V. iEdes Romae et Veneris (Temple of Venus and Rome) . 194 VI. Baths of Heliogabalus (?). See Ecclesia S. Cresarii in Pa- latio, 169 . 198 VII. Turris Chartularia 198 VIII. The Temple of .Jupiter Stator 198 IX. The Arch of Titus 199 X. Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine) .... 201 XI. The Clivus Sacer 206 XII. Porticus Margaritaria 207 XIII. The Hereon Romuli (Temple of Romulus, son of Maxen- tius) 209 XIV. Templum Sacra? Urbis (archives of the Cadastre) . . . 211 XV. Fornix Fabianus (Arch of Q. Fabius Allobrogicus) . . 215 CONTEXTS XVI. ^Edes divi Pii et diva- Faustin* (Temple of Antoninus and Faustina) XVII. The Kegia XVIII. The Temple of Vesta XIX. The Shrine XX. Atrium Vestaj (House of the Vestals) . XXI. Forum Romanum Magnum ..... XXII. Area of the Forum XXIII. Columna liostrata XXIV. The Sculptured Plutei XXV. Monumental Columns on the Saera Via . XXVI. The Caballus Constantini (Eciuestriau Statue of Constautine) XXVII. Unknown Building on the east side, opposite the Temple o .Julius . ■ XXVIII. Monuments of the Gothic and (iildonie Wars . XXIX, The ('niumn of I'hocas XXX. Curia Hostilia — Curia .lulia — Senatus . XXXI. The Comitium XXXII. yEdes divi lulii (Temple of .lulius Ca-sar) XXXIII. Triumphal Arch of Augustus XXXIV. iEdes Castorum (Temple of Castor and I'oUux) XXXV. Vicus Tuscus XXXVI. Basilica .lulia XXXVII. Vicus Jugarius ........ XXXVIII. The Rostra Vetera XXXIX. Genius I'opuli Romani — Milliarium Aureum — Umhilic XL. The Church of SS. Scrgius and Bacchus XLI. The Arch of Tiherius XLII. The Arch of Sc|)timius Severus .... XLIII. The Career Tullianum ....... XLIV. ^'Edes Concordia- (Temple of Concord) . XLV. The Clivus Capitolinus XLVI. Temple of Vespasian XLVII. yEdes Saturni (Temple of Saturn) XLVIII. Porticus Deorum Consentium (Portico of the Twelve Gods) XLIX. Tabularium .......... L. C!apitolium (Temple of .Jupiter Optimus Maximus) LI. Forum .Juliuni ......... LII. Forum Augustum ........ LIII. Forum Transitorium ........ LIV. Forum Traiani ......... 216 219 221 221 22(i 232 251 251 251 258 2.58 25U 25!) 260 262 266 2t!7 26!J 26!) 273 27.3 278 270 280 282 282 285 286 288 288 291 292 2'.y.i 296 •■500 ;j()2 .307 .311 Book IV. — Urbs Sacra Regionum XIV I. The Ruins of the Cadian Hill, Regio I, Porta Capena . . 320 II. Hypog:cum Scipionum ........ 321 III. The Columbaria (so-called) of Pomponius Ilj-las . . 327 rV. The Columbaria of the Vigna Codini 328 V. Regio II, Cadimontium (the Cadian Hill) .... 335 CONTENTS VI. The Castra Cielimontaiia .... (a) The Castra Ecjuitiun Siugularium (b) The Castra Peregrinuriim (c) Statio Cohortis V Vigilum VII. The Pahices of the Cielian (a) Domus Lateranuruni (Lateral! Palaee) (b) Domus Vectiliana .... (c) Domus Tetricorum . . (d) Domus Valeriorum (e) Domus Philippi .... (f) Domus L. Marii Maximi (g) Domus of the Symmachi . (h) The House of SS. Joliii and Paul ( I ) The House of Gregory the Great VIII. Claudium (Temple of Claudius) IX. Macellum (S. Stefauo Rotondo) . X. The Ruins of the Oppiau, Regio III, Isis et Serapis XI. Domus Aurea (The Golden House of Nero) XII. Thermie Titian* (Baths of Titus) XIII. ThermiE Triani (Baths of Trajan) XIV. Amphitheatrum Flaviuni (Coliseum) XV. Buildings connected with the Amphitheatre .... The Vivarium The Amphitheatrum Castrense The Claudium The Samiarium The Spoliarium The Armamentarium The Ludi Gladiatorii The Summum Choragium The Castra Misenatium The Curia Athletarum XVI. The Viminal, the Cespian, the Subura, andtlieVicus Patricii, Regio IV XVII. The Subura XVIII. The Vicus Patricii XIX. Private Dwellings XX. The Great Parks on the Eastern Side of the City, Regions V. VI, and VII XXI. Horti Variani XXII. Horti Liciniani XXIII. Horti Tauriani XXIV. Horti Lamiani et Maiani XXV. Horti Maeceuatis XXVI. Horti Lolliani XXVII. Horti Sallustiani XXVIII. Horti Luculliani XXIX. Horti Aciliani XXX. Public Buildings 336 336 336 338 339 339 344 344 345 346 346 346 348 349 350 353 357 358 363 365 367 383 383 385 385 385 385 386 386 387 387 387 388 388 390 391 394 395 400 404 406 409 412 413 419 419 427 XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX. L. LI. LI I. LIII. LIV. LV. LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX. LX. LXI. LXII. LXIII. LXIV. LXV. LXVI. LXVII. LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. COXTENTS XVU Templiim Solis Aureliaui ....... 428 Tlierm:e Diocletiana; 432 L'astra Pra-loria ......... 437 The Campus Martins and tlu- (Jiixus Flaininius, Regio IX . 440 Tlie Taieiituni 446 Campus ^lartius 448 Circus Flamiuius ......... 450 Rta1)uia (|uatut>r Factionum VI 454 TiMiiplum Ilcrculis magni Custodis ad (Jircuni Flaniinium . 4.55 The Fdriini Holitorium and its Kditii'es 458 (A) .Edes Spc-i 458 (u) .Edcs Pietatis 4-58 (c) ^Edi's lunonis .Sospitif 458 (d) Tcmplum laiii 458 The I'oiupfiaii Buildiiif^s 459 Mausoleum nf Augustus 461 Horologium or Sohirium (sun-dial) 464 Ara Paris Augusta- 466 Opera 8. Porticus Octavia' 466 The Moiiumenta Agrippa- 470 Porticus Piilla' or Vipsauia ...... 47(1 Campus Agriiijiu' . . . ■ . • • .471 Diribitorium . . . . • .471 Saipta lulia . . . .471 Villa Puhlica 472 Pautlu'uii 473 Lakonikon 48(i Basilica Xcptuiii, Xciitiiiiium, Porticus Arguuautaruni . . 487 Thcatrum Marcclli 4'.t() Thcatruui ct < ivpta Hallii 493 Odeum . 496 Stadium 496 Therma' Xeroiiiame ct Alc.xaiidriaua- ..... 498 Isium ct Scra](imn ......... .500 Tcmiilum Matidia' ........ •502 The Antouinc Buildings .503 The Commcn'ial (,»nartcrs on the Left Bank of the Tiber . .509 Forum Ildlitnriuin ......... 511 Forum Boarium ......... 512 Temi)luni Fortuna- 514 Tcmiilum ^latris Matnta-- ....... 515 Tcmplum Ccrcris Lilieri Libcra'i|uc ...... 516 The .laiius and the Arch of Sevcrns and (aiacalla . . 518 Statio Annonic 519 The Ilorrca Puhlica Populi Romani .522 Tile Marble Wharf and Sheds .524 Salina' (the Salt-AVarchouses) .527 The Lead-Warehouses 528 The Brick- Warehouses 529 xviii CONTENTS LXXI. The Monte Testaccio 521) LXXII. The Aventine, Eegion^ XII and XIII — Theniui' AutoniniaiKv 5.'32 LXXIII. Churches and Palaces on the Aventine .... 540 LXXIV. The Thernite Deciana; 542 LXXV. The Escubitorium Coh • YII • Vigilum .... 544 LXXVI. Horti Csesaris 546 I.XXYII. Horti Get* 548 LXXVIII. Horti AgrippiniB 548 LXXIX. Mausoleum Hadriani 551 Conclusion : The General Aspect of the City 561 Appendix. A. Comparison between Years of the Christian and the Roman Eras . 571 B. Chronological List of Roman Emperors 571 C. Chronological List of the First Kings of Italy 578 D. Chronological List of the Popes 578 E. Al]ihabetical List of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects mentioned in this Book 586 F. lioman Coins ........... 586 G. Roman Measures of Length . 588 H. Roman Weights 588 I. The Roman Calendar 589 J. A List of Ancient Marbles . 589 Indexes. I. The Existing Remains of Ancient Rome described Alphabetically in Architectural Groups. II. The Existing Remains of Ancient Rome described in Chronological Order. LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. Map of Hydrofjrapliy ami Chorotrraphy of Ancient Rome. Fmnti.-tpitcf 2. The Clifts of the ( 'a]>itciliiie Hill above "La Coiisolazione " . . 2 .J. Section of tlie (jiiirinal Hill -i 4. Curve of the Flood of December, 187(1 11 5. Modern Embankment ......... 1.3 6. Ancient Embankment ......... I'-i 7. The Mouth of the Tiber at Fiumicino ...... 14 8. The ^Emilian, Fabrician, ( 'estian Hridj^es, and the Island in the Tiber 17 9. The .Stern of the Ship of .Esculai)ius lit 10. iMuindations of Hridf^e (?) above the I'onte Sisto . . . . -21 11. The Incline to the ^Elian Bridge from the Campus Martins (Left Bank) 23 12. Bronze Head found in the Tiber 25 13. Statue found in the Tiber 28 14. The Course of the Cloaca Maxima ....... 2!) 1-5. The Latrina annexed to the Guest-Hooms of the Villa Adriana . 32 16. The Quarries of Travertine, Cava del Barco 37 17. The Opus Incertum 44 18. The Opus Keticulatum 40 19. Map of A(|ueducts 47 20. The Channel of the Aqua Appia under the Aventine ... 48 21. Ponte Lu])o .50 22. The Aqueducts at Roma Vecchia .52 23. The Seven Aqueducts at the Porta Maggiore 55 24. :\Iap of AValls 59 25. Section of Walls 61 21). Section of Agger 62 27. Forum Boarium 63 28. The Ditch of the Agger of Servius 65 29. Walls of Servius on the Aventine 67 30. The Covered Way of the Walls of Aurelian, Vigna Casali . . 69 31. The Porta S. Lorenzo 76 32. Door of the First Century built into the Walls of Aurelian . . 79 33. The Two Towers at the Entrance to the Harbor of Rome . . 80 34. Tower of Leo IV. in the Vatican Gardens. Bastions of Pius IV. in the Foreground 83 35. The Fortifications of Laurentiopolis. By M. Ileemskerk . . 85 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 36. The French Army entering the Porta S. Pancrazio, Julj- 4, 1849 . 87 37. Sketch-Map of the Fourteen Eegions of Augustus .... 89 38. The Fragment of the Marble Plan discovered by Castellani and Tocco in 1867 97 39. The Eeraains of a Private House discovered under the Baths of Caracalla by G. B. Guidi, 1867 ....... 101 40. Sketch-Map of Excavations of Palatine 108 41. Map of Ancient and Modern Divisions of the Palatine Hill . . 110 42. Plan of AntemniB . 112 43. Reservoir at Antemnie 112 44. Plan of Kingly Palatine 113 45. A Village of Straw Huts near Gabii (Castiglione) .... 114 46. Plan of the Terramara di Fontanellato 115 47. A Fragment of the Marble Plan -with C'livus Victori;e and Vicus Tuscus 120 48. Plan of the Augiistivum 122 49. General View of West Corner of Palatine Hill .... 128 50. Hut-urn from Alba Longa .131 51. Headless Statue of Cybele, found near her Temple on the Palatine 134 52. The Cybele from Foniiiiv 136 53. Plan of the Domus Augustana, Ground Floor 139 54. Plan of the Domus Tiberiana and of the Domus Gaiana . . 145 55. A Graffito of the Domus Tiberiana 147 56. The Remains of tlie Palace of Caligula, seen from the Sacra Via . 151 57. A Corner of the Palace of Caligula according to Rosa's Map . . 152 58. The Same, designed in Sheet xxix. of the "Forma Urbis " . . 153 59. A Brick Stamp of John VII 155 60. Plan of Domitian's Palace 157 61. The Horti Adonea, a Fragment of the Marble Plan of Rome . . 166 62. Plan of the Horti Adonea (?), according to Ligorio . . • 167 63. The Church of S. Cwsarius in Palatio " 169 64. The Torre Cartnlaria in the Sixteenth Century .... 172 65. Headless Statue of a Muse discovered in the so-called Stadium . 175 66. Female Head of Greek Workmanship discovered in the so-called Stadium. ........... 177 67. Substructures of the I'alace of Septimius Severus, as seen fmm the Aventine 179 68. The Remains of the ^des Severiante and of the Septizonium, from a Sketch by Du Cerceau 182 69. The Aqueduct of the Palatine across the Valley of S. Gregorio . 184 70. Plan of the Domus Gelotiana 185 71. One of the Walls of the Pajdagogium with Greek and Latin Graffiti 186 72. Map of the Sacra Via 188 73. The Arch of Constantine in Botticelli's "Castigodel fuoco celeste," Sistine Chapel 193 74. Plan of the Temple of Venus and Rome 195 75. Bas-relief of the Temple of Venus and Rome 197 76. Arch of Titus — Temple of .Tupiter Statnr in tlie Bas-relief of the Aterii 199 77. Plan of Neighborhood of the Arch of Titus 199 LTST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxi 78. The Siinima Sacra Via, witli Arch of Titus and Temple of Jupiter Stator 200 79. Plan of Constantine's Basilica 202 80. The Basilica of Constantiue at the Time of Paul V. . . . 203 81. The Arco di Latrone under the Basilica of Constantiue . . 205 82. Plan of Clivus Sacer 207 83. Plan of Porticus Margaritaria 208 84. The Portico of the Heroon Romuli 210 85. Plan of SS. Cosma e Damiano 211 86. The Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano in the Middle Ages . . 212 87. The Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano at the End of the Sixteenth Century 213 88. The Frieze of the Temple of Faustina 217 89. Graffiti on the Carystian Columns of tlie Temple of Faustina . 218 90. The Regia, as designed by Pirro Ligorio 220 91. Temples of Vesta and Castores (Auer's Reconstruction) . . 223 92. Plan of Atrium and Temple of Vesta 225 93. Map of Forum and of Basilica .lulia 251 94. The Margo of the Forum ......... 253 95. The Fragments of the Marlde I'iutei, discovered in Sejjtember, 1872 255 90. One of the Marble Plutei, after Restoration 256 97. The Rostra as represented in a Bas-relief of the Arch of Constantine 257 98. The Column of Phoeas — thi' IMarlih; IMutei in the Foreground . 261 99. Plan of the Senate House, rebuilt bv Diocletian .... 263 264 265 268 269 272 274 276 281 100. The Marble Incrustations of the Senate Hal! . . . . 101. Details of Cornice of the Senate Hall 102. The Rostra .Julia and tiie Temple of Ctvsar 103. Fragment of the Afarljle Plan with Temple of Castores 104. The Substructure of the Temple of Castores .... 105. The Southwest Corner of the Basilica Julia .... 106. General View of the Basilica -Julia ...... 107. The Church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus, sketclied by Heemskerk 108. Pedestals of Columns, Arcli of Severus ..... 283 109. A Fruiterer's Siiop under the Arcli of Severus .... 284 110. The Clivus Capitolinus, now concealed by the Modern (1880) Causeway 289 111. The Frieze'of the Temple of Vespasian 290 112. The Porticus Consentium 293 113. Old Gate of Tabularium blocked by Teuii)le of Vespasian . . 295 114. Remains of the Platform of the Cuiiitolium in the Garden of the Caffarelli Palace 298 115. The Venus Genetrix l)y Arkesilaos — a Frngnieiit in the Museo delle Terme 301 lie. Plan of the Forum Augustum ....... 303 117. The South Hemicycle of the Forum Augustum, excavated in 1888 305 118. Tlie Forum Transitorium : a Sketch by ISoscoio .... 309 119. Forum Traiani 311 120. Frieze from the Basilica ripia (Lateran iluseum) .... 314 121. Frieze from the Basilica Ulpia (Lateran Museum) . . . 315 xxu LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 122. Heads of Animals discovered in the Forum of Trajan . . . 319 123. Map of Regions I. (Porta Capena) and II. (Ctelimontium) . . 320 124. Sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican .... 322 125. Plan of the Tomb of the Scipios, according to Piranesi . . 324 126. Tomb of tiie Scipios (Present State) 325 127. Portrait Bust of Scipio the Ekler (Capitoline Museum) . . 327 128. The Columbarium discovered in the Vigna Codini, May, 1852 . 332 129. One of the Courts of the Palace of the Laterans, discovered in 1877 341 130. Campus Lateranensis, about 1534 343 131. Plan of the House of SS. John and Paul, and of the Cliurcli built above it 348 132. A View of the Church and Monaster^' of S. Circgorio in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century . ' 3.50 133. The Substructures of the Claudlum, West Side .... 352 134. S. Stefano Rotondo, Inner View 354 135. Plan of S. Stefano Rotondo 356 136. Map of Region III. — Isis et Serapis 357 137. Nymphanim discovered near the Via della Polveriera . . . 360 138. Plan of the Golden House and of the Baths of Titus and Trajan . 3G0 139. A View of the South Wing of the Domus Aurea .... 361 140. Plan of Western Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre . . . 368 141. The Shell of the Coliseum after the Collapse of the Western Arcades 374 142. The Insignia of the Compagnia del Salvatore on the Coliseum . 375 143. Stone Cippi surrounding the Coliseum 378 144. Step-seat of the Coliseum, Avith the Name of a Fabius Insteius . 381 145. Wooden Floor discovered in 1874 in the Substructures of the Ai-ena of the Coliseum 382 146. I'alladio's Diagrams of the Anii>liitheatrum Castrense . . . 384 147. Plan of the Ludus ^Magnus 386 148. Remains of Public Baths near S. Pudenziana 390 149. Ruins discovered in 1684 on the Line of the Via Graziosa . . 392 150. Map of the Parks and Gardens of Ancient Rome .... 394 151. Ligorio's Perspective View of the Horti Variani .... 396 152. The Horti Variani, Vigna Conti, by S. Croce in Gerusalemme . 399 153. Statue of a Roman Magistrate of the Fourth Century giving the Signal for a Chariot Race 402 154. Columbaria discovered in 1872 on the Site of the Horti Liciiiiani . 403 155. Statue of Shepherdess discovered in the Horti Vettiani . . 405 156. Bust of Commodus from the Horti Lamiani 408 157. Statuette of a Girl from the Horti Lamiani .... 409 158. The Conservatory of the Gardens of Ma?cenas .... 411 159. The Fountain Of Pontios the Athenian, discovered in the Gardens of Mipcenas 412 160. Part of the Marble Throne of the Venus Sallustiana, now in the Ludovisi Museum 414 161. A Group of Pines in the Villa Ludovisi, cut ddwn in 1887 . . 416 162. Cliffs on the South Side of the Vallis Sallustiana, l)efore the Con- struction of the New Quarters 418 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxiu 163. The "Parnaso" or Xympli;rum of the Villa Aldobrandini at Frascati 422 164. The Substructures of the Gardens of the Acilii Glabrioues on the Pineian. A Sketch by Yaladier 42-3 165. Map of Region VI. — Alta Semita 428 166. The Ruins of the Temple of the Sun in the Sixteenth Century . 429 167. The Dioscuri of the (iuirinal, as they appeared in 1.546 . . 431 168. The Tepidarium of the Baths of Diocletian, before its Transfor- mation into the Church of S. ^I. degli Angeli .... 434 169. Group of Cypresses in the Cloisters of La Certosa . . . 436 170. Remains of the Castra Pretoria : Northeast Corner of the (^lad- rangle 438 171. The Walls of the Pra'torian Camp, with Aurelian's Superstructure 439 172. One of the Victories from the Arch of Gordianus III. . . . 440 173. Map of Region IX. — Can)i)us ^Martins and Circus I'laminius . . 440 174. Plan of the Ara Ditis et Proserpin* 447 175. Fragments of the Pnlvini of the Ara Ditis ..... 448 176. Architectural Details of the Circus Flaminius .... 453 177. The Inscription of Anicius Faustus from the ('ircus Flaminius (?) . 454 178. A Fragment of the Forma Urbis showing Round Temple of Her- cules 45,5 179. The Finding of the Bronze Statue of tlie Hercules ]\[agnus Ciistos, August 8, 1864 . .4.56 180. The Shrine of the Hercules Invictus, discovered in 1889, on the Via Portuensis 457 181. The so-called Pompey the Great of tlie Palazzo Spada . . . 4(!0 182. The Mausoleum of Augustus, turned into a Garden by the Soderiui about 1.550 "... 463 183. The Ara Pacis August:\i — details 467 184. The Ara Pacis Augusta;— details 468 185. Plan of the first (red) and of the third (black) Pantlicm . . .474 186. The I'antheon flooded by the Tiber 477 187. T!ie Pantheon at the Time of Urban VIII. (1625) . . . .482 188. The Bronze Trusses of the Pronaos of the Pantheon, from a Sketch by Dosio 483 189. The Remains of Raphael, discovered September 14, 1833 ., . 485 190. The Temple of Neptune : an unfinished Study by Vespignani . 489 191. Remains of the Hall of the Theatre' of Marcellus, from a Sketch by Du Perac (1575) 492 192. Arcades of the Theatre of Balbus, from a Sketch by .Sangallo the Elder . . . ' . ' . . 493 193. Forma Urbis, fragment 115 494 194. Remains of the Crypta Balbi, designed by Sangallo the Elder . 495 195. Remains of the Stadium discovered in 1869 at tlie South End of the Piazza Xavona 497 196. The Nile of the Braccio Xuovo — A Fragment .... .501 197. A Round Temple or Hall sketched by Giovannoli in 1619, near the Palazzo Capranica 503 198. The so-called Arch of M. Aurelius on the Corso, sketched by Li- gorio 505 xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 199. Map of the Harbor of Rome 509 200. Temple of Fortuna ; Detail of the Order 515 201. The Excavations of 1827 in the Temple of Mater Matuta, from a Sketch by Valadier 517 202. The Janus of the Forum Boarium, the Arch of Severus, and the Church of S. Giorgio, from a Sketch by M. Heemskerk . . 519 203. Plan of S. Maria in Cosmedin 520 204. S. Maria in Cosmedin in the Sixteenth Century .... 521 205. The Wliarf for Landing Marbles on the Banks of the Campus Martins . . . " 52G 206. Map of the Therma- Antoniniana> 533 207. Part of the Building discovered by Guidi under the Baths of Cara- calla 533 208. A Leaf from Palladio's Sketch-book (Baths of Caracalla) . . 535 209. Capital of the Composite Order from the Tepidarium of Caracalla's Baths 537 210. Palladio's Plan of the Thermse Decianw 543 211. Capital from the Basement of Hadrian's Tomb .... 552 212. Diagram showing the Order in which the Imperial Tiim1)stones were placed in the ^lausoleum 554 213. The Girandola at the Castle of S. Angelo, from an Engraving by Lauro (1624) 556 214. The Mausoleum of Hadrian and the Meta m Raphael's "Vision of Constantine " 557 215. The Prati di Castello in 1870 558 210. The Prati di Castello in 1890 559 THE RUINS OF ANCIENT ROME BOOK I GENERAL IXKOUMATIOX I. Site — Geology — CoxFiGt'RATiox of Soil. — During the sub-Apennine or quaternary period a powerful stream came down from the mountains, on the line of a rent or fissure which separated the Ciminian from the Alban volcanoes. The stream, from 1000 to 2000 metres wide and 30 deep, emptied itself into the sea between Ponte Galera and Dragoncello. By the combined action of the main flood and of its tributaries, portions of the tableland on the east or left bank became detached and formed small islands, while the edge of the bank itself was fur- rowed and serrated into promontories and iidets. Such is the ori- gin of the isolated hills, since called Capitoline. Palatine, Aven- tine, and Ca?lian ; and of the promontories projecting from the tableland, called Pincian, Quirinal, Viminal, Cespian. and Oppian. The Vatican and the Janicnlum on the west or right bai^k are less irregular, because they had to withstand the action of the main stream alone, and not of side tributaries. When men first appeared in these lands the quaternary river had diminished almost to the size and volume of the historical Tiber, and the hills had been reduced to a definite shape ; but the bottom of the valleys remained swampy, so as to be easily flooded by freshets. The marshes of the Yelabra, the Capra? palus, the Decennije, and other ponds are evidence of this state of things. The mouth of the river was still near Ponte Galera, 12 kilometres farther inland than the present one. The first human settlement, "dove I'acqua di Tevere s'insala," called i^/ca/m, stood on the hill of Dragoncello, opposite Ponte Galera. The dim remoteness of these events is shown by the fact that when Ancus Marcius, the 2 GENERAL INFORMATION fourth king, founded Ostia, as a substitute for Ficana, the mouth of the river had ah'eady advanced seawards 5810 metres. Fig. 2. — The Cliifs of the CapitoUne Hill above " La Consolazione." It is difficult to reconstruct in one's mind tlie former aspect of the site of Rome, as hills have been lowered, valleys filled u]i, and cliffs turned into gentle slopes. By means of borings made in SITE o 1872,1 and of my own investigations into the depths of the founda- tions of modern buildings, I have ascertained that the promon- tories and the isolated hills were faced — at least on the river side — by sheer walls of rock, of which there are a few specimens left at the southwest front of the Capitoline, and on the west sides of the Palatine and Aveutine. In other words, the site of Home was like that of Veil and Faleria, with narrow dales inclosed by craggy clift's, shadowed by evergreens, and made damp and unhealthy by swamps and unruly rivers (Fig. 2). The otlier hills, the Quirinal, Viminal, Pincian, etc., were not different in shape, as shown by the following section taken across the Quirinal, from the Piazza Barberini to the corner of the Via Nazionale : — 5^'^SSS^^Ss^. I -(44.32) l;3000 AliituJ' 000 Distances, Kg. 3. — Section of the Quirinal Hill. Within the limits of the old ci those isolated were called inonta and Ca'lian), those connected roHes ((Quirinal and Viminal). the rule, being counted among with the tableland. In regard stand in the following order : — Quirinal, T'orta Pia . Viminal, railway fetation [Oppiari, the Sette Sale . Esr|uiline, S. ]Maria ^lagj^iore [Cespiaii, Via Qiiattro Cantoiii Palatine, S. Bi)naventnra Civlian, Villa Mattei . Capitoline, the Araewli Aveutine, S. Alessio . ty there were seven hills, of which s (Palatine, Capitoline, Aveutine, with the tableland were called The Es(piiline is an exception to the montes, although connected to altitude above sea-level they 1 Raffaele Canevari, Atti Accademia Lincet, serie ii. vol. ii. p. 429. Metres. 6.3.05 57.48 55.02] 54.43 50.86] 50.00 47.85 46.00 45.92 4 GENERAL INFORMATION Other summits on the left bank : — Metres. Piiician Hill at the Villa Medici 56.33 Piucian Hill at the Porta Pinciaiia 63.05 The so-called pseudo-Aventine by S. Saba . . . 43.00 Moute d' Oro, above the Porta Metroni . . . . 46.00 Monte Citorio 24.34 Before the construction of the central railway station, the highest point on the left bank was an artificial hill called the Monte della Giustizia, the work of Diocletian and of Sixtus Y. It rose to the height of 73 metres, and bears the name of " altissimus Roniaj locus" in Bufalini's map (1551). On the other side of the river, the ridge called the monn Vaticanus rises to the height of liO metres at the fort of Monte Mario, of 75 metres at the top of the pope's gardens. The Janiculum measures 89 metres at the Villa Savorelli-Heyland, 81.73 at the Porta di S. Pancrazio. Rome stands at an equal distance from the sea and the moun- tains, in the middle of an undulating plain deeply furrowed by ravines. This plain, 47 kilometres wide and 60 long, is bordered on the north side by the Sabatine volcanic range (Rocca romana, 601 metres; Monte Calvi, 5.90; Monte Virginio, 540) ; on the east side by the limestone pre- Apennines (Monte Gennaro, 1269 ; Monte Affliano, 598; Monte Guadagnolo, 1218; the citadel of Prseneste at Castel S. Pietro, 760) ; on the southeast side by the Alban hills, the highest summit of which is not Monte Cavo (940), as generally supposed, but the Punta delle Faette, 950 metres. Students who visit Rome for the first time would do well to take at once a general survey of the seven hills, of the plain, of its border of mountains and sea, from the dome of S. Peter's, from the campanile of S. Maria Maggiore, or from the tower of the Capitol, which is easier of access and has a more interesting foreground (open every day from ten to three). The landmarks of the panorama can be singled out by referring to — Henry Kiepert's Carta corogr. ed archiol. dtlV Italia centrale, 1 : 250,000. Berlin, Reimer, 1881. — Enrico Abate's Guida della provincia di Roma. Rome, Salviucci, 1890. Map in two sheets. Second ed. 1893. Maps of the Istituto geogralico niilitare, 1 : 100,000 and 1 : 50,000. (The map 1 : 10,000 is not in the market.) The best for use is the Carta topografica dti dintorni di Roma, in 9 sheets, 1 : 25,000. The highest peaks visible from Rome are the Monte Terminillo, above Rieti, 2213 metres high, and the Monte Velino, above Avez- zano, 2487 metres. They usually keep their shining coat of snow till the middle of May. GEOLOGY 5 Literature. — Giovanni Brocchi, Dello statofisico del suolo di Roma. Rome, 1820. — Raffaele C'anevari, Cenni suUe condizioni altimetriche ed idrauliche dell' agro romano. Rome, 1874. (Auuali Ministero agricoltura.) — Felice Gior- dano, Condizioni topogrqtiche ejisiche di Roma e Campagna. (Monogratia della citta di Roma, 1881, pp. i.-lxxxvi.) — Paolo Mantovaui, Descrizione yeologica della Campagna romana, Rome, Loescher, 1874 ; and Costituzione geologica del suolo romano, 1878. — Murray's Handbook of Rome, ed. 1875, p. 349. — Antonio Nibby, Roma anlica, vol. i. pp. 1-65, 2()7-.300. Rome, 1838. — Adolf Becker, Topogrrqjhie der Stadt Rome, p. 81. (Lage, Weichbild, Klima.) Heinrich Jordan, Tojiograjjliie d. S. R., vol. i. pp. 117-152. (Lage, Bodeu, Klima.) — Otto Richter, Topographie d. S. R., p. 18. (Lage und Formation.) There are two museums of geology and mineralogy — one in the L'niversity (della Sapienza), consisting of the collections of Belli, Brocchi, and Spada, and of a bequest of Leo XIL ; the other in the former convent della Yittoria, Via S. Susanna, second floor : open Tuesdays, Thursda3-s, and Sundays. II. Geology. — There are four geological formations in the district of Rome, with which the student must become familiar if he wishes to understand at once some imjjortant peculiarities of Roman masonry and architecture. They are the secondary or limestone, the tertiary or argillaceous, the volcanic, and the quaternary or diluvial formations. The limestone is best examined at INIonticelli, the ancient Cor- niculum, the fourth station on the Sulmona line. The rock, slightly dolomitised, is white at the base of the hill, with terebra- tuloe in great numbers ; reddish in the middle, with a dozen va- rieties of ammonites ; and white again at the summit, with tere- hratidce and traces of the anomalous fossil uptychus. The lime of ^lonticelli, from the Caprine kilns, mixed with pozzolana, makes Roman masonry " fere perennius." The argillaceous formation is conspicuous in the Vatican and Janiculum ridges, the monti della creta (clay hills) of the present day. A waUc through the exten- sive quarries of the Valle dell' Inferno and the Yalle del Gelsomino will show the student the details of the formation, rich in ptero- podous molluscs, and will make him appreciate the vastness of the work of man, since bricks were first accepted as an essential element of Roman masonry. As the A'alle di Pozzo Pantaleo has been bodily excavated through the hills of Monteverde by the quarrj'men supplying tufa for the " opus quadratum " and the "opus reticulatum," so the valleys of the Gelsomino, delle For- naci, delle Cave, della Balduina, and dell' Inferno have been hollowed out of the clay hills by the ancient, Renaissance, and modern bricklayers. (See Bull, com., 1892, p. 288, and § xi. on Building Materials.) The pliocene marls of the Vatican ridge abound in fossils ; they can easily be gathered along the Via 6 GENERAL INFORMATION Trionfale opposite the Croce di Monte Mario, or in the cuttings of the Vitei'bo railway, at the top of the Valle dell' Inferno. The volcanic formation is represented in or near Rome by three kinds of tufa — the red or lithoid, the yellowish or granular, the grayish or lamellar ; and by two kinds of pozzolana — the red and the black. The surface of tufa beds, soft and unfit for build- ing purposes, is called " cax^pellaccio." The tufa quarries of S. Saba, the largest within the walls, were abandoned in 1889 ; the largest still in use are those of Monteverde, outside the Porta Por- tese, and of S. Agnese, outside the Porta Pia. The best kind of pozzolana is quarried near the Tre Fontane. Diluvial or qua- ternary deposits abound on each side of the Tiber. The cliffs of the Monti Parioli, between the Villa di Papa Giulio and the Acqua Acetosa, as well as the gravel pits of Ponte Molle and Ponte No- mentano, are best adapted for the study of this late formation, so rich in fossil mammalia, like the Eleplias, the Rhinoceros tichorinus, the Bos p)-imigenius, the hippopotamus, the lynx, etc. It is well to remember that the flint arrowheads found in the gravel at Ponte Molle do not belong to a local race, but were washed down from pre-Apennine stations by the flood. Travertine, the king of Roman building materials, is best studied at the Cava del Barco, near the stazione del bagni of both Tivoli railways. Pietro Zezi, Imlice blhliograjico delle puhllcazioniriyuaydanti la mineralogia, la geologia e la paleontologia. delta pruvincia di Roma. (Moiiografia di Konia, vol. i. p. clxiii.) III. Malaria. — The Romans did not deny the unhealthiness of the district in the midst of which their city was built. Cicero calls it " a pestilential region," and Pliny likewise calls the Ma- remma " heavy and pestilential." The hills were comparatively healthy (" colles in regione pestilent! salubres, colles saluberrimi," Livy, V. 54) ; still, the effects of malaria, increased by ignorance or contempt of sanitary rules, must have been felt also by the settlers on the Palatine, Esquiline, and Quirinal. Under Tiberius there were three temples of Fever left standing — one on the Palatine, one near the church of S. Eusebio, the third near the church of S. Bernardo; but they represented the memory of past miseries rather than actual need of help from the gods, because, long before the time of Tiberius, Rome and the Campagna had been made healthy in a large measure ; and when Horace (Epist., i. 7, 7) describes Rome as half deserted in the summer months, he refers to the habit of the citizens of migrating to MALARIA i their hill farms or seacoast villas, to escape depressing heat rather than malaria. This sunimer emigration en masse is still charac- teristic of Rome. Sixty thousand citizens left in 189o for an average period of forty days : one seventh of the whole population. Sanitary reform was accomplished, firstly, by the draining of marshes and ponds ; secondly, by an elaborate system of sewers ; thirdly, by the substitution of spring water for that of polluted wells ; fourthly, by the paving and multiplication of roads ; fifthly, by the cultivation of land; sixthly, by sanitary engineering, ai> plied to human dwellings ; seventhly, by substituting cremation for burial; eighthly, by the drainage of the Canipagna; and lastly, by the organization of medical help. The results were truly wonderful. Pliny says that his villeggiatura at Laurentum was equally delightful in winter and summer, while the place is now a hotbed of malaria. Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius pre- ferred their villa at Lorium (Castel di Guido) to all other imperial residences, and the correspondence of Fronto proves their presence tliere in midsummer. Xo one would try the experiment now. The same can be said of Hadrian's villa below Tivoli, of the villa Quinctiliorum on the Appian Way, of that of Lucius Verus at Acqua Traversa, etc. The Campagna must have looked in those happy days like a great park, studded with villages, farms, lordly residences, temples, fountains, and tombs (see " Ancient Rome," chs. iii. and x.). The cutting of the aqueducts by the barbarians, the consequent abandonment of suburban villas, the permanent insecurity, the migration of the few survivors under cover of the city walls, and the clioking up of drains, caused a revival of malaria. ]\Iedi»val Romans found themselves in a condition worse than that of the first l)uilders of the city ; and being neither able nor willing to devise a remedy, as their ancestors had done, they raised their helpless hands towards heaven, and built a chapel in honor of Our Lady of the Fever (see '' Ancient Rome," p. .53). The present generation has once more conquered the evil, and has made Rome the best drained, the best watered, the healthiest capital of Europe, except London. This statement may not be agreeable to those who systematically and deliberately condemn whatever has been done by us since 1870; but they would do well to accept facts as they are. Comm. Luigi Bodio, Director of the State Department of Statistics, has favored me with the followino- official declaration : — 8 GENERAL INFORMATION " Rome, 10 Nov. 1894. " From 1st January, 1860, to 31st December, 1869, in an aver- age population of 205,229, thei-e were 5477 average annual bii-ths, 5946 deaths. Rate of births, 26.70 per thousand; of deaths, 29 per thousand. "Between 1890 and 1893, in an average population of 437,355 souls, there were 11,678 births, 9791 deaths per annum. Rate of births, 26.70 per tliousand ; of deaths, 22.38. This last figure includes the floating population, and, above all, the peasants who come down from their moiintains to cultivate the Maremma, and furnish the heaviest percentage to the hospital lists. The rate of deaths among the resident population is only 1QA5 per thousand, 'while in London it rose to 20.37, in Vienna to 21.53, in Berlin to 23.09, in Paris to 23.80." i LiTEKATURE. — Pictro Balestra, L' iffiene nelln citta e camjjogna di Rmnn. 1875. — Guido Baccelli, La malaria di Roma. (Monografia di Roma, 1881, vol. i.p. 149.) — Giovanni Brocclii, Discorso sulla condizione dell' aria di Roma nei tempi anticki. 1820. — Stefano Ferrari, Condizioni igieniche del climn di Roma. (Monografia di Roma, 1881, vol. i. p. 316.) — Rodolfo Lanciani, DI alcune opere di risnnamenio delV af/ro romano. Atti Lincei, 1879. " Tlie Sanitary Condition of Rome: " Ancient Rome, p. 49. — Lanzi-Terrigi, La malaria e il clima di Roma. Rome, 1877. — Francesco Scalzi, Malattie predominanti in Roma. Rome, 1878. — Angelo Secchi, Intorno ad alcune opere idrnuliche antiche rinrenute nella campagna di Roma. — ('orrado, Tommasi Crudeli, The Climate of Rome and the Roman Malaria. (Translated by Charles Cramond Dick. London, Churchill, 1892.) L' antica fognatura delle colline romane. Atti Lincei, vol. x., 1881. Alcune riflesdoni sul clima dell' antica Roma. Mittheil., 1877, p. 77. L'ancien drainage des collines romaines. Melanges de I'Ecole fran9aise, 1882. — Charles Edmund Wendt, The New Rome and the Question of Roman Fever. New York, 1892. — Philijipe Tournon, Etudes statistiques sur Rome. Paris, 1855, vol. i. pp. 223, 230. rV. Climate. — The climate seems to have been more severe in ancient times than now. Dionysius (Fragm., 1., xii. 8) describes a blizzard which covered the ground with seven feet of snow. Men died of cold, sheep and cattle were frozen, and many houses fell under the weight of their snowy pall. He speaks probably of the year 401 b. c, which Livy (v. 13) calls " insignis hieme gelida ac nivosa," when even the Tiber became a mass of ice. In 271 snow lay on the Forum for forty days.'^ On 12th .January 67 n. c. the meeting of the Senate was adjourned on account of the cold 1 Death-rate in 1886 — London, 19.8; Rome, 20.0; Paris, 24.6; Berlin, 25.8; Vienna, 26.2; Petersburg, 30.6; Buda-Pest, 39.4. ' See Augustine, De civitate Dei, iii. 17. CLIMATE 9 which prevailed in the CuriaJ The severity of another winter, per- haps that of 1!J B. c, is described by Horace (Od., i. 9). Martial's epigram, iv. 18, commemorates the fate of a youth transfixed l)y an icicle. Such excesses of temperature are not recorded in mod- ern days. Between 1828 and 1877 the lowest registered was 8.25° Centigrade (February, 18-1.5), the highest 42°, a most extraordi- nary case, which happened on July 17, 1841. The mean annual temjierature is 16.40°. In the course of the day the mercury rises (piickly in the morning and falls slowly after noon. In summer there are two maximums — one from twelve to one o'clock, the other towards nine p. m. The temperature is always lowest at sum-ise. Rain is most frequent in Xovember, heaviest in October. There are 155 cloudless days in the year, 122 misty, 83 cloudy. Maximum rainfall (1872), 10.'iO.:30 millimetres; minimum (1834), 319.45. In summer time the land breeze blows from early morn- ing to nine a. m., the sea breeze from eleven to six. These refresh- ing winds make Kome more comfortable in summer than other cities of much higher latitudes. V. Hydrography — Rivers, Springs, Ponds, Marshes. — The Tiber rises from the Monte Coronaro, at the height of 1167 metres above the sea, and reaches Rome after a winding course of 373 kilometres, through Etruria, Umbria, and Sabina. The niean breadth of the river in the city district was 80 metres (now 100 metres between the embankments), its average depth 3 metres, total length from springs to sea 393 kilometres. Below Rome it expands into a channel 120 metres wide, navigated by steamers and coasting-vessels of 100 tons burden. Ceselli's observations, from ]\Iarch, 1871, to Feltruary, 1872, state the daily average out- flow of the river at 1.296,000 cubic metres. During the same year 8,582,333 tons of sand and mud were washed down to the sea, a volume of over 4,000,000 cubic metises. This state of things and the prevalence of southwesterly winds makes the coast advance westwards at a consideralile rate. We have just seen that Ficaua, the oldest human station near the bar of the river, is now 12,000 metres inland, and kingly Ostia 6600 metres. The Torre di S. Michele, built in 1567 by Michelangelo on the edge of the sands, stands 2000 metres away from the present shore ; the Torre Clementina at Fiumicino, built in 1773, " in ipso maris supercilio," 1 Cicero, Ad Quint, fratr., ii. 12. 10 GENERAL INFORMATION Htands 690 metres inland.^ The average yearly increase of the coast at the Ostia mouth is 9.02 metres, at the Fiumicino mouth 3.10 metres. Literature. — Giuseppe Ponzi, Storia geologica del Tevere. (Giornale arcadico, vol. xviii. p. 1'29.) DtW Aniene e de suol rditti. (Ibid.) — Aubert, Roma e V inondazione del Tevere. (Giornale arcad., vol. Ixvi. p. 142.) — Alessan- dro Betocchi, Delfiume Tevere. (Moiiogratia di Koiua, vol. i. p. l'J7.) Effeme- ridi del Tevere, published yearh' by the Accademia dei Liiicei. — Marco Ceselli, Bulletiino nautico e geograjico di Roma, vol. vi. n. 3. — Carlo Fea, Storia delle acque. Rome, 1817. — Rodolfo Lanciani, / comentarii di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedofti. Rome, Salviucti, 1880, pp. 3-28. — Alessandro Nar- ducci published, in 1876, an essay on the bibliography of the Tiber (Saggio di hibUografia del Tevere, Rome, Civelli), in which over 400 works are registered. Their number may be stated now at 700. The best library for consultation on the subject is the Biblioteca del Miriistero dei Lavori publici. Piazza di S. Silvestro. There is a special department in Rome for the works and embank- ment of the Tibei", with a good collection of maps and diagrams (Ufficio tec- nico speciale per la sisteniazione del Tevere. Via di Ripetta, n. 222 c). The inundations are the great historical feature of the Tiber. From the traditional flood, in the course of which Romulus and his twin-brother were exposed to the waters under the rocks of the Palatine, to the beginning of the Christian era, twenty-six inundations are recorded ; thirty from 1 to 500 a. d. ; twenty-one from 500 to 1000; twenty-three from 1000 to 1500; thirty-two from 1500 to the present day ; a total of one hundred and thirty- two. The worst of which we liave the measurement reached the following altitudes at the hydrometer of Ripetta (ordinary level of water, 0.70 metres) : — Metres. December, 1280 10.02 November, 1.376 17.02 December, 1495 16.88 October, 1530 18.95 September, 1557 18.90 DECEMBER, 1598 19.56 January, 1606 18.26 February, 1637 17.55 November, 1660 17.11 November, 1668 16.00 December, 1702 15.41 February, 1805 16.42 December, 1846 16.25 December, 1870 17.22 1 The coast has increased about 390 metres since 1st April, 1857, when au official survey was taken by the local collector of customs. I THE TIBER 11 The flood of 1598, the highest recorded in history, began on Christmas eve ; at noon the next day there were 6.50 metres of flood in the Via di Ripetta, 6.58 metres at the Pantheon, 5.28 metres at the Piazza Xavona, 4.56 metres on the Corso by S. Lorenzo in Lncina. A boat went ashore in the Piazza di Spagna, where tiie Fontaua della Barcaccia was erected by Bernini to commemorate the event; two arches of the Pons ^Emilias were overthrown at three P. M. on the 21th, a few seconds after Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandiuo had crossed it to rescue some families sur- rounded by the foaming waters. Houses were washed away l)y hundreds; TOO persons were drowned in the city, and 800 in the suburbs, besides thousands of cattle. As usual, famine and pesti- lence followed the flood. In the flood of 1702, which rose to only 15.11 metres, fifty-two streets and squares were submerged on the left bank, north of the Capitol, eighty-five south of that hill, and sLsty-two on the other side of the river. The last flood, on December 28 and 29, 1870, which gave rise to King Victor Emmanuel's first visit to his new capital on a merci- ful errand, marks another important date in the history of the city, because to it we owe the construction of the new embank- ments, which, when finished, will have cost the state, the county, and the city over 20(),0()().()00 lire. The curve of the flood of 1870 is represented in this diagram : — f ■ 2 ; ? 2 ? : I ; £ IS ti:: s T " " T : -?;::: ? ? 7 f i i i Hours a> 2 .20..; . i . 2 00c. |S 2 - 2 - .. 2 . ; . 2. 2 . .2 Days S s s s s % " - Months December IP.IO January 1871 Fig. 4. — Curve of the Flood of December, 1870. The event is too recent to require a description. It brought to our minds the floods so often mentioned by the " Liber Pontifi- calis," when the waters, breaking through the walls at the Poste- rula sancti Martini (Ripetta), would dash against the clifl^s of the Capitol, ltd ut in via lata (Corso) amplius ijuam duas statural (3.80 metres) Jiuminis aqua excrevisset (a. d. 772). 12 GENERAL INFORMATION Literature. — Leone Pascoli, II Tevere navigato. Rome, 1740. — Gaspare Alveri, Delle inondazloni del Tevere. (Roma in ogni state, voL i. p. 571.) — Antonio Grifl, 11 fiume Tevere nelle sue piit inemorabili inondazioni. Album, voL iv. pp. 29, 390. — Philippe Tounion, Etudes statistiques sur Rome, vol. ii. p. 207. — Gaetauo Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione ecclesiastica, vol. Ixxv. p. 125. — Filippo Cerroti, Le inondazioni di Roma. Florence, 1871. — Ralfaele Canevari, Tavola delle principali inondazioni del Tevere. Rome, 1875. — Michele Carcani, II Tevere e le sue inondazioni dalle origini di Roma sine ai giornl nostri. Rome, 1875. — Alessandro Bettocclii, Monografia della citta di Roma, 1881, vol. i. p. 24-'i. — Liidovico Gomez, De prodigiosis Tiheris iminda- tionihus. Rome, 1531. Tlie earliest project for restraining the Tiber from overflowing- its banks dates, as far as we know, from the time of Julius Caesar, who moved in the House a bill for the cutting of a new bed from the Pons Molvius to the Trastevere, along the base of the Vatican hills.^ The merit of having placed the unruly river under the management of a body of conservators, selected from the highest consular ranks, belongs to Augustus according to Suetonius (37), to Tiberius according to Tacitus (Ann., i. 70) and Dion Cassius (Ivii. 14, 8). Augustus gave the posts of chief conservators to C. Asinius Gallus and C. Marcius Ceusorinus in the year 7 b. c, when the bed of the river was cleared " ruderibus et eedificiorum prolapsionibus," deepened and widened, and its banks were lined with terminal stones, marking the extent of public property which the conserva- tors had rescued from private encroachment. Scores of these stones are still in existence. After the inundation of A. D. 15, which had caused what Tacitus describes as " aedificiorum et homi- num stragem," Tiberius referred the subject to Ateius Cajjito and L. Arruntius, the first of whom was a great authority on such mat- ters. They suggested, and the Emperor sanctioned, the institution of a permanent committee of five senators, to be called curatores riparum. This institution lasted until the reign of Vespasian or Domitian, when we hear for the first time of one conservator only, a patrician, assisted by two adiutores of equestrian rank. In or about A. D. 101 the care of the sewers was added to that of the Tiber, and this important branch of the city administration received the title of .'itatio alvei Tiheris et cloacarum. About 330 the chief conservator exchanged his classic title for that of consu- laris, and about 400 for that of comes. Archaeologists have been 1 Cicero, Ad Attic, xxxiii. 3. Caesar's project was brought forward again in 1879. See Zucchelli, Di una nuova inalveazione del Tevere. Rome, For- zaui, 1879. J THE TIBER 13 able to draw an almost complete chronology of these officers from the terminal stones on which their names are engraved. Literature. — Corpus Inscr., vol. i. p. 180; vol. vi. p. 266. — Theodor Mominsen, Staatsrecht, ii^, p. 1047. — Giuseppe Gatti, Bull. comm. arch., vol. XV., 1887, p. 306. — Thedenat, Dictiunn. antiq. grecques et ram. de Saglio, vol. i. p. 162-3. — Luigi C'aiitarelli, Bull. comm. arch., vol. xvii., 1889, p. 185; vol. xxii., 1894, pp. 89 and 354. — Dante Vaglieri, Bull. comm. arch., vol. xxii., 1894, p. -254. Two means were adopted in im[)erial times to protect the city [rom floods — an embankment on either side, and the shortening of the bed between the city and the sea. First, as to the embankment. We have seen how the Tiber is siibjeot to differences of level, which reached to 12.86 metres in tlie flood of Clement VIII., increasing foui'teen times the volume of its waters. To give such a capricious river a regular outlet, modern engineers have built a uniform bed 1(10 metres in width, which has to serve both for droughts and for floods. Their pre- Modern embankment Fig. 5. decessors, on the other hand, had adopted a triple section, the narrowest to serve in time of drought, the second in moderate, tlie third in extraordinary floods, as shown in the following diagram : — Ancient embankment imm//"'" Fig. 6. The advantages of the old over the modern system are obvious. With the old the river was obliged to run in every season of the year within limits well defined, and proportioned to its volume, 14 GENERAL INFORMATION "without raising sandbanks and depositing silt and mud. The moderate heiglit of each of the three receding steps allowed the river to preserve its pleasing aspect, as is the case in many of the modern capitals of Europe ; while the huge walls between which we have imprisoned the stream have transformed it into a deep and unsightly channel, with nothing to relieve the monotony of its banks. Side outlets to relieve the flood and shorten its course towards the sea were first cut open by Claudius. An inscrii^tion discovered at Porto in 1836 contains the expression : fossis dvctis vrbem iNA^NDATioxis PEKicvLO LiBERAviT (see Corpus Inscr., vol. xiv. n. 85). Trajan changed the course of the channels. Another fragmentary inscription, now in the cloisters of S. Paul outside the Walls, says of him : fossam fecit q\A iNVNdationes Tiberis GDSIDVE \rhem vexardes . . . arcerentur. This subject has been exhaustively treated by — Pietro Ercole Visconti, Dissertazioni Accad. archeol., vol. viii. (1838), p. 213. — Luigi Caniiia, Ibid., p. 259. — Antonio Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, vol. ii. p. 612. — Reifferscheid, Bull, hist., 186-3, p. 8. — Charles Texier, Revue gen. d' Architecture, vol. xv. p. 306, pis. 31, 32. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Ricerche mlla citta di Porto (in Ann. Inst., vol. xl., 1868, p. 144.) Corpus Inscr. Lat., vol. xiv. p. 22, n. 88. The following cut represents the mouth of the navigable arm of the river at Fiumicino, which is the modern representative of the fossa Traiana : — Fig. 7. — The Mouth of the Tiber at Fiumicino. The characteristics of the Tiber are, first, the supposed whole- some qualities of its water, the favorite beverage of Clement VII., THE TIBER 15 Paul III., and Gi^egory XIII. This simply proves that the three pontiffs were proof against tji^hoid, for the river was then, as it continued up to 1890, the true Cloaca Maxima of the city. The second is the abundance and regularity of its feeding springs, in consetjuence of which the river has never changed in volume and level within historical times. There is a tendency to believe that the Tiber was much lower in old times, because Pliny (xxxvi. 24, 2) speaks of Agripi)a being rowed into the Cloaca .Maxima, the moutli of which it is now impossible to enter. Observations made in 1S(J!( by Padre Secchi at the marble wharf (Marmorata), and by the engineers of the embankment, prove that since the fall of the Empire the bed of the river has hardly risen three feet. AVhile this fact is absolutely certain, it gives rise to problems which are difficult to solve. In the si)ring of 1879 a Roman house was discovered on the right l)ank, in the gardens of la Farnesina, the paintings and stuccoed panels of which have become famous in the artistic world, and form the best ornament of the ^luseo delle Terme. The pavements of this noble mansion were only 8 metres and 20 centimetres above the level of the sea, and about 3 metres above that of the river. During the four months employed by us in removing the frescoes and the stucco panels, the Tiber entered the house five times. Taking ten times as a yearly average, the paintings and the stuccoes must have been washed by ordinary floods four thousand times, from the age of Augustus, to which the house belongs, to the fall of the Empire ; and yet frescoes and stuccoes were in perfect condition, and showed no sign of having been spoilt by water. I have not yet found a satisfactory solution of the problem ; because, even admitting the existence of an embankment between the house and the river, drains would always have provided a way for the flood. Literature. — Xotizie (lefjll Scari, 1880, p. 127, pis. 4, 5. — Monumenti inediti dell' Instiittto, Supplenu-nto ISltl. — ^Yolfgang Helbig, Collections of Antiquities in Rome, vol. ii. p. 2-20. — Kodolfo Lanciani, Far/an and Christian Borne, p. 2*)3. The Tiber was celebrated for its fish. There is a work on this subject by Paolo Giovio, translated from Latin into Italian by Carlo Zangarolo. ^lacrobius, Pliny, and Juvenal praise above all the hipus, when caught " inter duos pontes " (in the waters of S. Bartolomeo's island), where he fed on the refuse of the Cloaca ^laxima. The lupus has been identified by some "v\ith the " spigola " or Pcrca lehrax, by others with the " laccia " or Clupea 16 GENERAL INFORMATION alosa, better known by the name of shad, the best Tiberine fish of the present day. There is a bas-relief in the Capitol, represent- ing a sturgeon 16 inches long, with the text of an edict of 1581 providing that any sturgeon caught in Roman waters exceeding the statute size would be considered the property of the city magistrates. VI. Bridges. Literature. — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Opere, vol. iv., Ponti antichi, etc. — Stefano Piale, Degli antichi ponti di Roma. Rome, 183-2. — Adolf Becker, De muris, p. 78; aud Tojwgraphie, p, 093. — Tlieodor Moniiusen, Berichte der scichs. Gesellschajl dtr Wiss., 1850, p. 320. — Heinrich Jordan, Die Briickeii. (Topographic, vol. i. p. 393.) — Mayerlioefer, Die Briicken in alien Rom, 1883.— Zippel, Die Briicken in alien Rom. (Jahrbucli fiir klass. Phil., 1880, p. 81.) — Otto Richter, Die Befestigung des Janiculum. Berlin, 1882. Pons sublicius, the oldest of Roman bridges. — Its antiquity is proved not so much by the tradition which attributes it to Ancus Marcius, as by the fact that no iron was used in its original construction, or in subsequent repairs. Pliny (H. N., xxxvi. 15, 23), ignorant as he was of " Pre-history," gives a wrong explana- tion of the fact when he introduces the story of Horatius Codes, whose followers experienced so much difficulty in cutting it down in the face of the enemy. Such was not the case. Iron was pro- scribed irom the structure for the same reason which prevented masons or stonecutters from using tools of that metal in repairing some of the oldest temples ; for instance, that of the Dea Dia (see " Ancient Rome," p. 41). At that time the Romans lived still " morally " in the age of bronze, and felt a religious repulsion for the new metal. The bridge was carried away by a flood in 2-3 b. c, perhaps the same mentioned by Horace (Od., i. 2) ; and again in the time of Antoninus Pius. On either occasion it was restored according to the old rite.i It seems almost certain that, if the frame and the roadway were of timber and planks {mhlicia),i\\& foundations in mid-stream must have been of solid masonry.^ The piers were prominent enough above the water-mark to make the memory of the bridge last through the Middle Ages, when we hear very often 1 See Dionysius, iii. 45 ; Pliny, xxxvi. 5, 23 ; Macrobius, i. 11; and Vita Antonin., viii. 2 Servius, u^n. viii. 046, says of Porsenna: cnm jper sublicium pontem, hoc est ligneum qui modo lapidens dicitur, fransire conaretiir ; but his words deserve little credit. (See ^thicus, Cosmogr., in Jordan's Topogr., i. 393, n. 1.) BRIDGES 17 of a " pons fractus iuxta Marmoratam." They were destroyed to the water's edge under Sixtus IV. •• On July 28, 1484," says the Diary of lufessura, " Pope Sixtus sent into camp 400 large cannon-balls, made of travertine, from the remains of a bridge at La Marmorata, called • il ponte di Orazio Codes.' " The last traces were blown up in 1877 to clear the bed of the river. Literature. — Carlo Fea, in Winckelmanii's edit. Prato, 18;52, vol. xi. pp. 379-400. — Antonio Xibby, Roma antica, vol. i. \t. 19!l. Poxs Fabricius (Ponte Quattro capi). — Tlie island of .Escu- lapius niust have been joined to the left bank by a wooden bridge Fig. 8. — The iBmilian, Fabriciaii, Ccstiau Bridges, and the Ishiud in Uie Tiber. as early as 192 b. c. (see Li\y, xxxv. 21, .5) ; another structure nf the same kind is supposed to have joined the island witli tin- Trastevere and the fortified summit of the Janiculum. In tlu; year 62 b. c. Lucius Fabricius, commis.sioner of roads, tran,s- formed the first into a solid stone bridge. The inscriptions which commemorate the event, engraved below the parapets on either side, are followed by a declaration signed by P. Lepidus and M. Lollius, consuls in 21 b. c. that the work had been duly and satis- factorily executed. From this declaration we learn one of the wise principles of the Roman administration — that the contrac- tors and builders of bridges were held responsible for their solidity 18 GENERAL INFORMATION for forty years, so that they would regain possession of the de- posit which tliey made in advance only in the forty-first year after it liad been made. Nothing speaks more highly in favor of the bridge than the fact that it is the only one which has survived intact the vicissitudes of 1957 years. It has two arches and a smaller one in the pier between them ; a fourth is concealed by the modern embankment on the left. The student must remember that the streets of ancient Rome were from three to five metres lower than the present ones, while the bridges have remained the same ; the inclines which gave access to them were, therefore, much longer and steeper than they are now, and offered space for several more openings or arches, which have since been buried by the accumulation of the soil. These steep inclines were called 2^Gdet> pontic, and coscice in the Middle Ages. The Pons Fabricius took the name of Pons Judaeorum when the Jewish colony settled in the neighboring quarter. It is now called dei Quattro Capi, from the four-headed hermce which once supported the panels of the parapet. There are only two left in situ. The river, unfortunately, no longer flows under this most perfect of Roman bi'idges ; by a miscalculation in the plan of the new embankment the channel has been dried up, and the Ship of ^sculapius has stranded on a mudbank. Literature. — Luigi Caniua, Edijizii di Roma antica, vol. iv. tav. 242. — Corpus Inscr., vol. i. p. 174, ii. 600 ; vol. vi. n. 1305. Pons Cestius, Pons Gratianus, Ponte di S. Bartolomeo, between the island and the Trastevere. — Its construction is attributed to Lucius Cestius, one of the six magistrates whom Csesar en- trusted with the government of Rome on leaving for Spain in 46 B. c. It was rebuilt by L. Aurelius Avianius Symmachus, pre- fect of the city, in a. d. 365, and dedicated in the spring of 370 to the Emperor Gratianus. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. p. 245, n. 1175.) Its third restoration took place in the eleventh century in the time of Benedict VIII. ; the inscription which commemorates it describes the bridge as fere dirvtvm in tliose days. In 1849, the followers of Garibaldi threw one of the in- scriptions of Gratianus into the stream. The bridge was altered completely in 1886-89, so that of the three arches only the central one is ancient. In the course of the last work it was found that the blocks of travertine used by Symmachns in the restora- tions of 36.5-370 had been taken away from the theatre of Mar- 1 BRIDGES 19 cellus, mainly from the lo\Yei- (Doric) arcades of the hemicycle. He liad also made use of stones bearing historical inscriptions of the time of Trajan. The two bridges made an architectural and pictorial group with the Ship of iEsculapius.^ It is not known when and by whom the island was turned into this form. As far as we can IP^ f: -.-".. .„^ ' *-a»4 ■ -H • -nttrrHt^-' ~ - - («.■ ^^, tz'--- Fig. 9. — The Stern of the Ship of ^sculapius. judge from the fragment of the stern, represented in the cut above, the imitation must have been perfect in every detail. The ship, however, did not appear as if it w'as floating on the river, excej)t in time of flood, because it rested on a platform 2 metres above low-water mark. It was entirely built of travertine, and measured 280 metres between the perpendiculars, with a beam of 76 metres. An obelisk, pieces of which are now preserved in Naples, repre- sented the main-mast. A fanciful copy of this island exists in the Villa d' Este at Tivoli as a part of the plan, or rather model in full relief, of the city 1 Literatin-e on the Island of TEsculapius.— Corf. Vat., Sim, f. 42; Jordan, Forma Urbis, ix. 42; Corpus fnscr., vol. vi. n. 9-12, 9824; Accad. Rom. Arch.: sessionc 20 genn. 1881; Becker, Topo(jr., p. 651; Richter, Toporjr., p. 158; Gamucci, Antich. di Roma, iv. p, 279; Nibby, Roma antica, ii. 291. 20 GENERAL INFORMATION of Rome which Pirro Ligorio added to the curiosities of that delightful place. A stream, derived from the Auio, represents the Tiber, on which the ship appears to be floating, with the obelisk in the place of the mast and the coat-of-arms of Cardinal Ippolito instead of the emblems of the " merciful God." LiTEKATUKE. — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Anticliita di Roma, vol. iv. pis. 23, 24. — Antonio Nibbj', Roma antica, vol. i. p. 167. — P. Bonato, Annali tiocieta archit. itallani, vol. iv., 1889, p. 139. — Notizie degli Scavi, 1886, p. 159; 1889, p. 70. Pons JEmilius. — In the early days of Rome there was but one line of communication with the Janiculum and with the cities on the coast of Etruria : the road that passed over the Sublician bridge, crossed the plain of Trastevere by S. Cosimato, and ascended the Janiculum by the Villa Spada. Livy (i. 33 ; v. 40) and Valerius Maximus (i. 1, 10) describe it, on the occasion of the flight of the Vestals to Veil ; and Fabretti (De Aq., i. 18, p. 43) speaks of its rediscovery in the seventeenth century. He saw a long piece of the jiavement between the bridge and S. Cosimato ; and where the pavement was missing, as between the Villa Spada (de Nobili) and the church of S. Pietro Montorio, its course was marked by a line of tombs on either side. Tlie ascent up the hill was exceedingly steep, and hardly fit for carriage traffic. Things, however, were improved in the sixth century of Rome, when a new bridge and a new and better road were built. M. ^milius Lepidus and M. Fulvius Nobilior, censors in b. c. 181, founded the piers ; the arches were added and the bridge was finished thirty- eight years later. The new road, the Lungaretta of the present day. was then ti-aced across the low swampy plain of Trastevere, partly on an embankment, partly on viaducts built of stone. One of these viaducts was discovered in 1889 near the Piazza di S. Grisogono, and is described in the Bull. arch, com., 1889, p. 475, and 1890, pp. 6, 57. The Pons ^milius, owing to its slanting position across the river and to the side pressure of the floods against its piers, has been carried away at least four times : the first during or shortly before the reign of Probus (about a. d. 280) ; the second in 1230, when it was rebuilt by Gregory IX. ; the third on September 27, 1557 (rebuilt by Gregory XIII.) ; the fourth on December 24, 1598, after which it was never rej^aired. There is but one arch left now in mid-stream, the two on the right having been destroyeo" in 1887. BRIDGES 21 LiTERATfKE. — Heiiuich Jordan, Tapographit, i. p. 420. — Pietro Lauciaiii, Del ponte senatorio. Kome, 1826. — Gio. Battista de Rosi Line of new embankment Line of Ofic/e bank Tomb of/--. Platorinuai Garden of La Farnesina A !* TIBER '-■> ''■^-/— "-^--i/ne of new embankment i Fig. 10. — Foundations of Bridge (?) above the Ponte Sisto. Csesar, etc., we, Paullus Fabius Persicus, C. Eggius Marullus, C. Obellius Rufus, L. Sergius Paullus, L. Scribonius Libo, chief con- servators of the Tiber and its banks, have marked with cippi tlie limits of public property (on the left bank) from the Tricjarinm to the Bridge of Agrippa (ad pontrm Af/rippa)." The Trigarium was an oi)en space, near the Strada Giulia, for the breaking in and training of horses, for which luirjiose the ancients availed themselves of the trigaAhe untamed animal being harnessed between two trained ones. As regards the Bridge of Agrippa, all our science is at a loss to explain the mystery. It seems impossible that there should have existed in Eome a large bridge, thrown across the Tiber by such a man as Agrippa, in the golden age of Augustus, and yet that not a trace should be left of it in situ or in wi'itten or engraved documents. Two solutions are more or less acceptable. The first is that the bridge now- called Ponte Sisto may have been originally the work of Agrippa. Its history is unknown. From the name of Pons Aurelius or 22 GENERAL INFORMATION Pons Antouiiii, given to it in the third century, its construction has been attributed to Caracalla. Caracalla, however, may have been simply a restorer, as we know that Roman bridges used to change their names after every restoration. The second theory is that Agrippa's bridge was swept away by a flood soon after the accession of Claudius, and that its remains were carefully removed to restore free navigation up and down stream. This surmise seems justified by the discovery made, 100 Jiietres above the Ponte Sisto, of what appear to be the remains of sunken piers, as shown in Fig. 10. These remains are lying so low under the bottom of the river, they are so irregular in shape and in their respective distances (9.30 metres, 11.50 metres, 23.50 metres), their construction shows such a curious mixture of large stones and rubble work, that I still hesitate to consider them to be the remains of Agrippa's mysterious bridge. LiTERATUEK. — Luigi Borsari, Notizie. degli Scavi, 1887, p. 323; and Bull, nrch. com., 1888, p. 92. — Christian Huelsen, j\Iit(heiluii(/en, vol. iv., 188!), p. 285. Pons ^lius (Ponte S. Angelo). — A volume could be written on this most histoi'ical of Roman bridges ; but I confine myself to the mention of the latest discoveries made in connection with it. The Pons ^-Elius was built in A. v>. 136 by Hadrian, together with the mausoleum to which it gave access. The construction was recorded by two inscriptions (Corpus Tnscriptionum, vi. 973), — copied by Giovanni Dondi dall' Orologio in the jubilee of 1375, — which fell into the river in the catastrophe of 1450. There were six arches visible before the transformation of the bridge in 1892 ; two more have been discovered since in the long incline of the left bank, making a total of eight, of which three only served in the dry season. When the mausoleum was transformed into a fort or tete de pont in 403, the bridge was closed with two gates, one at each end. The gate facing the Campus Martins is called Avprixla by Procopius ; ^ the other, facing the Vatican, was named Porta S. Petri in Hadrian io, "Hadrianium" meaning the fort. The access to the bridge from the Campus Martins is repre- sented in the following remarkable photograph taken in July, 1892. The incline is 40 metres long, with a gradient of eleven per cent. The roadway is paved in the ordinary Roman fashion, the side pavement being of slabs of travertine. The holes on the outer edges of the sidewalks mark the linP of the parapets, frag- 1 Goth. i. 19. See Becker, De Maris, p. 113. BRIDGES 23 ments of which have been found in situ. They were composed of pilasters and panels, very neatly carved. On December 19, Fig. 11. — The Incline to the iElian Bridge from the Campus Martins (Left Bank). 1450, while great crowds were returning from S. Peter's, where Nicholas V. had been showing- the Sudarium. a mule belonging to Cardinal Pietro Barltn became restive and caused a panic. Tlie parapets gave Avay imder the pressure, and one hundred and seventy-two pilgrims fell into the river. To prevent the recurrence 24 GENERAL INFORMATION of such a calamity, Nicholas V. opened the modern Piazza di Ponte (enlarged 1854) ; he also built two expiatory chapels at the entrance to the bridge, from the designs of Bernardo Rossellino. During the siege of the castle of S. Angelo in 1527, Clement VII. and his garrison were much exposed to shots fired by outposts concealed in the chapels. After his liberation the pope caused them to be demolished, and raised in their place two statues, of S. Peter by Lorenzetto and of S. Paid by Paolo Romano. The other statues, representing angels with the symbols of the Passion, were added by Bernini in 1668. In the course of the works of 1892 it was ascertained that the foundations of the chapels of Nicholas V. had been built with pieces of statuary and architectural marbles (described by Visconti in Bull. arch, com., 1892, p. 263). LiTEKATUKE. — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Antichita, vol. iv. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antlcn, vol. i. p. 159. — Eodolfo Lanciani, Jtiner. di EindtdJtn, p. 15 ; and Bull, com.., 1893, p. 14. — Liiigi Borsari, Notiziedegli (Scaw, 1892, p. 411. — Christian Huelsen, Mittheilungai, 1894, p. 321. A hundred metres below the Ponte S. Angelo the remains of another bridge appear at low water. It is probably the work of Nero, who did so much to beautify and enlarge the gardens in the district of the Vatican, which he had inherited from Agrippina the elder. The classic name of the bridge is not known, although many have been suggested (Neronianus, Vaticanus, Triumphalis). In the Middle Ages it was called Pons mptus ad S. Sjnritum in Saxia. See — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Antichita, vol. iv. pi. 13 ; vol. i. p. 13, n. 91 ; and Camp. Mart., pi. 45. — Stefano Piale, in Venuti's Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 190. — Antonio Niliby, Roma antica, vol. i. p. 205. Pons Valextinianus (Ponte Sisto). — The bridge of Valen- tinian I., represented by the modern Ponte Sisto, was one of the noblest structures spanning the river. It was rebuilt in 366 and 367 by the same Symmachus whom I have mentioned in connec- tion with the Pons Gratianus, with the spoils and on the site of an older one (of Agrippa? or Caracalla?), and was dedicated to Va- lentinian and Valens. Overthrown by the inundation of 797 (?), it was repaired by Sixtus IV., in 1475, from the designs of Baccio Pontelli. In 1878, the branch of the river which flows under the first arch on the left having been diverted, the corresponding arch of Valentinian's bridge was found lying bodily on the bottom of the stream in such good order that the pieces of an inscription, which ran from one end to the other of the south parapet, were BRIDGES ^O discovered in their proper succession. A triumphal arch which decorated the approach from tlie Campus ^lartius ^ had fallen also into the river, with the bronze statues and groups by which it was crowned. The pieces, recovered in 1878, are now' exhibited in the Museo delle Terme, except a head which found its way into the Fig. 12. — Bronze Head found in the Tiber. aiiti(|uarian market and was bought, many years later, by Ales- sandro Castellani. This remarkable head is of the highest im- 1 As in classic times triumphal arches were raised on the Sacra Via leading to the Capitdlium, so in the Christian era they were raised on the roads con- verging towards S. Peter's; and es|iecially ad pedes pontium, at the foot of tlie bridges wliicli the jiilgrims crossed on their way to the Apostle's tomb. That of Gratianus Valentinianus and Tlieodosius stood in the Piazza di Ponte S. Angelo ; that of Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius at the approach to the Pons Vaticanus ; that of Valentinianus and Valens bv the Ponte Sisto. 26 GENERAL INFORMATION portance in regard to the controversy whether the bronze statues placed on this and other monuments of the end of the fourth century were contemporary works, or simply spoils from earlier edifices which were considered to answer the new purpose more or less satisfactorily ; and also whether the head was changed or not into a new likeness. Experts consider this head to be of better style than that prevalent in the second half of the fourth centui'y. The parapets were divided into panels by projecting pilasters. Each panel contains six or eight letters of an inscription which ran the whole length on either side, and each pilaster an in- scription of its own regarding the statue placed upon it. One of the pedestals found in 1892 is dedicated " to the august Victory, faithful companion of our lords and masters, the S. P. Q. R., under the care of Avianius Symmachus, ex-prefect of the city." Near it was lying the right wing of the statue of Victory. It is evident, therefore, that if a proper seai'ch were made in the bed of the river nearly all the bronzes of the bridge could be recovered. The fragments of the Pons Valeutinianus are dispersed in vari- ous corners of the Museo delle Ternie. The inscriptions of Sixtus IV. are in the Museo JMuiiicipale al Celio (Orto botanico). LiTEKATUKE. — Bull, (ircli . com., 1878, p. 241. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Ancient Rome, p. 257. — Theodor Mommsen, in Ephem. ejwjr., vol. iv. p. 279. — Chris- tian Huelseii, Mitlhellungen, 18!)2, p. 3213. VII. Traiectus (ferries). — The traffic between the two banks of the Tiber was cai'ried on also by means of ferries, known by the name of traiectus, the tra(/hetti of the present day. Each had a name of its own : like the traiectus LucuUi, Marmorariorum, Togatensium at Ostia (Corpus Inscriptionum, xiv. 254, 403, 42.5). The sites of the ferries at Home are marked by corresponding pos- terns in the walls of Aurelian, along the banks of the Campus Martins : thei'e was one at the Porto di Ripetta, others at the Porto della Tinta, at the Posterula Domitia, at the Porto dell' Armata, etc. The ferries of the Armata and Ripetta lasted till 1887. Literature. — Bidl. arch, com.., 1889, p. 175 ; and Nolli's Pianta di Roma, 1748. VIII. Ob.jects of Value in the Bed of the River. — The belief in their existence dates from the Middle Ages. Leav- ing aside the old stories of the seven-branched candlestick and of tlie gold-plate of Agostino Chigi, which rest on no foundation of truth, the dredging works carried out since 1877 prove that the bed of the Tiber contains a marvelous quantity of objects of value, THE BED OF THE RIVER 27 from bronze statues, masterpieces of GrEeco-Roman art, down to the smallest articles of personal wear, from Hint arrowheads of preliistoric times to the weapons used in fighting the French in 1849. The dredging, unfortunately, has been only superficial, its purpose being to give the stream a uniform depth of 9 feet ; while the objects of value have been absorbed to depths which vary from 3 to 35 feet below the bottom of the river. Twice only the maximum depth has been reached (Ponte Garibaldi, Ponte Sisto), and on either occasion a great mass of works of art or antiquity has been gathered.^ By comparing these discov- eries with those made in the foundation of the embankment walls, we have satisfied ourselves on several points : — 1. That, however great the absorbing power of mud and sand- banks is, the objects are not so deeply hidden as to be beyond the reach of man. "2. That the i)ower of the current to wash lieavy objects down stream, even in time of flood, is moderate. A fragment of the annals of the Salii palatini, which fell or was thrown into the river at the Sponda della Regola towards the end of the fifth century, was recovered in 18W1, .5.50 metres below that point. The fragment had traveled, therefore, at the slow rate of 39 metres per century. 3. That there is a certain chronological regularity in the strata of sunken objects, each stratum corres})onding to one of the revolutions, sieges, and political disturbances so frequent in the history of Home. The higher strata are contemporary with the siege and capture of the city by General Oudinot, when thousands of " improvised " war weapons were thrown into the river to avoid detection. There are traces of the disturbances of 1831, of the French Revolution, and of the Napoleonic Avars. These objects are more curious than valuable. The real wealth begins with the layer corresponding to the Sacco di Roma of 1527, not to speak of mediaeval or barbaric invasions. For two or three years the average of coins dredged up amounted to twelve hun- dred per month, mostly coppers of the last tM'o centuries, even of popes whose reigns were peaceful and undisturbed. How did they happen to be there ? The solution of the mystery lies, perhaps, in the fact that the dirt collected from the streets or from private houses was thrown daily into the river at two points, "la Penna" above Ripetta, and S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini. To lose money in the streets is a rare occurrence, but at home it hap- 1 See AncH-nt Rome, p. 257. 28 GENERAL INFORMATION pens very easily : coppers may drop on the carpets and roll under pieces of furniture, and when servants sweep the rooms the coins may get mixed up with the dust. Such refuse has been thrown into the river for many centuries. 4. That the objects sunk in the river are recovered in good condition, whether of terra-cotta, or marble, or metal, iroir excluded. Iron not only gets rusty and almost dis- solved in water, but imparts to marble — if in contact with it — a deep reddish hue, which is qiiite characteristic of the Tiberine scidpture. Brass Im- perial and Republican coins are splendidly preserved, but W'ithout " patina," which makes them less valuable in tlie market. I can give no better evi- dence of the care which Old Father Tiber has taken of the works of art intrusted to him than by reproducing liere one of the marble statues found in his bed not long ago. This archaic Apollo, a copy of a bronze original, is now exhib- ited in a cabinet of the Museo delle Terme on the south side of the quadrangle. A short notice of the find is given in the " Mittheilungen " of 1891, p. 802. Compare " Notizie degli Scavi," 1891, pp. 287 and 337 ; Ilelbig's " Guide," vol. ii. p. 21-1, n. 1028. Fig. 13. — Statue found in the Tiber. IX. Cloac'.e (drains). — The hills of the left bank, from the Pincian to the C'ajlian, follow one another so as to make three val- CLOACA 29 leys, each having its o\Yn outlet for spring, rain, and waste waters. The northern basin, between the Pincian and the Quirinal, was di'ained by the river Petronia, which collected the Sallustian springs, and fell into the Tiber a little above oui- Ponte Garibaldi ; the middle basin, between the Quirinal and the Esquiline, by a river probably called Spinon, which collected the waters of the Vicus Longus, Vicus Patricius, and the Subura, crossed the Argi- letum, the Forum, and the Velabrum, and joined the Tiber at the Fig. 14. — The Course of tlie Cloaca Maxima. present mouth of tlie Cloaca ^Maxima ; the southern basin, lietween the Esquiline, the CcTelian, and the Aventine. by a third river (Xo- dinus), :3G0() metres long. After receiving eight tributaries from the springs of Apollo, of the Camoenaj, of ^lercury, of the Piscina Publica, etc., it emptied itself into the Tiber a little below the mouth of the Cloaca Maxima. (See map, Fig. 1.) The first step towards the regulation of these three rivers was taken even before the advent of the Tarquins. Their banks were then lined with great square blocks of stone, leaving a channel about 5 feet wide, so as to prevent the spreading and the wander- ing of flood-water, and provide the swampy valleys with a perma- nent drainage ; but, strange to say, the course of the streams was not straightened nor shortened. If the reader looks at the map above (Fig. 14), representing the course of the Cloaca Maxima tlirough the Argiletum and the Velabrum, he will find it so twisted and irregular as to resemljle an Alpine torrent more than a drain built h\ skillful Etruscan engineers. The same thing may be repeated for the other main lines of drainage in the valleys Sallustiana, Murcia, etc. When the increase of the population and the extension of the city bej'ond the boundaries of the Pala- tine made it necessary to cover those channels and make them run 30 GENERAL INFORMATION underground, it was too late to think of straightening their course, because their banks were already fixed and built over. The Roman cloacae have been overpraised. It is certainly a marvelous fact that some of them were still in use a few years ago, after a lapse of twenty-six centuries ; but they bid defiance to modern sanitary principles. First of all, they served to carry off the sewage and the rain-water together. This double employ- ment made it necessary to have large openings along the street, which exposed the popidation to the effluvia of the sewers. In the third place, the sewers emptied themselves directly into the Tiber, thus polluting its waters, which were vised not only for bathing but also for drinking purposes. Only six years ago did the Tiber cease to be the cesspool of Rome. It must also be borne in mind that the "latrina" of Roman houses was incon- veniently placed next the kitchen, and the same cloaca was used for the sinks. Against such great dangers to public and private health the Romans had but two protections : the masses of water by which the drains were constantly Hushed, and the hilly nature of the city ground, which allowed them to give the drains a steep gradient. Drains dating from the time of the Kings or of the Republic are built of blocks of peperino and lapis Gabinus (sperone), those of the Imperial period of bricks. Two tiles, placed against each other in a slanting position, form the roof ; the floor is made of a large tile slightly convex. There are no sluices or flood-gates. The Cloaca Maxima and tliat of the Vallis Murcia (described in Ancient Rome. p. 54 ; and Bull. arch, com., 1892, \i. 279) are by no means alone in respect of their size, length, and magnificence of construction. There is a third, discovered by I^nrico Narducci in the ])lain of the Circus Flaminius, equal, if not superior, to them. The section which Narducci explored in 1880 begins at the corner of Via Paganica with the Piazza Mattel, and runs in a straight line to the Tiber, by the Ponte Garibaldi. Its side walls are built of blocks of lapis Gabinus, some of which measure 45 cubic feet ; the arched roof is made of five blocks only, wedged together ; the floor is paved like that of a Roman road. It runs at the considerable depth of 9.53 metres under the modern city. (See Bull. Inst.. 1881, p. 209.) We must remember that these great sewers were built through marshes and ponds, and generally through a soil soaked with spring-water. Rome may be said to be floating over this subter- ranean alluvium even now. In the sixty days required to build CLOACA 31 the sewer of the Via del Babuino in 1875, 650,000 cubic metres of water were absorbed by seven steam pumps. The inundation of the Coliseum in 187S could not possibly be got under control : powerful engines only lowered it by a few inches, and it cost tlie city nearly one million lire to provide the Coliseum with a regular outlet. The level of the subterranean flood has risen since Roman times. In the foundations of the Banca di Roma and of tlie Palazzo Canale, on either side of the Via Poli, the pavement of a street was found under two feet of water. The cellars of the wine docks, discovered in 1877 in the gardens of la Farnesina (celUe riiiarice Nova et Arruntiana), were flooded up to the key of their vaulted roofs. The chefs-d'oeuvre of Saitic art, discovered by Tranquilli in 1858 in the sacred area of the Iseum, near the ajxse of la Minerva, were lying on the floor of the peristyle tliree feet under water. An excavation made by Parker in 18(J9 in Cara- calla's Baths, by SS. Nereo and Achiileo, in the Via di Porta 8. Se- bastiano, had to be given up, although successful, in conseijuence of the invasion of spring-water. In the many hundred antique drains discovered in my time, I have never seen a sign of communication with the houses lining tlie streets through whicli the drains passed. All the side chan- nels which emi)ty into the Cloaca Maxima, from the Forum Au- gustum to the Tiber, belong to streets or public buildings — none to private dwellings. The same observation has been made with regai'd to the sewers of the Escjuiline, Viminal, etc. This fact would lead us to believe that cesspools, or pozzl neri, were more popu- lar in R(mie than the latrina, communicating directly with the public sewei-. Yet only one pozzo ncro has been found in our excavations. It is described in the Bull. arch, com., 1892, p. 285. In the same periodical, 1873, p. 24:$, pi. ii., .3, there is a description and the design of a latrina discovered in the drilling grounds of the Praetorians, Via Magenta., No. 2. Fig. 15 (next page) repre- sents the latrina annexed to the guest-rooms of the Villa Adri- an a. LiTEKATUKE. — Antlke Denkmdler of the German Arch. Inst., vol. i., 1889, taf. xxxvii. — £«//. arch, com., 1872, p. 279; 1890, p. 95, pis. 7, 8. — Pietro NardiK'ci, Focpintura della clttu di Roma sulla siniglra del Tevere, Rome, 1884; and Roma notterranea, Ulustraz. della cloaca massima, 1885. — Codex Ixxv. 68, in the Kinfj's Lihvarv, B. M., p. 15. — Theodor Schreiber, Berichte der sacks. GesellschaJ't der IViss., 1885, p. 78. — Rudolfo Lanciaui, Ancient Rome, p. 54. 32 GENERAL INFORM A TION Fig. 15. — The Latrina annexed to the Guest-Rooms of tl X. The Quarries from which Rome was built. — The materials used in Roman constructions are the lapis ruber (tufa) ; tlie lapis Alhanus (peperino) ; the lapis Gabinus (sperone) ; the lapis Tiburtinus (travertino) ; the silex (selce) ; and bricks and tiles of various kinds. The cement was composed of pozzolana (0.67) and lime (0.33). Imported marbles came into fashion towards the end of the Republic, and became soon after the pride and glory of Rome. . A. Tufa (lapis ruber). — The only material which the first builders of Rome found at hand was the volcanic conglomerate called tufa. The (quality of the stone used in those early days was far from perfect. The walls of the Palatine hill and of the Capitoline citadel were built of material quarried on the spot — a mixture of charred pumice-stones and reddish volcanic sand. The quarries of the Palatine M-ill be described in the proper place. Those used for the fortifications of the Capitol were located at the foot of the hill towards the Argiletum, and were so important as to give their name, Lautumice, to the neighboring district. It is probable that the pi'ison called Tullianum, from a jet of water, tullus, which sprang from the rock, was originally a portion of this quarry. The tufa blocks employed by Servius THE QUARRIES 33 Tullius for the building of the city walls, and of the agger, ai> pear to be of three (qualities — yellowish, reddish, and gray; the first, soft and easily broken up, seems to have been quarried from the Little Aventnie, near the church of S. Saba. The galleries of this ([uarry, much disfigured by mediaeval and modern use, can be followed to a considerable distance, although the collapsing of the vaults makes it dangerous to visit them. I have entered these recesses only twice, with the late ^Ir. J. H. Parker, while trying to rediscover the channel of the Aqua Appia, first seen and described by Raffaello Fabretti about 1675. I am not able to say where Servius found the reddish tufa (Cervara?). The quarries of the third quality were, or I'ather one of them was, discovered on February 7, 1^72, in the Vigna Querini. outside the Porta 8. Lorenzo, near the first milestone of the Vicolo di Valle Cupa. It was a surface (juarry, comprising five trenches IG feet wide, J) feet deep. Some of the blocks, already scjuared, were lying on the floor of the trenches, others were detached on two or tliree sides oidy, the size of others was sinqily traced on the rock by vertical or horizontal lines. (See illustration in Bull. arch, com., 18S8, pis. i., ii., figs. 3-G.) This tufa, better known by the name of cap])el- laccio, is very bad. The only buildings in which it was used, Itesides the inner wall of the Servian agger, are the platform of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, in the gardens of the German Embassy, and the puticuli in the burial-grounds of the Esqui- line. Its use must have been given up before the end of the period of the Kings, in consecpience of the discovery of better quarries on the right bank of the Tiber, at the foot of the liills now called Monte Verde. A description of these last, still in use, can be found in the — Nnthie (h';/l! Scnv!, 188(5, p. 454; 1888, p. 1.30; 188!t, pp. 71 and 24:3.— AV//. arch, com., i892, p. 288. — MittheUungen, 1891, p. 14!i. They cover a space about one mile in length and a quarter of a mile wide on eacli side of the valley of Pozzo Pantaleo. In fact, this valle}-, which runs from the Via Portuensis towards the lake of the Villa Pamphili, seems to be artificial ; I mean, produced by the extraction of the rock by millions of cubic metres in the course of twenty-four centuries. If the work of the ancient quarrymen could be freed from the loo.se material which conceals it from view, we should possess within a few minutes' di'ive from the Porta Portese a reproduction of the famous mines of El ]Ma- sarah. with beds of rock cut into steps and terraces, with roads 34 GENERAL INFORMATION and lanes, shafts, inclines, underground passages, and outlets for the discluirge of rain-water. The cuttings on either side show two strata of tufa : the upper, 8 metres thick, is a very hard ash-col- ored rock resembling in texture the pudding-stone ; the lower, of a light red color and less comjaact, is fractured by seams and veins, so that it cannot be obtained in large blocks ; and as the purpose of the Romans was to obtain cubes from 3 to 5 feet long, as shown by a few left on the spot, they used the lower or reddish stone only to make prisms for reticulated masonry. The gallei'ies of the qiiarry vary in size from 10 to 20 feet, and their floor is lev- eled so as to conduct the rain-water to one central outlet, running towards the brook of Pozzo Pantaleo. AVhen a (piarry had given out, its galleries were filled up with the refuse of the neighboring ones — chips left over after the squaring of the blocks ; so that, in many cases, the color and texture of the chips do not correspond with those of the quarry in which they are found. Tins layer of refuse, transformed by time into humus, and worked upon by hu- man and atmospheric forces, has given the valley a different aspect, so that it looks as if it were the work not of quarrymen, but of nature. Some of the abandoned galleries were transformed into tombs and columbaria. One raised by Aurelius Niketa to his daughter iElianetis contains the following inscription : Fossor, vide ne fodias ! Deus inaynus oculus hahet. Vide, et tu'JiHos hales. Which means, " Quarryman, do not approach this tomb : the great God watches thee ; remember that thou also hast children." These words prove that tombs and (juarries were contemporary and not very far apart. Tufa may be found used in many existing monuments of an- cient Rome, such as the drains of the middle and southern basin of the left bank, the channels and arches of the Marcia and Anio vetus, the Servian walls, the temples of Fortuna Virilis, of Her- cules Magnus Gustos, the Rostra, tlie embankment of the Tiber, etc. The largest and most magnificent quarries in the suburban district are the so-called Grotte della Cervara. No words can convey an idea of their size and of the regularity of their plan. They seem to be the work of a fanciful architect who has hewn out of the rock halls and galleries, courts and vestibules, and imi- tated the forms of an Assyrian palace. The quarries of La Ger- vara, at the fiftli milestone of the Via Gollatina, are described by Strabo (lib. v.). B. Pkpkrixo (lapis Albanus). — For the study of the peperino mines, which contain a stone special to tlie Alban district, formed THE QUARRIES 35 by the action of hot water on gray volcanic cinders, the reader should follow on foot the line of the new Albano railway, from the place called II Sassone to the town of Marino. Many of the valleys in this district, now made beautiful by vineyards and oliveyards, owe their existence to the pickaxe of the Roman stonecutter, like the valley of Pozzo Pantaleo. The most curious sight is a dolmen or isolated rock 10 metres high, left in the centre of one of the quarries to certify the thickness of the bed of rock excavated. In fact, the whole district is very interesting both to the archaeologist and to the paysaffiste. The mines of Ma- rino, still worked in the neighborhood of the railway station, would count, like the Grotte della Cervara, among the wonders of the C'ampagna, were they known to the student as they deserve to be. If the discovery of a piece of " xs grave signatum " in a seam of peperino near the Ponte di S. Gennaro, between Civita Lavinia and Velletri, could be proved true (by the exhilution not of the l)iece alone, but of its mould on the rock itself, which has not been done yet), the stone would ap]iear to be of modern formation. The principal Roman buildings in which the lapis Albanus has been used are: the Claudian acpieduct, the Cloaca Maxima, tlie temples of Antoninus and Faustina, of Cybele, of the Eventus Bomis, of Neptune, the inclosure wall of the Forum Augustum, Forum Ti'ansitorium, and Forum Pacis, the Porticus Argonauta- rum, Porticus Pompeii, the Ustrinum of the Appian Way, etc. The sarcopliagus of Cornelius Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican museum, and the tomb of the Tibicines in the JNIuseo Municipale al Celio are also of this stone. C. Travertixo (lapis Tibiirtinus). — (Quarried in the plains of Tivoli at places now called Le Caprine, Casal Bernini, and II Barco. This last was reopened aftei" an interval of many centuries by Count (i. Brazza, brother of the African explorer. Lost in the wilderness and overgrown with shrubs, it had not been examined, I believe, since the visit of Brocchi. It can be reached by stop- ping at the station of the Aqute Albiilse, on the Tivoli line, and following the ancient road which led to the works. This road, twice as wide as the Appian Way, is flanked by substructures, and is not paved, but macadamized. Parallel with it runs an aqueduct which supplied the works with motive power, derived probably from the sulphur springs. There are also remains of tombs, one of which, octagonal in shape, serves as a foundation to the farm- house del Barco. The most remarkable monument of the whole group is the 36 GENERAL INFORMATION Roman quarry froui which five and a half million cubic metres of travertine have been extracted, as proved by the measurement of the hollow space between the two opposite vertical sides. That this is the most important ancient quarry of travertine, and the largest one used by the Romans, is proved, in the first place, by its immense size. The sides show a frontage of more than two and a half kilometres ; the surface amounts to 500,000 square metres. The sides are quite perpendicular, and have the peculiar- ity of projecting buttresses, at an angle of 90°. Some of these buttresses are isolated on three sides, and still preserve the grooves, more or less deep, by means of which they could be separated from the solid mass ; these grooves vary in dejith from 50 centimetres to 2 metres, and look fresh and sharp, as if the quarry had been abandoned only a short time ago. The second argument is furnished by the indirect traces of the work of man, which show that the excavation must at least be many centuries old. In order to keep the bottom of the works clean and free for the movenient of the carts, for the action of the cranes, and for the manoeuvres of the workmen, the chips, or useless product of the squaring of the blocks, were transported to a great distance, as far as the banks of the Anio, and there piled up to a great height. This is the origin of that chain of hills which runs parallel to the river, and of whose artificial formation no one, as far as I know, had the least suspicion. One of these hills, visible from every point of the neighbo)'ing district, from Hadrian's villa as well as from the Suljihur Baths, is elliptical in shape, 22 metres high, 90 metres long, and 65 metres wide. It can with reason be compared with our Testaccio. It is easy to imagine how immense must have been the number of blocks cut from the Cava del Barco during the period of the formation of this hill alone. Another proof of the antiquity of the quarry, and of its abandonment from Imperial times down to our own day, is given by this fact. The Aqute Albulse, the most copious sulphur springs of central Italy, collected into canals by the Romans and subjected to a scientific hydraulic regime, were allowed free play from the first barbaric invasion up to the sixteenth centuiy, when Cardinal Ippolito d' Este gathered them again into the channel which takes its name from him, and w^hich is in use at the present day. In this long period of abandonment it seems that the prin- cipal branch of the wandering waters directed its course towards the Cava del Barco, leaping from the rim of the nortli vertical side into the chasm below. This fall of water, saturated with THE Qr ARMIES 37 carbonate and sulpliate of lime, and la.sting for many centuries, pro- duced the following effect. The north wall was concealed under a hard chalky incrustation, and transformed into a slope with an inclination of 45° or 50°. Tliis stratum of recent formation is, on an average, H metres wide at the base, and only a few centi- metres at the top. Stonecuttei's in the quarry are now obliged to remove this crust before reaching the ancient walls of travertine, which still preserve the traces of the blows of the Roman pickaxe. At the bottom of the quarry we meet with arother phenomenon. The stratum of chips which covers it has been cemented and pasted over by chalky sediments, forming beds and layers of a hard breccia resembling the pudding-stone. The southern walls of the quaiTy, on the contrary, are free from incrustations, a.s they have never been in contact with the sulphur water. The system now followed in qnarr\'ing tlie l>locks is the same as that which prevailed in old times. The fon-nian ascertains r^ Fig. 16. — The Quarries of Travertine, Cava del Barco. the weak point of the rocky mass, and the vertical or horizontal line of the seams, and directs his men to jilace steel wedges alono- the weak line, and hammer them simultaneously, the moveiuent being timed to the rh\^hm of a song. This illustration, from a photograph which I took in December, 1893, explains the process 38 GENERAL INFORMATION better than any description could do. The large block in the foreground has already been detached on four sides, and the men are busy placing the steel wedges on the weak seam at the bottom. I need not say that as many men are required to hammer as there are wedges. Sometimes the task is accomplished at the first stroke, sometimes it requires half an hour's work. D. SiLEX (selce). — Used for rubble-work in small fragments, and for paving streets and roads in larger pieces of iientagonal shape. The stone was quarried from four lava streams which had flowed from the Alban volcanoes in the direction of Rome (Capo di Bove, Acqua Acetosa, Borghetto, and Monte Falcone), and from one stream of the Sabatine range (S. Maria di Galera). The working of the quarries, the cutting and shaping of the paving- stones, the laying in and repairing of pavements, was intrusted to a large body of trained men, organized in companies and di- rected by government officials.' The material was kept in store in a great state building named Castra Silicariorum, which may have served also as barracks for the Silicarii. The institution is still flourishing under the name of "Magazzino dei Selci." The present works occupy a large tract of land north of the Protestant cemetery in the plains of Testaccio. Pumice-stone was used occasionally by Roman masons to dimin- ish the weight and lateral pressure of great vaulted ceilings, as in the baths of C'aracalla. LiTEKATURE. — The introductory chapters of W\([A\eUm'ii Remains of An- cient Rome (2d ed. 1892), dealing with the site and sreneral features of the city, with the materials of which it is built, and with the methods of construction, are the best ever written on the subject. The author shows himself a special- ist of unrivaled knowledge. So thoroughly has he mastered the technicalities of ancient masonry and stonework that he makes clear and almost agreeable a subject which students have usually avoided as dry and difHcnlt to understand. An abridged memoir on the same subject, issued by the same author, is to be found in vol. xli. of the Ai-clHeolof/in, 1888: "On the Chief Methods of Con- struction used in Ancient Rome." Compare also, Giovanni Brocchi, Delia stafo Jisico del svulo di Roma, 1820, p. 10!); Antonio Nibhv, Dei mnteriaU imjrrer/ftti nelle fahhriche di Roma,delle cosli-Kzioni, e dello stile (in Roma antica, vol. i. p. 234); Faustino Corsi, Delle pietre antiche, Rome, 1845, pp. 11-76. XI. Bricks. — There are three collections of brick-stamps in Rome : one, of little value, in the Kircherian museum ; the second 1 The procurator ad silices, cir procurator silicum viarum sacrce urhis, subject to the authority of the Minister of Public Works. (See Corpus Inscriptionum, vi. 1598; and Orelli-Henzen, n. 6519.) BRICKS 39 in the last room of the Vatican Library, past the " Nozze aldo- braudiue ; " the third and best in tiie INIiiseo Municipale al Celio. This last contains over a thousand specimens, and a unique set of the products of Roman kilns. In fact, the tirst hall of the Museo is set apart exclusively for the study of ancient building and decorative materials. Roman liricks were square, oblong, triangular, or round, the latter being used only to build columns in the Pompeian style. The square species comprises the tcfjukv hlpcdales, of 0.59 metre x (K.ISJ; the teyuUe sesquipedales, of 0.45 metre X 0.45; and the Idlercull bessales, used in hypocausts, of 0.'J"2 metre X 0.22. Arches were built of a variety of the hij)C(/(iles, of the same length, but only (1.22 in width, and slightly wedged. The triangular bricks were obtained by cutting diagonally a liijidn Iwssalh witii a wooden rule or a string before it was put into the kiln. T]u> largest bricks discovered in my time measure 1.05 metre in length. They were set into an arch of one of the great stairs leading to tiie avenue or boulevard, established in Inqtciial times on tlie lop of the agger of Servius (railway station). Roman l)ricks aic very often stamped with a seal, the legend of which contains tlie names of the owner and manager of the kihis, of tlie maker of the tile, of the merchant intrusted with tlie sale of the products, and of the consuls under whose term of office the bricks were made. These indications are not necessarily found all in one seal. The most inq)oi'tant of them is tlie consular date, because it hel|is tlie student to determine, within certain limits, the date of tJH^ l)uildiiig itself. The rule, however, is far from being absolute, and before iixing the date of a Roman structure from that of its brick stanq)S one must take into eonsideratitni many other points of circumstantial evidence. When we examine, for instance, the grain warehouses at Ostia, or Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, and find that their walls have never undergone repairs, that their masonry is characteristic of the first quarter of the second century, that their bricks bear the dates of Hadrian's age and no others, we may I'est assured that the stamps s])eak the truth. Tlieir evidence is, in such a case, conclusive. Rut if the l)ricks are variously dated, or bear the names of various kilns, and not of one or two only, then their value as an evidence of the date of a building is diminished, if not lost altogether. The following case, derived from personal experience, will ex- plain the point. Professor Jordan, in a remarkable speech deliv- 40 GENERAL INFORMATION ered on April 25, 1884, at the German Institute, attributed the house of the Vestals to the age of Hadrian, because he had found a stamp of Domitius Tullus (a. d. 59-95) on the south wing of the atrium ; three of Cn. Domitius Clemens (111-128) in the stairs leading to the first floor ; two of Rutilius Lupus (110-122) in one of the cells of the first floor ; and so on.^ Yet there was no doubt in my mind that the building was renewed from the foundation, and on a different plan, by Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, and tliat Hadrian had nothing to do with it. I was able to prove the case so clearly - that Jordan's theory was abandoned, and my contention as to the date was adopted. The presence of bricks of Hadrian's time can be easily explained. When Severus undertook the reconstruction of the house of the Vestals and of the whole adjoining quarter, which had been devastated by the fire of Corn- mod us, he began by leveling to the ground the remains of the buildings which had partly withstood the violence of the flames. The materials so saved were put aside and used in the reconstruc- tion of the Atrium Vestae. The circular seals have often a symbol in the centre — a figure of a god or a goddess, a leaf, a fruit, etc. Sometimes the symbol has a phonetic value. Thus we find the image of the wolf im- pressed on the tiles of INI. Rutilius Lupus ; of the wild boar on those of Flavins Aper ; of the eagle on those of Aquilia Sozomena ; the wreath {(rTf of many temples, show the blocks placed in one direction only. The opus (piadratum was given up (except in case of restora- tions) in the third century after Christ, and imitations in plaster were substituted for it. The facade of the Senate-house, rebuilt by 1 Rodolfii Fonteauive, Avanzi detii Cidopici ndla provincia di Roma. Rome, Sciolla, 1887. 44 GENERAL INFORMATION Diocletian, the Thei-mas of Constantine, and liis Basilica Nova, the Thermaii of Diocletian, and parts of the Sessorian palace, were plastered in this style. (See plates, Nos. 2, 26, 30, etc., in Stefano du Perac's " Vestigi dell' antichita di Roma " and " Atti Lincei," an. 1883, vol. xi. serie iii. pi. 3.) 2. The ojnis incertum, of which Fig. 17 gives a specimen from the Porticus iEmilia, 176 b. c, marks a transition from the polygonal to the reticulated work. The Romans must have im- Fig. 17. —The Opus Incertum. ported it from Tibur, where it was in great favor. Resides the l\n-ticus ^^milia, tliere are (or were in 1872) other remains built in this style under the cliff of the Viminal, opposite S. Vitale. Pho- tograiths of them are given by Parker in " Archaeology of Rome," voL i. 1874, Construction of Walls, pi. vi. 2. The opus incertum was given up about the time of Sulla, and replaced by the opus reticiilatum, made of regular tufa prisms in imitation of network. There are three kinds of opus reticulatiim : in the oldest the METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 45 prisms are small, and the intersecting lines of the network slightly irregular ; it marks the infancy of the new style. A specimen may be found on the Palatine, on the left-hand side of the path which ascends from the foot of the Seal* Caci to the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator. In the second stage the prisms become larger, and the cross lines of the network perfectly straight, while the angles of the walls are strengthened with rectangular pieces of tufa resembling large bricks. The house of Germ aniens on the Palatine is the best specimen of this style, which seems to have lasted until the time of Trajan. The last period, from Trajan to the first Anton ines, marks a decided improvement in the solidity of the work. The angles and arches are built of bricks, and the wall itself is strengthened by horizontal bands of the same material (Fig. 18). The netwoi-k. therefore, does not cover the whole face of the wall, but is divided into panels from four to five feet high. At the end of the second century the opus reticulatiim was given up altogether. 1 have never discovered what its advantages were. It did not contribute certainly to the solidity of the building, and it demanded more skill and time from the mason than the brickwork. In the last place, its elegance and beauty were generally concealed by a coat- ing of plaster. Yet builders and architects like Trajan and Ha- drian preferred it to any other kind of masonry. The extensive warehouses of Ostia, the substructures of the Tliermse Traianaj, Hadrian's villa near Tibur, the inner harbor and docks at Porto, and a hundred contemporary edifices, are built in this style. (See Fig. 18, i>. 46.) •3. Opus lateritium. — The fundamental rule for the chronology of brick structures is this : the thinner the bed of cement be- tween the layers of bricks, the older the structure. In other words, in the opus lateritium of the golden age the bricks are so close together that the line of cement is hardly visible ; while at the end of the third century the layer of cement is even thicker than the line of bricks. The rule is obviously subject to exce2> tions, especially when the brick facing was destined to be seen and not to be plastered over. In such cases we are apt to find excellent specimens of brick " cortina," even in times of decadence. The most perfect specimens of brickwork in Rome are some portions of the Pra?torian camp (the Porta Decumana, Porta Princi- palis Sinistra), the Amphitheatrum Castrense, and the Arcus Ne- roniani on the Ca'lian. The decline in the stvle can be followed 46 GENERAL INFORMATION almost year by year from the time of the Fhivians to that of Constantiue. I suggest as representatives of periods, more than years, the Domus Augustana for tlie time of Domitian ; the so- called " baths of Titus " for the time of Trajan ; the Pantheon and the spiral staircase of the Mausoleum for that of Hadrian ; the Villa Quinctiliorum for that of Commodus ; the Thermaj An- toninianae for that of Caracalla ; the substructures of the Temple of the Sun in the Villa Colonna for that of Aurelian ; the Baths of Diocletian, the Basilica Nova, the Senate-liouse, for the end of the third century and the beginning of the fourth. These types of construction are carefully illustrated in vol. i. of Parker's " Archaeology of Rome." mM^. w^^m^^w^' Fig. 18. — Tlie Opus Reticulatum. I have said that when the brickwork was intended to remain exposed to view, and not to be concealed l>y plaster, it is always more perfect than we should exjiect from the general style pre- vailing at the time. The best period for ornamental brick-carving in three shades of color — yellow, red, and brown — includes the second half of the second century and the beginning of the thii'd. The tomb attri- buted to Annia Regilla (Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 201), the tombs of the Via Latina, the door of the Excubitorium Vigilum at the ]\Ionte de' Fiori, Trastevere (Ancient Rome. p. 'JoO), the AQUEDUCTS 47 door of the Catacombs of Pra?textatus, the temple at S. Urbano alia Caifarella (Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 294) are the best specimens of this kind of work. There is another peculiarity of the opus laterilium wliicli may help the student to determine the age of an edifice in doubtful cases. The brick facing of a wall is sometimes interrupted by parallel horizontal lines of tegulai bipedales of a different line, from three to six feet apart. These lines appear for the first time, I believe, in the Pantheon and in the spiral staircase of Hadrian's tomb, and are most conspicuous in the buildings of the time of Severus and Caracalla. XIV. Aqueducts. — One of IIh- praises liestowed by Cicero on the founder of the city is locum t'li(/it fonlihus ahunduntem, "he selected a district very rich in springs." A glance at llie plan (Fig. 1) will at once prove the accuracy of the statement. Twenty- three springs have been described within the walls, several of which are still in existence ; others have disappeared owing to the increase of modern soil. " For four hundred and forty-one [442] years," says Frontinus (i. 4), "the Romans contented themselves with such water as they could get from the Tiber, from wells, and from s]>rings. Some of these springs are still held in great venera- tion on account of their health-restoring qualities, like the spring of the Camcena;, that of Apollo, and that of Jutnrna." Tiie springs of the Camrena' were just outside the I'orta Capeiia, in the slope of the Cadian, behind tlie church of S. Cregorio, and under the wall of the Villa Mattel. The remains of the tem])le descrilied by Juvenal (Sat., iii. 11) were discovered and delineate(>. Nothing is known of the springs of Apollo. Tiiose of .lutiirna are described at length in P>o()k IT. p. 125. The celebrated foun- tain of Egeria remained visible in the lower grounds of tlie Vigna P>etliiii (between the Via di S. Stefano Rotondo and the Via della Ferratella) until 1882, when the vigna was buried under an em- l)aidcnient 11 metres high; but although the nymphfeum itself has disai)[:)eared, the waters still seem to find their way to another fountain lower down the valley of P^geria. This graceful building of the Renaissance stands in the grounds of the Villa Mattel (von Hoffman), at the corner of the Via di Porta S. Sebastiano and delle INIole di S. Sisto, and the water which inundates its lower floor has some medicinal power. Another famous spring, that of the Lupercal. has been identified with our Sorgente di S. Giorgio, 48 GENERAL INFORMATION which bubbles \\\) in the very bed of the Cloaca Maxima, near the church of that name. The identity is uncertain. The Tullia- num still flows in the lower crypt of the prison of that name ; the Aqua3 Fontinales in the Cortile di S. Felice, Salita della Dateria, and in the house No. 2,5 Salita del Grillo ; the Aqua Damasiana in the Cortile di S. Damaso of the Vatican palace, in the foun- tain modeled by Algardi by order of Innocent X. (1649); the Aqua Lancisiana in front of the Palazzo Salviati alia Lungara, where there is a basin with three jets, designed by Lancisi in the time of Clement XI. (1720). The first aqueduct, that of the Aqua Appia, is the joint work of Ap- pius Claudius Csecus and C. Plautius Venox, cen- sors in 312 B. c. The first built the channel, the second discovered the sjirings 1153 metres northeast of the sixth and seventh milestones of the Via Collatina. They are still to be seen, much reduced in volume, at the bottom of some stone quarries near the farmhouse of La Rustica. The channel followed the Via Collatina, entered Rome ad Spem Vetcrcm (Porta ]\Iaggiore), crossed the valley of the Piscina Publica (Via di Porta S. Sebastiano) close to the Porta Capena, and ended on the left bank of the Tiber at the foot of the Clivus Publicius (S. Anna, Via della Salara) ; length of channel, 16,445 metres; vol- ume of water discharged in twenty-four hours, 115,303 cubic me- tres. The aqueduct of the Appia has been discovered thrice : by Fabretti, in the Vigna Santoro at the corner of the Via di Porta S. Paolo and the Vicolo di S. Balbina (an. 1607) ; by Parker in 1867, in the tufa quarries of S. Saba ; and by myself in 1888, under the remains of the palace of Annia Cornuficia Faustina in the Vigna Maciocohi, Via di Porta S. Paolo. It differs in shape from all other Roman aqueducts, as shown in Fig. 20. Anio vetus. — The second aqueduct was begun in 272 b. c. by Fig. 20. — The Channel of the Aqua Appia under the Aventine. AQUEDUCTS 49 Manius Curius Dentatus, censor, and finished three yeai's later by Fulvius Flaccus. The water was taken from the river Anio 850 metres above S. Cosimato, on the road from Tivoli to Arsoli (Valeria). The course of the channel can be traced as far as (iallicano ; from Gallicano to Rome it is uncertain. It entered the city ad Spem A'eterem, a little to the right of the Porta ^laggiore, where Piranesi, Xil)by, and myself have seen and delineated the I'emains of the suJistructio supra terrain passuum ccrxi men- tioned by Frontinus (i. 0).^ From the Porta Maggiore to the Arch of (iallienus (Porta Esquilina) the aqueduct can be followed step by step, having been laid bare at least twenty times during the construction of the railway station and of the Esquiline qiuirter. Length of channel, 63,704 metres ; volume of water discharged in twenty-four hours, 277,806 cubic metres. The Anio Vetus was set apart for the irrigating of gardens and for the flushing of drains. Marc'ia. — Tn 144 u. c. tlie Senate, considering that the increase of the population had diminished the rate of distriltution of water (from 530 to 430 litres i)er head), detenuined that the old aipie- ducts of the Appia and tlie Anio should be repaired, and a new one built; the appropriation for both works being 8,000,000 sesterces, or 1,760,000 lire. The execution of the scheme was intrusted to Q. Marcius Rex. He selected a group of sjirings at the foot of the Monte della Prugna, in the territoiy of Arsoli, 4437 metres to the right of the thirty-sixth milestone of the Via Valeria ; and after many years of untiring efforts he succeeded in making a display of tlie water on the highest platform of the Capitol. Agrippa restored the aqueduct in 33 b. c. ; Augustus doubled the volume of the water in 5 B. c. by the addition of the Aqua Augusta ; in a. d. 79 Titus rivom aqua' Marcue vetustate dilapsiim refecit et aquam qiue in vsu esse desierat reduxit (Corpus Inscriptionum, vi. 1246) ; in lf(6 Septimius Severus brought in a new supply for the use of his Thermaj Severiana^ ; in 212-213 Caracalla aquam Marciam variis l-asihus im/)edita7n, purgato fonte, excisis et perfnratis )nnntil)us, adquisifo fonte novo Antonlniano, in urhem perdurendam curarit (ibid. 1245), and built a branch aqueduct, four miles long, for tlie use of his baths ; in 305-306 Diocletian did the same thing for his great thermae ; and, finally, Arcadius and Honorius devoted to the restoration of the aqueduct the money seized from Count Gildo, the African rebel. 1 Piranesi, Antichita, vol. i. pi. 10. — Nibby, Komn anfica, vol. i. p. 339. — LaiU'iaiii, AcqutJutti. \\. 50, jil. iv. Ulc. 7. 50 GENERAL INFORM A TI ON The Marcia followed the right bank of the Anio as far as S. Cosimato, and the left as far as Tivoli, where it turns round the slope of the Monte Ripoli towards S. Gericomio and Gallicano. Here begins a line of viaducts and bridges, the most magnificent of any that can be found in the whole district of Rome. The course of the Marcia (and of her three companions, Anio Vetus, Claudia, and Anio Novus) being pei'pendicular to that of the valleys by which this part of the land is thickly furrowed, and their level running halfway between the ihahref/ and the summit of the intervening ridges, the engineers were obliged to alternate bridges and tunnels, some of which ai'e still perfect. A visit to these beautiful highlands will prove most satisfactory Fig. 21. — Ponte Lupo. to the student. It can be made in a day, from the station of Zagarolo on the Naples line, thence by diligence to Gallicano, and on foot (guide necessary) to the ruins. The bridges are seven in number. Ponte Lvpo, in the Valle dell' Acqua Rossa, for the transit of four waters, Marcia, Anio Vetus, Anio Novus, and Claudia, be- sides a carriage-way and a bridle-path. Originally it was built for the Anio Vetus alone, and its dimensions were 11.20 metres in heisht, 81.10 metres in length, 2.75 metres in thickness. After AQUEDUCTS 51 the addition of the JNIarcia, side by side and above it, the struc- ture became 16.0(1 metres high, 88.00 metres long, 12 metres thick. Lastly, after the addition of the Claudia and Anio Novus, it be- came 32 metres high, 155 metres long, 1-4 metres thick, without counting the buttresses, which are clearly visible in the illustra- tion opposite (Fig. 21). All ages, all styles of masonry are represented at Ponte Lupo, and in the four tunnels whicli con- verge towards it or radiate from it. Pond deir Inferno in the Valle dell' Inferno, for the transit of the Claudia and of the Anio Novus ; and Ponti (lelle Forme Rotte, for the same, in the Valle del Fosso di S. Gregorio. Ponte (li S. Pietro, in the Valle delle Forme Rotte, for the transit of the Aijua Marcia. Ponte (li S. Giovanni, in the same valley, for the transit of the Anio Vetus. The bridge was rebuilt by Augustus in reticulated work, ami again repaired in brickwork by one of the late Emper- ors (first arch on the left). From (iallicano to the sixth milestone of the Via Latina tlie Marcia runs underground; from the sixth milestone to the Porta Maggiore, I'orta S. Lorenzo, and to the present railway station it was borne on almost triumphal arcades, built of tufa with mould- ings of travertine. The same arcades were afterwards used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Julia. The following photograph gives the section of the channel at a point where it emerges from the ground in the farm of Roma Vecchia. A. The channel of the Marcia. B. Renuiins of that of the Tepula above it. C. A buttress, probably of the time of Hadrian. D. Another, probably of the time of Severus. E. The channel of the Acqua Felice, built by Sixtus V. FF'. The arcades of the Claudia and of the Anio Xovus. The afjueduct reaches Rome at the Porta ISIaggiore (the meet- ing-point of ten waters, Appia, Appia Augusta, Anio Vetus, Mai-cia, Tepula, Julia, Claudia, Anio Novus, Alexandrina, Felice), and follows the line of the walls of Am-elian as far as the Porta S. Lorenzo. The course beyond this gate is so complicated that I think it well to refer the student to sheets xvii. and xviii. of the "Forma L'rbis," in which all particulars are carefully mapped, rather than describe it here. Aqua Tepula — Aqua Julia. — The veins, so named from their almost tepid temperature of 17° Cent., and now called Sor- genti deir Acqua Preziosa, were collected at the foot of the Alban 52 GENERAL IN FORM A TI ON hills (Valle Marciaiiii) in 125 b. c. by the censors Cn. Servilius Ca?pio and L. Cassius Longinus. For ninety-two years the Tepula reached Rome by its own channel ; but in 33 b. c. Agrippa, after he had collected the springs of the Aqua elulia — higher up the same valley at a place now called '* II Fontanile degli Squarcia- relli di Grottaferrata," which were much colder and purer, and double in volume — determined to mix the two and obtain a corn- Fig. 22. — The Aqueducts at Roma Vecchia. jionnd water superior in quality to the Tejiula, though slightly in- ferior to the Julia. The Julia was admitted accordingly into the channel of the Tepula at tlie tenth milestone of the Via Latina, and the amalgamation allowed to proceed for the space of four A QUE DUCTS 53 miles. At the sixth milestone the compound water was again di- vided in two conduits, proportioned to the volume of the springs (400 quinaria; for the Tepula, and 12()<3 for the Julia). The tem- perature of the Tepula being 17° Cent., that of the Julia 10°, and tlieir volumes 1 : 8, the mixture must have marked at the Piscina a temperature of about 12°, which is the best for drinking pur- poses. Length of channel for the Tepula, 17,74.5 metres ; for the Julia, 22,853 metres. Volume of the first, 28,115 cubic metres in twenty-four hours ; of the second, 76,195, Both were borne on the same arches which carried the Marcia. Aqua Virgo. — The springs, located at the eighth milestone of the Via Latina, above the farmhouse of Salone in the Val del Ponte di Nona, were drawn into a canal by Agrippa, and reached tiie city on June 9, 19 h. c. Length of channel, 20,(397 metres; volume in twenty-four hours, 158,203 cubic metres. Aqua Alsietina. — "1 cannot conceive," says Frontinus (i. 11), " why such a wise prince as Augustus should have brought to Rome such a discredit al)le and unwholesome water as the Alsie- tina, unless it was for the use of the naumachia " (an oval pond 531 metres long, 354 metres wide, for naval sliam fights). It was destined afterwards for the irrigation of the Transtiberine or- chards. Length of channel, 32,848 metres ; volume, 24,767 cubic metres per day. (See Notizie degli Scavi, 1887, p. 182.) Aqua Claudia. — None of the Roman aqueducts are eulo- gized by Frontinus like tlie Claudian. lie calls it " opus magni- ficentissiine consummatum ; " and after demonstrating in more than one way that the volume of the springs collected by Claudius amounted to 4607 quinari;r, he says that there was a reserve of 1()00 always ready. The works, begun liy Caligida in a. d. 38, lasted fourteen years, the water having reached Rome only on Augu.st 1, 52 (the birth- day of Claudius). The course of the aqueduct was first around the slopes of the Monte Ripoli. like that of the ]\rarcia and of the Anio Vetus : Domitian shortened it by several miles by boring a tunnel 4950 metres long through the Monte Affliano. (See An- cient Rome, p. 63.) Lengtli of channel, 68,750 metres, of which 15,000 on arches; volume per day, 209,252 cubic metres. The Claudia was used for the Imperial table : a branch aqueduct, 2000 metres long, left the main cliannel ad Spem A^terem (Porta Mag- giore), and following the line of the Via Ca'limontana (Villa Wolkonsky), of the Campus Ca'limontanus (Lateran), and of the street now called di S. Stefano Rotondo, reached the temple of 54 GENERAL INFORMATION Claudius l)y the church of SS. Giovauni e ruolo, and the Imperial palace by tlie churcli of S. Bouaventura. (See Boolv 11. § xxv.) Anio Novus. — The Aiiio Novus, like the Vetus, was at first derived from the river of the same name at the forty-second mile- stone of the road to Subiaco, great precautions being taken for purifying the water by means of a piscina limaria. The works were begun by Caligula in a. d. 38, and completed by Claudius on August 1, 52, on a most magnificent scale, some of the arches reaching the height of thirty-two metres above ground ; and there were eight miles of them. Yet, in spite of the purifying reser- voir, and of the clear springs of the Rivus Herculaneus (Fosso di Fioggio), which had been mixed with the water from the river, the Anio Novus was hardly ever drinkable. Whenever a shower fell on the Simbruine mountains, the water would get troubled and saturated with mud and carbonate of lime. Trajan improved its condition by carrying the head of the a(pieduct higher up tlie valley, where Nero had created three artificial lakes for the adorn- ment of his Villa Sublacensis. These lakes served more efficiently as piscinm limarkE, or " purgatories," than the artificial basin of Caligula, nine miles below. The Anio Novus reached Rome in its own channel after a course of 86,964 metres, but for the last seven miles it ran on the same arches with the Aqua Claudia. The Anio Novus was the largest of all Roman aqueducts, dis- charging nearly three hundred thousand cubic metres per day. There are two places in the suburbs of Rome where these marvelous arches of the Claudia and Anio Novus can be seen to advantage : one is the Torre Fiscale, three miles outside the Porta S. Giovanni on the Albano road (to be reached also from the Tavolato station, on the upper Albano railway) ; tlie other is the Vicolo del Mandrione, which leaves the Labicana one mile outside the Porta Maggiore and falls into the Tusculana at the place called Porta Furba. A walk through the Vicolo del INIandrione will make the student more familiar with the aqueducts of ancient Rome, their structure and management, their respective size and importance, than many books written on the subject. He must remember that the higher of the two lines of arches carried the Claudia and the Anio Novus, the lower cai'ried the Marcia, Tepula, and Julia. The ugly channel of the Acqua Felice takes advantage of the remains of both ; the Alexaudrina, Anio Vetus, and Appia run underground (see Fig. 23). Aqua Traiana. — A rule was strictly followed under the Em- pire, that no one should be allowed to build and open tlierni;>3 for AQUEDUCTS 55 l>nl)Iic use unless a sj)ecial supply of water was secured at the same time. The Aqua A'irgo served for Agrippa's thermae and Euripus, the Alsietina for the naumachia of Augustus ; Titus repaired and 56 GENERAL INFORMATION increased the volume of the Marcia for the use of his baths, and so did Severus, Caracalla, and Diocletian. The construction of the Thermse Alexandrinse is contemporary with the canalization of the Aqua Alexandrina, etc. That of the Aqua Traiana seems to be also connected with the construction of the Thermal Surianse, which Trajan had built on the table-land of the Aventine in honor of his friend and supporter Licinius Sura. An inscription dis- covered in 1830 at la Conetta, on tlie Bracciano road (Corpus In- scriptionum, vi. 1260), and the medal (Cohen, Imper., ii. 49, n. 305) give the date of a. d. 109 for the completion of the aqueduct. Its sources were on the western shore of the Lago di Bracciano, along the chain of hills between Oriolo and Bassano. The va- rious branches met at a central reservoir near Vicarello, where the true aqueduct begins. It was 57,000 metres long, and discharged 118,127 cubic metres per day. The Aqua Paola of the present day is not at all so good as the Traiana, since Paul V., the restorer of the aqueduct, mixed up the good springs with the inferior water of the lake. The last water brought into Imperial Rome is the Aqua Alex- ANDKiNA. Its springs, at the foot of Monte Falcone, on the Via Prsenestina, were collected in 226 by Severus Alexander, for the use of his baths. The aqueduct, most minutely described by Fabretti (De Aquis, dissert, i.), was about 22 kilometres long, and increased the daily supply of the city by 21,632 cubic metres. Its most conspicuous remains are to be seen in the Valle di Acqua Bollicante (Via Labicana). The Roman waters were not equally good. In the scale of perfection the Marcia and the Claudia occupy the first place, the Virgo comes next, followed by the Appia, Julia, Traiana, Anio Nevus, Alexandrina, Tepula, Anio Vetus, and Alsietina. The Traiana reached Rome at the considerable height of 71.16 metres above the sea, the Anio Novus at 70.40, the Claudia at 67.40, the Julia at 63.73, the Tepxda at 60.63, the Marcia at 58.63, the Anio Vetus at 48, the Alexandrina at about 43, the Virgo at 20, the Appia at 20 (?), the Alsietina, " omnium humilior," at 16.50. At the time of Constantine there were in Rome 11 great thermge, 926 public baths, 1212 public fountains, 247 reservoirs, a "stagnum Agrippce" without speaking of private houses, of public and private gardens, of docks and warehouses, each well provided with water. Some of the fountains were of monumental character, and rich in works of art. Agrippa, while sedile, decorated those existing AQUEDUCTS 57 at the time with tliree hundred marble and bronze statues and four hundred columns. We know of one work of art only, — an " <#i'«<^-'* Hydne " which he placed on the Servilian fountain " a S o 00 00 O TOOCOJ^^OrHTO O • 1-^ O t~^ 1 »« (N -* ITS CD CO IM 1-1 CD 1- 1^ *< -* tH lO coo (D >« > O O^ «-s g o O O o 5 ac^ o o o O O O C' o o o o . . . oo^So o o o O o o o o oo o . . . Sq-tq o ^ oo ^ O H^ ~ "^ O O to ■^ »o O 00 5-S ] o o CD CN CD O rH (N TO "^ TO (M TO -t< TO - C^ TO >.ai .^^^'^^-v ta 0) C- C- C-. ■a ^ CJ CJ I, 0) O o O o O C' o «• o o o c: o — o o o o o S.S ira o C>1 T-J I^l-;co'^^oqcooooOTO JB (N 00 -* CO O' CO irf -t lO lO 'M CO c^l CO CO '^i o ci C-- ^ rH i?i o iri o CO 05 O CO "O -t< C-) TO -* ^ 1- TO r^o GO lcT 00 TO ^— ' 'HC^I^CNTOt-HCO'^I^ TO (M CD_^0O TO »n'~rH'"o'~rH" o^ 1-^ CD~ go" co'ao ^ CI c^ oS' -r^ ^S ^ 1- O (M 1^ lO UJ C. CT5 i-H .S '"' (M C-l iH (M (N .H r-T M T-\ rH TO O . o O o O OOOOOOO OO O ^ o o o o O oi «D in rH '*. CO CO 00 lO O O O OO Q, o CO q q in 5 ^^ £ -i ■^ -H »o TOcci-^d^od OO jj^ CO oi i-H — '• .— , c o ^1 -tl ICl C5 -*< O CO O o c- o o -r -. ■■: -t; V -H r^ -f 1- OOCOOOl^OSl— O OiO ^„ »!i O T-l 1- •ri O 1^ 00 CD 1^ in CO rH CO |i5 X i-H o OS (M (?J TO CD 00 lO (M O W Q O (M TO iC O o _; t^ s4 o ui [4 O CC S 1> u -S 1^ c« ^ "7 S K . . . ►-H •r-. "^ o o ■7? Z o g C3 H •On • g 3 o < .s i/T e; i^'-^ :-* Ph rj: &j -yj OJ CD lO 00 TO CD i-H rH rH d 05 o dog ■£, s O -f ^C-l 1-1 O s 1 4 •<5>-5 COCO Q C-I '7-1 tH rH TO 1- -f 1 TO rH O CO l?ITO o Jt-" cT 1^ CO 1^ »0 >0 OO rH iH rH eS ■ a %B- a; a, 5 p S .2 g 12; .2 C3 5 ^ c ^-S':b^^? ■=-2>^ S 5 0! C3 c4 • ■ • OS =3 „, 'rf rt ^ -»^ —- "^^ — ci .^ .— -^ faC.Ci rS P ►>PhPhS < ^ 3 S 1 THE WALLS 59 XV. MuRi Urbis (the Walls). — Rome has been fortified seven times, witli seven lines of walls : by the first King, by Servins Tullius, by Aurelian, by Honorius, by Leo IV., by Urban VIII., and by the Italian government. The literature on this point of Roman history and topography is very copious. The works in which the subject is treated from a general [)oint of view are — Antonio Niljby, Lt mura di Roma, diser/nate da Sir IV. Gell. 1820. — Ste- fano Pialt;, .Six Memoirs, rei)rinted from the Atti dtlla jiont. Accadtmia rom. d' Archevlijijiu. 18'20-;J.5. — Adolf Becker, Dv, Jiomw veteris muris u/i/iie portis. I^eipsic, 1842. — Kodolfo J^anciani, Lt mnra e la parte di Servio (in Annal. Inst., 1871, p. 40) ; and Bull. arch, com., 187(i, pp.24, 121 (1888, p. 12). — Heinrieh .Jordan, Topoiinijihic, vol. i. p. 200, Desclireilinng der .servianisclien Maner ; ]p. .'}4(), die aureliauisclie Mauer. — C'esare (iuareiigiii, Lt mura di Roma. Konie, 1882. XVr. MuRUS RoMULi (Walls of the Palatine). It is probable that the Alban colonists of the " hill of Pales," protected by marshes and cliffs, contented themselves with raising a palisade and cutting a ditch at the only weak point of their natural for- tress, viz. across the neck of the Velia. After coming in contact with their more advanced neighbors, like the inhabitants of the turrif/era; Antemnd', they thought it more expedient to follow tlieir exami>le, and wall in and fortify their village, which was at the same time the fold of their caf tie. The text most freijuently quoted in reference to the IVIurus Romuli is that of Tacitus (Ann., xii. 24), according to which the furrow ploughed by the hero — the sulcus primiyeiiius — started from a })oiut in the Forum Boarium, marked in later times by the bronze Bidl of INIyron ; and followed the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine as far as the altar of Consus, the valley between the Palatine and the Ca;lian as far as the Curiae Veteres, the east slope of the hill as far as the Sacellum Larum. The same historian says that the Ara ISIaxima of Hercules was included within the fur- row, and Dionysius states that Vesta's temple was outside it. The furrow followed the foot of the cliffs or slopes of the Palatine, its course being marked with stone cippi. Others affirm that the city of Romulus was square (jerpaywvos — Ronui (.^uadrata). The truth is that neither the walls nor the ))omerium of Romulus can be said to make a square; that a line drawn from l)eyond the Ara Maxima to the Ara Consi cannot be said to go " along the foot of the cliffs of the Palatine" {per Ima mantis Palatini); that the valley in those days was covered with water, deep enough to be navi- 60 GENERAL INFORMATION gated by canoes, so that neither a furrow could be ploughed through it, nor stone cippi set up to mark the line of the furrow. Moreover, the same marshes extended on the southeast side as far as the Curiaj Ve teres, on the northwest as far as the Temple of Vesta ; and the shape of the Palatine walls was rather trapezoid, like that of a terramara of the valley of the Po, than square like an Etruscan templum ; while, lastly, the name of Roma Quadrata did not belong to the city on the hill, but to the altar described in " Pagan and Christian Rome," p. 70, which stood in front of the Temple of Apollo. There is manifestly a chronological error in speaking of places and things, not as they were in the earliest days of Rome, but as they appeared after the draining of the marshes. A confusion is also to be observed in ancient and modern writers with regard to the line of the walls and the line of the pomerium marked by stone cippi. The two are almost independent, and wide apart. The existing remains of the walls, at the west corner of the hill, are 220 metres distant from the site of the Ara Maxima, which was itself within the pomerium. The walls of Romulus have been discovered in six places, marked A, B, C, D, E, F in the annexed map. They will be described in Book II. § viii. XVII. Other Walls of the Kingly Period. — Although we find in classic texts mention of what may have been fortifica- tions, independent of those on the Palatine, — like the Murus Ter- reus Carinarum, the Capitolium Vetus, and the arx or citadel on the Aracoeli summit of the Capitoline hill, — yet there is but one existing relic which can possibly be considered as such : a frag- ment of a wall in a garden, Via dell' Arco di Settimio, No. 1. It is identical in material and style of masonry with the walls of the Palatine. Literature. — Stefano Piale, Del secondo recinfo di Romafatto da Numa, e delh af/f/wnte def/li altrt re. Rome, 183.3. — Rodolfo LaiU'iani, Annali Imti- ttito, I9,i\, p. 42. — Arthur Scheiner, Aua Roms Frnhezeit. (Mittheil., 1895, p. 160.) XVIII. The Walls of Servius Tullius. — In the eulogy of Bartolomeo Borghesi the late Comm. de Rossi remarks justly that we know more on some points of Roman history, institutions, religion, etc., than the ancients did. The same thing may be re- peated as regards some points of Roman topography. Dionysius, for instance, says that the walls of Servius Tidlius had become 5v(T(vpfTot 1 in tlie Augustan age, on account of the structures of 1 Difficult t(i trace. THE WALLS OF SERVIUS TULLIUS 61 '//jarlLi/, /■'■■■ ;/./;//A-77'>/^ Fig. 25. every descrii^tion, public and private, which had been built against, across, and above them. Owing to discoveries made since 1860 we can trace the line of the Servian walls and of the agger, describe its structure, and locate its gates more exactly than Dio- SECTION OF WALLS nysius could have done. The walls run against the face of the cliffs (of the Capitoline, (iuirinal, Oppian, Ca^lian, and Aventine) at two thirds of their height above the plain, and cross the intervening vallej's at their narrowest point. They are built of blocks of tufa, exactly 2 feet high (0.59 metre), placed alternately lengthwise and crosswise, the tufa being of an inferior quality and yellowish gray in color. The thickness of the wall varies from 2 to Z\ metres ; the maxi- mum height yet discovered is 12.98 metres (Vigna Torlonia, Aven- tine, Fig. 29). The blocks are not cemented, at least not in the original structure. I have only once found traces of lime, in a joint of one of the buttresses (corner of Via Volturno and Gaeta) ; but, as a rule, the use of cohesive substances seems to have l)een unknown to or despised by the engineers of Servius. The blocks which form the face of the wall are well squared, and fit into each other so that the joints are rendered almost invisible, but they are irregularly cut inside. On the Aventine, however, and especially in the space between the church of S. Saba and that of II Priorato di Malta, the walls, instead of resting against the live rock of the cliffs or the earth of the slopes, have an inside lin- ing of concrete, the thickness of which equals or exceeds that of the opus quadratum itself. This part of the fortifications is not original, but seems to have been rebuilt or strengthened by Camillus. Across the valleys or tablelands the system of defense varies altogether. There is a ditch, and an embankment made with the earth excavated from the ditch. Tlie embankment is supported on the outer side by a strong wall, fortified with buttresses, while on the inner side it slopes down at an incline of 35° or 40°. Sometimes there is a .second supporting wall on the' inner side, 62 GENERAL INFORMATION weaker and much lower than the outer one. Two roads run par- allel with the fortification, one at the foot of the inner wall, one on the outer edge of the ditch. This system of defense was called an agger. Topographical books state that in the circuit of tlie Servian city there was but one agger, between the Colline and the Esqui- line gates ; but recent discoveries prove that all weak points of the circuit were fortified in that way. We have found the agger in the higher part of the Esquiline, near tiie Palazzo Field, Via Merulana ; on the Smaller Aventine, near S. Saba ; and on the Quiri- nal, by the Piazza di Magnanapoli, etc. Yet there is no denying that the one between the Colline and Esquiline gates, for strength, size, elevation, and length, is the agger juor excellence, from which a street (subager) and a promenade {nunc licet aggere in aprico spatiari) were named in classic times, and a whole district (Mons Superagius) in the Middle Ages. I shall point out to the reader now which of the remains of this SECTION OF AGGER Fig. 2C. venerable fortification deserve a visit, and which are the sites of its historical gates. (See map of Walls.) First, as to the river- front, Livy (ii. 10) and Dionysius (v. 23) distinctly as.sert that the bank was unprotected, because the river itself, with its wide bed and swift current, was considered to afford a sufficient protection. Yet there is no portion of the whole circuit of the Servian city at which the fortifications are more evident or better preserved than at the river-front. I made designs of every fragment of them before the construction of the modern quays, and I do not think there is a break of 50 metres between the two extreme points (marked approximately by the Pons Fabricius and the Pons Sub- THE WALLS OF SERVIUS TULLIUS 63 licius). The construction is the same everywhere : a foundation- wall about 2 metres high above low-water mark, forming a step or a landing 3 metres wide, and a wall 6 metres high sujjporting the bank. I have found traces of cement in the upper layers of stones, as well as traces of an inner lining of concrete. Both may l>ertain to later restorations. FORUM nOARIUM Fip. 27. The walls left the river halfway between the clinrclies of S. Maria Egiziaca and S. Nicola in Carcere, and readied the rocks of the Capitol at the Via della Bufola. Three gates opened in this short tract : the Fluinentana by the river (Via della Fiumara, destroyed 1882), the Triumphalis (Via della Bocca della Veritk), and the Carmentalis (Via delhi Bufola). Consult — Adolf Becker, De niurl.% p. 81. — Eniil Braun, ^foniiment. InM., 1854, p. 78, tav. X. — Alessandvo Donati, De urbe Rama, p. 7!t. The Capitoline was strongly fortified on the side facing the Campus Martins. Remains of the wall can be seen on the edge of the rock which supports the Caffarelli palace (I) ; on the ascent to the Piazza del Campidoglio, called " La salitadelle tre Pile " (II) ; and in the substructures of the monument to Victor Emmanuel (III). They intersected the Via di IMarforio between Nos. Sl'^ and 8P, where the Porta Ratumena must 1)e located. The direc- tion of the Via Flaminia, which issued from this gate, is marked by the tomb of C. Poplicius Bibulus on one side, and the so-called tomb of the Claudii on the other. From the Porta Ratumena to tlie Porta Foiitinalis, under the Palazzo Antonelli, Piazza Magnanapoli, the walls must have been destroyed by Trajan when he cut away the sjwr of the Quirinal to make room for his forum. The Porta Fontinalis is the only one left standing in the whole circuit (IV). Other remains are 64 GENERAL INFORMATION to be seen in the beautiful Villa Colonna (V), upon which rest those of the Temple of the Sun ; others under the Villa Spithoever, Via delle Finanze (VI). Two gates opened in this tract : the Sanqvialis, the approximate site of which is shown by the tomb of the Sempronii, discovered in 1866 near the top of the Salita della Dataria ; and the Porta Salutaris, under the Palazzo Craw- shay, Via delle Quattro Fontane. The agger began at the junc- tion of the Via di Porta Salaria with the Via venti Settembre, crossed the Treasury buildings, the Via Volturno, the railway station, the Piazza Fanti, the Via Carlo Alberto, and ended near the conservatory of the gardens of Msecenas in the Via Merulana. It was almost intact before the construction of the new quarters and of the railway station ; now thex'e are scanty remains to be seen (VII) in the Piazza del Maccao ; in the goods station. Via di Porta S. Lorenzo (VIII) ; in the gardens of the Acquario Romano (IX) ; and in the Via Carlo Alberto (X). The Porta Collina, dis- covered in 1873 at the junction of the Via Goito and the Via venti Settembre, was destroyed for the erection of the northeast pavilion of the Treasury buildings. (See map in " Ancient Rome," p. 14.5.) Traces of the Porta Viminalis are visible in the goods station, while the Porta Esquilina is represented by the ai"ch of Gallienus, Via di S. Vito. The annexed cut (Fig. 28) i-epresents an excavation made in 1877 at the foot of the agger to determine the breadth and depth of the great ditch. It seems that when the agger itself was transformed into a public walk, the ditch was filled up, and turned into build- ing lots. Traces of a private house can be seen at the bottom of the trench. Beyond the last fragment visible in the Via Merulana (XI) we lose sight of the fortifications, although their course and the site of the gates Querquetulana, Caelimontana, and a third near the Piazza della Navicella, can be distinctly traced from discoveries made in times gone by. The famous Porta Capena, which marks the beginning of the Appian Way, seems to have been discovered twice : by Orazio Orlandi in the latter part of last century ; and by Mr. J. H. Parker in 1867, in the slope of the C?eliau, behind the apse of S. Gregorio. Parker gives a view of his excavation in Plate xviii. of the " Aque- ducts of Ancient Rome " (London, Murray, 1876). The site of the gate can be determined to-day by means of a remarkable fragment of the walls (XII) visible in the wine-cellar of the Osteria della Porta Capena, in the gardens of S. Gregorio, Via di Porta S. Sebastiano, No. 1. THE WALLS OF SERVIUS TULLIUS 65 On the other side of the valley the walls appear again, in front and under the old abbey of S. Balbina, now a house of refuse for I ^, ,j„— 1, K-' Wt' ."^^^' ■S^v^ \ , ,jrd^ '%! Fig. 28. —The Ditch of the Agger of Servius. women (XIII) ; at a corner of the Via di S. Saba and the Via di Porta S. Paolo (XIV) ; on the Via di Porta S. Paolo itself, where 66 GENERAL INFORMATION the road bifurcates, one arm descending towards the gate, the other towards the Monte Testaccio (XV). This is the finest ruin of all, because it shows the restorations of the time of Camillus resting on the original structure of Servius. Fig. 29 represents the i^resent state of the ruin, but more than half of it is concealed by the accumulation of modern soil. I had the good fortune to see it completely exposed to view in 1868, when I made the draw- ing a facsimile of which is here given. Tliere is another fragment to be seen in the adjoining Vigna Maccarani-Torlonia (XVI), some stones of which were removed by Padre Secchi, the astronomer, to the Observatory of tlie Col- legio Romano, to serve as a pedestal for the great Merz equatorial. The walls appear again against the cliff of the Aventine, at the Arco di S. Lazzaro, Via di Marmorata (XVII) ; and lastly, under the convent of S. Sabina, where they were laid bai-e in 1856 (XVIII). There is absolutely no trace of Servian fortifications on the opposite or Transtiberine side of the river. Four gates opened in the walls between the Porta Capena and the Tiber : the Naivia, on the Via Aventina, from which issued the Via Ardeatina; the Rudusculana, on the Via di Porta S. Paolo, from which issued the Via Ostiensis ; the Navalis, on the Via di S. Maria Aveutinese ; and the Trigemina, on the Via di Marmorata. Many stones built into the original wall of Servius are marked with signs or letters, which have given rise to much speculation. Consult — Luigi Briizz.n, Sopi-a i ser/ni incisi nci 7na.%ti flvllc iinirn, etc. (Annali Inst., 1876, pis. i, k.) — Heinricli .lorchui, Topoyraphu', vol. i. \i. 250, pis. 1, 2. — Otto Ricliter, Uebvr antlke Steinmi'tzzeichtn, 1885. Literature. — Adolf Becker, Be Romce reteris onuris atque portis, p. 81; and Topof/raphie, p. 92. — Thomas Uyer, History of the City of Rome, p. 47. — R. Bergau, Die Befesiic/unc/ Romn clurch Tuvquinim Prisms unci Serrius Tullius. Gottingen, isfn. — Rodolfo Lanciani, BulJe muru e porte di Servio (in Ann. Inst., 1871, )>. 40) : and Bull. urch. com., 1876, pp. 24, 121. — Heinrieh .Jordan, Topot/rapliie, vol. i. ji. 200. — Otto Ricliter, i'(e Befestiguny des laniciiliim. XTX. Walls of Aurelian and Probus, a. d. 272. — We have no account of the construction of the walls of Aurelian. We only k)iow, in a general way, that the Emperor was compelled to fortify the capital by the bai'barian invasion of a. d. 271, in the course of which the enemy had reached the banks of the Metaurus ; that, during the respite between the Marcomannic and tlie Pal- WALLS OF SERVirS 67 68 GENERAL INFORMATION myrene campaigns, he inclosed the city mui-is quam ralUlissimis, and that the great undertaking, begun in 272, was finished by Probus about seven years hiter. The circuit of tlie walls, which I have measured inch by inch for the construction of the " Forma Urbis," measures 18,837 metres. The strip of land occupied by these fortifications is 19 metres wide : five of which are taken by the inner " clieminde ronde" four by the walls themselves, ten by the outside road ; 358,000 square metres were consequently expropriated by Aurelian ; and, as the land was thickly covered with villas, houses, gardens, and tombs, the cost of purchase must have been considerable. At 20 lire the square metre it would I'each 7,000,000 lire. The walls consist of a solid foundation of concrete from 3.-50 to 4 metres thick, faced with triangular bricks ; of a covered way with loopholes on the outside, and a gallery or arcade in the inner side ; and a terrace or balcony above, lined with battlements (Fig. 30). There are towers at an interval of 100 Roman feet (29.70 metres), projecting from four to five metres. Each tower contains a staircase giving access to the lower corridor and to the terrace above. According to the survey made by Ammon, after the restoration of the walls by Arcadius and Honorius in 403, there wei'e 381 towers in all, exclusive of those of the mausoleum of Hadrian (Hadrianium), which had been converted into a tete du pont, to prevent the approach of the enemy from the Via Tri- umphalis and the Prata Neronis. Of these 381 towers only one has come down to us in a perfect state — the sixth to the left of the Porta Salaria. We can judge from its elegance and good construction that the builders of the walls had tried to disfigure the monumental city as little as i:)ossible ; we can judge also how much damage the walls must have suffered in the course of cen- turies, to be reduced to their present state of decay ! These noble walls, which have so often saved the city from pillage and destruction, on the face of which our history is wi'itten almost year by year, and so carefully preserved even in the darkest period of the Middle Ages, are now doomed to disappear. State and city have with equal promptness declined to undergo the expense of keeping them in repair. A section of them, 70 metres long, between the Porta S. Giovanni and S. Croce in Gerusalemme, fell in 1893. The only measure taken was a warning given to passers-by that another portion would soon share the same fate. The volume of masonry employed in tlie construction of the walls is estimated at 1,033,000 cubic metres. The cost at the present WALLS OF AURELIAN AND PROBUS 69 day would liave exceeded 26,000,000 lire, but we cannot make any calculation for Aurelian's time, because we do not know what Fig. 30. — The Covered Way of the Walls of Aurelian, Vigna Casali. were the price of labor and the cost of building-materials in his day. As a rule the walls are built with the spoils of the edifices 70 GENERAL INFORMATION which stood on their line and were demolished to clear the space ; only the surface and the arches are coated with bricks made for the occasion. Two recent discoveries illustrate this point ; they also bear evidence to the hurry with which the work was done, and therefore to the greatness of the peril from which Rome had escaped.^ A piece of the walls was cut away in November, 1884, between the third and the fourth tower on the right of the Porta S. Lorenzo, for the opening of the new Viale del Camposanto. An older construction had been embedded there in the thickness of the masonry, viz., a garden wall incrusted with shells, enamel, and pumice-stones, with niches worked in a rough kind of mosaic, and crowned by a cornice covered with sheets of lead. When Aurelian's engineers met with this obstacle, they did not lose time in demolishing it, but embedded it in their own masonry. So far, this is not remarkable ; but what remains inexplicable is that the statues were not removed from their niches. We have found them one by one in their original places, and they are not the work of an ordinary chisel, but delicate pieces of Graeco-Ronuxn sculpture, so much so that Professor Petersen lias not disdained to give illustrations of them in the " Bull. arch, com.," vol. xvii., a. 1889, p. 17, tav. 1, 2. The statues and the whole front of the garden wall were not damaged by the new consti'uction be- cause the engineers had taken care to protect them with a coating of clay. Traces of this nymphseum are still to be seen on the left of the new Barriera di S. Lorenzo. The second discovery was made in February, 1892, on the line of the Via INIontebello, between the garden of the English Embassy and the Praetorian Camp. Here a private house of the first century stood on tlie line of tlie walls. One would have expected the house to be leveled to the ground, and the walls raised on the space left free by the demolition ; but the engineers, in their haste, satisfied themselves with filling up the space between the sides of each room, leaving intact mosaic pavements, marble stairs, lintels, thresholds, and frescoes. This done, as soon as their own masonry was sufficiently hardened, they 1 The victorj' of Aiirelian on the hanks of the Metaurus must have been so decisive that the whole Empire rejoiced at it. It is recorded even in the formulaj of contemporary gaming-tables (labulm lusnrim). One of these, discovered in 1892 in the catacombs of Priscilla, contains the words, " hostes • victos • Italia • gaudet • Indite • Romani;" another, discovered almost at the same time, in the cemetery of S. Eucharius at Treves, says, "virtus • imperi • hostes • vincti • liidant ■ Romani." WALLS OF AURELIAN AND PROBUS 71 shaved off, as it were, whatever projected on either side, and went on with their work. We come now to an important, and altogetlier new, point of research. For what cause, and from what military, teclmical, or financial reasons, was this special course of the walls selected ? and why were some important districts of the city left out, others included which contained nothing but tombs ? The answer is easily given. The com'se selected was that of the octroi, which followed closely that of the pomerium, or in other words, the line of separation between the city proper (continentia cedijicla) and the suburbs (^expatiantia tecla). Much has been written about the octroi line by — Theodor Mommsen, Bcrkhte rl. sacks. Gesillsc/i. ,lHbO, p. 3()U. — Gio. Battista dc Rossi, Archavol. Anztlf/vr, 1850, p. 147 ; and Piunte di Roma, ch. vii. p. 46. — Corpus /user., vol. vi. n. 1016, n, b, c. — Ephemeris Ejjiijr., vol. iv. p. 276. — Rodolfo Lauciaiii, Bull. arch, com., vol. xx., 1892, p. 93. It was marked by stone cippi, five of which have been described by epigraphists. The first was found, at the time of Andrea Fulvio, on the landing-place of the Tiber, under the Aventine. It bore this inscription : — QVICQVID VSVARIVM INVEHITYR ANSARIVM NON DEBET, which proves that duties were levied also on some kind of mer- chandise and provisions which came by water. The other four belong to the reorganization of the octroi made by M. Aurelius and Commodus al)oat the year a. d. 175, and they are all inscribed with the same regulations : " These terminal stones have been set up, in consequence of the quarrels which often arise between the importers and the tax-receivers, to show which is the exact line of the octioi according to the ancient custom." The place of discovery of the first stone is uncertain ; the second was found near the Porta Salaria ; the third near the Porta Flami- nia ; the fourth near the Porta Asinaria. They stood, therefore, on the very line followed a century later by Aurelian's waUs. Now it is evident that whoever establishes a financial barrier round an open city must try to take advantage of every existing natural or artificial obstacle to prevent smuggling and fraud. Another obvious pre- caution is to reduce to a minimum the number of openings, so as to save the expense of a large staff of officers. Between two ojien- ings, viz., between two toll-houses, they must have raised palisades, stone walls, hedges, or excavated ditches, unless the obstacles offered by the undulations of the ground or by public edifices 72 GENERAL LNFORMATION afforded sufficient protection against snmggiing. This was exactly the case with Rome, where one sixth of the whole octroi line had been found ready-made by the substructure of the Horti Aciliani on the Pincian (550 metres) ; by the inclosure wall of the Ilorti Sal- lustiani (1200 metres), and of the Praetorian Camp (1050 metres) ; by the arcades of the Marcian (SCO meti'es) and of the Claudian aqueducts (475 metres) ; and lastly, by the Amphitheatrum Cas- treuse (100 metres). The octroi line, therefore, of the time of M. Aurelius and Commodus comprised an inclosure built on the prin- ciples of financial strategy, with first-class gates and custom-houses on the main roads and river landings, and with posterns and small pickets on the smaller lanes and landings of ferry-boats. From such financial fortifications to the walls of Aurelian the step is very short. Aurelian simply changed into a strong bulwark the octroi inclosure, respecting its gates, posterns, and ferries. Rkferences. — Arlolf Becker, De muris atque jwrtis. Leipsic, 1842. — Antonio Nibby and William Gell, Le mwa di Romn, 1820. — Eugene Miintz, Les arts a In cour des Papes, passim. — G. Battista de Rossi, Bull, arch crist., serie v., anno ii., 1891, p. 35. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Le mum di Aureliano e di Probo: Bull. arch, com., xx. p. 87. The late John Henry Parker prepared illustrations of the walls of Aurelian by numerous drawings and photographs, the first by Cicconetti, the second by Lucchetti. The collection of drawings belongs now to the Conimissione Arch, comunale di Roma ; the negatives of the photographic collection were de- stroyed by tire in July, 1893. XX. Restoration of the Walls by Hoxorius. — The re- storation of the walls by Ai'cadius and Honorius was commenced, according to Claudianus, " audito rumore Getarum," from the fear of an advance of the Goths under Alaric, and was completed in January, 402, under the direction of Stilicho. The great under- taking was celebrated by several inscriptions engraved above tlie gates, of which three only have survived destruction : those of the portai Tiburtina, Prpenestina, and Portuensis. (See Corpus Inscrip- tionum, vol. vi. n. 1188-90.) These inscriptions speak of " instauratos in-bi a^ternse muros portas ac turres, egestis immensis ruderibus," INIacrobius Longini- anus being the prefect of the city. The catastrophe, however, was not avoided, but deferred. Alaric crossed the Aljjs from Illyria towards the end of 402, and showed himself before the walls of INIilan, while Honorius was intrenching himself at Ravenna. Stilicho, by a miracle of energy and bravery, collected an army, reached the Goths at Pollenzo, and defeated them in the spring of RESTORATIOX OF THE WALLS BY HONORIUS 73 403. The victory was celebrated by Houoriiis in the following year, with the last triumph witnessed in Rome, the last spark of a noble light about to vanish forever. The pageant marched along the walls just restored, and ended at the triumphal arch raised to the glory of the Emperor and his associates — QVOD GETARVM NATIOXKM IX OMNE AEVVM DOCVERE EXTINGVI.^ Six years later, on August 24, 410, Alaric and the Getarum Natio entered Rome by the Porta Salaria ! AVithout entering into particulars concerning this restoration of the walls and gates, I shall only dwell a moment on the tale it tells about the fate of Rome at the beginning of the fifth century. Stilicho and Honorius found the walls almost buried under a mass of rubbish and refuse (imjnensa rudera) ; and as they had neither time nor means to clear the rubbish away they leveled it on the spot, and raised at once the level of that strip of city land from nine to thirteen feet. The thresholds of the porta; Flaminia, Tiburtina, Pr?enestina, Ostiensis of Honorius are as much as this above those of the time of Aurelian. And what destructions were accomplished for the sake of providing materials ! It is enough to quote the instance of the Porta Appia, the bastions of which were rebuilt of solid marltle, from the celebrated Temple of Mars which stood outside the gate. XXI. Gates of Aurelian and Honorius. — The gates of the city of Rome have seen more historical events during the 16"24 years of their existence than any other monuments of the ancient world. Considering that even the volume of Gell and Nibby is far from being exhaustive on this jioint of historical topography, T could hardly enter into the subject myself. The student will find detailed information in the works mentioned below. Starting from the left bank of the Tiber, above the Ponte Mar- gherita, we must mention, first, the corner tower of great strength, which was considered by the Romans to be haunted by the ghost of Xero: uhl iimhra Neronis diu mansitavit. Later it was called Lo Trullo. C. Ludovico Visconti, Bull. arch, com., 1877, p. 195. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Forma Urhi^, pi. 1. — Constantino Corvisieri, Archivio Societa storia patria, vol. i. p. 92, n. 1. Between the river and the Porta Flaminia (del Popolo) there 1 See Corjnis Inscripiionum, vol. vi. n. 1196. The inscription of the arch refers also to the victory gained by Stilicho over Radagaisus in 405. 74 GENERAL INFORMATION was a beautiful tomb, upon which the third tower left of the gate is planted. Ludwig Urlichs, Codex topogr., p. 243. — Bull. arch, com., 1891, p. 140. The Porta Flaminia of llouorius, flanked by two round towers, was discovered in 1877 during the demolition of the two square bastions of Sixtus IV. C. Ludovico Visconti, Bull. arch, com., 1877, p. 209. — Constantino Corvi- ^\e.Y\, Archivlo Societa storia patria, vol. i. p. 79, n. 1. — Pasqiiale Adinolfi, Roma nell' eta, di mezzo, vol. i. p. 81. — Giuseppe Tomniasetti, Archivlo Societa storia patria, vol. vi. p. 173. Behind the apse of S. Maria del Popolo the walls reach the northeast corner of the Pincian liill, the substVuctures of which, built by the Acilii Glabriones, were so gigantic in size and height that no extra works of defense were added to them by Aiirelian. At the opposite or northeast corner of the hill we find the " muro torto," a piece of the substructure which is inclined outwards at an angle of six or seven degrees. Procopius (Goth., i. 23) de- scribes it exactly as we see it now. In the Middle Ages women of ill fame were buried at the foot of the inclined wall, and in more modern times men and women who died impenitent. The Porta Pinciana, originally a modest postern, was trans- formed into its present shape by Belisarius. It opens on the Via Salaria vetus, which took the name of Pincia or Pinciana at the end of the fourth century. This gate will always get a share of the interest we feel for the gallant defender of Rome in .537. The Goths of Vitiges were encamped on the INIonti Parioli, watching the Porta Pinciana ; and on the site of the Villa Albani, watching the Porta Salaria. The best feat of the siege was the sally made by Belisarius, in the course of which the barbarians were driven back as far as the Anio. The Byzantine leader rode a white charger named ^d\iov by Procopius, and Balan by the Goths ; but in spite of prodigies of valor, his men began to waver, and he was obliged to retreat. The garrison of the Porta Pinciana, not recognizing the leader, covered as he was with dust and blood, obliged the retreating party to face the enemy again and drive them away from the walls. Belisarius at last entered the gate amidst frantic cheering, and his name was given to the gate itself (Porta Belisaria) in'memory of the eventful day. From the Pinciana to the Salaria the walls of Aurelian are in splendid preservation. A tower, the sixth before reaching the Sa- laria, is the only perfect one in the whole circuit. The Porta GATES OF AURELIAN AND HONORIUS (O Salaria of Honorius, injured by the bombardment of September 20, 1870, was rebuilt in the present form by Vespignani. The discoveries made on this occasion are described by — C. Ludovico Visconti, llfanciullo Q. Siilpicio ^fassimo. Rome, 1871. — Wil- helm Henzen, Sepulcri untichi rinvenutl alia porta Salaria (in Bull. Inst., 1871, p. 98.) — Giovanni Ciofi, Inscnpt. . . . Q. Sulpicii Maximi. Rome, 1871.— J. H. Parker, Tombs in and near Rome, Oxford, 1877, pi. 10. — Ro- dolfo Lanciani, Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 280. The Porta Pia, a work of 1561, by Matteo da Castello, stands 75 metres to the left of the ancient gate of the time of Honorius. It was first called Nomentana, and later on, Porta S. Agnetis and Porta della Donna. Its two round towers are built, as usual, over classic tombs. The one on the right was excavated in 1827 by Zamboni. It belonged to Quintus Haterius, called by Tacitus " senex fcedissimoe adulationis." After passing two posterns in the portion of the walls which surround the garden of the Englisli Embassy, we meet with the Pr.-etorian camp, described in Book IV. ; and, on the other side of it, with the Porta Chiusa, which gave access to the Vivarium or imperial menagei'ie, where wild beasts were kept in readiness for tlie games of the amphitheatre. The walls on this part of the city have been largely restored with blocks of stone, from the inclosure wall of the Vivarium. The Porta S. Lorenzo, spanning the Via Tiburtina, was one of the most remarkable before 1869, when Pius IX. caused it to be demolished, to make use of the stones of which it was built for the foundations of the Colonna del Concilio on the Janiculum. The gate was double : the outside arch, dating from the time of Augustus, carried the Marcia, Tepula, and Julia over the road; the inside formed part of the fortifications. Fig. 31 (preceding page), from a photograph taken in 1868, shows tlie rise in the level of tlie city from the time of Augustus to that of Honorius, as the threshold of the gate of the fourth century is on the same level with the spring of the arch of Augustus. Between the Porta Tiburtina (S. Lorenzo) and the Prfenestina (Maggiore) the walls follow the line of the arcades of the Marcia. Tepula, and Julia, beautiful remains of which can be seen in the inner side, near the new barriera. The Porta Prfenestina, a magnificent work of Claudius in tlie so-called rustic style, served originally for the tran.sit of the Claudia and Anio Novus over the roads leading to Prseneste and Labicum. Honorius walled up one of the archw^ays, and fortified 76 GENERAL INFORMATION the other with towers resting on tombs. Tlie towers and the gate were destroyed in 1838, when the pcwariwn of the baker M. Ver- gilius Eurysaces and of his wife Atistia were laid bare. Tlie Porta S. Lorenzo. Luigi ("aiiina, SuJ Juogo denomiiiato la Speranza rercJiIa. Rome, 1839. — Bull. /ws^,"l8:i8, |). 144. — .4'«». hjsl., 1838, p. -221. —Curjjus Inscr., vol. i. pp. 222, 223 ; vol. vi. n. 1958. GATES OF AURELIAX AND HONORIUS 77 The next piece of the wall, from the Porta Maggiore to S. Croce in Gerusalemme, must be visited from the garden annexed to this church. It appears like a combination of aqueducts and fortifi- cations, of classic, mediaeval, and modern structures, i\^'-clad and exceedingly picturesque. The entrance is from the first gate on the left of the church. After passing the Amphitheatrum Castrense, described in Book IV. § XV., the great breach produced by the collapse of the walls in 1893, and the Porta S. Giovanni, built by Gregory XIII. in l.')7o, we reach the Porta Asinaria, which, although sunk deep in the ground, is one of the best preserved of Roman gates. Through it Belisarius entered on December 9, .580, while the. Gothic garri- son was escaping by the Porta Flaminia. We can follow the i:>rogress of one and the retreat of the other army, and the vicissi- tudes of the war, by the way contemporary inscriptions are dated. In the lands belonging to or reconquered by the Byzantines the epitaplis of 5o0 are dated " post consulatum Belisarii ; " in those occupied by the Goths, " iterum post consulatum Paulini iunioris." There was, however, in Home an obscure man whose faith in the liberation of the city from the barbaric rule, at the hand of Beli- sarius, was never shaken. Ilis tombstone, now in the " Sacre Grotte Vaticane," says that John, the book-keeper of the tavern of Isidorus, had died on May '23, 536, consvlatv vilisari viri CLAKissiMi. It was engraved six months before the retreat of the Goths. Ten years later the same gate was tlirown open to Totila by the treachery of a body of Isaurians. There is a postern under the Lateran palace, and farther on, where the IVIarrana of Calixtus II. enters the city, a gate now closed, the classic name of which seems to be Porta Metroni. An inscription inside it mentions the restoration of this stretch of the walls made in 11.")" by the S. P. Q. R., R(egnante) D(omino) N(ostro Friderico) 8(emper) A(ugusto). The erasure of the name of Barbarossa must have taken place in 1167, when the city was besieged by the allied forces of the Tusculans and of tlie Empire. The next gate, tlie Latina, is beautifully preserved, but closed like the Porta Metroni. There is the Christian monogram above the arch between the mystic letters A and n. Antonio XiMiy, Ronm anfirn, vol. i. p. 148. — Giuseiipc Tuniniasetti, La via Latina, p. fj. IJome, 1880. The Porta S. Sebastiano, the Appia of .\urelian and Ilonorius, 78 GENERAL INFORMATION was rebuilt by the latter with the spoils of the Temple of Mars " extra muros.'' 1 am sure that if the blocks of marble could be examined from the inside of the two bastions, they would all be found sculptured or engraved like those of the Porta del Popolo of Sixtus IV. On the right post of the gate, and concealed by the wooden folding frame, is engraved the figure of an angel, with the inscription, " In the year of our Lord 1327, xi. indiction, Sept. 29, in the feast of S. Michael, a foreign army [that of King Robert of Naples] tried to force its way into the city, but was repulsed by the people of Rome led by Jacopo de' Ponziani." Orazio Marucchi, Silhir/e di alcune iscrizioni, etc., p. 100, n. 47. On the right of the Porta S. Sebastiano opens one of the pos- terns used only in jubilee years, and walled up since the Na- poleonic times. Others are to be seen on the side of each gate leading to great places of pilgrimage, like the Salaria (Forma Urbis, pi. iii.), the Tiburtina, and the Ostiensis. After the tenth tower there is a fine specimen of brickwork of the time of the Antonines, a door flanked by half columns of the Corinthian order, with finely cut capitals and frieze. It does not belong to a tomb, as Nibby and others have suggested, but to a private villa dis- covered at the beginning of this century in the Vigna Volpi, within the walls. The Rastione del Sangallo, a few steps farther on, carefully kept in repair up to 1870, is now abandoned to its fate, and its brick facing is spoilt by vegetation which almost hides it from view. Huelsen has discovered in the Ufiizi the original design of Antonio da Sangallo, which shows the portion of the wall destroyed by Paul III. to make room for this bulwark, which was 400 metres long, with nine towers and one gate. The gate is undoubtedly the Ardeatina, ou the subject of which consult — Antonio Nibby, Dint ami di Romn, vol. iii. p. 560. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Roma sotterraiiea, vol. ii. p. 8. — Heinrich Jordan, Topor/rajjhie, vol. i. pp. 2.33, .3G8. — Giuseppe Tommasetti, Architno Societa storla j)atria, 1879, p. 385; 1880, p. 135.— Christian Huelsen, Mittheil., 1894, p. 320, pi. 9. The Porta Ostiensis, now di S. Paolo, the last on the left bank, dates from the time of Ilonorius, its level being nearly four metres higher than that of the pyramid of Cestius. The treacherous Isaurians thi-ew it open to the Goths in 549. King Ladislas en- tered it in 1407, and caused it to be walled up, but the Romans reopened it in 1410. The walls did not end at their junction with the Tiber, but GATES OF AU RE LI AN AND HONORIUS 79 turned inwards, following the left bank for 780 metres, until they ■•J. Fig. ;VJ. - l)(i(.r nf tlif First Oiitiirj- Imilt into tlie Walls of Aurclian. met with those of the opposite shore. Tliere were two great towers to protect the entrance to Rome by water, a chain being 80 GENERAL INFORMATTON drawn at night between them. The towers are represented in the above sketch by Van der Aa (Fig. 33). The walls on the Transtiberine side, still perfect in the sixteenth century, have now disappeared, except for a short space on either side of the Porta Septimiana. There were three gates : the Por- tuensis, on the road to the Portus August! ; the Aurelia, on the top of the Janiculuin ; and the Septimiana, on the road towards the Vatican district. The Portuensis stood 453 metres in front of the present one, built in 1644 by Innocent X. Its site is indicated in Nolli's plan. It had a double archway, and on the frieze above was engraved the inscription of Ilonorius (Corpus, vi. 1190). The Aurelia had changed its classic name into that of S. Pancratius since the time of Procopius. Urban VIIL rebuilt it in 1044, and I'ius IX. after Pig. 33. — Tlie Two Towers at the Entrance to the Harbor of Rome. the French bombardment of 1S49. The Septimiana was reduced to its present state by Alexander VI. in 1498. XXII. Walls of Leo IV., Leopolis, Joiiannipolis, Lau- RENTiOPOLis. — The construction of the walls of Leo IV. for the defense of the Vatican suburb and of the basilica of S. Peter is a consequence of the first Saracenic invasions. From Palermo and Ca]ip Lilybiieum, which had already been named Mars-allah (Marsala, the narl)or of (iod), the fleet of the Infidels sailed for the Bay of Naples in 845, and after a long stay at ]\Iisenum, WALLS OF LEO LV 81 advanced towards the moiitli of the Tiber in 846. The i'eeble garrison of Gregorioi)olis (Ostia. recalled to life and fortified by Gregory IV.) was easily overcome, and the l)arbarians were pre- vented from taking possession of Rome rather by the strength of its walls than by the valor of its defenders. To revenge themselves for their repulse, the Saracens wrecked the two suburban churches of S. Peter and S. Paul, and carried away the inestimable treasures which the faithful had accumulated in the course of centuries over the tombs of the Apostles. The sight of the burning ruins caused the death of Pope Sergius II., and the panic-stricken citizens elected Leo IV. as his successor. A curious discovery was made some years ago by Signor Pietro Kocclii in connection witii one of these Saracenic inroads. Wliile excavating tiie remains of a temple, in the farm of La Valchetta, six miles below Rome on the road to Ostia, he discovered tiaces of one of their camps, consisting mainly of daggers and poniards with curved blades of Oriental make. The Saracens liad over- thrown the temple, but columns, frieze, and capitals were found lying In situ, together with a statue of liacchus in Pentelic mar- ble. The statue, slightly restored by Fabi-Altini, adorned the studio of the late Mr. W. W. Story in'l.S92. I^eo IV. lost no time in relieving the fortunes of Rome: he nuide an alliance with (iaeta, Amalfi, and Naples, organized a tieet, and, taking the command of the allied forces, attacked the Infidels at Ostia, near the moutli (if the Tiber, and gained a com- jilete victory over them.^ To i)revent, however, the repetition of the same occurrence, the ]X)])e determined to surround S. Peter's and the Borgo with a fortified inclosure, the remains of which are still to be .seen in the gardens of the Vatican and in the so-called Corridojo di Castello. The study of this work of niediieval military engineering is instructive, and .shows how carefully Leo IV. liad tried to imitate the structure of the Aurelian walls. For those who have not the fjjiportunity of examining the Leonine walls in the gardens of the Vatican — where the best jireserved portion, including two round-towers, is to be seen — the most favorable 2)oint of observa- tion is the courtyard adjoining the church of S. Angelo dei Corri- dori. The wall is V2 feet thick, and has, or rather had, a double gallery, — one in the thickness of the wall, supported by open 1 This naval battle has been (lescril)t'(l l)y (Jufilit'Imotti in chap. xi. of tlie Sfuria dclhi maririd ponfificiii, and illiisfratcd by Haphacl in fresco No. IV. of the Stntiza dell^ /ncmi/in di Bovijo. 82 GENERAL INFORMATION arcades on the inward side, and one on the top, level with the battlements. The lower gallery was afterwards transformed into a passage, II Corridojo di Castello, connecting the palace of the Vatican with the fortress of S. Angelo. Many popes and cardinals have escaped either from death or from servitude by means of this corridor, one of the leading historical events in connection with it being the flight of Pope Clement VII. from the hordes of Charles V. led by the Constable de Bourbon. The length of the wall is about 3000 metres ; the height varies from 15 to 22 metres; the most exposed angles are protected by round-towers, two of which are still in existence, and form a con- spicuous landmark of the Vatican landscape. The woi'k does credit to Leo IV., considering the poverty of the means at his disposal. Two inscriptions in the arch which spans the Via di Porta Angelica give important details of the scheme adopted to obtain speedy work and cheap labor. The first says : " In the time of our Lord the Pope Leo IV., the Militia Saltisina has built these two towers and the intermediate wall (pcigina) ;'^ the other, likewise: "In the time of our Lord the Pope Leo IV., the Militia Capracorum has built this tower and the wall which connects it with the next." It appears from these inscriptions that the citizens of Rome being unequal to the task of completing the fortification in the required time, the colonists of the domus cultce (fortified farms of the Campagna) were called upon to take a share in the work. Each section of the walls was assigned to a company of soldier workmen ; and here we find the mention of two : the company from Capracorum, that is to say from Veil (Isola Fai'uese), whose silent ruins had been recalled to life by Hadrian I. ; and the company from Saltisina, a colony on the road to Ardea, fifteen miles from Rome. Both of them declare tliat they have finished their special part of the construction under the direction of a certain Agatho, who seems to have been the designer and chief engineer of the walls. The new city was solemnly styled Civitas Leoniana. and tables inscribed with its name were fixed on each gate. Other records of this work have been collected by De Rossi in his memoir entitled " Le prime raccolte di antiche iscrizioni " (Giornale arcadico, 1850). See also " Inscriptiones christianse Urbis Romfe," vol. ii. pp. 324-326. There were three gates and two jiosterns in Leopolis. The first, called Porta S. Petri, opened on the ^Elian bridge under the bastions of the Castle (S. Angelo). The second, called Posterula WALLS OF LEO IV 83 S. Angeli, corresponds approximately witli the present Porta Cas- tello. The third, called Sancti Peregrini (near the Angelica of Pins IV.)) opened nnder the pope's residence towards the Via Tri- umphalis. The i'onrth, Porta in Tnrrione, corresponds with the Porta Cavalleggeri of the present day. The fifth, named Poste- rula Saxonum, was transformed by A. da Sangallo into the monu- mental Porta di Santo Spirito. Fig. 34. — Tower of Leo IV. in the Vatican Gardens. ground. Bastions of Pius IV. in the fore- JoHANXiPOLis. — John VIII. in 880 did for S. Paul's what Leo IV. had done for S. Peter's, with this difference, that while the Vatican Basilica and the Borgo A^ecchio were included in the city, the Basilica Ostiensis remained a detached fort, communicating with the city by means of a portico over a mile long. We must acknowledge that the Romans did not show the same zeal and reverence towards the two Apostles. S. Paul's tomb was allowed to be profaned and to remain abandoned for over ten years, until 84 GENERAL INFORMATION the poutificate of Benedict III. (855-858), who " sepulchrum, quod a Sarracenis destructum fuerat, perornavit." The fortifications were begun only in or about 880, and consisted of walls and tow- ers, like those of Borghetto, Castel Savello, etc., including a con- siderable space of ground on either side of the road to Ostia, and on the left bank of the Tiber. An inscription in seven distichs, above the gate facing Rome, contained the following words : — PRiESVLIS OCTAVI DE NOMINE FACTA lOHANNIS ECCE lOHANNIPOLIS VRBS VENERANDA CLVIT. The fortress was of considerable strength, as we can argue from the vigorous defense which Stefano Corsi made in it against Pope Paschal II. in 1099. A document of 1074 sjieaks of the castellum S. Pauli quod vacatur lohannipolis as still in good condition ; but the so-called Anonymus Magiiabecchianus, who wrote between 1410 and 1415, says that it had disappeared long before his time. I have gone over the ground covered by Johannipolis many times, without finding a trace of the fortifications, except perhaps on the river-side, where I saw in 1890 ruins of what appeared to be a landing-stage. LiTERATUKK. — Muratori, Antiqq. med. mv!, vol. ii. dis!<. xxvi. p. 40.3. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, /«sc?-. christ. Urbis RoiruB, vol. ii. p. 326. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Leopolis and Johannipolis, the Esquiliiie, .June, 1892. — Louis Du- chesne, Liber pontificnlis, vol. ii. p. 298. — Giuseppe Tommasetti, Archivio storia patria, a. 1896, fasc. i. Laurentiopolis. — A second detached fort was built about the same time for the protection of the basilica of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, but no historical document mentions the fact. S. Lawrence was held by the Romans almost in the same veneration as the two Apostles, and a portico was built for the convenience of pilgrims from the Porta Tiburtina to liis grave, exactly like those which led from the J^^lian bridge to S. Peter's and from the Porta Osti- ensis to S. Paul's. A document of the time of Urban VIII. (1623-44), discovered by Armellini, says : " There are yet con- siderable remains of the wall which once surrounded the basilica of S. Lorenzo like a castle ; they are better preserved on the side of the Via Tiburtina." Laurentiopolis has now completely dis- appeared, but I am able to reproduce here a sketch of its fortifi- cations drawn about 1534 by Martin Heemskerk. XXm. The Fortifications of Paul III., Pius IV., and Urban VIII. — The horrors which Rome suffered at the time of the Sacco del Borbone, in 1527, were still fresh in the memories of the FORTIFICATIONS OF PAUL III 85 Court and of the population when Cardinal Farnese was elected pope with the title of Paul III. One of the first thoughts of this great and generous man was to secure the city from a repe- tition of the occurrence, and Antonio da Sangallo was commis- sioned to draw up a plan for the fortifications. The survey he made of the ground and the sketches of his plan of defense are preserved in the I'ffizi at Florence. (T)i^segni 301, 1015, 1019, 1481, 1514, etc.) These drawings show liis proposal to reduce the cir- cuit of the walls (on the left bank) by one third at least, in- s,t> ,: ' 1 1 'mt^ ^ M<, 43iiirr'^' i/S^'i. t^**^ Fig. 35. — The Fortifications of Laurentiopolis. By M. Heemskerk. closing at the same time in the line of defenses the Borgo Vati- cano, which was very inefiiciently protected by the crumbling walls of Leo IV. Bastions with double wings were to be raised at intervals of 500 metres, the centres of defense being the castle of S. Angelo for the right bank and the Lateran for the left. The works were begun at once with great determination, but, as time passed and the recollections of Bourbon's atrocities faded quietly away, tliey were given np altogetlier. There remain as specimens of Antonio da Sangallo's engineering skill — (1) the bastione di Belvedere ; (2) the bastion of the Priorato or Aven- tino ; (8) the bastion of the Yigna Cavalieri or Antoui(ni)ano ; (4) the foundations of a third l)astiou under S. Saba. Many plans of Rome of the time of Paid IV. give the whole system of defenses as finished ; others represent the earthworks thrown up 86 GENERAL INFORMATION in haste at tlie approach of the duke of Alva. The best of all was engraved in 1557 by Lafreri, under the title : " Recens . . . topograpliia cum vallis, fossis, et aggeribus ceeterisque qute ad hostiuni impediend(as) irruptiones per universum urb(is) ani- bitum . . . lieri curavit raul(us) II II. dum bello parthenop(eio) premeretur." Pius IV. fortified the Borgo Nuovo in 1562. Urban VIII., fearing the hostile action of the duke of Parma, began in 1642 a new^ line of walls on the ridge of the Janiculum, which are still kept in repair for military purposes. They start from the Porta Tvirrionis of Leo IV. (Cavalleggeri), and reach the Tiber at liipa Grande. Among the works of art discovered in building these bastions, Bartoli mentions " many statues, one of which, of bronze, is now in the Barberini palace, a bisellium or magistrate's chair of bronze inlaid with silver, and several objects of curiosity." The Ijronze statue represents Septimius Severus, and was probably set up in the garden of his son Septinnus Geta. It was lately in the possession of Prince Sciarra, and must have shared the fate of the rest of his valuable collections. Urban VIII. built but one gate, the Porta S. Pancrazio, ruined by the French guns in 1849. The scarce engraving of the time, repro- duced on the opposite page, shows the entry of the invaders on July 4th of that year. Referknces. — Vincenzo de Marchi, ArchittUura militnre, p. 2 A, ed. 1590. — Maggi, FortifrnzUme, p. 115, Venice, 1564. — Scamozzi, ArchUettura univermle, p. 108, Venice, 1615. — Alberto Gnglielmotti, Storia delle fortifi- cazioni della gpinr/f/ia romnna, viii. 2, p. 320. — Mario Borgatti, Le. mum di Roma, in Rivista di Artiglieria e Genio, 1890, p. 391. — Christian Huelsen, Mittheilunr/en, 1894, p. 328. XXIV. Modern Fortifications. — Eighteen outlying forts and batteries have been raised by the Italian government for the protection of the capital of the kingdom against a coup de main from the sea. They follow each other in this order, going from left to right : T. Monte Antemne ; II. Batteria Xomentana ; III. Pratalata ; IV. Tiburtino ; V. Prenestino ; VI. Tusculano ; VII. Porta Furba ; VIII. Appia Pignattelli ; IX. Appia Antica ; X. Ardeatino; XI. Ostiense; XIL Portuense; XIII. Bravetta (Villa Troiani) ; XIV. Aurelia Antica; XV. Boccea, on the Via Cornelia; XVT. Casal Braschi, on the Via Traiana: XVII. Trion- fale; XVIII. Monte Mario. Xo objects or ruins of archfeological interest have been discovered in building forts numbers III, V, VIII, XVI, and XVII ; the construction of the others has given occasion for valual)le finds. They are described most carefully in the " Notizie degli Scavi " from 1876 to 1884. THE FOURTEEN REGlONii OF AUGUSTUS 87 XXV. The Fourteen Regions of Augustus. — Whoever undertakes to separate into a certain number of wards a city, not new or young, but many centuries old, and already divided roughly by the undulations of tJie ground, by popular habits, by relationship of neighborhood, must, if he wants to succeed, pay attention to all these elements. Augustus, in attempting this reform between 10 and 4 b. c, must have felt embarrassed in the selection of fundamental lines, because the city had no cardo Fig. 3G. — The French Array entering the Porta S. I'aucrazio, July 4, 1849. or decumamis, and its plan was "magis occupataj urbis quam divisai similis." He selected as a cardo or meridian a line which started from the lianks of the Almo, beyond the first milestone of the Appian Way, followed northwards this way to tlie Porta Capena, and thence the east side of the Circus ]\Iaximus (Via de' Cerchi), the Vicus Tuscus (di S. Teodoro), the Clivus Argenta- rius (di Marforio), and the Via Flaminia (Corso) to the first milestone. On this basis (ancient maps and geodetic operations in general started from the south instead of the north) he divided the ground on the left bank of the river into thirteen wards or refjiones, and made the fourteenth out of the Trastevere. The elements of the division are — (1) The meridian line just alluded 88 GENERAL INFORMATION to ; (2) the Palatine hill, selected as a centre ; (3) the line of the Servian walls ; (4) the main thoroughfares leading from the centre of the city to the gates of Servius. However, as in the Augustan age the city had extended far beyond the line of the Servian walls, and populous suburbs had sprung up along the main consular roads, six regions were established " extra muros " (I, V, VII, IX, XII, XIV), eight "intra muros" (II, III, IV, VI, VIII, X, XI, XIII). 1 This simple and practical operation is illustrated by the sketch-map on the opposite page. In Constantine's time the fourteen regions bore the names of I. Porta Capena, II. Cfelimontium, III. Isis et Serapis, IV. Templum Pacis, V. Esquilia;, VI. Alta Semita, VII. Via Lata, VIII. Forum Romanum, IX. Circus Flaminius, X. Palatinum, XI. Circus Maximus, XII. Piscina Publica, XIII. Aventinus, XIV. Transtiberim. Some of these names cannot be original, because at the time of Augustus there was no temple of Isis and Serapis on the Oppian, no temple of Peace near the Carinae, and probably no Via Lata at the foot of the Quirinal. The original wards were probably distinguished by a number from I to XIV, counted from right to left. We have two documents on the statistics of each region, the Notitia and the Curiosum, about which the reader may consult Preller's " Regionen " mentioned below, and Jordan, " Topogra- phic," vol. ii. (Untersuchungen liber die Beschreibung der XIV Regionen), pp. 1-312 and pp. 539-582. Both documents are of the fourtli century, and therefore their statistics cannot l)e made use of in speaking of the Augustan reform ; still they may help us in a great measure, because many regions bounded by fixed barriei*s, like the Tiber and the Servian walls, could not expand with the increase of the population like those " extra muros." Regions II, III, IV, VI, VIII, X, XI of the fourth century, fettered since their first institution by such immovable boundaries, are essentially the same as in the first cen- tury. The fact which strikes us most forcibly in examining their statistics is the effort made by the surveying officers of Augustus to equalize the divisions. They adopted as an average measure for each ward a circuit of 12,000 to 12,500 feet (12,270), with the exception of the sixth, to which, for local reasons,^ was given a 1 Claudius afterwards (a. d. 47) doubled the extent of the thirteenth, taking in the plains of Testaccio, with their quays, wliarves, arsenals, granaries, warehouses, sheds, corn-exchanges, etc. 2 The great projecting buttress of the Servian walls in the gardens of Sallust. THE FOURTEEN REGIONS OF AUGUSTUS 89 circuit of 15,700 feet. The others agree so well that there are only 150 feet of difference between the second and the third, 07 P.FIaminia P.Salaria P.Ostiense P.Tiburtina Viminale. R.V P.Esquilina P.Ardeatina P.Asinaria between the fourth and the eighth, 10 between the tenth and tlie eleventh, as sjiown in the following table: — Regions. Circuit. Parishes. Tenement Houses. Private Palaces. Feet. ir. 1-2, aoo 7 .3000 127 III. I2,;j.50 12 27.57 60 IV. i:i,000 8 27.57 88 VI. 1.1,700 17 3-403 140 VIII. 13,007 •■54 3480 1.30 X. uMy^ 20 20!)2 89 XI. 11,500 20 2550 89 90 GENERAL INFORMATION Not less remarkable is the uniformity in the number of tene- ment-houses (^insuke). The third and fourth regions have each 2757 insular ; the difference between the sixth and the eighth is only 77 ; between the third and the tenth 65. As far as palaces (domus) are concerned, it is obvious that the surveying-officers could not even approximately assign an equal number to each ward, and therefore we find a difference of 86 between the maxi- mum and the minimum. In spite of that, the fourth, tenth, and eleventh have the same number (88-89) of palaces; the second, sixth, and eighth almost the same (127-146). These statistics help us to determine which parts of the city were the favorite ones with the aristocracy. The sixth comes foremost, with 1 palace to -every 23 houses ; last comes the third, with 1 to 45. These results agree very well with the results of our excavations. How- ever, all is not gold that glitters. The Curiosum and the Notitia do not deserve the blind and implicit faith which has been placed in them by topographers, and we have reason to believe their statistics either incori'ect originally or made so by copyists. I cite one or two instances. We may perhaps be mistaken in attributing to the word damns the meaning of palace, and to the word insula the meaning of tenement-house, and in this case their true significance remains to be found out.^ But if their meaning is certain,^ how can we crowd into the Palatine hill 2692 tenement-houses and 89 private palaces, when we know that the palaces of the Ca3sars alone occupied nine tenths of its surface? Again, we may believe to a certain extent that the geodetic experts of Augustus, turning their compass over and over again on the map of the city, could have found a circuit line of nearly equal length for each ward ; but how is it possible that they could have placed exactly 2757 tenement-houses within the third and the fourth, and 2487 within the twelfth and the fourteenth, although these i-egions are so different in many other respects? It is impossible, therefore, to accept the statistics, as has been done up to the present day, some of their inaccuracies being patent. They assign, for instance, to 1 References (for insulce and domus). — Pietro Visconti, Atti Accad. Ar- cheol. vol. xiii. p. 254. — Francesco Bianchini, Columhar. Livke, p. 49. — Gaetano Marini, ArvaU,Y). 399. — Otto Richter, Insula (in Hermes, 1885, p. 91). — Fricdlander, Sittenyeschichte Roms, vol. i. ]). 12. — Eyssenhardt, Romlsch und Romdnlsch, p. 92. — Pohlmann, THe Ueberrolkerung der antiken Gross- stddte. Leipsic, 1884. — Attilio de Marclii, Ricerche intorno (die insidie. Milan, 1891. 2 Cf. the decisive passage of Tacitus, Ann. xv. 41: Domorum t't insularum et templorum, qux amissa sunt, numeruni inire hand proniptuni fiiit. THE FOURTEEN REGIONS OF AUGUSTUS 91 the tenth or Pahitiiie region a cii'cuit of 3418 metres (11,510 feet). I have measured it twice over in designing Sheets xxix. and xxxv. of my " Forma Urbis," detaining an average length of 2080. There is an exaggeration of 1:338 metres. A remarkable study has just been published on this question by Huelsen in Bull. arch, com., 1894, p. 312. According to his cal- culations the Coliseum could accommodate only from 40,000 to 45,000 seated spectators, the Theatre of INIarcellus from 9000 to 10,000, the Circus Maximus about 150,000. These figures are very far from tlie 87,000 places (Jac(i) which the catalogues attribute to the first, from the 17,580 given to the second, from the 385,000 given to the third. I bring this chapter to a close with the statis- tics of the regions " extra muros : " — Regions. Circuit. Parishes. Tenement Houses. Private Palaces. Feet. I. ]2,214..5 10 3250 120 V. I."), 000 1.5 3850 ISO VII. 1 4, .')()() 1.5 3805 120 IX. :22,.")00 ;i.-) 2777 140 X I! . 1-2, 000 17 2487 113 XIII. 18,000 IT 2487 l.!() XIV. ;w,i94 78 4405 1.50 Comparing the two tables, we find that the aristocratic quarter par excellence was the thirteenth (Aventine), with 1 palace in 19 hou.ses, followed closely by the ninth (Circus Flaminius), with 1 in 20. Last comes the third (Lsis et Serapis), with 1 in 46. The patricians evidently preferred the quarters more distant from the centre. LiTEKATiiRK. — Heinricli .Jordan, Topngrnphie, vol. ii. p. 72. — T-iuhvi^ Prt'ller, Dit Reffionen d. St. Rom. .Jciia, 1840. — AVilhelni Ilenzeii, Corpitx /user. Lnt., vol. vi. p. 80, ad n. 454. — (}. Hattista de Rossi, Piante di R. anteriori al sec. XVI. p. 39. — .Toachini Marquardt, Staat.trerwaltunf/, iii. pp. 204, 205. — (Jiusejipe Gatti, Bull. arch, corn., vol. xvi. p. 224. — Rodolfo Lan- ciani, Ricerche stillc XIV ref/ioni : ibid. vol. xviii. p. 115. XXVI. TiiK PopuLATiox OF AxfiF.NT RoME. — There is no instance in the history of the world of so ra]iid and magnificent a growth as that of Rome from its first foundation on the Palatine 92 GENERAL INFORMATION by a mere handful of shepherds. Whether by wisdom or by power or by valor, they were destined from the beginning to become the rulers of the world. And even now the civilized nations are governed by their laws, travel by their roads, and speak or understand their language. During the twenty-six cen- turies of its existence the population of Rome has had much to suffer — changing customs, habits, opinions, forms of government, and religion. No other city has been besieged, taken, robbed, and burnt so often, and yet the vitality of the root could never be im- paired. Even in the worst period of the Middle Ages, when tem- porarily dethroned by Avignon, Rome and its name never lost tlieir influence and prestige, but while in the first centuries of the Republic the reality was in advance of reputation, at the end of the Middle Ages reputation was ahead of true facts. Roman history is represented with astonishing precision by the fluctuations in the number of its inhabitants, because men rush where they can find food, work, luxury, health, power, fame, se- ciu'ity, and fly when such advantages are difficult or impossible to obtain. Political power alone, without the comforts of life, is not sufficient to stimulate immigration into a city : Rome was at its lowest under the most powerful of medijeval popes. Innocent III. Three attempts have been made lately to estimate the number of the inhabitants of ancient Rome : one by Pietro Castigiione, " Delia popolazione di Roma dall' origine sino ai nostri tempi " (Monografia di Roma, vol. ii. p. 187) ; the second by myself, in a memoir on the " Vicende edilizie di Roma antica," published in the same work, vol. i. p. 1 ; the third by Prof. Julius Beloch, " Ex- trait du Bulletin de I'lnstitut international de Statistique," Rome, Botta, 1S86. The question is worth investigation, on account of the amazing estimates made by older writers. Lipsius mentions 4,000,000, Vossius 14,000,000 ! Gibbon gives the city 1,200,000 souls at the time of Constantine, and although his calculations rest on no sci- entific basis, yet his exquisite historical intuition made him strike almost the right figure. Bunsen's standard measure — the number of those to whom grain was gratuitously distributed under Au- gustus — is the right one, but he is greatly mistaken in reckoning the number of slaves. At all events his statement — 1,;)00,000 as a mini nmm, '2,000,000 as a maximum — has been accepted by Ger- man writers : by Nietersheim (1,500,000), IMarquardt (l,Go6,000), Friedlander (1,000,000 for the first, 2,000,000 for the second cen- THE POPULATION OF ANCIENT ROME 93 tury), and others. Again, those who have taken as a basis the area of the city inclosed by walls (nine million square metres), compared with the density of population in modern capitals, have fallen into the other extreme. Dureau de la Malle assigns to fourteen wards of the imperial city a population of 562,000, Castiglione assigns 584,000. The results attained by Beloch are expressed in the closing paragraph of his memoir as follows : " Taking into consideration the number of those who had a right to the free distribution of grain at the beginning of the Empire, the popnlation of Rome, of the Campagna, and of some of the surrounding hills must have amounted to from 950,000 to 1,035,000 souls; that of the city alone from 760,000 to 920,000. Again, calculating the habitable space within the walls of Au- relian, we have found out for the city alone a popidation of from 800,000 to 850,000 souls. The approximation of these figures reached by different ways shows that we cannot stray very far from the truth if we adopt for Rome and the Campagna the mim- ber of about 1,000,000, for Rome inclosed by walls that of 800,000. However modest the number may seem, compared with former ideas, we must remember that it was never reached by a modern capital up to the beginning of the present century." From the end of the third century downwards the population diminished with appalling rapidity. Castiglione says that in ;];55 B. c. it was reduced to ;500,(H)(), but his estinuite is evidently too low. Pillage after pillage, barbarian inroads, famine, insecurity, bad government or no government at all, earthquakes, and inun- dations did the rest ; and we are told that in the year 1377, on the return of the popes from Avignon, there were only 17,000 survi- vors in tlie ruinous waste.' Whether the figure be exact or not, these few men who held firm and faithful to their native soil. de- serve the gratitude of mankind. Without them, the site of Rome would now be pointed out to the inquiring stranger like that of Veil, of Fidente, of Ostia, and of Tusculum. There are three works on Roman statistics of the sixteentli and seventeenth cen- turies full of new and interesting information. Mariano Arniellini, Un cenmnento (Jella cilta di Rinnn softo il jioiitifimU) di Leone X. Rome, 1882. — Domenico Giioli, Dcxcri/ilio urbis, o censimento delia popolazione di Roma arnnfi il nacco borboniro. Koim', 1804. — Fraiifesco Cera- soli, Censimento della 2>oj)olazione di Roma dalP anno 1000 nl 1739. Koine, 1891. Here are a few facts. In Pope Leo X.'s time the number of 1 Compare Domenico Gnoli, Descriptio urbis. 94 GENERAL INFORMATION the cortesane was equal to about one third of the total of single women or widows within the walls of the city. Their luimber had diminished to 604 in 1600, to rise up again steadily until the maximum of 1295 is reached in 1639. A century later, iir 1739, they were reduced to 100 (?). In 1527, the population being 55,035, some of the cardinals had the following retinue of servants and officers (corte cardinalizia) : Farnese, 306 jiersons ; Cesarini, 275 ; Orsini, 200 ; del Monte, 200 ; and so on in decreasing numbers, until we reach the figure of 60 for Cardinal Numalio, and 45 for de Vio. In 1639, in a population of 114,256 souls, there were 24 bishops, 1786 priests, 3539 monks, 2196 nuns, '2lSi) fainif/liari oi cardinals, — a clerical nucleus over 10,000 strong. There were 975 regis- tered beggars, 13 Moorish slaves. Of 88,144 persons capable of satisfying the Pascal precept 77,471 took the lu^ly communion. There were only 238 inmates of public prisons. At the beginning of this century the population numbered 153,004 souls. The French invasions and the Napoleonic wars brought a decline, which culminated in 1812 with 117,882 in- habitants. But the ascending movement began again witli tlie Peace of Vienna, and has continued uninterruptedly to the present day. When Rome became the capital of Italy in 1780, tliere were 226,022 inhabitants; the Jiumber has doubled since, as sliown by this table : — Year. Popula- tion. Deaths.' Death-rate. Births. Excess of Births. 1885 1880 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1895 345,030 304,511 382,973 401,044 415,498 423,217 436,185 450,000 8,599 9,297 10,041 10.293 10,394 9,731 10,099 25 lier 1000 20 28 20 25 23 23 ' ' 9,872 10,484 11,5.37 12,330 12,870 11,9.50 12,294 1,273 1,187 896 2,043 2,470 2 225 2,195 XXVII. The Map of Rome engraa^ed ox Marble under Severus and Caracalla. — Under the pontificate of Pius IV. (1559-65), while the architect Giovanni Antonio Dosio da San Geminiano was excavating at the foot of the back wall of the ' Including the Campagna and the floating population. MAP OF ROME ENGRAVED ON MARBLE 95 church of SS. Cosma e Damiano, he found ninety-two pieces of marble slabs, upon which was engraved the map of the city, re- stored and rebuilt by Severus and Caracalla after the fire of Corn- modus. A few of the fragments were still fixed against the wall (Fea, Miscell., lii. n. a), but the greater part had fallen on the pavement of the Forum Pacis, each slab being broken into many pieces. Had the discoverer taken care to collect them care- fully, and to join the fragments of each slab there and then, the value of the discovery would have been inestimable; but we have reason to believe that tliey were tiirown negligently into baskets and removed to the palace of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. Here the pieces were sorted even more negligently, the larger and more valuable were exhibited in the museum, the smaller bits were thrown away in the cellars of the palace. Some years later a mason made use of them in restoring the wall of the garden on the river-side. Many of them were rediscovered in 1888 when that garden wall was demolished to make room for the Tiber embankment. (See Notizie degli Scavi, 1888, pp. .301, 437, 569.) Pope Benedict XIV., to whose liberality the Capitoline museum owes so many treasures, asked King Charles III. of Naples, the heir to the Farnese estate, to ])resent the " Forma Urbis " to the city. The reipu'st was complied with, and the fragments were arranged in a somewhat disorderly manner on each side of the staircase of the museum. The star which marks some of the pieces tells another tale in the odyssey of the precious relics : those pieces, having been lost in the journey from the Farnese palace to the Capitol, were reproduced from original drawings in Cod. vatic. 3839. In the year 1867 Augusto Castellani and Effisio Tocco tried fresh excavations in the garden of SS. Cosma e Damiano, and they were rewarded by the find of the celebrated jiiece containing the plan of the Porticus Livia; (Fig- '58). In 18S'2 another piece, containing the plan of the Vicus Vesta*, was discovered under my sujiervision ; a third of no im})ortance in 1884. Lastly, in 1890 the state undertook to make a final and exhaus- tive search at the foot of the wall of the Templum Sacraj Ur- bis, which led to no result, for reasons -which it would be out of place to discuss. The origin of the plan may be briefly described as follows : — The last census of Rome, taken in strict accordance witli the old rules, was beguii by Vespasian in a. d. 73, and finished two years later. The Flavian dynastj% to use the expression of Sue- 9C GENERAL INFORMATION tonius, had found the capital of the Empire " deformis veteribus incentliis [the five of Nero] atque ruiniti [the disasters caused by the factiou of Vitellius]."' A'espasian reorganized the city from the material as well as from an administrative point of view : the lands usurped by Nero for his Golden House were given back to the people ; the burnt quarters rebuilt, on a new piano rcgolatore ; the limits of the metropolitan district enlarged ; public projjerty on the line of the Tiber, of the aqueducts, of the pomerium was re- deemed from the encroachments of private individuals ; a new map of the city was drawn, and the cadastre of public and private property revised. These documents were deposited in a fireproof building, an oblong hall 42 metres long, 25 metres wide, constructed expressly on the west side of the Forum Pacis, between it and the Sacra Via. On the epistyle, above the main entrance, the follow- ing words were engraved : " [This building has been raised by] Vespasian in his eighth consulshiji [a. d. 78]." The map of the city, drawn in accordance with the last official survey and the re- sults of the census, was exhibited on the side of the hall facing the Forum of Peace. We do not know whether it was simply drawn in colors on plaster, like the celebrated maps of Agrippa in the Portico of Vipsania PoUa, or engraved on marble. The city was again half destroyed by fire in the year 191, under Commodus, the centre of the conflagration being precisely the neighborhood of these archives. The house of the Vestals, the jewelers' shops on the Sacra Via, the imperial warehouses for Eastern spices (horrea piperataria), and the Forum and Temple of Peace were leveled to the ground. The archives, surrounded by this mighty blaze on every side, must have been turned into an oven in spite of their fireproof inclosure, their bronze roof melted, their contents injured by heat or by water. Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla undertook, with the reconstruction of the city, the reestablishment of the archives of the cadastre, and, in memory of their work (which was begun in A. D. 193 and completed in 211), they caused a new and revised edition of the plan of the city to be engraved in marble and exhibited in the same place, that is to say, on the front of the building facing the Forum of Peace. The building itself, mag- nificently restored and decorated in opus sectile (a kind of Floren- tine mosaic), was dedicated under the name of Templum Sacrte Urbis. It exists still in a good state of preservation, thanks to Pope Felix IV., who, in 526, turned it into a church, under the invocation of SS. Cosma e Damiano. The wall, on the marble JfAP OF ROME ENGRAVED ON MARBLE 97 facing of which the plan of Rome was engraved, measures twenty- two metres in length, fifteen metres in height, and is remarkably Fig. 38. — The Fragment of the Marble Plan discovered by Castellani and Tocco in 18C7. well preserved. There is a good drawing of it in Jordan's " For- ma Urbis Romae," plate xxxi. fig. 1. 98 GENERAL INFORMATION The orientation or meridian line of the phiii seems to have been directed from the southwest to the northeast. Tlie scale, save a few excejptions, seems to be 1 : 250. References. — Bernardo Gamucci, Antickila di Roma, ed. 1580, p. 36. — Pietro Bellori, Fi-cirjm. vestif/ii U. R. Home, 1073 (2d edition, 1773). — Effisio Tocco, Annul. Inst., 1807, p. 409. — Trendelenburg, Annul. Inst., 1872,]). 75. — Ik'inrich .Jordan, Forma Urhis Romce Regionum XIV. Berlin, Weidniann, 1874. — Anton Elter, Be Forma U. R. dvque orbis antiqui facie. Bonn, J8!)l. — Christian Hiielsen, Mittheil. des Archaeol. Instituts, 1889, p. 79; and Bull. arch, com., 1893, p. 130. — Otto Richter, Gottingcn gelehrten Anzcirien, 1892, p. 130; and Toj>or/raphie der Stadt Rom, 1889, j). 3.— Gio. Battista I'ininesi, Anfichitd romane, vol. i. tav. 2-6. XXVIII. The Burial of Rome. — The question most often asked by persons not well acquainted with the details of the down- fall of Imperial Rome is, " How came the city to be buried under a bed of earth to a dejith which ranges from five to sixty-five feet?" Tlie question is more easily put than answered. The accumulation of modern soil depends upon so many causes, great and small, that it is very difficult to bring them all together and set them before the student in the proper light. To begin with, I will relate a personal experience which took place in 1883-84. during the excavations made by my late friend Luigi Boccanera, in the villa of Q. Voconius Pollio at Marino, the ancient Castrimcenium. AVe had been wishing for years to try an excavation in virgin soil, where no one should have disturbed the strata of the ruins corresponding to the pages of history. Here all chances were in our favor, because the Villa Voconiana, so rich in works of art, had not been destroyed by fire, or by earthquake, or by the violence of man, but had been left to decay by itself, piece by piece and atom by atom. The palace, moreover, contained but one floor, the ground floor, no suspicion of staircases leading to upper stories having been found anywhere. Now, as the posi- tion of the building was such that the strata of its ruins could not have been altered by the action ot water or atmospheric forces, and the volume of the same ruins could not have been either aug- mented or diminished, it was easy to calculate, with almost mathe- matical precision, Avhat is the material prodiict of the crumbling of a Roman house. The results of the careful calculation are these. A noble Roman house, one story high, produces a stratum of loose material and rubbish one metre, eighty-five centimetres high ; or, in other words, a building about ten metres high, crumbling down under the cir- THE BURIAL OF ROME 99 cunistances wliicli caused the ruin of the villa of Voconius PoUio, produces 1.85 cuV)ic metres for each sqiuire metre of surface. Now if a building of very modest proportions lias created such a volume of ruins, it is easy to inuigine what must have been the results of the destruction of the private and public monuments of ancient Rome. At the beginning- of the fourth century after Clirist, Rome, as we have just seen, contained ■10,002 tenement-houses, 1790 palaces, not to speak of a thousand public buildings like thermaj, temples, basilicas, theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, porticoes, etc. The height of these editices was always considerable, sometimes exces- sive. Strabo mentions a law made by Augustus against the raising of private houses above seventy feet. Trajan tried to reduce the maximum to sixty feet. Tertullian describes the liouse of a Feli- cles as reaching the sky. Houses built in the phiin of the Cii'cus Flaminius against the Capitoline hill reached the platform of the Temple of Jupiter, and enabled tlie followers of Vespasian to take the place by storm from tlie Vitellians. The palace of Sep- timius Severus at the Septizonium towered fully seventy meti'es above the arena of the Circus Maximus ; the pediment of the Temple of the Sun rose eighty metres above the Campus Martius. Considering that hardly the ten thousandtli ])ortion of this mass of buildings has escaped destruction, all the rest liaving crumbled into dust and rubbish, we cannot wonder that ancient Rome should now lie buried so deep. If the Foruju of Trajan, excavated by Pius VII. in the heart of the nuxlern city, was not cleaned or swept once a week, as is the case now, at the end of each year it would be covered by an inch of dust, by one hundred inches at the end of a century ; and I speak of matter accumulated there simply by the action of rain and wind. But if the Forum of Trajan should be selected by the living generation as a receptacle for the daily refuse of the city, its disappearance would take place in a few years : and this has been the case with the Forum Romanum, the Coliseum, the Forum Augustum, the Palatine, the Vicus Patricius, and so on. At all events, the increase of the Roman soil begins witli the age of the Tarquins, and with the drainage and filling up of the Vela- bra. An inscription discovered at the first milestone of the Appian AVay (Corpus, vol. vi. n. 1270) describes how the steep incline leading from the river Almo to the Temple of INIars had been made easy by the removal of large masses of earth. The ruins of the buildings destroyed by the great fire described by Livy (xxiv. 47) were leveled on the spot, and the pavement of the Forum Boarium 100 GENERAL INFORMATION and of the surrounding streets was at once raised several feet. Horace (Sat. i. 8; v. 15) describes how Augustus and Maecenas caused the burial-grounds of the Esquiiine to be covered with oreat masses of earth, and a public park laid out on their site. While building in 1877 the sewer of the Coliseum along the Via di S. Gregorio, we discovered the city of the time of Nero buried under the ruins of the fire of a. d, 65. Here also the level of the streets was raised at once several feet. Frontinus (i. 18) says that the seven hills had gained in altitude : " colles excreverunt rudere." The 700,000 or 800,000 cubic metres of earth and rock removed by Trajan to make room for his forum were laid over the public cemetery between the Via Pinciana and the Via Salaria (Salaria Vetus and Nova). The batlis of Trajan and Titus are founded on the remains of the Golden House of Nero ; the baths of Caracalla on the remains of many edifices, of w^iich the engraving on the next page (Fig. 39) represents a small section. Diocletian began the construction of his own thermfe by demol- ishing two temples and many other public or private buildings to the extent of 136,000 square metres. The products of the demoli- tion were heaped up in a hillock 20 metres high in the neighbor- hood of the present railway station. The threshold of the arch built by Augustus over the Via Tiburtina for the transit of the Marcia, Tepula, and Julia lies three metres below the threshold of the gate (Porta S. Lorenzo) built by Arcadius and Honorius in 402 (Fig. 31). These figures give us a yearly average of 1\ milli- metres of rise for the surrounding district, during the 406 years which elapsed between Augustus and Honorius. The inscriptions engraved on the same gate of S. Lorenzo describe, among the works undertaken by Honorius toward the strengthening of the fortifications of Rome, the removal of the ruljbish accumulated along the line of the walls (" egestis immensis ruderibus;" see p. 73). I have sometimes discovered four different buildings lying one under the other. The mediaeval church of S. Clement was built in 1099 by Paschal IL above the remains of another basilica built seven and a half centuries earlier. This latter rests upon the walls of a noble patrician house of the second century after Christ, under w'hich the remains of an uirknown Republican building are to be seen. When the new Via Nazionale was cut in 1877 across the Aldo- brandini and Rospigliosi gardens, on the Quirinal hill, we met, first, with the remains of the Baths of Constantine ; then with the THE BURIAL OF ROME 101 remains of the house of CLaudius Claudianus ; thirdly, with the house of Avidius (Quietus ; and histly, with some coustructions of early reticulated work. Fig. 39. — The Remains of a Private House discovered under the Baths of Caracalla by G. B. Guidi, ISOT. These proofs, which T have quoted at random from monuments and writers, show that before the fall of the Empire the ground 102 GENERAL INFORMATION rose in the same way on the hills and on the plains. However, after the barbarian invasions, twelve out of the fourteen quarters (7-eyiones) of the city having been abandoned and turned into farms and orchards, the rise of the hills diminished, and that of the valleys and plains increased, at a prodigious rate ; a fact which can be explained, to some extent, by the natural fall of materials from the heiglits, and by the action of atmospheric forces. The greatest difference between ancient and modern levels which I have yet ascertained in Rome is 72 feet. It was found in ex- cavating the inner courtyard of the house of the Vestals at the foot of the Palatine hill. The foundations of the northeast corner of the new Treasury buildings were sunk in 1874 to a dei:)th of 41 feet, before the stratum of debris was passed through. The foundations of the house which forms the corner of the Via Cavour and the Piazza dell' Esquilino were sunk likewise to a depth of 53 feet. At that level the remains of some baths, built by Njeratius Cerialis, were discovered, with statues, busts, bronzes, inscriptions, etc. The rise of the hills after the fall of the Empire was absolutely artificial. I mean to say that if there was a rise in the level of the soil, it was the work of man, and as a consequence of the building of palaces, churches, and villas. I shall here quote a curious illustration of the theory I am trying to explain. The soil which covers (or rather covered) the northern half of the pal- ace of the CcBsars, and more especially the palaces of Germanicus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Domitian, has not been created wholly by the crumbling or destruction of those palaces, but is mostly soil removed from the low lands of the Campus Martius to the top of the I'alatine hill by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, when digging the foundations for his palace and for the church of the Gesix. After remaining there for nearly three centuries, the great mass of material has again been removed, and carted away into the valley between the Aventine hill and the cliurch of S. Balbina, in order that the remains of the Impe-ial buildings should be laid bare. The district stretching between the Porta Pia and the Porta Salaria has been lately raised to a considerable height with the soil extracted from the foundations of the Treasury buildings and of the royal mews. Without quoting any more instances, I wish only to observe that, if these cases were not known, how could we explain the unexpected rise of the places above named, on the Quirinal and on the Aventine? AVhen we consider that the archa-ological stratum, the forma- THE BURIAL OF ROME 103 tion of wliicli I have tried to describe, is at least nine square miles in extent, we wonder liow it has been possible to excavate, and search, and actually sift it, since the Renaissance of classical studies. Yet this has actually been done. During my long experience of Roman excavations, and especially since the building of the new city began in 1871, about four square miles have been turned up. Leaving out of consideration works of art and objects of archaeological interest, found scattered here and there in small secluded spots — mere crumbs fallen from the banqueting - tables of former excavators — I have found thi-ee places only of any considerable extent, which had absolutely es- caped investigation. The fii"st is the district now occupied by the Central Railway Station, on the border line between the Quirinal and Viminal hills, excavated during 1871 and 1872. It was occupied in classic times by a cluster of private houses built in the so-called Poinpeian style. It seems that, being threatened by a conflagration, their inhabitants had collected hurriedly all their valuables and most precious works of art, and heaped them up in confusion in a hall opening on a side street, which they considered as a comparatively safe place. The roof of the hall, however, caught fire, and in its fall carried down the walls in such a way as to shelter the heap of bronzes and marbles placed in the middle of the pavement. We discovered the place in February, 1871, and were able to re- move to the Capitoline Museum the artistic bronze furniture of two or three Roman houses, the marketable value of which was calculated at about £6000. The secotul virgin spot was discovered on Christmas Eve, 1874, near the southwest corner of tlie Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele, on the site of the llorti Lamiani (gardens of ^Elius Lamia), which had been incorporated by Caligula into the Imperial domain. During the previous days we had been excavating a portico, 200 feet long, with a single line of fluted columns of giallo antico (yellow Numidian marble) resting on pedestals of gilded marble. The pavement of the portico was inlaid with Oriental alabaster, and the walls were covered with slabs of a certain kind of slate, inlaid with festoons and groups of birds and other delicate de- signs in gold leaf. At the foot of the wall, but concealed from view, ran a water-pipe, with tiny jets, two feet distant one from the other, which were evidently used to keep the place cool in summer. At the northern extremity of the portico the floor sank into a kind of chasm, at the bottom of which we discovered, during that 104 GENERAL INFORMATION memorable eve, a bust of Commocliis, under the attributes of Hercules, the most elaborate piece of work which has been found in Rome in our time ; another bust of the same Emperor, of smaller size ; a statue of the muse Polyhymnia ; a statue of the muse Erato ; a statue of the Venus (Lamiana) ; two statues of Tritons ; a bust of Diana ; and several other works of art, such as legs, arras, and heads formerly set into bronze draperies. (See Book IV. § xxiv.) The third and last spot which we have been the first to investi- gate since the early Renaissance is the southern half of the house of the Vestals. However, as I have given a minute account of this charming discovery in chapter vi. of my " Ancient Rome," it is needless to enlarge upon it here. I must mention two particulars which explain to some extent our success in bringing to light, almost daily, new monuments and works of art and curiosity. The first is, that the pioneers of archaeological research, that is to say, the excavators who pre- ceded us, have stopped in many cases at the wrong level. Find- ing mosaic and marble pavements, or pavements of streets and squares, they thought they had reached the end of their under- taking, and turned their energy in other directions. From what I have said about the superposition of Roman buildings, it is easy to see how wrong they were. Here also I must be allowed to quote a personal experience. Tn 1879, when the new boulevard connect- ing the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele with the Porta Maggiore was cut (Viale Principe Eugenio), we discovered a portion of the palace of Licinius Gallienus, already excavated by Francesco Belardi and Giovanni Battista Piranesi more than a century be- fore. These two men, having gone as far down as the level of the drains running under the pavements, considered their task finished, and all hope of further discoveries vanished ; and yet under those pavements and those drains lay buried at a great depth nine columbaria, particularly rich in cinerary urns, inscrip- tions, and objects of value. The columbaria are designed and their contents illustrated in the Bull. arch, com., 1880, p. 51, pis. "I '-'• The second remark refers to the foundation walls built with fragments of statuary, to which very little attention was paid by early excavators. The value of this mine may be estimated from the following facts. In 1874 a bath was discovered near the church of SS. Pietro e Marcellino, from the foundations of which we extracted 95 statues, busts, torsos, basins of fountains, pieces THE BURIAL OF ROME 105 of columns, and l)as-reliefs. In December, 1873, the group of Her- cules capturing the mares of Diomedes, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, was found broken in 72 pieces in a wall near S. JMatteo in Merulana. Three thousand fragments of sculptured mai'bles, and 130 inscriptions or pieces of inscriptions were discov- ered likewise in 1873 in the substructures of the gardens of Prse- textatus on the Esquiline. Consult " Monografia archeologica," Rome, 1878, vol. i. p. 40. BOOK II THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE I. Hints to Visitors. — The Palatine hill is the j^roperty of the Italian nation, with the exception of the southeast corner, which belongs to the Barberini. The first portion rescued from private hands was the Vigna Nusiner, which the crown of Russia gave up to Pius IX. in 1851 in exchange for some works of art. The same pope purchased the Vigna Butirroni in 1852, the Vigna del Collegio Inglese, formerly Ronconi, in 1862, and the Vigna de' Benfratelli in 1866. In 1860 Napoleon III. bought the Farnese gardens from the house of Naples, and began regular excavations under the management of the late Comm. Pietro Rosa. After the fall of Napoleon in 1870, the national government redeemed this portion of the hill, and took possession of the convents of S. Bonaventura and the Visitation (Villa IMills) and of their gar- dens. The latter convent is still inhabited by the nuns, while that of S. Bonaventura is partially occupied by the Guardie degli Scavi. The Palatine is under the management of the ]\Iinister of Public Instruction, represented by a local board, or Ufficio degii Scavi. The excavations may be visited every day : entrance fee, one lira, which is not charged on Sundays. Artists, professors, and students of archaeology are exempted from the fee, on application to the Ufficio degli Scavi. The restrictions on photographing are most complicated, the heads of tlie various boards having dif- ferent views on the subject. The Palatine cannot possibly be studied in one day : two days at least are required to become acquainted, in a certain degree, with the labyrinth of ruins. A modest literary preparation is needed, to lessen the difficulties of the task, and also a know- ledge of the main lines of the map of the hill. Many students on their first attempt come away more discouraged by the intri- cacies of the topography of the Palatine than pleased with the HINTS TO VISITORS 107 beauty of its ruins. They have been hurried through so nuiiiy palaces, — those of Augustus, Tiberius, Caliguhi, Doiuitian, Seve- rus, — they have crossed so )nany luills, cryptoporticoes, stadiums, galleries, basilicas, passages, cellars, etc., that they feel sometimes inclined to give the thing up as liopeless. Yet the fundamental lines of the residence of the Cajsars are simple, and can be under- stood and remembered even by non-professional men. The main points are these : — I. The Palatine hill originally was almost square in shape, each side measuring about 4.30 metres in length. The addition of the palace of Septiraius Severus at the southern corner, raised on an artiticial platform, the foundations of which are level with the bottom of the valley, altered the shape from square to trapezoid. The fall of the Imperial buildings and the work of human hands have changed the abrupt cliffs into slopes, and given the whole place a new aspect. Vegetation and cultivation have done the rest, by uprooting and crushing and splitting enormous masses of masonry, which, mixed with earth brought from afar, and leveled into flower or vegetable beds, have covered the rocky foundation of the hill with a layer of rubl)ish from to 67 feet thick. They have hidden from view some of its historical features ; for instance, the valley between the Velia (by the Arch of Titus) and the Circus IMaximus, by which the Palatine was divided into two summits — the Cermalus on the noith, the Palatium on the south. In its present form the hill measures 2080 metres in circumference, and is 51.20 metres above the sea ' and 32 above the level of modern Rome. II. The platform of the hill was entirely occupied by the palaces of the Cfesars, with the exception of a space 175 metres long and 106 wide, at the west corner (above S. Anastasia), whei-e some relics of Kingly Rome were preserved down to the fall of the Empire. III. The Palatine was selected for the Imperial residence by Augustus, who built over the space now called the Villa Mills (convent and garden della Visitazione — Domus Augustana). IV. Tilierius, born probably in the house afterwards owned by Germanicus, and still existing in good condition, built a new wing, the Domus Tiberiana. in the centre of the Cermalus, connecting it with that of Augustus by means of underground passages which are still visible (Orti Farnesiani). V. Caligula extended the house of Tiberius over the remaining portion of the Cermalus in the direction of the Forum (Orti Far- nesiani — Domus Caiana). 1 Bv S. Bonavenfura. 108 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE VI. Nero occupied the southeast corner (Villa Barberini) over- looking his artificial lake. After his death and after the suppres- sion of his Golden House, the plot of ground was converted by Domitian into the gardens of Adonis (Horti Adonea). The Flavians began to give a unity of plan and architecture to the existing sections of the palace, raising new structures in the free spaces by which they were separated. The valley across the hill was filled up to the level of the platform of the Cermalus, and upon it were built the state apartments (^des Publica^). The house of Augustus, destroyed by the fire of Titus, was rebuilt in harmony with its surroundings ; a Stadium ' (Vigna Ronconi, del Collegio Inglese) and a garden, Horti Adonea (Vigna Bar- berini), were added. Hadrian and Antoninus satisfied themselves with keei^ing the property in repair, as proved by the bricks inscribed with the names of their kilns, which are found everywhere. Hadrian's principal work — as far as we know — is the Exhedra of the Stadium (Vigna Ronconi, del Collegio Inglese). Septimius Severus, after repairing the damages of the fire of Commodus (191) added an immense range of buildings on the edge of the hill facing the Ctelian and the Appian Way. A section was occupied by the Imperial Thermae, called in later documents Balneum Imperatoris, while the front of the palace, decorated with many rows of columns, received the name of Sep- tizonium (Vigna del Collegio Inglese). The same Emperors brought a large volume of water from the Cfelian, crossing the in- tervening valley with a viaduct 36 metres high and :J00 metres long, remains of which are seen in the Vigna de' Benfratelli. The channel ended with a' reservoir or piscina on the site of S. Bona- ventura. Other additions are attributed to Severus Alexander and Heliogabalus (Diajtje Mammseiana, Templum Heliogabali, etc.), which have not yet been identified with any of the existing ruins. Such is the classic topography ot the hill in its main lines. With the help of the plans annexed (Figs. 40, 41) the visitor hardly needs that of a cicerone or of a f/uardin degli scavi to make himself at home on the Palatine, or to find his way through th6 ruins and investigate each section, either by itself or in its rela- tion to the other wings of the ^Edes Imperatoripe. I must confess, however, that it is impossible to suggest to the student any itinerary which shall combine the topographical and 1 Oil the correctness of this denomination see § xxi. o cc o i w u- o < C/3 •^ *=i a w -1 3 HINTS TO VISITORS 109 chronological interest of the buildings. These are scattered over the hill in a desultory way. Once across the entrance gate, for instance, the visitor is confronted by three monuments, the Mu- rus Romuli, the Templum Divi Augusti, and the chui'ch of S. Teodoro, separated by a gap of seven and fourteen centuries re- spectively. The area containing the hut of Romulus is siuTounded by buildings of the first century of our era. It is impossible to cross over from the Domus Augustana to the Tiberiana, as re- quired by chronology, without crossing the oiKiav Aofxinavov, which is three quarters of a century later. These things being so, I have given preference to the chronological order ; in other words, my description is written for the use of visitors not pressed for time, who can devote three or four days at least to the systematic and rational study of the Palatine. Those who have no leisure can adopt the following itinerary, the best I can suggest, taking the various sides of the problem into consideration : — Ut (/((^ — Walls (if Roimilus, de- scribed § viii. Altar of Aiiis Locutius, § ix. Steps of Caciis, § x. Hut of Romulus, § xi. Temple of the great Mother of the Gods, § xiii. Paternal house of Tiberius (and Germanieus) § xvii. House of Tiberius, § xvi. House of Caligula, S xviii. '2cl day — Temple of Augustus, § iv. Clivus Victoria', § vi. Palace of Domitian, § xix. Palace of Augustus, § xv. So-called Stadium, § xxii. Palace of Septimius Severus, § xxiii. House of Gelotius, § xxvi. S. Teodoro, § vji. The visitor must bear in mind one fundamental rule : that many of the existing ruins belong to the substructures, and cel- lars, and underground rooms built for but one purpose, — to level the undulating surface of the hill, and to extend and protract the level platform over the slopes, and even over the plain below, as is the case with the Palace of Severus and the Septizonium. Tlieir plan is most irregular ; they have no light and very little ventila- tion ; architecturally speaking they count for nothing. This is the reason why existing maps of the Palatine are so difficult to understand : we find marked in them with the same degree of im- portance apartments of state and crypts which were destined never to be seen. I have tried to remedy this defect in Sheets xxix. and xxxv. of the " Forma I'rbis,"' where the apartments alone are depicted in full, while the substructiu-es are simply traced in outline. 110 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE SiJecial permission is required to visit the Palace of Augustus (see § xv). The Convent of the Visitation and its grounds are practically inaccessible. The Vigna Barberini and the chapel of S. Sebastian are opened on payment of a fee (see § xxxiii). The Palatine during the winter months ought to be visited in the morning ; during the spring and autumn in the afternoon. There is always a great, and sometimes a dangerous, difference of temperature between the sunny and the shady side of the ruins. The Palatine, with its groves of ilexes and green lawns and glori- ous views, affords a delightful promenade even to those who are not attracted by archasological interests. General References. — Carlo Fea, Miscellanea antiquaria, vol. i. p. 86, n. 7G ; p. 87, ii. 77 ; p. 223, n. 5, 6, 7. — Francesco Biauchini, Jl palazzo dei Cenari, opera postunia. Verona, 1738. — Luigi Kossiui, I sette colli. Rome, 1827. — Constantino Thon and Vincenzo Ballanti, II palazzo dei Cesari. Rome, 1828. — De Agostini and Broiiferio, // 7>a/a2zo dei Cesari. Vercelli, 1871. — Ipi>olito Ruspoli, Avanzi e ricordi del monte Palatino. Rome, 1846. — Fabio (iori, Gli edijizi palatini dopo (/li nltimi scavi. Rome, 1807. — Heinrich Jordan, I)ie Kaiseipalciste in Rom. Berlin, 1868. — Wilhelm Henzen, Annali dell' Jnstit'uto, 1865, p. 346 ; 1866, p. 161. — Pietro Rosa, Relazione sulle sco- perte archeoloyiche neyli unni 1871-72, p. 75 ; and also Plan et peintures de la maison de Tihere, mai, 1869. — Viseonti and Lanciani, Guida del Palatino, con plant a delineata da A. ZangoUni. Rome, Boeea, 1873-93. — A. Preuner, I)as Pdlatiinn in alten Rom. Greifswald, 1875. — Gaston B(jissier, Promenades ar- cheolof/iqves. Paris, 1882. — Constantino Maes, Tojiograjia storica del Palatino. Rome, 1883 (unfinished). — ^Deglane, Le palais des Cesars (in Gazette archeo- logique, 1888, pp.124, 145, 211). — Otto Richter, Die dlteste Wolinsiitte des Ro- misclien Volkes. Rome, Berlin, 1891. — John Henr^' Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. chap. iv. \). 158. — Rodolfo Lanciani, II palazzo mag- giore (in Mittheihmgen, 1894, p. 1). Forma Urhis Romxe, plates xxix., xxxv. ; and Ancient Rome, chap. v. p. 106. — Christian Huelsen, Untersuchungen zur topographie des Palatins (in Mittheihmgen, 1895, p. 3). TT. The Origin of the Palatine City. — Two discoveries have illustrated from a new point of view the origin of Palatine Rome, that of the city of Antemn?e, and that of the Terramara di Fontanellato. According to tradition ^ Antemnte was a flourishing settlement when a colony of Alban shepherds occupied the Palatine. The distance between the two places being less than four miles, and their bartering trade very active, as they were located on the same (left) bank of the Tiber and on the same road (Salaria Vetus), we 1 Antonio Nibby, Analisi dei dintorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 161. — Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etrnria, vol. i. p. 44. — William Gell, Topography of Rome, p. 64. — Smith's Diction, geograph., vol. i. p. 139. THE ORIGIN OF THE PALATINE CITY 111 may assume that manners, habits, stage of civilization, etc., were about the same in Rome and Antemu;\?. Antemna; died a sudden death a few years after the foundation of Rome. It is evident, therefore, that a search made on the site of tlie former corresponds practically to a search made in the lower strata of Kingly Palatine. The search w^as made in LSS2-8;J, while the hill %vas crowned by a fort.^ The facts ascertained were these (see Fig. 42). The city occupied the platform of the hill, protected by cliffs or rivers (ante amnes) on every side, except where a neck or isth- mus connected it with the tableland (Monti Parioli, Villa Ada). The natural strength of the site had been increased by a wall built of blocks of local stone, each two feet (0.59 metre) high and three (0.89) long. There were three gates, one leading to the river to the springs, one to the highroad (Salaria), the third to the cemetery and pasture-lands. The Antemnates lived in round or square huts, witli a framework of timber and a thatched roof, the site of which is nmrked by a hard-trodden, coal-colored floor within a ring of I'ough stones. Their public buildings, like the temple and the curia, were of better style, and probably all of stone. The cattle were driven at night into the inclosures or sheepfolds adjoining each hut. The area inclosed by walls was therefore much larger than was required by the number of inhabitants. In times of peace the Antemnates di'ank from the springs at the foot of the hill ; for times of war they had provided them- selves with cisterns and wells under shelter of the fortifications. One of tlie wells still in use is 54 feet deep ; and one of the cis- terns, covered by a triangular roof (destroyed 1883), could hold 5000 gallons of water (see Fig. 4o). The civilization of the Antemnates when their city ceased to exist was in the '• bronze " stage. One third of their pottery and domestic ware was of local make, and baked in an open fire ; the rest was of Etruscan importation. There were traces of the stone period, such as arrow-heads and lance-spears of polished flint, clay beads, and fragments of the roughest kind of pottery. This description answers word for word to that of the city on the Palatine. Here again we have the isolated hill pi'otected by cliffs, by water, and by a circuit of walls ; the neck of the Velia connecting it with the tableland of the Esquiline ; the gate lead- ing to the river and springs (j-omanuki), tliat leading to the pas- ture fields and cemeteries (»nnestina, and inhabited by a half-savage tribe of two hundred mountaineers. I never fail to take our students to this remarkable village during the university term, to give them an object-lesson more impressive than any which can be found in the whole of the Canipagua. The populations of the Terramare,^ on the contrary, seem to 1 Described in Not'tzie. Jer/li Scavi, 1889, pp. 10, 29, GO, 15-t, 238. 2 GoettVmg (Geschich 1 1' der Riiiaiitch. Shidtsveru-., ])p. 49, 202, 235) believes the Sacra Via to have bet-n the (lecumaiiit.'i marking tiic boundary between the Sabine and tlie Roman city; but the Sacra Via of those days was but a iriud- in;! path oiitsidv the PahUine, to whioli alone my considerations refer. 3 The name Terramnrn is a corruption of that of Terra mama, given till 1862 to the special kind of earth, rich in organic qualities, which the peasants of upper Italy dug from prehistoric stations, and used as a fertilizer. When Pigorini and Strobel began their study of these stations they adopted the corrupted name " Terraniara " in preference to "Terra niarna," to avoid the confusion which the epithet "marl" might produce in scientific treatises. THE ORIGIN OF THE PALATINE CITY 115 have been faiuiliHr with the principles of the ai/rimctatin. The startling discoveries made by Pigorini in the terramara at Cas- tellazzo di Fontanellato, in the province of Parma, are described in the following papers : — Nolizie dcfjll Scam, 1889, p. 355; 1891, p. 304; 1892, p. 450; 1895, p. 9.— Monumenti inedili Accademia Lincei, vol. i. (1889), ]). 123. — Bullettino di paleoelnolo(/in iUdinna, vol. xix. (1893), tav. viii. — Friedricli von Duliii, Ntue Heidelberi/er Jahrbiichtr, vol. iv. (1894), p. 143. Fig. 46. — Plan of the Terramara di Foutanellato. This primitive settlement of immigrants in the " Poebene " ^ forms an oblong 280 metres wide between the parallel sides, 480 metres long, and covers an area of lOi hectares (195,525 square metres). Its fortified inclosiu-e comprises a ditch (A) 100 Roman feet wide, 12 deep (oOX'^-50 metres), and an affger or embankment (B) formed with the earth excavated from the ditch, sloping towards the water and supported by a perpendicular palisade (C) on the inner side. The adoption of a trapezoid form in the Ter- ramare, instead of the square or parallelogram, is explained by 1 The valley of the Po and of its affluents. 116 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE the fact that the sharp coi-ner (D) always faces the river (E), from which the supply of water for the ditcli is derived, so as to divide it into two equal streams, which meet again at the outlet (F). There was but one gate, approached by a bridge 30 metres wide (G), the axis of which is in a line with the cai-do or high street (H, I), cutting the village in two halves. The quarter (K) west of the high street was entirely occupied by huts built on palisades ; on the opposite side we find the central portion occupied by a square of solid gi-ound (L) 100 metres long and 50 wide, protected by a ditch 30 metres wide and 6 deep, and approached by a bridge (M) on the line of the decumanus. This foi'tified terrace represents the lemplum in the primitive sense of the word, or, to use the expression of Helbig, the fundamental idea of the arx of Italian towns and of the prcetorhmi of Roman camps. There were two cemeteries outside the fortifications (N, O), also inclosed by a ditch and made accessible by a bridge. The cremated remains of the Terramaricoli were kept in clay urns, placed in rows on a wooden platform supported by palisades. • If the reader refer to the map of the Palatine, Fig. 44, he will find that nature had done for early Rome nearly all the work that human labor and ingenuity had done at Fontanellato. Tlie marshes of the two Velabra and the pond, which Nero transformed afterwards into the lake of the Golden House, represent the water defenses ; the neck of the Velia i-epresents the bridge ; the cliffs answer for the embankment. Other points of resemblance are the square form, the angle facing the stream (Nodinus?) which fed the greater Velabrum, and the area of about seventeen hectares. The Romans, however, did not wait long to make themselves fa- miliar witii the at/rimctatio and to adopt the pes (.297 metres), wiili its multiples and fractions, as the standard national measure. When Servius Tullius built the great agger for the protection of the city on the east side, he simply copied in the minutest details the fortifications of the Terramare. The agger of Servius com- prises a ditch exactly one hundred pedes wide and thirty deep ; an embankment made with the earth of the ditch, sloping towards the city and supported by a wall on the outside. The three gates, Col- lina, Viminalis, and Esquilina, were approached by bridges. The ground on the other side of the ditch was occupied by cemeteries. The history of the Palatine, from the foundation of the city 1 In the campaign of last summer (189.5) Pigorini discovered side streets parallel with the crn-du and the decwmanus. The Terramara, therefore, was divided into regular squares or parallelograms. THE ORIGIN OF THE PALATINE CITY 117 to that of the Empire, is not known. At the time of Tarquinius Priscus (616-578) it was still honored by the kingly i-esidence, a casa of more elaborate construction than the ordinary citizens' huts, placed near the Porta Mugonia and the Temple of Jupiter Stator (Solinus, i. 24). The hill was not above the reach of fever, even after the drainage of the lesser Velabrum, accomplished by Tarquinius by means of the Cloaca Maxima, as the worship of the Dea Febria was never intermitted, and her temple and altar were not abandoned for centuries after. Beside the Fever's shrine, there were others to the Dea Virii^laca, a protectress of domestic peace ; to Orbona, the evil genius of blindness ; an altar to Aius Locutius (described § ix.) ; temples to Victory (§ vi.) ; to the great Mother of the Gods (§ xiii.) ; and to Jupiter I'ropugnator (§ xiv.). Towards the end of the Republic the Palatine became one of the most aristocratic quarters of the city, resorted to by the great orators, lawyers, and political men of the age on account of its proximity to the Curia, the Rostra, and the Forum. The follow- ing palatial residences are recorded in classic texts : — 1. House of M. Fulvius Flaccus, destroyed by order of the senate, after his execution for his share in the conspiracy of the (iracchi. The sjiace left vacant, area Flacciana, was occupied soon after by a wing of the Porticus Catuli. 2. House of Q. Lutatius Catulus, consul b. c. 102, with Marius, with whom he gained the victory over the Cimbri, near Vercelbv. With his share in the spoils of war he enlarged his house and con- nected it with a portico, the Porticus Catuli, where thirty-one flags taken from the enemy were exhibited. 3. House of ]\I. Livius Drusus, tribute of the plebs in is. c. 91, the great i-eformer of social laws, whose murder by Q. Varius was immediately followed by the social w'ar, which his policy would have averted. The house was inherited by Crassus the orator, who, having ornamented its impluvium with four columns of Ilymettian marble, the first ever seen in Rome, was nicknamed the "Palatine Venus." Cicero bought it in December, 62, for a sum correspond- ing to $155,000. The peristyle was shaded by six marvelous lotus- trees, which perished one hundred and seventy years later in the fire of Nero. It passed afterwards into the hands of C. JNIarcius Censorinus, another great orator and Greek scholar ; of L. Corne- lius Sisenna, annalist historian, translator of the IMilesian tales of Aristides ; of A. Ca^cina Largus, probably the author of the book on the " Etrusca Disciplina;" and finally it was absorbed into Caligula's palace. 118 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE 4. House of Quintus Cicero, near the one of his brother Marcus, but lower down the slope of the hill. It was wrecked and burnt to the ground by Clodius. 5. House of Clodius, the notorious enemy of Cicero, — composed of two portions : one belonging to Cicero himself, which he had bought at the time of the banishment of the orator ; one to C. Seius, which he had obtained by poisoning the owner on his refusal to sell. The domus Clodiana was nuignificent, and commanded a glorious view. 6. House of M. ^milius Scaurus, stepson of Sulla, the dictator, perhaps the richest of all Palatine residences. When Cicero was restored to the possession of his own, he tried to take a revenge on the usurper Clodius by raising one or two floors so as to cut off the view of which his enemy was so proud. To avoid this danger Clodius purchased the palace of Scaurus for a sum of $4,425,000 (?), having already spent $655,000 on his owai. All these residences were in the district of the Clivus Victoria?, at the corner of the hill commanding the Forum, and must have disappeared when Caligula extended the Imjierial Palace as far as the Nova Via and the Temple of Castor and Pollux. 7. The paternal house of Augustus, in the lane called the " Oxen- heads," at the east corner of the hill. (See § xv.) 8. The liouse of Quintus Hortensius, first the rival, then the associate of Cicero ; a man of immense wealth, and endowed with a memory so retentive that he could repeat the auction-list back- wards on coming out of sale-rooms. He was also the first to in- clude peacocks in Roman dinner menus. Hortensius's residence was purchased by Augustus, and inclosed in the Imperial Palace together with 9. The liouse of L. Sergius Catilina. Both were on the edge of the hill facing the Circus Maximus. It is now time for us to enter the precincts of the famous hill, and examine one by one the remains which bear evidence on so many points of the political and monumental history of the " queen of the world." III. ViGXA NusiNEK. — The strip of land between the north- western cliffs of the Cermalus and the Vic us Tuscus, by which we enter the excavations, is known to topographers by the name of Vigna Nusiner, and is represented in the following fragment of the marble plan of Rome, published by Trendelenburg in the " Archae- VIGXA YUSLVER 119 ologische Zeitung,"' LSTo, vol. xxxiii. p. o'J ; and by myself in the " Bull. com. arch.," vol. xiii. (1886), p. 159. (See Fig. 47.) The Clivus Victorise, cut in the live rock along the foot of the cliffs, bounds the triangular space on one side, the Templum Divi Augusti on the second, the Vicus Tiiscus on the third. The ground contains, besides, the Springs of Juturna, the Murus Romuli, the Altar of Aius Locutius (the Lupercal), and the church of, S. Teodoro. All these monuments and landnu\rks, excepting the temple and the church, belong to the earliest period of Roman history, so tliat we could not begin our visit to the Palatine in more regular order. The Vigna Nusiner has l)een excavated oftener than any other part of the Palatine, and yet we know very little about it for want of proper accounts. The Frangipani owned it at the end of the fifteenth century, together with a fortified house called " Lo Palazzo de Frigiapani." I have found two deeds in the records of that family : one dated January 21, 1510, by which the brothers Giam- battista and Marcello Frangipani give permission to the rector of the church of S. Lorenzo ai JVIonti to open cavain seu fossuram lapidum in their vineyard iiix/a stDictuin Theodoruin ; the second, dated October 23, 1535, relates to a controversy between Antonino Frangipani and Camilla Alberini over the produce of the excava- tions which a stone-cutter named (iiuliano was making at that time. In 154ft-15.5() tJie contractors for the sup]>ly of Iniilding materials to S. Peter's found the pavement of the Vicus Tuscus, the pedestal of the statue of Vortumnus, and the remains of a temple with columns, capitals, entablature, and a frieze ornamented with griffins and candelabra. The plunder was so considerable that no fresh excavations were attempted for a lapse of a century and a half. The land was turned into a kitchen-garden, famous for its arti- chokes. In a contract of ^larch 11, 16-10, the spring hai'vest of them is valued at 110 scudi. A new search was made in 1720, between the churches of S. Teodoro and S. Anastasia. It led to the discovery of a portico with pilasters of travertine (one of the three marked in the frag- ment of the marble plan), of pieces of columns, and of a row of rooms filled with objects of metal and scoria}, to which Venuti gives the name oi foiulerln /xilatina, or imperial brass-foundry. Giovanni Battista Visconti opened the ground for the fifth time at least ; but his progress was stopped by the house of Naples under the plea that he was undermining the walls that held up the Farnese gardens. THE TEMPLE OF AUGUSTUS 121 111 June, 1845, the antiquarian Vescovali, acting on behalf of the Emperor of Russia, who had purchased the Vigna for the sake of excavating, discovered the remains of the Domiis Gelotiana (see § xxvi.) ; in December, 1846, he came upon those of the Murus Romuli ; and in April, 1847, upon the remains of a private house on the Vicus Tuscus, decorated with columns of porphyry and giallo antico. In 18G9 Pius IX. laid bare the pavement of the Clivus Victoriae and tlie alleged site of the Porta Romanula. The Italian govern- ment began the last and general excavation of the place in 1876 (and again in 1884), but the work was soon given up without results. On entering the Palatine by the S. Teodoro gate we are confronted with the Augustseum on the left, with the Clivus Victoriae and the Fons Juturnae opposite the gate, with the chui-ch of S. Teodoro and the Murus Romuli on the right. IV. Templum divi Augusti (Temple of Augustus). — Tlie temple in honor of the deified founder of the Empire was begun by his widow Livia and by Tiberius, his adopted son, and com- pleted by Caligula. Domitian restored it after the fire of Titus. Pliny (xii. 19, 42) describes, among the curiosities of the place, a root of a cinnamon tree of great size placed by Livia on a golden plate, the sap of which was hardened into globules every year ; and also a famous picture of Hyacinthus by Nikias the Athenian, which Augustus had brought from Alexandria. The plan and design of the building are different fi-om the recognized type of a Roman temple, the front being on the long side of the parallelogram instead of the short. The shape seems special to the Augusta?a, perhaps on account of the large number of statues which had to be placed on the suggestum opposite the door, the deified Emperor being generally surrounded by other members of the family. The temple is mentioned in connection with Caligula's bridge, which is supposed to have crossed the valley of the Forum at a great height, so as to enable the young monarch to walk on a level from his palace to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. The bridge never existed in the strict sense of the word. Caligula passed from roof to roof of the intermediate buildings, spanning the gaps of the streets with temporary wooden passages. Suetonius and Flavins Josephus mention among these buildings, first, the Templum divi Augusti, then the Basilica Julia. There is no doubt, therefore, that these noble ruins, placed between the Basilica and the Emperor's palace, belong to the Augusta3um. 122 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF T FIE PALATINE The back wall of the temple, the murus post cedem diri A ugusti ad Minervam, was used for the posting of state notices and imperial decrees. Two attendants of the Augustaeum are mentioned in epigi'aphic documents: a Bathyllus, fpr/Z/Hw.s' tcmpll diri, Angusti el divce Augustce quod est in Palatium (Corpus, vi. n. 4222), and a ATRIVA\ VE-STA& Fig. 48. — Plan of the Aiigustaeum. T. Flavins Onesimus, cedituus templi novi divi A ugusti (n. 8704). The temple has been excavated at least five times. I have found in the state archives an Act of October 2, 1526, by which Jacopo de' ]\Iuti gives back to a poor widow, Lucrezia Collino, the caution deposited by her before she began the excavations in the garden of S. Maria Liberatrice. Pirro Ligorio was able to draw the plan of the structure about 1549, in consequence of the excavations described in Book III. THE SPRINGS OF JUT URN A 123 § xxi. (See Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. p. 275, fig. 35.) In 1702 a contractor named Andrea Bianchi gained permission from Sister Costanza di Santacroce, abbess of the monastery of Torre de' Specchi, to search for building materials within and near the temple. He found the church of S. Maria Antiqua, that is to say, tliat inner hall of the Augustajum which had been adapted to Cliristian worship at the end of the fourth century, and dedicated to the Virgin Marj% in opjiositiou to the worship of Vesta, the headquarters of which were on the other side of the street. There are two desci-ijitions of the find : one by Galletti in the Vatican Library (Chron. miscell. xxxiii.) ; another by Valesio in Cancellieri's '' Solenni possessi," p. 370. The church was level with the floor of the Augustpeum, and ended with an apse, with frescoes representing the Saviour and some saints, among which was prominent the figure of Paul T. (757-767), with the square nimbus and the legend Sanctisa. Paulus Romanus Papa. The fres- coes on the walls of the aisles represented scenes in the life of the Saviour, with texts from the Ciospel in Greek and Gothico-Latin letters. The figure of the crucifix sliowed the feet nailed apart. Benedict XIV. ordered the church to be roofed over and kept open for inspection, but the order was never executed. In 1735 Antonio Vanui excavated the plot of ground near the temple known as the Caprareccia. The last excavation took place in 1885. It was discovered then that the church of S. Maria Antiqua l)ehind the Augustseum had been put in communication with the Augusta^um itself, by cutting an irregular passage through the partition wall seven feet thick. The sides of the passage were covered with figures of saints painted in the eleventh century, with the name appended to each of them : those of the Eastern Church, led by Scs. Basilivs, on one side ; those of the Western, led by Scs. Benedictvs, on the other. The two images are connected with the Basilian and Benedictine brotherhoods and convents which at that time flourished on the Palatine (S. Cesario in Palatio and S. Sebastiano in Pallara). LiTERATURK. — PiiTO Ligorio, Bodleian MSS., fol. 33. — Henry Parker, The Foi'uin Romanum, London, 187li, plates 21 and 24. — Notizie degli Scavi, 1882, April, pi. 16. — Henry Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, 2d ed., vol. i. p. 275, fig. 35. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, BuUetiino cristiano, 1885, p. 143.— Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 101. V. FoNS JuTURN.E (the Springs of Juturna). — The Temple of Augustus is built against the live rock of the Palatine, masses 124 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE of which appear all along the Clivus Victorian, above and under the pavement of the street. Opposite the gate by which we have entered the excavations, and i-ight under the west wall of the temple, the rock is perforated witli wells and channels, cut for the purpose of reaching and regulating the springs with which the lower or quaternary clay strata are here saturated. This is the celebrated Fons Juturnte, placed by Dionysius, Ovid, Florus, etc., at the north corner of the Palatine, the waters of which, on reaching the plain, expanded into a deep pond (jn-ofunda palus) called the Lacus Curtius. Here the apparition of the Dioscuri took place, to announce to the Romans the victory of Lake Regil- lus : they were seen washing and watering their hoi'ses '• at the spring which made a pool near the Temple of Vesta," ^ between it and the temple raised to the celestial messengers themselves in memory of the event. The jiond was drained after the opening of the Cloaca IVIaxima, and the only trace left of it was a well and a puteal inscribed with the name of divtvr ; perhaps the very one now preserved in the Vatican Museum, Galleria Lapi- daria, No. 164. Although the accumulation of modern soil and ruins conceals these springs from view, they have never ceased to flow, and to find and force their w^ay towards the Cloaca Maxima. In Cres- cimbeni's " History of S. M. in Cosmedin," p. 14, we find this report by Angelo Maffei, dated September 25, 1715: "I remember to have seen, in my early youth, the ground open and sink into a chasm fifty cubits deej:* near the three columns [of Castor's temple], and a mass of water rush at the bottom of it." The accident, caused by the erosion of subterranean springs upon the earth, must have happened at other times, because this corner of the Palatine was known in Middle Ages under the name of " the Hell " (T Inferno) ; hence the name of the church above, S. Maria lUiera nos a poenis Inferni. The traditional adventure of Q. Curtius may have originated from a like phenomenon in the fourth century u. c. Another . powerful jet of water appeared in May, 1702, in the excavations of the church of S. Maria Antiqua mentioned above ; another in March, 1810, at the foot of the three columns of the Castores. In 181 S Carlo Fea found water all around the temple, to the depth of 8.84 metres under the pavement of the Vicus Tuscus. I remember myself having seen the same place suddenly inundated in January, 1871, when the excavations had come 1 Plutarch, Curiol., 3; Dionysius, vi. l-'i, etc. THE CLIVUS VICTORI.i: 125 accidentally in contact with one of the underground channels. The works were suspended for a week or tW'O, until the waters were given an outlet towards the Cloaca Maxima. References. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull. Ins!., 1871, p. 279; and / comen- tarii di Frontino intorno le acque e yli acquedottl. Rome, 1880, p. 13. — Giuseppe Tommasetti, Bull. Inst., 1871, p. 137. — Francis Nichols, The Roman Forum, p. 74, Loudon, 1877. VI. The Clivus Victoria. — The Porta Romanula, or " river gate " of the Palatine, could be approached from two sides : f i-om the Forum by a short cut, or steps, used by women in bringing lip their load of water from the pool of Juturna ; and from the Velabrum, by a carriage-road cut along the base of the cliff at a steep incline. The road is marked (IV) in the fragment of the marble plan. Fig. 47. It was named from an altar of Victory dating from the earliest days of the city, and transformed into a temple 293 b. c, by the consul Lucius Postumius. On April 4, 203, the meteoric stone from Pessinus, which the Romans called the Great Mother of the Gods, was deposited in this sanctuary, pend- ing the erection of the temple described in § xiii. Eleven years later Cato the Censor dedicated a shrine Victorke Virgini, by the side of the temple, and this is the last mention we find of it in the classics. The temple was discovered by Bianchini in 1728, on the edge of the hill above the road, inside a court or refievos, be- tween the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula. There were splendid fragments of its marlile decorations : a frieze ornamented with the emblems of a naval victory ; columns of giallo belonging to the peristyle, capitals, bases, the pedestal of a statue (the same one, probably, dedicated by Cato the Censor in 192) ; and two pieces of the inscription of the temple itself, which commemorate a restoration by Augustus : — imp . CAESAR . dIvI . F . aedein . r/cTORiAe . refec. These fragments were kept for a long time on the spot, near the Uccelliera ; in 183(3, however, they were dispersed: a few went to the Museo Xazionale, Xaples ; others to the Palazzo Farnese, Rome. On ascending the Clivus Victoriag from S. Teodoro towards the Porta Romanula, we pass on the right the remains of thirteen rooms, the w-alls of which were of opus qundratum, strengthened at a later period with opus laterltitim. These remains, dating from the last century of the Republic, are attributed to the Porti- 126 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE cus Catuli. No trace is left of the private palaces of Catulus, Scaurus, Clodius, Cicero, etc., described in § ii. References. — Rodolfo Lanciani, II temino della Vittoria (in Bull. arch, com., 1883, p. 206). — Christian Huelsen, MittheiL, 1895, pp. 23, 269. VII. The Church of S. Teodoro. — This round structure belongs to the cycle of Byzantine cliurches and chapels by which the Palatine was surrounded after the fall of the Empire, and is dedicated to an officer who suffered martyrdom at Amasea in the Fontus during the persecution of Maximian. The present rotunda dates from the time of Nicholas V. (1447-55), except the apse and its mosaics, which seem to belong to the time of Hadrian I. (772-795). The level of the church, halfway between that of the Vicus Tuscus and that of the modern road, shows how rapid has been the rise of the soil in the last four centuries. The pieces of serpentine with which part of the court is paved M^ere discovered at the time of Clement XI. in the marble wharf of the Emporium at La Marmorata. VTTI. MuRUS RoMULi. — These venerable remains of the primitive fortifications, which we meet with on turning the west corner of the hill towards S. Anastasia, are built of blocks of local tufa, the work of Etruscan masons, as is shown by the way the stones are placed, lengthwise in one tier and crosswise in the next above. The tufa of the walls is characteristic of all works done in Rome before Servius Tullius, such as the fortifications of the Arx in the garden of the Aracoeli, and can easily be identified by means of the black scoriaj which it contains, the texture and softness of which resembles that of charred wood. This special tufa, hardly fit for building purposes, was quarried on the spot from the lautumke near the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator. Other quarries have been discovered in the very heart of the Capi- toline hill and at Fidenaj (Villa Spada, Via Salaria). The walls of the Palatine were discovered on January 26, 1847, but the government commissioners, Visconti, Canina, and Grifi, did not at once realize the importance of the find. They call them in their official report " a monument built of large blocks of tufa, forming two wings 20 palms long, with an arch cut in the live rock between them." The walls are visible at two other points, near the gardener's house and near the so-called Domus Gelotiana. Students wishing to get more information about these early fortifications of the Palatine may consult — THE ALTAR OF AIUS LOCUTIUS 127 Thomas Dyer, HUtvi >j of the City of Rome, Loudon, 1865, p. 14. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Sulle mura t parte di Sevvio (in Ann. Inst., 1871, p. 41). — Visconti and Lanciani, Guida del Palatino, Rome, 1873-93, p. 73. — Heinrich Jordan, Topographle, vol. i. p. 17-2. — Otto Richter, Ann. Inst., 1884, p. 189. Behind the wall and under the northwest corner of the hill there is a reservoir of water, a rough design of which is given by :Middleton. Formerly it was deep under ground, the water being drawn from above by means of a well of conical shape ; but a land- slip having carried away a portion of the cliff behind the wall, the reservoir can now be entered on a level. There is a basin or cavity right under the well towards which slope all the galleries of the cistern, so as to allow the besieged to draw the last di'op iu case of water-famine. IX. The Altar of Aius Locutius. — This remarkable altar was fir.st noticed by Nibby in 1838, on the spot where we see it standing now, on absolutely modern ground, thirty feet at least above the ancient level ; but, although not in .^itu, it must have been found not very far off. Xibby and Mommsen consider it as a restoration made in 125 b. c. of the one raised in the Infima Xova Via — in the "lower new street " — behind the Temple of Vesta, in memory of the mysterious voice which, in the stillness of night, warned the citizens of the approach of the Gauls. The voice was attributed to a local genius, whom the people named Aius Loquens or Locutius ; but, as Roman religion refrained from mentioning in public prayers the name and sex of unknown local genii, lest the ceremonies should be vitiated by a false invocation, or else the true ifame of these tutelary gods should be made known to the enemies of the commonwealth, so the altar raised in memory of the event bears the vague dedication — SEI • DEO • SEI • DEIVAE ■ SAC(rum) — "sacred to a Divinity, whether male or female." Servius de- scribes likewise a shield dedicated on the Capitol to the Genius of Rome with the legend — GEXIO VRBIS ROMAE SIVE MAS SIVE FEMIXA. The altar of Locutius was i-estored by Caius Sextius Calvinvis, mentioned twice by Cicero as a candidate for the praetorship against Glaucias in 125 b. c. The monument cannot fail to im- press the student on account of its connection with one of the leading events in history, the capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls in ;390 b. c. 128 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE Keferences. — Antonio Nibby, Analisi . . . del dlntorni di Roma, vol. i. p. 321. — Corpus Inscr. Lat., vol. i. n. 632, p. 185. — Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 72. — Carlo Pascal, Bull, com., 1894, p. 188. The corner of the hill above the Munis Romuli, towards which we are now ascending by a winding path shaded by ilexes, contains THE STEPS OF CACUS 129 monuments dating from the early days of the city. I have said already that the Palatine was divided into two summits, the " hill of the Twins," or Cermalus, on the north ; the " hill of Pales," or Palatium, on the south. This last is entirely covered by Imperial buildings, which have swept away or concealed whatever monu- ments there were left of the Kingly and Republican ages, while on the Cermalus the later constructions have avoided the ground made sacred by tradition or by existing remains of bygone days. This historic space overlooking the Velabrum, left free by the Cffisars, measures 175 metres in length, and 106 metres in depth, and contains the steps of Cacus, the hut of Romulus, the old stone quarries, the Temple of the Great Mother of the Gods, and the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator. A section of the space is re- presented in Fig. 49 (on the opposite page). The background is formed by the arched substructures of the palace of Tiberius, the foreground by the steps of the Temple of Cybele, and by the foundations of the fifth chapel of the Argsei, which Yarro places apiul (edem Romuli. The space is strewn with architectural frag- ments from the temple of Cybele. X. ScAL^. Caci (Steps of Cacus). — We have seen before that the Palatine city could be entered from three sides : through the Porta Romanula from the northwest, by the Mugonia from the nortlieast, and hy the Steps of Cacus from the side of the Circus. At a very early date these steps took the place of a dangerous path connecting the primitive village with the spring and cave of Faun Lujaercus.^ They are called fiaOfiovs Ka\rjs aKTrjs (" the steps of the beautiful shoi'e ") by Plutarch, and Scahv Caci by Solinus. The first name owes its origin to the picturesque inlet formed by the waters of the greater Velabrum near the Lupei'cal ; the other 1 The I^iipercal opened at the fodt of the cliffs hetween the Velabniiii and the Circus iMaximiis in the direction of S. Anastasia. Its entrance was once shaded by the Ficiis Riiniinalis, markinir the spot where tlie cradle containing? the infant twins had been washed asiiore by the flood. The meniorj' of the miracnlons event was perpetuated by a bronze group of Tuscan workmanship, representing the twins nursed by the wolf. This is probably the same as the one preserved in the Conservator! Palace and restored b}' Guglielmo della Porta (?), The Lupercal was discovered in the first half of the sixteenth cen- turj'. Ulisse Aldovrandi, quoted by Fea (AfisrelL, i. 206, n. 4), says; "There was a tenii)le of Neptune (of Faun Lupercus) built by the Arcadians near the ('ircus Maxinuis, anvas the celebrated " needle of Cybele." No attention was paid to the find. The last mention we have of the Great Mother of the Gods belongs to the end of the fourth century, wlien Nicomachus Fla- vianus and a few surviving champions of polytheism tried to stir up the old popular superstitions. During the revolution against' Theodosius II., which ended witli the defeat of Eugeuius, Septem- ber 7 to 9, 392, Nicomachus and his followers indulged in the most faruitic display of long-forgotten pagan superstitions, like the Isia, the Floralia, the Lustrum, and the Megalesia, the mysterious worship of Cybele. After being baptized in blood, they carried through the main streets of the city the chariot of the goddess with lions of solid silver. It is not certain whether the temple, the scattered remains of which appear in Fig. 49, belongs to the Great INlother of the Gods, because its columns and entablature are of Alban stone (peperino) coated with stucco, and therefore cannot presumably be the work of Augustus, who used only marble. I do not dare to express any definite opinion on the subject, because thei'e are other circum- stances in favor of the supposition which must be taken into consideration. The first is the discovery made in January, 1872, near the pronaos of the temple, of a semi-colossal statue of the goddess (Fig. .il, p. 134). The statue is headless, but has been identified by means of the suppedaneum or footstool which the an- cients gave to Cybele as a symbol of the stability of the earth. 134 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE The second is the discovery of several altars inscribed with her name, made at various times in this part of the Farnese Gardens. The one marked No. 496 in vol. vi. of the " Corpus Inscriptionum " was raised at the expense of three attendants of the temple, named Fig. 51. -Headless Statue of Cybele, found near her temple on the Palatine. Onesimus, Olympias, and Briseis. A second, No. 3702, came to light in 1873 near the south wall of the temple. See also the in- scription. No. .513, belonging to a statue offered to the g-oddess by Virius Marcarianus, and the fragment in " Notizie degli Scavi, 1896, p. 186. .^ ^ ^ , - There are about sixty fragments of columns, capitals, entabia- THE TEMPLE OF CYBELE 135 tuiv, and pediment lying scattered in confusion, which, if properly put together in their former jiosition, as Huelsen has done in design (INlittheilungen, 1895, pp. 10-22), would make this temple one of the most beautiful ruins of the Palatine. The foundation- walls of the cella and pronaos are still intact. The statue itself is lying aside, in a slanting position. There is a valuable marble in the Capitoline museum connected with the history of the temple, viz., an altar with bas-reliefs repre- senting the ship on which the goddess came from Pessinus to Rome, and the Vestal Claudia Quinta hauling it up the Tiber, with her infula tied to the prow. There is written underneath : " Matri Deum et Xavi-Salvife voto suscepto, Claudia Synthyche d(ono) d(edit)." Maffei and Preller think that the surname of Navisalvia was given to the "\'estal Claudia because she had brought the ship safely to her moorings ; Orelli and ^Nlommsen attribute it to the ship herself (Navis Salvia), or rather to her pro- tecting genius (see Corpus, n. 495). The altar can be seen in the gallery of the Capitoline museum, where it is used as a pedestal to the statue No. 25 (Jupiter found at Antium). Greek and Greco-Roman artists have always given Cybele a type of majestic beauty. One of the finest representations of the merciful goddess, " who gave f ruitf ulness alike to men and beasts and vegetation," was discovered not long ago at FormitB (Mola di Gaeta), together with the reiiuiins of her temple of the Ionic order. The statue, which would have formed the pride of the Naples museum, has been allowed to migrate to foreign lands. When I stood before her the first time, and felt the influence of her wonderfid beauty, I easily understood why she remained a favorite deity to the very end of pagan worship in Rome. I am sure it will please my readers to become acquainted with this won- derful work of art known only to a privileged few (Fig. 52, p. 18f)). Rkkerences. — Francesco Caiicellieri, Le setfe cose J'atali, Rome, 1812, p. 22. — Visconti and Lanciani, Guida del Palatino, Rome, 1873, pp. 29, 134. — Theodor Mommsen, lies gestae divi Aufjusti, 2d ed. 1883, p. 82. — Christian Huelsen, llntersuckunf/en zur Topographie des Palatins (in IMittlieilimgen, 1895, p. 3). — Ancient Rome, p. 126. XIV. ^Ede8 Iovis Propugnatokis IX Palatio (Temple of Jupiter Propugnator). — Between the house of Germanicus and the Nympha^um of the house of Domitian stands the platform of a temple, the mass of which is built of concrete with chips of tufa and silex, inclosed in a frame of opus quadratum. The temple, 136 THE RUJNS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE which is 44 metres long, and 25 wide, faces the southwest, but not a fragment of its decorations has escaped the cinquecento lime- Fig. 52. — The Cybele from Formise. burners. Probably it was octostyle peripteral, viz. surrounded by a colonnade which had 8 shafts in the front, 16 on the sides. Rosa, who discovered the platform in 1867, identifies it with the THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER PROPUGNATOR 137 Temple of Jupiter Victor, a lueniorial buildiug of the victory gained by the Romans over the Samnites in 29-1 b. c. We prefer to see in it the Temple of Jupiter Propngnator, connected with the residence (schola colleyli) of a priesthood ranking in nobility with that of the Qiiindecemviri, of the Arvales, and other kin- dred religious corporations, of which the Emperor was a ile iure member. The remains of a building in opus quadratum of the late Republic, remarkably suited for the use of a scJiola, have actually been discovered side by side with the teniijle itself. Many fragments of the fasti cooptationum, or registers of the elections to this priesthood, have been found, not in .situ, however, but employed, after the prohibition of pagan worship, in the restoration of the pavements of the Basilica Julia and of the Senate-house. (See Corpus, n. 2004, 2009, etc.) They are all worded this way : " In the year nine hundred and forty-two of Rome," (a. d. 190) for instance, "under the consulships of the Emperor Commodus, for the sixth time, and of Petronius Septimi- anus, on the 1.5tli day of October, in the Temple of Jupiter Pro- pngnator on the Palatine, Lucius Attidius Cornelianus has been elected." Sometimes they add the name of the deceased member whose place was vacant : •' Claudius Paternus cooptatus in locum Attidi Corneliani vita functi " (a. d. 198). On the top of the steps of the temple there is a fragment of an altar inscribed with the words, " Domitius Calvinus, son of Marcus, high priest, consul for the second time and [victorious] general [has built or repaired or ornamented this building, or raised this monument] with the spoils of war." (See Ephemeris epigraphica, 1^72, p. 21").) Cneus Domitius Calvinus, consul in .53 and 40 B. c, is the gallant general of Julius Ca'sar who led the centre at the battle of Pharsalos. Later he cari-ied on a successful campaign in Spain, for which he was rewarded with the triumph in 86 b. c. With the spoils of war — aurum cornnarium — he restored the Regia by the house of the Vestals, as related by Dion Cassius (xlviii. 42). The altar, tlierefore, has nothing to do with the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator, having been found in January, 1868, at some distance from it, in the excavations of the Forum Palatinum. It ought to be put back in its place by the Regia. The four pieces of fluted stone columns placed by Rosa at the top of the stairs belong like- wise to another edifice, perhaps to the Temple of Cybele. Pirro Ligorio pretends to have seen a fragment of the colossal statue of the god, measuring eight feet from shoulder to shoulder. It was 138 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE sold by Cristoforo Stati to a stone-cutter named Leonardo Cieco " per fame opere moderne." His statement (Bodleian MSS. p. 138) deserves no credit. Ekferences. — Corpus Inscr. Lat., vol. vi. p. 450, n. 2004-2009. — Adolf Becker, Topograpkie, p. 422. — Ludwig Preller, Rum. Mythologie, p. 177. XV. DoMus Augustan A (house of Augustus). — An irregular opening made in March, 1893, through the left wall of the Stadium (Fig. 53, BB.) leads — for the time being — into the house of Augustus. This newly cut passage seems to be calculated to mislead the visitor at once : it occupies the site of a staircase connecting the two floors of the house, the remains of which were likewise obliterated in 1893, leaving only the marks of the steps against the side walls. The following plan (Fig. .53), although defective in two or three points, which cannot be made good unless the excavations are completed, will enable the visitor to find his way without difficulty. The Palatine hill, so near the Forum and the Capitol, the cen- tres of Roman political and business life, had always been the favorite place of residence with statesmen, eminent lawyers, and orators, and wealthy citizens in general. Augustus made it the seat of the Empire. Born near the east corner of the hill, in the lane named " ad capita bubula," ^ he selected it again as the Imperial residence, after the victory of Actium, which had made him master of the world. The ambitious plan was not carried into execution at once. He began, 44 b. c, by j^urchasing the modest house of Hortensius the orator, the columns and pavements of which were of common stone. After the conquest of Egypt in 28, he bought other property, including the house of Catilina. The Imperial residence was then rebuilt on a larger scale and in more becoming style, the whole estate being divided into three sections. The first, from the side of the Velia, was occupied by the Propylaia, the Temple of Apollo, the Portico of the Danaids, and the Greek and Latin libraries , the middle section by the Shrine of Vesta ; the last, on the side of the Circus, by the Im- perial house.2 This magnificent set of buildings was crowded 1 "Ox-heads." The tomb of Metella is actually called " Capo-di-Bove " from the ox-skiills of its frieze. The lane where Augustus was born was close to the "street of the old Curife," ad Curias veteres. •2 " Phoebus habet partem: Vests pars altera cessit — quod superest illis, ter- tius ipse tenet " (Ovid, Frmf., iv. 951). References for the Temple of Apollo, and the Portico of the Danaids: Rodolfo Lanciani, II tempio di ApnlUni- palatino (in Bull. arch, com., vol. xi. ]SS;i, p. 185, pi. 17); and Ancient Rome, p. 109. — Christian Huelsen, Miltheiluiifjcn, 1888, p. 296; and 1895, p. 28. THE HOUSE OF AUGUSTUS 139 with the masterpieces of Greek, Tuscan, and Roman art, as mi- nutely described in '• Ancient Rome," p. 109. The building of a shrine of Vesta near the house was a necessity of state, since Aus'ustus had been elected iiontifex maximus after the death of CONVENT OF VISITATION I IkH Mril il o o oooeoo e qqooooo COURT ooooooooo ooooooo ■—1 r"-TT?^r~T o , ° ° PULVINAR Fig. 53. — I'lau of the Doimis Aiigii.stana, Ground Floor. 140 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE ^milius Lepidus in 12 u. c. On this occasion the old pontifical palace was presented to the Vestals, to increase the accommodation provided by theii- own. The Domus Augustana was destroyed by the fire of Nero, with the exception of the room in which the founder of the Empire had slept for forty years. It was rebuilt by Domitian towards a. d. 85, never to suffer any more by the violence of man or at the hand of Time, until the vandal hand of the Abbe Rancoureuil ruined it in 1775. The Temple of Apollo and its libraries were destroyed in the night, between the 18th and 19th of March, a. d. 363, the fury of the flames being such that only the Sibylline books were saved from the wreck. We hear no more of the monumental group until the time of Fra Giocondo da Verona (f 1520), when the beautiful ruins, set in their frame of evergreens, began to at- tract the attention of architects and archaeologists. Dosio, Palla- dio, Heemskerk, Ligorio, Panvinio have left important memoranda of the state of the " palazzo maggiore " in the sixteenth century. Palladio mistook the palace for a public bath — terme di palazzo maggiore — but his plan is none the less important. I found it in the Burlington-Devonshire collection and published it in the " Mittheilungen " of 1894, plates i.-iii. Comparing the various accounts, maps, drawings, sketches, acts of notaries, etc., of the cinquecento, we gather the following information : — The ground occupied by the Augustan buildings belonged, towards the middle of the sixteenth century, half to Alessandro Colonna, half to Cristoforo Stati. Duke Paolo IMattei purchased both properties about 1560. We do not know whether Alessandro Colonna had searched the grouiul : the two other gentlemen did. They came across (and destroyed) the Propylaia, described by Pliny (xxxvi. 4, 10); the Portico of the Danaids. described by Propertius (ii. 31) ; and the Temple of Vesta. No mention is made of the Temple of Apollo, unless we can consider as such the notice given by Pietro Saute Bartoli (Memorie, n. 7) of the discovery of a hiding-place inlaid with precious stones, where the Sibylline books wereprobably kept. The Portico of the Danaids numbered fifty-two columns of glatto antico, many of which have been recovered from time to time, probably because they were considered unfit for the lime-kiln. " On October 29, 1664," says an eye-witness, "in the gardens of Duke :Mattei, a portico was discovered of extraordinary i-ichness, with columns of giallo an- fico. and two bas-reliefs representing Romulus, the Wolf, the Lupercal, Faustulus, the Tiber, and other sulijects connected with THE HOUSE OF AUGUSTUS 141 the foundation of Rome." Winckelmann speaks of two other panels representing Dajdalos and Ikaros, and a young Satyr drink- ing from a cup. A fifth, described by Matz, represents Theseus and the Minotaur, a sixth Ulysses and Diomedes. In 1728 Count Spada, who had bought the villa from the Mattel, discovered seven rooms " ornamented with precious marbles, gilt metal, stucco bas-reliefs on a golden ground, and arabesques." In one of the rooms, which was used for bathing purposes, there was a marble cathedra, and a basin of lead before it. The two columns of oriental alabaster, which stood on each side of the cathedra, were removed to the chapel of Prince Odescalchi in the church of SS. Apostoli. Count Si>ada found also " several broken statues of marble and bronze." In 1825 Charles Mills found another column of yiallo 2.25 metres long, lying on a marble pavement, at a depth of 1.5G metre. Other pieces of fluted shafts of giallo came to light in 1869 and 1877, in the excavations of the so-called Stadium, where they had rolled down from the portico, together with the eighteen or twenty torsos of the Danaids described by Flaminio Vacca (Mem. 77). In March, 1849, Colonel Robert Smith, who had succeeded Charles Mills in the ownership of the grounds, destroyed a portion of the Pulvinar (see Fig. 53), to make room for a carriage road between the gate on the Via de' Cerchi and the Casino. In the same year he discovered the drain connecting the Area ApoUinis with the main sewer of the Vallis Murcia. The blame for having destroyed to a great extent the house of Augustus rests with the Frenchman Rancoureuil, who exca- vated the Villa Spada in 1775, and sold even the bricks and stones of the historical sanctuary to a stonecutter in the Campo Vaccino named Vinelli. I have heard it related that the abbe was so anxious to keep his proceedings secret, that besides preventing any one front seeing the excavations by daylight (except his friend Barberi), he kept a fierce mastiff to watch the place at night. Roman archaeologists, however, did not give up the con- test, and a young man named Benedetto Mori, an assistant of Piranesi, volunteered to sketch the plan of the ruins coute qui coute. He began by making advances to the dog, tempting him with food, until after many nocturnal meetings the two became so friendly that the beast helped the architect to accomplish his mission. U appears from his designs — although rather imperfect — that the front of the palace followed the curve of the Pulvinar 142 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE ox state balcony from which the games of the Circus were seen, and tliat there were five windows on either side of the entrance door. This door was still visible in 1829, but it is concealed now by the gardener's house. Inside the building first came the atrium (A) with a colonnade on each side, giving access to apartments of elaborate shape and design ; farther on was the court of honor, with a peristyle of 56 fluted marble columns of the Ionic order, on which opened other private apartments. One of the most elegant chambers was the sterquilinvum (CC), with three recesses supported by finely carved brackets. Its pavement and walls were incrusted with polychrome marbles ; of marble also were the water-pipes connected with the basins. The lead pipes found in other parts of the building bore the name of Domitian. No trace seems to have been found of the tower or " belvedere " named Syracuse or rexvSfpvov, to which Augustus retired when worn with the care of governing the world. From this locus in edito, as Suetonius calls it, he must have watched day by day the trans- formation of the capital, which he had found built of bricks and wanted to leave a city of marble. Just opposite the west windows of the palace, his friend L. Cornificius was rebuilding with great magnificence the old federal Temple of Diana on the Aventine, and Augustus himself the three temi^les of Minerva, Juno Regina, and Jupiter Libertas on the same hill. Turning to tlie other points of the horizon, he could see the transformation of the Campus ^lartius made by Agrippa and by himself, the Portico and Temple Ilerculis Musarum built by jMarcius Philippus, the Atrium Libertatis by Asinius Pollio, the Temple of Saturn by Munatius Plancus, a theatre and a portico by Cornelius Balbus, an amphitheatre by Statilius Taurus, and scores of other edifices, masterpieces of architecture and museums of fine arts. Of the Domus Augustana nothing except a few bare walls is left standing, and three underground rooms of graceful design, marked DDI) in the plan (p. 139). The shimmering light which falls througli masses of ivy from an opening in the middle of the ceilings makes these ruins very picturesque. As a contrast to the loneliness of the spot, there is above our heads an artistic gem of the cinquecento, a small portico designed and painted by llaffaellino del Colle. The subjects of the graceful frescoes are: Cupid showing the arrow to Venus ; Venus lacing her sandals ; Jupiter in the form of a Satyr pursuing Antiope ; and other such mythological scenes. The frescoes, injured by neglect, were re- stored by Camuccini in 1824 at the expense of Charles Mills. THE HOUSE OF AUGUSTUS 143 It is probable that the works of art, discovered at various times in the adjoining Stadium, have fallen there from the Domus Augustana and from the Portico of the Danaids (see § xxii.). The two columns of alabaster found in 1728 have been used in the decoration of the Odescalchi chapel. The two bas-reliefs symbolic of the foundation of Rome (]\loniimenta Mattheiana, vol. iii. pis. 37 and 45) are now set into the wall of the courtyard of the Palazzo Mattel. The third, with Daedalos and Ikaros (Winckelmann, Monum. inediti, n. 95), belongs to the Villa Albani ; the fourth, with the young Satyr (Visconti, Museo Pio Clement, vol. iv. pi. 31), to the Galleria dei candelabri. The fifth, of Theseos and the Minotaur, is broken in two, one part belong- ing to the British Museum (Ancient Marbles, xi. 48), one to the Museo delle Terme in Rome. The latter also owns the sixth panel, with the figures of Ulysses and Diomedes. How interesting it would be to the stiulent if plaster-casts of this unique set of panels were exhibited in the place to which the originals belong ! The capital of the Corinthian order with the acanthus leaves bending from right to left (Guattani, Monum. ined., vol. ii. 1785, p. 94, tav. ii. fig. G) is now in England. The exfjuisite frieze of the sterquilinium was divided between the architect Barberi and the Venetian amlxissador Andrea Memmo. One of the two Leda? discovered by Rancoureuil went to England, and the Apollo Sauroktonos, also discovered by him, was purchased by Pius VI. for the Museo Vaticano (Galleria delle statue, No. 264). The Apollo Citharoedos by Scopas, which stood in the temple, between the images of Latona and Diana, is represented in some brass medals of tlie time of Augustus; there are also several reproduc- tions in marble. The one (No. 516) in the Hall of the Muses was found in 1774 in the Pianella di Cassio near Tivoli. A second replica (No. 495 in the same hall), known as "Bacchus in Female Attire," and very mucli restored, w'as removed from the Villa Negroni. There is a third subject in the hall of the Greek Cross, No. 582, known as the " IMuse Erato," which does not deserve the name of Apollo Palatinus attributed to it in official catalogues. The last replica, discovered in the Villa of Quintus Voconius Pollio near Marino, March, 1885, was purchased by Leo XIII., and largely restored by Galli. It now occupies the place of the Faun of Circieii, No. 41 Braccio nuovo. In all these works of art " Apollo appears in a costume which at first sight surprises us. We seem to have before us one of those exalted females who were mistresses of the Ivre and of song. 144 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE aud we require circumstantial evidence to convince us that these splendid robes envelop the form of a slender youtli." ' References. — Giuseppe Guattani, Roma descritta ed illustrata, vol. i. p. 48, tav. viii.-xiv. ; and Monumenti inediti, vol. ii. 1785, pp. 1 and 29. — Luigi Canina, Edljizii di Roma antica, vol. iv. pi. 108. — Henry Deglane, Gazette Archeol., 1888, p. 14r5. — Bullettlno arch, com., vol. xi. 188.3, p. 185. — Visconti aud Lanciani, Guida del Palatino, Rome, 1873, pp. 33 and 98. — Rodolfo Lan- ciani, Pagan and Christian Rome, chap. v. ; and II palazzo maygiore, in Mit- theilungen, 1894, pp. 3-36. XVI. DoMus TiBERiANA (house of Tiberius), Fig. 54. — We now cross the valley which separated, before Domitian's time, the house of Augustus from the Cermalus, and visit the wing of the Imperial residence which owes its existence to Tiberius and Cali- gula. This part is not yet laid bare, the underground floor alone having been made accessible here and there. As we have observed in the introductory remarks, the substructures are most irregular in their plan, because they were intended to serve but one pur- pose : to support an artificial j^latform, upon w^hich the palace was built on its own independent design. At the same time we must acknowledge that the irregularity of the substructures is less apparent here than in any other section of the hill, so that we can almost foresee what would be the general outline of the Domus Tiberiana and of the Domus Gaiana if the living apartments were laid bare. The two buildings now form a rectangle 150 metres long and 115 metres wide, limited by the Forum Palatinum on the south, by the area containing the prehistoric monuments on the west, by the Clivus Yictorise on the north and east. It contains the following j^laces of interest : (XIV) the Domus Tiberiana ; (XV) the House of Germanicus ; (XVI) the wing added by Cali- gula, which we shall call Domus Gaiana; (XVII) the Forum Pala- tinum, a public square between the palaces of Caligula and Domi- tian. Apropos of the last-named place, the reader must remember that the Imperial buildings of the Palatine did not form a mass inaccessible to the public, like the Vatican palace and gardens of the present day; the hill w^as crossed by streets and passages, through which the citizens could probably pass without restric- tion at all hours of the day. The gates witli which these streets and passages are provided were probably closed at night, and had a guard posted by them.^ This is certain for the Porta 1 Emil Braun, Ruins and MvKevms, p. 230. 2 At the time of Caligula's murder the watch at the main gate was probably kept by the Gennani corporis ciistodes (Suetonius, 58). There were also por- ters {janitores) assisted by a watch-dog (Suetonius, Vitellius, 16). Ef™t3io ~1 TTH 41 I H m ol (XV) IniU-SE OF (iKKMANlCrS ro (XIV) FISH POND ? [muunpnn CLIVUS VICTORIAE* '^1 Fig. 54. — Plan of the Doraus Tiberiana and of the Domus Gaiaua. 146 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE Romanula and the Clivus Victoriae, and for the grand state en- trance in front of Doniitian's palace ; it is probable for the steps of Cacus, at the top of which the jambs of a travertine gate are still to be seen. For other streets of access to the Palatine we must await the results of further excavations. Tiberius Claudius Nero, father of the Eiuperor, owned a modest house (XV) on the Palatine, which afterwards came into the pos- session of Germanicus. Tiberius the Emperor raised a noble palace next to it, known in classic documents as the Domus Tibe- riana. It formed a square, the south side of which opened on the street called " Victoria Germaniciana," whilst the west towered above the valley of the Velabrum at the height of 50 metres, the north touched the Temple of Victory and Caligula's palace, and the east opened on the Forum Palatinum. Tacitus (Hist., i. 27) says that Otho, wishing to join the con- spirators against the life of Galba, who were about to meet in the Forum, descended to the Velabrum through the Domus Tiberiana (probably by the steps of Cacus, or by one of the private stairs which are still to be seen behind the gardener's house and the walls of Romulus). The same historian describes Vitellius glutting himself in the banqueting-room of the palace, while his jiartisans, who were fighting against Flavins Sabinus, had set the Capitol ablaze. The fire could be seen from the Imperial table. On re- ceiving the news of his defeat, which left no hope for his crown or foi" his life, he rushed to the Aventine jjer aversam partem palatii, viz., by the same steps which Otho had descended a few months before. The great attraction of the palace was the library, Bibliotheca Tiberiana, which seems to have contained state papers and docu- ments more than books. The passage of Dion Cassiiis about the fire of Commodus very probably refers to it : " The flames per- vaded the palace with such suddenness and force that nearly all the registers and records of the Empire were lost." The only portion now visible is the arched substructures of the south front, with a row of cells very poorly lighted, ventilated, and ornamented (see Fig. 49). They must have been occupied by soldiers or slaves. One of them (A) protected by a wooden railing, is very rich in grafiiti, lately published and explained by Professor Correra in " Bull. arch, com.," 1894, p. 95, plates 2-4. There ai-e mairy names, followed by the specification castre\ji]sis, "from the praetorian camp," or milea, "soldier." One of them writes in tolei-ably good Greek, " Many have Mritten many tilings THE HOUSE OF TIBERIUS 147 on this wall, I nothing ; " to which another hand subscribes •• Bravo ! " Per- haps the most curious sratiito , v ,.,( is a rough TV /.L/V^X^'I sketch of the head of Nero made by a soldier named TuUius Romanus. ^^ ^ ^-,\\ k 3; i Rough sketches and bona-lide carica- .^^'^.' ^t :i}''<^''-^ turesof Imperial heads are not unknown ; '- .'' i" \ on the Palatine. One was found in /,^ ,/|y iT^_^> March, 1876, by an English lady, graf- ^'V,f \ \ fito on a slab of giallo antico with the \ ' , j|.^ ^^ ~ semi-barbaric legend " Caxir Xero " (iVero V\Vj 'A v\S\vx .. -^ JS Ccesar), the work of one of the Teutonic • \! ^ C^-"" '"^J body-guard.i This also is a specimen of \ ~^^ i the artistic propensities of another sol- A /f dier, who perhajjs had just seen the Em- 1 2_ // peror walking in front of the corpx-de- /\^ { fjarde of the Domus Tiberiana. Several A officers from the Domus Tiberiana are /'J recorded in Roman epitaphs : a balam- // helus acuarius, or plumber (Corpus, n. Fig. 55. — A Graffito of the 8653) an alhanus a supelectile. or keeper Domus Tiberiana. of plate (n. 8654) ; ajucundus vilicus, or caretaker (n. 8655), etc. XVII. House of Germanicus (Fig. .54, XV.). — This beau- tiful edifice was discovered in the spring of 1869, and I well re- memV)er the excitement created among artists and archseologists by the appearance of its celebrated paintings. It is the only Ro- num private house now existing, the one discovered l)y Azara in the Villa ]\Iontalto, near the present railway station, having been destroyed in 1777, and its paintings cut away from the walls and sold to Lord Bristol. ^ The house has but one entrance (B), not from the streets, which go round thi-ee sides of it, but from the cryptoporticus of the 1 Published in facsimile, Bull. arch, cow., 1877, p. 166. ■- The house discovered by Azara was illustrated by Angelo Uggeri, Iconografia deyli erlifizi di Roma antica, vol. iii. pis. 14-17, p. 53; vol. ii. pi. 24. — Raffaele Mengs and Camillo Buti, Pitture trovate I' anno 1777 nelhi rilln Ner]voni. 13 plates. — Camillo Massimi, Notizie della villa Massimi, Rome, 1836, p. 214. — Luigi Canina, Edijizl di Roma antica, vol. iv. tav. 192. 148 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE palace of Tiberius and CaligTila, in which the murder of the latter took place on January 24, a. d. 41. The historians who describe the event say that the murderers, not daring to retrace their steps for fear of the guards posted at the main entrance by the Velia, ran away in the opposite direction and concealed themselves in the house of Germanicus. This statement leaves no doubt as to the identity of the building, which, besides, abounds in hiding- places, crypts, and underground passages running in the direction of the house of Augustus. The intense love felt by the Romans for the unhappy prince, and the veneration for his memory, which lasted for centuries, explain the fact that this house alone, among so many public and private buildings, altars, shrines, temples, palaces, etc., destroyed by the Cpesars, was kept as a national relic down to the fall of the Empire. Evidence of the care taken of, and of repairs made on, the house from time to time is to be found in the legends of its water-pipes. One bears the name " Ivliae-Avg" (Julia, the daughter of Titus, or Julia Domna) ; the second, " Domitiani Caesar[/.s'] Avg[usti] " ; the third has the name of a plumber, " \j\iicius'\ Pescennivs Eros," probably a contempo- rary of Septimius Severus. The fore portion of tlie house, sunk below the level of the street, is built of reticulated work with small prisms of yellowish tufa. The angles and arches are of the same material, without any mixture of bricks, a style of masonry which came into fashion towards the end of the Republic. Like all Roman private resi- dences, it is divided into two sections: one for the reception of friends and clients, one for domestic use. We enter the first by an inclined vestibule paved with fine mosaic. Tlie atrium (C) was probably testudinatum, viz. covered by a roof with no impluinum in the centre. The pavement is of fine mosaic ; and there are remains of the altar of the domestic gods (D). Three halls open on the side opposite the vestibule ; the first on the left (E), dam- aged by the sinking of the outer wall, has some good decorative panels divided by slender columns, with ivy and vines woven around their shafts. The central hall or tablinum (F) has a similar decoration of composite columns, but the panels contain frescoes far superior to the others in interest, design, and execution. They have been reproduced many times and by various processes by Rosa, Perrot, and the German Institute ; the best copes in facsimile, made at the time of the discovery by M. Layraud, were presented by Napoleon III. to the Library of the l^cole des Beaux Ai'ts. THE HOrSE OF GERMANICVS 149 The one in the back wall represents Polyphemus the giant, half merged in the waters of the sea, who, having crushed his rival Akis under a heavy rock, turns toward Galatea with an expression of cruelty mingled with tenderness. The Xymph glides over the water on the back of a sea-horse, followed by two Nereids. The passion by which the giant was nuxstered is represented by a Cupid, who stands upright on his left shoulder and guides him with a ribbon. On the right, and above the frieze, there is a smaller panel rejiresenting a scene of private initiation. The picture which follows, on turning to the right wall, belongs to the landscape order, and show^s a sti-eet scene with houses many stories high on either side. A woman, followed by her attendant, knocks at one of the doors, and four or five figures appear at the windows or on the balconies to make sui'e who is seeking for admittance. The second small panel, above the frieze, seems to indicate the preparations for a domestic sacrifice. The last and best picture pertains to the myth of lo, loved by Jupiter and persecuted by Juno. The fair daughter of Inachus is kept jirisoner in the sacred wood by Mycen.T, and sits at the foot of a pillar surmounted by the image of the jealous goddess. The all-seeing Argos, armed with lance and sword, gazes intently at the girl in his custody. Behind the rock, on which he is leaning with the right elbow, Mercury appears to advance cautiously, waving the caduceus as a symbol of his mission from the father of the gods for the deliverance of lo. The name EPMH2 is written in white letters under the Messenger's feet, and there is no doubt that the other jiersonages were likewise indicated by their proper names in, APFOS. The dining-room or Irirlinium (G) opens on the west side of the court. Its frescoes have suffered very mucli from exposure and damp, the apartment being sunk four metres l)elow the street. The walls have been found coated with flange tiles, with the rim turned inwards, so as to leave a free space for the circulation of air and the evaporation of moisture. A curious vase of glass filled with fruit is painted above the entrance door. The panels have a vermilion ground, except two which show fanciful groups of birds, animals, trees, etc., on a white surface, the work of a very inferior artist. Admittance to the inner (and higher) rooms is gained by a narrow wooden staircase (H) on the west side of the atrium, near the door of the iricliniiDii : but they hardly deserve a visit, having been despoiled of every bit of ornamentation. 150 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE References. — Pietro Rosa, Plan et peintures de la niaison pnternelle de Tib'ere, s. 1. — Lanciani and Visconti, Guida del Palatino, Rome, Bocca, 1873, p. 132. — Georges Perrot, Memulres d^ircheologie, Paris, Didier, 1875, p. 74. (Les peintures du Palatin.) — J. H. Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. p. 175. — Monumenti delV lustituto, vol. xi. pis. 22, 23. XVIII. DoMUS Gaiana (house of Caligula), Fig. 54, XVI. — Suetonius (Calig. 22) and Dion Cassius (lix. 28; Ix. 6) say that Caligula protracted the Imjjerial Palace as far as the Forum {ad Forum usque), making use of the Temple of Castor and Pollux for a vestibule. lie must have thus occupied and built over the ground once covered by the houses of Clodius, Cicero, and other wealthy citizens, described in § ii., and crossed by the Clivus Victorife. The front of the palace opened on the Nova Via, towering above its pavement to the height of 150 feet. This facade is represented in its present ruinous state by the following plate (Fig. 56). Starting from the foreground — the Clivu.s Sacer by the Arch of Fabius Allobrogicus — we first see the house of the Vestals, with the statues of the priestesses lining the south side of the peristyle ; and above it the Nova Via, by which the house was separated from Caligula's palace. The whole mass of arched masonry which rises above the street, and which appears ci'owned by a clump of ilexes, represents only the substructures built by Caligula to raise the slope of the hill to a level with its summit. The palace itself, with its state apartments and halls and porti- coes, began where the ruins actually stop, not a particle being left above ground to tell the tale. The substructures, at all events, are well worth visiting : we gain by them the true idea of the human fourmilliere of slaves, servants, freedmen, and guards, which lived and moved and worked in the substrata of the Palatine, serving the court in silence and almost in darkness. It is difficult to understand or to explain how the greater portion of these under- ground dens were lighted and ventilated. I believe that, in the oi'iginal design, they were well provided with such essential ele- ments of light and comfort : the cryptoporticm, where the mux'der of Caligula took place, received light from tlie Forum Palatinum (Fig. 54, XVII.) by means of skylights opening under each inter- columniation ; the rooms KK had a skylight in the middle of their vaulted ceiling, and so forth. In progress of time, aiul on the occasion of the repairs and changes which every Emperor consid- ered it his duty to make, no regard was paid to the original plan : staircases, windows, and corridors were condemned, intercepted, or THE HOUSE OF CALIGULA 151 closed : rooms subdivided into two or four apartments ; free spaces built over ; and streets tm-ned into dark passages. The student's most perplexing labor on the Palatine is to single out which parts are architecturally essential and pertain to the 152 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE original plan, and which are later changes deserving no considera- tion. His task is made even more tronblesome by the fact that all maps of the hill, from that of Zangolini, which I published in 1873,1 to the latest of Richter (1889), Middletou (1892), and Bm-ns (1895), mark existing remains with the same shade of color, no matter whether they belong to the great banqueting-hall of the masters of the world, or to a cellar sunk deep iu the ground. I have tried to avoid this mistake in Sheets xxix. and xxxv. of the " Forma Urbis," where only the living apartments and public r+H iUji^llllJ Fig. 57. — A Corner of tlie Palace of Caligula according to Rosa's Map. buildings are marked in full tint, the substructures and cellars in lighter color or in simple outline. The results obtained by this process of sifting are in many cases remarkable. The following from Caligula's house might serve for all. The portion of the house which spans the Clivus Victorias is represented in guide and topographical books as follows (Fig. 57) : According to this accepted plan, none of the rooms marked AA, BB, CC had light or air, the whole space — the street included — being vaulted over. Now, as " several rooms . . . are richly 1 The same that I have made use of in Ancient Rome, pp. 106, 107. THE HOUSE OF CALIGULA 153 decorated with a combinatiou of colored stucco reliefs and paint- ings on the flat, very gorgeous in effect, but almost invisible for want of light, except that of lamp," ^ and others have an elaborate mosaic floor, as is suitable for rooms inhabited, not by slaves, but by officers of superior rank, we w^ere trying to find the proper ex- planation of these facts, but in vain. It came in the most satis- factory way w hen I adopted the system of distinguishing, in color or in outline, the original walls from later additions. By glancing at the nuip made with this caution. Fig. 58, we see at once that when the palace was built by Caligula, the apartments Fig. 58. — The Same, according to Sheet xxix.of the " Forma Urbis." now plunged in darkness received light and air from a court 32 metres long and 26 wide, through which passed the Clivus Victoria^. The rooms on the southwest side opened on a balcony " supported on stone corbels carrying a series of arches." These and the front of the balcony " are richly decorated with delicate reliefs, modeled in stucco, of figures and foliage, once covered with gold and colored decoration, and designed with great skill and beauty of effect " (Middleton). The marble railing or parapet is an addition by Rosa. The rooms under the balcony, on a level with the court, were used as a corps de garde. The walls of one (now protected by a 1 Middleton, i. 194. 154 THE RUIN^ AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE wooden railing) are covered with graffiti. There are names like " Philaronivs," " Annaevs," " Aprilis ; " the inipi-ession of a coin repeated five times ; and the phrase, written perhaps in the hour of the siesta in a hot summer day : " Somnvs clavdit ocellos." (See Bull, arch, com., 1895, p. 195.) Another portion of the building, the cri/ptopnriicus, marked XVIII, Fig. 51, has been identified beyond any shade of doubt with the " solitary and obscure corridor " in which the assassina- tion of Caligula took place on January 14, a. d. 41. The event is described at some length on pp. 117-119 of " Ancient Rome." Near the bend of the crriptoporticus towards the house of Ger- manicus, there is an oval basin, which Rosa calls a fish-pond (vivaio di pesci). I doubt whether it is ancient, or the work of a mediaeval farmer. It marks the i^lace in which the Renaissance lime-burners established their kilns. One of these was discovered by Rosa in 1866, filled to the brim with exquisite works of art, some of which had by an accident escaped the effects of fire. The objects formerly exhibited in the local Museo Palatino, where they attracted intense interest, and now scattei'ed in various rooms of the Museo delle Terme, comprise a veiled head of the Emperor Claudius; a head of Nero; three caryatides or eaHe/j/io/-rt« of nero antico of an archaistic type ; an exquisite statue of an ephebos in green basalt, with the arms and lower portion of the legs miss- ing ; ^ head of Arpokras, and several fragments of less importance. The last place deserving of a visit is the long and well-preserved staircase which leads from the Clivus Victoriae to the top of the ruins, where a charming little grove of evergreens now casts its shade. The grove is known in literary histoi'y as the first place of meeting of the Accademia degli Arcadi. The palace, or whatever remained of it in tolerable preservation after the barbarian inroads, was taken possession of and some- times inhabited by the popes, as a practical evidence of their political power in Rome. The palace was put under the cai'e of an officer styled a ciira jjalatii. One of them named Plato, whose epitaph was seen by Pietro Sabino in tlie pavement of the church of S. Anastasia, rebuilt or repaired about 680 the long staircase which I have just mentioned as descending from tlie top of the ruins to the Clivus Victoi-iae and the Porta Romanula. His son, having been elected pojie in 705 under the name of ,Iohn VI I.,^ 1 The statue has been recently ilUistrated by F. Hauser in the MlUhnlunijen for 1805, pp. 97-119, pi. 1. (Basalt statue vom Palatin.) 2 John VII. was buried in S. Peter's before the altar of the Sudario, which THE HOUSE OF CALIGULA 155 conceived the plan of making the palace of the Caesars the perma- nent and official residence of the Bishops of Rome ; and accord- ingly " super ecclesiam sanctaj Dei genitricis qua? antiqua vocatur [above the church of S. ]\Iaria Liberatrice] episcopium construere vol nit," 1 and established brick-kilns for the purpose, the produce of which is marked by the stamp shown in Fig. 59. Fig. 59. — A Brick Stamp of Jolin VII. John YIT. did not live to see his project accomplished : his successors did not care for it, and they repaired to the convents or strongholds of the Palatine only in case of necessity. Celes- tinus II. died in 1144 apud Palladium (in the monastery of S. Cesario) ; Lucius II. in 114.3 ap>id ecclesiam S. Gregorii (in the fortress of the Septizonium) ; Eugenius III. was elected pope in 1145 apud monasteriiun S. Cesarii ; Gregory IX. in 1227 apiid sep- temsolium. They were simply chosen as places of refuge in times of popular disorder, which once quelled, the popes resumed their habitual residence at the Lateran. Caligula's palace has not been excavated since the sack by the Duke qf Parma in 1725-27 ; and we do not know whether thei'e are still traces left of the work of John VII. or of his Imperial predecessors. XIX. The Palace of Domitiax (ojKi'a Ao/xenavoC). — One of the first thoughts of Vespasian, after iiis election in a. d. 69, was to reduce the Imperial residence to its old limits on the Palatine, he had built and endowed. His portrait, a miniature in a golden ground, is given by Giacomo Grimaldi, Cod. Barb., f. 9-3. 1 References. — Liber pontijicalis, in .lohann. VII., ed. Duchesne, vol. i. p. 385. — G. Battista de Rossi, Notizie deyli Scari, dicemb. 188-3. — Rodolfo Lauciani, L' itinerario di Einsiedlen, p. 63. — Louis Duchesne, Btdletin cri- tique, 188.5, p. 417 sq. ; and Milanrieif de V Ecole franq(nse de Rome, 1896, fasc. ii. — Grisar Hartniann, S. .T., in CiriUa Cattol, May, 189G. loG THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE and give back to the people the immense tract of land which Nero had usurped for his Golden House. At the same time he could not abstain from raising himself a new palace, to be used for state receptions and banquets. This great structure, called by Nerva cedes publicce populi Romani, was brought to perfecticg;i by Domitian, who lavished upon it all the costliest productions of contemporary art. Hence Plutarch (Poplic, 15) calls it o'lKia Aofieriavov, and compares Domitian to Midas, who turned into gold whatever fell under his touch. See also the eulogy of Statins (Sylv., iv. 11, 18). It stands between the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula on one side, and that of Augustus (with its temples and porticoes) on the other, in the line of the valley which runs from the Arch of Titus to the Circus. The valley was still occupied at that time by private mansions, and by one or two shrines ; they were not destroyed, but made use of to support the platform on which the palace stands. Some of these older buildings are still visible, and will be described below. The plan of the palace is that of a private Roman house, but it is of a size and magnificence becoming the ruler of the world. Little or nothing is known of its history ; in fact, it seems never to have required repairs on account of the solidity of its construction. The Emperors did not live in it, but held their levees, delivered their judgments, presided over councils of state, received foreign envoys, and gave official banquets in the various apartments set apart for such purposes. The last Emperor seen in the palace was Heraclius, whose coronation took place in the throne-room a. d. 629. We hear of it again nine centuries later, when the northern half of the Palatine was bought by the Farnese. To this family we owe the first excavations of the Palatine. They took place in 1536, when the avenue now called di S. Gregorio was cut open between the Septizonium and Constantine's Arch for the triumphal progress of Charles V. In the legal deeds for the acquisition of property on the hill, the Farnese, and above all the glorious Cardinal Alessan- dro, always betray their inclination for archaeological discoveries. One of them, dated January 17, 1542, contains these words : "Marco Antonio Palosio sells to tlie cardinal, etc., his vinej^ard on the Palatine, adjoining that of Yirginio da Mantaco, with its crypts, ruins, edifices, marbles, and statues, whether visible above ground or covered yet by the accumulation of soil." The result of the Farnese excavations is not known ; but considering that the front walls of the gardens (destroyed in 1881) cut the house of the Vestals right in two, that the Uccelliera (now the Uffizio 158 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE degli Scavi) was founded on Caligula's palace, and the Casino (described on p. 164) on that of Domitian, something of value must certainly have come to light. Tlie only monument mentioned by contemporary archfeologists is the pedestal (Corpus Inscr., vi. 456) which marks approximately the site of the ^des Penatium in Velia. It was discovered near the Arch of Titus. Three halls open on the front of Domitian's palace : tlie throne- room, aula regia, in the centre ; the chapel, or lararium, on the left ; and a basilica, or court-room, on the right. The throne-room, built of bricks from the kilns of Flavia Domitilla, is 160 feet long and 120 wide, and was decorated with sixteen columns of pavonazzetto (aa), having bases and capitals exquisitely cut in ivory-coloi-ed marble. There were three niches on either side for colossal statues or groups, and each of them was flanked by smaller columns of porphyry. The two statues of black basalt, discovered in the adjoining basilica in 1724, had been probably removed from these niches. On either side of the great door (b), opening on the front portico, stood two columns of giallo antico, which the Duke of Parma sold to the stone-cutters Perini and IMaciucchi for 3000 scudi. The threshold was made of a block of Greek marble so large that the high altar of the church of S. M. ilotonda has been cut out of it. The throne (c), or augustale solium, was placed ojDposite the door, in the apse where Bianchini in 1726 set up his mendacious praise of Francis I., Duke of Parma and Piacenza, the last destroyer of the Palatine. Bianchini has given the name of lararimn, or do- mestic chapel, to the room on the left, on account of the altar which he found built against the back wall. The altar, which was approached by two flights of stairs, has since been demolished. Here took place the remarkable find described in " Ancient Rome," p. 127. Heliogabalus, according to Herodianus, had attempted to collect into the chaj^el attached to the palace of the Caesars the most famous relics of the Roman world — the Palladium, the fire of Vesta, the ancilia, and, of course, the Acus Matris Deum or meteoric stone from Pessinus, described in § xiii. The stone, it may be remembered, was very large, of conical shape, and brown in color. Monsignor Bianchini, who excavated the lararium in 1725, seems to have positively discovered the relic. " I am sorry," he says, " that no fragment of statue or bas-relief or inscription has been found in the chapel ; . . . the only object discovered was a stone nearly three feet high, conical in shape, of a deep brow'n color, looking very much like lava, and ending in a sharp point. I do not know what became of it." THE PALACE OF DOM TT I AN 159 If my siu-mise i.s well founded, and the identity between the Acus Matris Deum and Bianchini's stone probable, if not certain, we can better understand the passage of the " A^ita Heliog.," iii. The templum HeJiogahali iuxta (edes imperatorias, which he men- tions, must have been close to the lararium, unless the lararium itself was transformed into a temple. Behind the chapel is the only staircase (d) yet discovered in these apartments. It led to the iipper galleries, from which the great ceremonies of state coidd be witnessed by invited guests. Another flight of steps, now buried again, leads to the wine-cellars, whei-e Bianchini discovered, in 1721, rows of amphorfe marked with the label liquamen excellens L. Purelli Gemelli (Bianchini, p. 260). The walls of the staircase and those of the room (e) were covered with exquisite fresco paintings, of which not a square inch has been spared desti-uction. Fortunately they were copied in time b}- Gaetano Piccini and Francesco Bartoli. Piccini's album is to be found now in the Museum of the Hofburg, Vienna; Bartoli's plates in the Topham collection at Eton. These last number 58, of which 10 are of great size. They represent cam- pestrian scenes, sacritices, and Bacchic dances, crowded with grace- fid figures.! Some of the subjects have also been engraved on copper. They are to be found in Cameron's " Baths of the Romans from tlie Restorations of Palladio " (London, 1772) ; in INIorghen's appen- dix to the " Pictura? antiquas Cryptarum Romanarum " of Bartoli ; and in tlie '• Collection of Ancient Paintings after the Originals at Rome, witli Critical, Historical, and Mythological Observations upon them," by George Turnbull, LL. D. (London, 1741, folio, 54 plates). When we think that these exquisite specimens of the golden art of Domitian's age were found intact in the first quarter of last century, under the eyes of such men as Cardinal Alessandro Albani, Pier Leone Ghezzi, Francesco Bianchini, and Fi-ancesco Bartoli, and that the very walls w^hich they covered wei-e demolished for the sake of the bricks, we may indeed ask by what right we continue blaming the iSIiddle Ages or the barbarians for deeds Avhich are not as disgraceful as those here recorded. The hall on the opposite side of the throne-room is thought to have been a hasilica, or court-room, where the prince delivered judgment in cases pertaining or submitted to the crown. There 1 See Disegni di antichita nella BiMiott-ca di S. Maria di Eton (in Bull, arch, com., 1894, p. 164). — Pirturw antiqiM Cryptanim Romanarum {ibidem, 189.5, p. 182).— II palmzo Mar/r/iore (in Mittheilung-en. 1894, p. 26). 160 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE are still traces of the suggestum or platform on which sat the Im- perial judge and his assessors, and of the staircases which led to it. The fragment of a marble screen, dividing the apse from the space reserved for the audience, and the columns by which the hall would be divided into aisles and nave, are " restorations " of Commenda- tore Rosa, resting on no sufficient evidence. The basilica was excavated for the first time (?) in 1724. There is an account of the results in MSS. p. 248 of the queen's library at Windsor, from which we gather that the two colossal statues of Bacchus and Hercules in black basalt, now in the Museo at Parma, were found lying on the floor on April 20 of the same year. Behind the three front halls opens the inner court or peristyle, the area of which amounts to 3600 square metres. The columns were of porta santa, with columns, capitals, and entablature cut in white marble like lace-work. Suetonius says that this was a favor- ite haunt of Domitian, who could walk under the colonnades away from the crowd and secure from danger. The biographer adds that the side walls had been inci'usted with slabs of phengite marble, reflecting the images like a mirror, so as to allow the prince to see whatever might take place behind his shoulders. The two sides of the peristyle are occupied by a set of nine rooms of various shapes, the use of which it is not easy to imagine. Considering, however, that the middle room, octagonal in shape, forms a vestibule through which personages driving to the palace by the Forum Palatinum were admitted into it, it is obvious that they were used for cloak and waiting rooms, porter's lodge, etc. Before proceeding any farther in our description, it is necessary to remember that below the halls we have visited, and even below the peristyle, there are other splendid apartments, galleries, crypto- porticuses, and bathrooms, the existence of which has remained unknown to the modern excavators of the Palatine. I only dis- covered it myself in 1892, while examining Bianchini's manu- scripts in the Biblioteca Capitolare at Verona, and the Topham collection of drawings at Eton. The subject is so curious and new that a few words of explanation will not be out of place. In 1722, the Marchese Ignazio de' Santi, Minister of Parma to the Pope, asked leave for his master, the Duke Francis, to excavate the Palatine Gardens which he had inherited from the Farnese. Cardinal Patrizi, in giving consent on behalf of Innocent XTII., imposed two conditions : that if the value of gold and silver coins, engraved stones, and medals should eventually exceed the sum of 10.000 scudi, the Pope's treasury should share the profits ; secondly. THE PALACE OF DO MIT I AN 161 that life-size statues and architectural marbles should not be re- moved from Rome. Duke Francesco rebelled against these fair conditions, and his agent in Rome gave so much trouble that, on April 4, 1720, Cardinal Albani gave him carte blanche to do what he pleased on the Palatine. He did not hesitate about it. The acts of vandalism committed by this Ignazio de' Santi and his successor Count Suzzani, with the tacit consent of Monsignore Francesco Bianchini, w^ho had been appointed superintendent of the excavations, have no parallel in the history of the destruction of Rome. The words ladronecci infami, used by Guattani in re- ferring to them, are comparatively mild. The prelate was the only one to sufifer. While watching the works one day, the ground gave way under his feet, and although the di'op w^as hardly four- teen feet, the shock was ultimately the cause of his death. His posthumous volume, " II palazzo dei Cesari," is almost worthless, both in the text and in the plates, which an eye-witness of the excavations, Pier Leone Ghezzi, denounces as ••' impostures." The discovery of an underground floor is not mentioned nor illustrated by Bianchini, and I had to make a pilgrimage to Yerona, Eton, and Paris to collect information about it.^ Without entering into particulars already published in the " Mittheilungen " of 1894, I will merely mention the discovery of a bathroom 21.30 metres long and 11.50 metres deep, the richest and most beautiful apartment, as far as we know, in the whole palace of the Caesars. The walls were incrusted with " Florentine " mosaic work in pieti-a dura, alternating here and there with marble bas-reliefs set in a richly carved frame, and with niches for statues. A colonnade of por- phyry shafts, each two feet in diameter, ran along three sides of the hall ; while on the f oui'th side five lions' heads of gilt bronze threw jets of water into a marble basin. Each fountain was flanked by ten columns of porph^Ty, sei'pentine, giallo, verde, and pavo- nazzetto, with capitals and bases of gilt bronze. The roof (frag- ments of which lay scattered on the pavement inlaid with crusts of the rarest breccias) seems to have been divided into panels, some of which contained mythological groups in fresco painting, others figurines of white stucco on a heavily gilt ground. All these treasm-es were destroyed in May, 1721. An English artist, E. Kirkall, who has left two rare coloi'ed prints of this hall, says in the footnote, '' The plan of Augustus's (Domitian's) bath, 1 The memory of the find was lost altogether by the houses of Parma and Naples and by their diplomatic agents in Rome, so much so that in 18-35 another search was made in the same spot, naturally without results. 162 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE found underground on the east side of the Pahitine hill in Rome in the year 1721, and barbarously defaced and broken in pieces during the conclave of that year, and the broken pieces sent to Parma." It is to be regretted that this underground portion of Domitian's palace, without which we shall never be able to understand the working and mechanism of Roman Imperial state life, should be still buried under a mass of rubbish. The only rooms now visible (under the west wing of the peristyle — very damp and chilly) have nothing to do with it : tliey belong to a private mansion of the late Republic, which Domitian left undisturbed because it lay below the level of his artificial platform. The discoverers of 1720 misnamed it the Baths of Livia (see Fig. 60). The first room at the foot of the (modern) stairs was decorated with arabesques and festoons on a ground of gold ; the second with groups of figurines on a blue ground ; the ornaments of the ceilings were also worthy of the golden age of Augustus. Owing to the neglect in which this gem of Roman domestic architecture has been kept since 1726, the decorations have nearly disappeared. The triclinium, or great state lianqueting-hall, opens on the south side of the peristyle. Nardini has identified it with the lovis Cenado, in which the murder of Pertinax took place, as de- scribed in the " Vita," ch. xi. The biographer says that the three hundred rebels from the Prjetorian camp entered the palace by the vestibule opening on the Forum Palatinum, and rushed through the locus qui appellatur Sicilia to the lovis Cenatio, where they met with their Imperial victim. If the lovis Cenatio is the name of the dining-room, that of Sicilia must belong to the peristyle. Nothing remains to tell us how this hall was decorated save two fragments of granite columns, of which there must have been sixteen. The pavement of the apse, where the table of honor was set, is well preserved, but the administration is compelled to keep it covered, to save it from frost, rain, and the hands of tourists. It is made of crusts of porphyry, serpentine, giallo, and pavo- nazzetto in imitation of geometrical patterns. The small tri- angidar cabinet, on the left of the apse, was probably a latrina. The dining-room was necessarily connected with kitchens and pantry, haunted by hundreds of coci; but here again we are left in the dark because the excavations have stojjped at the wrong level. The tombstones of members of the Imperial household, collected in vol. vi. part ii. pp. 11.50-1204 of the " Corpus Inscrip- tionum," mention among other officers several members of the THE PALACE OF DOMITIAN 163 collegium cocorum Ccesaris (No. 8750) ; a grand chef, prcepositus cocorum (No. 875'2) ; cooks that the Emperors had purchased or obtained from the Cornufician and Sestian families (Nos. 8753, 8754) ; a butler a cena centurionum (No. 8748), viz., for the service of the officers of the bodyguard on duty at the palace ; a super- intendent of the wine-cellars (No. 8745) ; a Gemellus prcejmsilus argenti potorii, keeper of silver drink ing-cups (No. 8729) ; an Ulpius Ilierax, keeper of gold plate and cups (No. 8733) ; a i7-iclini- archa or chief butler (No. 1884) ; a keeper of lamps (No. 8868) ; keepers of table-linen, bakers, pastry-cooks, and jn-cegustatores. Princes and jjrincesses of the Imperial family had their own special cooks like the Zethus, No. 8755, who calls himself cocus Marcellce minoris. In the portion of the Imperial palace or palaces visible to us there is no room for the lodging and keeping of such a powerful army of servants as we know to have been attached to the court. The columbaria of servants and freedmen of Augustus and Livia on the Appian Way — described in " Ancient Rome," p. 130 — con- tained about six thousand cinerary urns. The number must have been doubled under the extravagant nde of Nero and Caligula ; and yet not half of the Palatine was built over in those days. There are many mysteries to be solved before we gain a satisfac- tory knowledge of the material organization and working of the Imperial Court. There is one more hall of the olKia Aofienavov to be visited on the right of the triclinium. It was used as a ni/mphceum, where the water, playing in various ways, the light, filtering through bushes of exotic plants, the perfume of rare flowers, and the balmy air adnutted through Cizycene windows, made the post- prandial siesta most agreeal)le. The fountain is elliptical in shape, with inches and recesses for flower-jjots and statuettes. The pavement is inlaid with the most rare bits of oriental ala- baster. Upon it were lying at the time of the discovery (1862) two pieces of fluted columns of giallo brecciato, and a statue of Eros with large wings, restored by Karl Steinhauser, and removed to the Louvre. Froehner (Musee National du Louvre, Sculjsture antique, p. 311, No. 325) describes it as "un torse grec d'une exquise delicatesse de ciseau. De la main droite levee, Eros ado- lescent versait du vin dans une coupe." The statue has been illus- trated by Froehner himself in the " Illustration," 1867, p. 1-52, and by Henzen in the " BulL Inst.," 1862, p. 227. It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that the palace of 164 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE Domitiiiu is syuimetrical in all its parts, and tliat a room of the same style and size as this Nymj)hieum is lying buried under the Convent of the Visitation (Villa Mills). On the edge of these ruins Cardinal Alessandro Farnese raised a casino, the north portico of which was painted in arabesques by a pupil of Taddeo Zuccari. The panels represent vEneas visiting J^vander, Cacus stealing the oxen of Hercules, Evander sacrificing to Hercules, the grotto of the Lupercal, the foundation of Rome, subjects drawn from the Virgilian reminiscences of the Palatine. The works of art discovered in the Palace of Domitian are scattered to the four winds. The basalt statues of Hercules and Apollo, found in 1724, are in the Museo di Antichita at Parma, together with other architectural and ornamental marbles ; more pieces were removed to the Palazzo Farnese at the end of last cen- tury. Napoleon III. presented to the Louvre the most rare and beautiful results of his excavations (November 4, 1861, to April, 1870) ; even the small but highly interesting local museum founded by Commendatore Rosa (catalogued in the Guida del Palatino, p. 52) has been dispersed, and its contents have lost their individu- ality in the great collections of the Museo Nazionale alle Terme. As to the fate of the fresco paintings discovered behind the lararium in 1721-25, I quote this passage from Winckelmann's " Storia delle Arti," ed. Fea, vol. iii. p. 105, § 26 : "A hall forty feet long, with the walls entirely covered with frescoes, was un- earthed on the Palatine in 1724. The panels were separated by columns (in the so-called grotesque style) very thin and long. The panels detached from the walls went first to Parma, then to Naples, together with other rare objects inherited from the Farnese. But as they were kept in their boxes for twenty-four years, the mildew and damp effaced every trace of them, except in the case of a small Caryatid, which is now exhibited at Capo di ^Nlonte." All writers on the Palatine describe some exquisitely carved marbles, spoils of the excavations of 1725, which had been laid aside by the Uccelliera ; and Luigi Rossini has illustrated them in one of the best jjlates of his work " I Sette Colli." Twenty-four pieces were shipped to Naples in 1787, by order of Carlo Paniceri, agent of the king; the others were removed to the Palazzo Far- nese about 1830. In May, 1834, Count Ludolf, the Neapolitan envoy, asked leave of Gregory XVI. for the removal to the Museo Borbonico of this last remnant from the Palatine. The govern- ment had not courage to refuse, and tried to throw the responsi- bility on a committee of experts. The commissioners in this case THE GARDEyS OF ADONfS 165 gave the goveniiueiit a good lesson. Their report, signed by Carlo Fea, the veteran defender of our archaeological patrimony, contains these words: "Carlo Fea begs to be excused for not giving his consent to the removal, because these marbles are essential parts of the Imperial palace, and must be left where they belong for the use of archaeologists, historians, and artists, who could never understand the architecture and the ornamentation of those noble ruins without them. We must not renew the example of Absyrtus and Orpheus, whose limbs were torn to pieces and scattered far and wide." A last observation about the Palace of Domitian and the Far- nese gardens in general. The rubbish or newly made ground which covers the ruins is not entirely local, but has been brought there from various parts, fi'om the foundations of the Chiesa del Gesii, built by the same cardinal (1.375) and by the same archi- tect (Vignola), from those of the Palazzo Farnese, etc. Under the rule of the Frencli invaders, 1809-14, the earth from the ex- cavations of the Temple of Venus and Kome was deposited in the strip of land between the Xova Via and the Palace of Caligula. REFERE^•CES. — Francesco Bianthini, // palazzo dei Cesari, Veroua, 1738, chap. V. p. 48. — Wilhelm Henzen, Ann. Inst., 1862, p. 225; 1865, p. 346.— Friedlaencler, Jfaurs Romaints, vol. i. p. 156. — Wilhelm Froehner, V IlluMm- tion, 1867, p. 152. XX. The Gardens of Adonis (Ilorti Adonfea — Vigna Bar- berini). — Domitian added to the comfort and luxury of the state apartments gardens laid out in Oriental style, and called " Horti Adon.Ta." ^ He had borrowed the idea from the Assyrians, who dedicated such places to Adonis, as the representative of the Sun and the promoter of vegetable life. Amongst their specialties were the ktjttoi 'ASwciSos, large pots of clay, sometimes of brass and silver, in which fennel, lettuce, and other special plants were sown on the approach of the anniversary feast of the god. The Palatine gardens are represented in a fragment of the marble plan, Jordan's " Forma," pi. 10, n. 44, reproduced on the next page (Fig. 61). Where were the horti located? The answer is not so easily given : perhajis they were laid out in the corner of the hill above the Coliseum, which had already been incorporated in the Impe- 1 Philostratus, in the Life of ApoIIuniii.^ of Tyana, vii. 32, mentions not gar- dens but avKrtv 'ASaJct^os, which means either a hall or a villa: m the first case the indication of Philostratus might be referred to the hall designed in Fig. 61 in the middle of the gardens; in the second case it refers to the gardens them- selves. 166 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE rial domain by Nero, and which is tlie only one that the plan fits. This rectangnlar space, supported by great substruction walls, is the property of the Barberini, and is called either the Vigna di S. Sebastiano or Vigna dell' Abbadia. A visit to this lovely spot is necessary to complete our study Fig. 61. —The Horti Adonaea, a Fragment of the Marble Plan of Rome. of the Palatine. No special permission is required, and the gate — Via di S. Bonaventura, No. 3 — is usually kept open ; but the gardener has acquired the habit of asking exorbitant fees. It is better to address one's self to the keeper of the Cappella di S. Se- bastiano. on the left of the entrance. The topographers of the Renaissance have given this Vigna THE GARDENS OF ADONIS 167 Barberini the iiauip of Foro A^ecchio, derived obviously from the Curi» Veteres, which were located at this very corner of the hill. Lucio Fauno (Antichita, p. 106) says "in molti istromenti antichi (S. Bonaventura) (Villa Mattel -Mills) (Modern Street) FORO VECCHIO CCLXX (Vigna Barberini) o o o U ^ ^ rniTTT ' B Fig. 62. — Plan of the Horti Adona?a (?), according to Ligorio. di notai si truova questo luogo cognominato alia Curia Vecchia." ^ Ligorio (Bodleian, f. 55) gives the plan of the ruins here presented (Fig. 6'2), stating at the same time that their condition was such 1 In deeds and records of notaries of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 168 THE RUINS AXD EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE that he could not vouch for the exactness of his survey. Flavio Biondo (Rom. Inst., i. 76), who visited the place at the time of Eugenius IV. (1431-39), speaks of it as one of the best preserved and most imposing parts of the Palatine : " Remarkable ruins they are, with marble doors in the circuit of the walls, finer and more perfect than any others to be found in Rome." In chap. ix. part i. of " Fabiola," Cardinal Wiseman gives a charming descrip- tion of this spot, where he supposes that his hero Sebastian was quartered ; and in chap. xxv. part iii. desci'ibes his martyrdom in the " court of the palace near his own dwelling, planted with rows of trees and consecrated to Adonis," and " that ancient chapel which stands in the midst of the ruined Palatine, to mark the spot on which he fell." The Acts of Sebastian are not altogether trust- worthy, having been written in the fifth century, but their topo- graphical indications are genuine. They place the scene of the martyrdom in hippodromo palatii;^ and we know from other sources that this was precisely the name given to the present Vigna Barberini from the fall of the Empire to the tenth century, when it was transferred to the so-called Stadium. In the appendix to the " Piante di Roma," the late Comm. de Rossi has published a curious description of the Palatine, written at the foot of a map, in twelve numbers, corresponding to those marked in the map itself. It is a document of the Byzantine period. After describing the atrium, the throne-room, the basilica, the banqueting-hall, etc., of the Palace of Domitian, it passes to the house of Augustus (VII), to the great baths of the Palace of Severus (VIII), to the stadium or gymnasium (IX), to an un- known coquina (X), to the great reservoir of the Aqua Claudia at S. Bonaventura (XI) ; and beyond it, viz. at the corner of the hill above the Meta Sudans, it places the hippodromum. References. — Pirro Ligorio, Cod. Bodl., f. .55. Cod. Turin., xiv. — Francesco Bianchini, Palazzo dei Cesari, p. 139, sq. — Heinrich Jordan, Forma Urbis Romce, tab. x. n. 44, p. 59. — Gaston Boissier, Promenades archiol., p. 132, n. 1. Melanges de V Ecole frangaise, avril 1893, pp. 101-104. XXI. The pi'esence of a memorial to Sebastian, the gallant officer who gave his life for his faith, in the very gardens (the hippodrome of later days) in -which church traditions place the scene of his execution, proves how well founded is the tradition. The chapel, the earliest mention of which dates from the eleventh century, was restored in 1636 by Prince Taddeo Barberini. We 1 Bolland, Acta SS., u., Jan., p. 278. — Mabillon, Mtis. ital., ii. pp.161, 574. — Jordan, Topographie, ii. 384. THE CHURCH OF S. C.ESARIUS IN PAL AT 10 169 could not make our study of the Palatine complete without noti- cing the three ecclesiastical buildings which made this cornel* of the hill famous in the Middle Ages. A. EccLESiA S. C.ESARii IX Palatio (the Imperial Christian oratory and Christian representative of the classic Lararium). — It is first mentioned in the time of Phocas (603), but it may be older. The titular saint is believed to be Caesarius, an African deacon, who suffered martyrdom at Terracina; but it is evident that, whoever he may be, his name was selected to suit the place to which the chapel belonged. Such coincidences, which almost amount to jeu tie mots, are by no means fortuitous. The remains of the villa near Velitrae, where Augustus passed his youth, are actually called S. Cesario.^ The images of the Byzantine Fig. 63. —The Church of S. Caesarius in Paliitio. Emperors were exhibited in this chapel, as a mark of the power they still claimed over the ancient capital of the Empire ; and their keeping was intrusted to Greek monks ordinis saccitarum, a name perhaps derived from the ample fi'ocks they wore. Saint Saba junior, sent on a diplomatic mission from Amalfi to Otho 1 The following distich was engraved on the door of the church of S. Martina, huilt on the site of the Martisforuin (Marforio): Martyrii gtstans cirgo Martina coronam, Eiectv hiiic Martis numine templet tenes. 170 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE III. in 989-991, died while a guest of these monks, and his funeral was attended by Otho's Empress Theophania. " The monks," says Anselmus of Avelbury, " use the fermented bread for the Holy Communion, instead of the azym, without the pope or the Roman Catholics taking offense at it." The last mention of 8. Cesario occurs in the fourteenth century, when there was but one offici- ating priest left. The site of this historical sanctuary, seen and described only iive centuries ago, is not known to us ; but 1 am inclined to place it among the remains of the so-called baths of Heliogabalus on the Sacra Via, represented in the cut above. Whatever may have been the object of this edifice in classic times (third century after Christ), there is no doubt that it was transformed into a church at the end of the fifth century. At the time of its discovery in 1872 many particulars could be traced which have now disappeared : patches of Byzantine mosaic in the floor, traces of inscriptions and paintings, not to speak of the secretarium and of the baptistery. The apse and the presby- terium are still discernible, as well as many rooms and cells suited for the abode of monks. No name has yet been given to this church : that of S. Csesarius in Palatio seems the most appropriate, especially if we consider how close it is to the Tui-ris Chartularia, the great mediaeval stronghold of the popes. B, MONASTERIUM QUOD PALLADIUM DICITUR (cliapcl and monastery, variously called, of S. Maria in Pallara; of SS. Sebas- tiano and Zotico ; of S. Sebastiano alia Polveriera ; of S. Andrea in Palladio, etc.). — The first mention occurs in documents of the year 1001,^ but it may belong to the Constantinian era, that is to say, to the group of memorials raised under that Enq^eror to the heroes and heroines of the last persecution of Diocletian. The monastery was fortified, or, to speak more exactly, was included in the Palatine fortifications of the Frangipani. In describing the election of Pope Gelasius II. (1118), the "Liber pontificalis" (ed. Duchesne, vol. ii. p. 313) calls it locum iutissimum infra domos Leonis el Cencii Frniapane.^ Later on it became the official residence in Rome of the abbots of Monte Cassino. Under Urban V. (1362-70) we find it intrusted to the care of a single clergyman, Angelo Riccardelli. The ruins of the church, on the walls of which the history of the martyrdom of S. Zoticus 1 Pertz, Monumenta Germanice historica, vol. iv. p. 7G8. 2 Ceiicio Frangipane is the same to whom the monks of S. Gregory leased the Septizonium and the tower of the Circus Maximus in 1145. THE MONASTERY OF S. MARIA IN PALLARA 171 was painted, are described by Baronio. At tlie time of Urban VIII. the building was entirely profaned and turned into a farm- house. Michele Lonigo saw on the spandrils of the front of the tribune two remarkable figures : one representing a certain Petrus illustris medicus, a mediaeval restorer of the church, offering a model of it to S. Sebastian ; the other his wife Giovanna offering other gifts to S. Zoticus. Pope Barberini and his nephew Taddeo restored the chapel in 1636, destroying at the same time all traces of the frescoes, except those of the apse. They had been copied, however, in 1630 by Antonio Ecclissi; but he failed to catch the spirit and the meaning of the subjects, as we can ourselves judge from the facsimiles which are now exhibited in the chapel. The frescoes of the apse represent the Saviour between SS. Law- rence, Stephen, Sebastian, and Zoticus, the last two wearing the costume of the court officers of the fifth century. There is a lower belt of figures painted in the eleventh century at the expense of the monk Benedictus. The two columns of breccia corallina on the altar were probably removed from the upper cloisters of the house of the Vestals. The halaustri in front of it are cut in the rarest kind of lumachella. The monastery had its own cemetery, where burial was carried on in the Roman fashion, the corpses being protected by a double row of tiles placed in a slanting position. The cemetery was dis- covered on May 24, 1879. C. The Turris Chartularia (the centre of the fortifications of the Frangipani, in which the archives of the church were kept for a long time). — The foundations, built of chips of marble, si- lex, and travertine, rest on an ancient bed of concrete, and are flanked by huge blocks of peperino, belonging to the temple of Jupiter Stator. (See Book Til. § viii.) The date of its construc- tion is not known. In 1167 Pope Alexander III., persecuted liy the partisans of Barbarossa, found shelter in it. The name of Chartularia is derived, according to Marini, from a manufacture of papyrus-paper ; according to Cancellieri from the archives which it contained. The cut (Fig. 64) shows the state of the tower in the sixteenth century, to which it had been reduced by Brancaleone in 1257. Valadier destroyed the rest in 1829. A detailed account of it is given by Nibby, " Roma Antica," vol. ii. p. 471. References. — Louis Duchesne, Bulletin critique, 1885, p. 417. — Gio. Bat- tista de Rossi, Bullet, crist., 1867, p. 15 ; and Notizie Scavi, December, 1883. — 172 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE Enrico Stevenson, // cimitero di Zutico, Modena, 1871, p. 71 ; and Bull. arch, com., 1888, p. 295. — Mariano Avmellini, Chiese di Roma, '2d ed., pp. 517, 524. — Heinricli Jordan, Topogi-aphie, vol. ii. p. 609. — Pasquale Adinolfi, Roma neW eta di mezzo, vol. i. pp. 392-397. M^^ Fig. 64. — The Torre Cartularla in tlie Sixteeiitli Century. XXIT. The so-called Stadium (Xystus). — The name of Stadium has been given to the circus-like ediiice, 160 metres long and 47 wide, which sejmrates the house of Augustus from the Baths of Septimius Severus. The giving of this name seemed justified first by the oblong shape of the place, with a sliglitly cui-ved end ; secondly, by the measure of 160 metres, which comes very near that of a stadium (177.40) ; thirdly, by the two fountains which occupy the place of the goals. Professor Marx, on the other side, thinks the name to be wrong, and that the place was a garden, a xystus with a gestatio, etc., attached to the house of Augustus. The question is too technical and minute to be treated in these pages. One theory does not absolutely exclude the other. For the sake of clearness 1 shall follow the old denomination, without taking any responsibility for it. THE SO-CALLED STADIUM 173 The foundation of the Stadium is attributed to Doniitian while rebuilding the Donius Augustana. The style of the brickwork is the same in both, and so are some of the brick stamps from the kilns of T. Flavins Clonius and T. Flavius Hermes, freedmen of the Emperor. By a close examination of the structure in its present state we can reconstruct its history from the time of Do- mitian (if not of Augustus) to that of Theodoric. Originally it was nothing but a level space of ground, perhaps laid out in grass and flower-beds, inclosed by a wall slightly curved at the western end. There was no portico, no seats, no steps, nothing character- istic of a place of public meeting. Hadrian probably built the two-storied portico, as shown by the style of masonry and by the brick-stamps of the years 123-134:, found in great numbers in the excavations of 1871 and 1893. Septimius Severus improved the aspect of the Stadium by the addition of an Imperial tribune or hejtedra. The lower arcades of the portico rest on half columns coated with slabs of portasanta, the bases of which are hollow, and fit into the masonry like half-rings. One of tlie capitals dis- covered in 1868 by Yisconti is cut out of a block quarried a. d. 195 under the consulship of Scapula Tertullus and Tineius Cle- mens. The portico, thei-efore, was included by Septimius Severus in his general reconstruction and embellishment of the place. A prefect of the city of the fourth century made other restorations, if we may believe the words of a fragmentary inscription discov- ered in 1878. Last of all. King Theodoric tried to stop the ruin and the fall of this part of the Imperial buildings. His name has been read many times on bricks discovered by Visconti in 1868 and by myself in 1877. Theodoric seems to have propped with buttresses the walls which threatened to collapse, and to have also transformed the plan and the destination of the building. The arena, once used for athletic s^jorts or for flower-beds, was then occupied by a large oval basin, which we would call a swimming- bath were it not for the absence of a water-tight floor ; probably it was meant for a small amphitheatre. It is highly interesting to the student of the decline and fall of Imperial Rome to ex- amine the work of Theodoric in its details. First of all, when the basin was built, the floor of the Xystus was already covered with a bed of rvibbish from two to three feet thick, as we can certify by comparing the level of the original marble pavement with that of the foundations of the oval. These foundations are built of chips and blocks of porphyry, serpentine, giallo antico, and, above all, of pieces of cipoUino columns, belonging to the 174 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE second floor of the portico. The Stadium therefore must have been half ruined iu Tlieodoric's age, probably in consequence of the earthquake mentioned in the. contemporary inscriptions of the Coliseum.! Another circumstance deserving notice is that on either side of the entrance to the ring there are two marble pedestals removed from the house of the Vestals, and inscribed with the name of Coelia Claudiana, virgo vestalis maxima. In adapting them to their new object, Theodoric's masons did not even take time and care to erase the name of the illustrious abbess. Nothing is known of the fate of the building in the Middle Ages. The document of the eightli century produced by De Rossi (Piante di Roma, p. 127), of which mention has been made above, describes it as a gpnnasium, viz. locus diver-sis exercitationum yeneribus deputatus. In the tenth or eleventh century it was occu- pied by a colony of stone-cutters and lime-burners, whose sheds and workshops were seen and described in the excavations of 1877. The floor around the sheds was covered with chips and fragments of statues and architectural marbles. When we recollect that there were on each tier of the portico eighty-six columns, and over a thousand feet of richly carved marble cornice, and marble roofs, and marble parapets, floors, and incrustations, and number- less statues and bas-reliefs, of which hardly a trace is left, the magnitiide of the work of destruction needs no comment. There is an altar left standing in the middle of the arena, which they had begun to hammer and split, when, for a reason unknown to us, the work of destruction was suddenly given up. To one object only they seem to have paid respect, namely, the beautiful statue of Juno, discovered March 3, 1878, and now exhibited in the Museo delle Terme." We found it lying on two supports (cuscini) of stone, on which it had been placed so carefully that not even the most delicate folds of the peplum had suffered damage from the operation. The photograph of this masterpiece is given in the " Notizie " for 1879, pi. 1, n. 2. A regular search for plunder was opened in 15.52 by Alessandro Ronconi. Julius III. being engaged at that time in building his famous Villa Giulia, outside the Porta del Pojiolo, a campaign was opened against the antique monuments of the city by all those wishing to please the pope, or to make money by dealing with him in marbles for the palace, or in statues and inscriptions for the ornamental grounds by which it was surrounded. The tombs of the Via Flaminia at 1 Corpus Inscr., vi. 1716, a, b. THE SO-CALLED STADTU.lf 175 Torre di Quinto, the remains of the gardens of Domitia in tlie Vigna of Bindo Altoviti (Prati di Castello), the Baths of the Aqus Albula^ near Tivoli, the Baths of Agrippa behind the Pan- tlieon, the Villa of the Acilii on the Pincian, the ruins of Porto and Fig. G5. — Headless Statue of a Muse discovered in the so-called Stadium. Ostia, the Temple of the Sun in the Villa Colonna, and the stadium of the Palatine were put to ransom. Between ]\Iay and July, 1552, Alessandi-o Ronconi sold to the pope columns of cipol- 176 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE lino, pedestals and bases, and even the gutter of white marble which carried off the drippings from the roof of the portico. Francesco Ronconi, son or nephew of Alessandro, was more suc- cessful in his excavations of 1570. Their results are thus de- scribed by Flaminio Vacca (Mem. 77) : " I remember the finding in the Vigna Ronconi of eighteen or twenty mutilated statues of Amazons (Danaids), somewhat larger than life-size. In the same place, and exactly under the wine-press, which Ronconi was re- pairing at the time, the Hercules of Lysippus was discovered." The fate of the Danaids is unknown, except that in the account books of Cardinal Ippolito d' Este the following entry has been discovered by Professor Venturi : " March 5, 1.570 : To expense for statues, seventy-five scudi to Francesco Ronconi and Leonardo Sormano for a life-size statue of an Amazon." Pius IX. in 1868, Commendatore Rosa in 1872, and the Italian government in 1877, 1878, and 1893, have liberated the Stadium once for all from its heavy pall of ruins. No other part of the Palatine impresses us more vividly. There is no break in the inclosure wall, nor in the colonnade of the lower portico, although many of the shafts are only a few feet high : the remains of the Imperial hexedra tower at tlie height of 120 feet. The east end of the portico is especially well preserved and so are the meta? in the shape of fountains, and some of the monuments which mark the middle line of the arena. The hexedra deserves a few words of description. There is a ground floor, level with the arena, with a middle hall of good size, and a smaller room on each side of it. The pavement, the marble incrustations, and the paintings of the hall have been destroyed, with the exception of the frescoes in the lunette of the vault. They would hardly be noticeable, owing to their bad style and imperfect preservation, were it not for a rare and perhaps unique representation of a terrestrial globe fixed to the circle of the hori- zon, which rests on three pegs. This globe shows how wide-spread in Roman schools was the theory, known and supported since the time of Aristotle, that the earth was a sphere. This hall formed part of the castle of the Frangipani, facing the monastery of SS. Andrea e Gregorio in Clivoscauri. In the ex- cavations of 1871 some thirty skeletons of men who seem to have perished in their youth were found at the foot of the wall on the right ; some of the skulls bore marks of blows and cuts from battle-axes or swords. We thought, while gazing at these remains, that, during one of the bloody contests which every now and then THE SO-CALLED STADIUM 111 marked the election of a pontiff, these young warriors had lost their lives in the defense of the stronghold of the Septizoniuni, and had been buried in haste under the Imperial tribune. The vaulted ceiling of the hall must have been intact at that time, because the skeletons were found covered by great masses of masonry. The small room on the right was never finished and its floor never paved ; the other one, on the contrary, is nicely painted and Fig. 66. - Female head of Greek workmanship discovered in the so-called Stadium. has a mosaic floor with festoons and birds in black and white. There are graflati on the plaster to the left of the entrance, among which is a roll of names followed by a cipher. The names may be of athletes or sportsmen, and the figures may refer to their con- tests or to the victories won. 178 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE The Imperial box occupied the whole hemicycle on the upper floor. A colonnade of syenite granite decorated its front, another of pavonazzetto the curve of the apse. Shafts, capitals, bases, and fragments of the entablature cover the floor in front of it. It is probable that the Hercules of Lysippus discovered by Ronconi in 1570, and bought by Cosimo III. for the Pitti Palace, belonged to one of the eleven niches of the hexedi-a. This statue is the only one pertaining to the Stadium which has been taken away from Rome. I have already spoken of the fate of the Danaids discovered by the same Ronconi. The Muse found by Visconti in 1868 and the Juno of 1878 are exhibited on the west side of the quadrangle in the Museo delle Terme. In the exca- vations of 1893 several remarkable works of art came to light, namely, a headless statue of another Muse (Mai'ch 29), which has been left on the sf)ot, at the east end of the north portico ; a bust of Antoninus Pius; a torso of a Faun; and a superb female head of pure Greek workmanship, of which I give a reproduction (Fig. (36). It is the work of a great master of the fifth century b. c, and may belong to one of the Muses by which the image of Apollo C'itharoedus was surrounded in the neighboring temple. These marbles are preserved in the Museo delle Terme. Rej'eren.ces. — Carlo Liidov. Visconti, Di un nuovo graffito palatlno (in Giorn. arcad., vol. Ixii.). — Visconti and \^s.\\c\a,m, Guida del Palatino, p. 87. — Pietro Rosa, Relazione sulle scoperte archeologiche, p. 78, Rome, 1873. — Fabio Gori, Archivio Stoi'ico, vol. ii. p. 374. — Henry Deglane, Gazette archeologique, 1888, p. 216 ; and Melanges Ecole /rang, d'e Rome, ix. 1889, pp. 184-229. — Notizie degli Scavi, 1878, p. 66 ; 1879, tav. i. n. 2 ; 1893, pp. 31, 70, 117, 162 ; 1894, p. 94. — Josepli Sturm, Das kaiserliche Stadium, Wiirzlnirg, 1888. — Monumenti antichi pubblicati per cura della r. Accademia dei Lincei, vol. v., 189.5, p. 17. — Friedrich Marx, Das sogennante Stadium (in Jahrbuch des deut- schen Instituts, 1895, p. 129). — Rodolfo Lanciani, Mittheil:, 1894, p. 16.— Christian Huelsen, Ibid., 1895, p. 276. XXIII. The Palace of Septimius Severus (sedes Severi- anre). — Between the two summits of the Palatine, the Cermalus and the Palatium, there is a marked difference in shape. The first was, and is still for the most part, surrounded by cliffs which made it inaccessible ; the second slopes down more gently towards the Ciselian and the Piscina Publica ; and while the Imperial buildings stop with the edge of the precipice on one side, they descend to the bottom of the slope and to the level of the valley on the other. Immense substructures were raised here by Septimius Severus and Caracalla to reach the average level of the other palaces, as shown by the following engraving from a photograpli, taken from the THE PALACE OF SEPT IM J US SEVERUS 179 Aventine. The letters AA' mark the level of the platform ; B marks the remains of the Palace of Severus, built on the platform ; C, the curved end of the Stadium ; D, the remains of the palace of Augustus. 180 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE No other section of the Palatine has sutt'ered as much as this one from the action of time and from the hand of man. By measure- ments on the spot, compared with descriptions and documents left by those who saw the ruins in a better state, I have ascertained that the ^des Severianse must have covered an area of '24,500 square metres, and must have reached the height of fifty metres above the pavement of the streets which inclosed them on two sides. This gives a volume of one million and a quarter cubic metres, a perfect mountain of masonry, of which only a few traces are left standing to tell the tale. The edge of the substructures, marked A' in the illustration, is celebrated for its fine view, which extends over hills and dales as far as the coast of Ostia and Laurentum. (See Ancient Rome, chap. v. p. 126.) In gazing at it from his lofty point of vantage the reader must remember that he is only level with the ground floor of the palace, which rose from twenty-five to thirty metres above his head. The ruins were granted in 975 to the monks of S. Gregorio by Stephen of Hildebrand, then ruler of Rome. We gather from the act of donation that there were at that time thirty-eight arches still standing on the side of the Circus, which were pojiularly called the -' Porticus Materiani ; " others were visible in the adjoining property of John de Papa de Septem Viis. Above this line of crypts and arcades there was a strip of cultivated land, and still higher up the bathing apart- ments of the palace (wit dicilur balneum imperatoris). On March 18, 1145, the rviins, or at least the portion of them between the stronghold of the Seiitizoniura and the tower which had been raised over the triumphal Arch of Titus at the entrance to the Circus Maximus, were leased to Cencio Frangipane. A century later the monks thought it best suited to their interests to break up the property and lease the crypts and arcades one by one. Between 1215 and 1218 twenty-one were rented individually for various purposes, which in progress of time were reduced to one, for a hay-loft (ad retinendum fenuiii) ! One of the conditions^ in these contracts obliged the tenant to paint the coat-of-arms of S. Gi'egory above the gate of the crypt, and keep it fresh and bright. The abuse was suppressed in 1862 after the terrific fire which consumed in one night thousands of bales of hay, and threatened to destroy the whole mass of buildings. This corner of the Palatine is connected with two well-known names, that of Tommaso Inghirami da Volterra, surnamed Fedra, a famous poet, orator, and scholar of the sixteenth century, and that of Marcello Venusti, a painter and a pupil of Michelangelo, THE SEPTIZONIUM 181 like Sebastiano del Piombo aud Daniele da Volterra. The first owned the part of the palace called balneum imperatoris, which he sold to Marcello Crescenzi, auditor of Clement VII., on January 22, 1533 ; the second owned the vigna (marked " dei Benfratelli " in the plan facing p. 107), which he had bought on April 24, 1560, from Concordia Maccarani, widow of Francesco Cecchi. The only work of art found — as far as I know — among these ruins is a torso of Minerva with the aegis dotted with stars. Paolo Biondi discovered it by accident on June 5, 1823, and it was removed soon after to the Museo Yaticano. I may mention also a precious gold fibula, a piece of Byzantine work of the sixth century, discovered by Mr. Bliss at the top of the stairs leading from the Stadium to the hexedra. It is now exhibited in one of the ground rooms of the Museo delle Terme, together with the " tesoro " of Castel Trosino.^ XXIV. The Septizonium. — Few remains of the Imperial palace, or indeed of the whole city, are as widely known as the Septizonium, and yet archaeologists are still discussing what the name means and what was the real nature of the edifice. Vis- conti (Guida del Palatino, pp. 4!) and 93) thinks that " Septizo- nium " was the name of the front of the Palace of Severus facing the south, which was ornamented with seven rows (septem zonce) of columns, symbolizing the seven bands or atmospheres of hea- ven. ^ He supports the theory by two arguments : first, that the hebdomadal cycle in honor of the seven planets came into fashion and practical use about the time of Septimius Severus ; second, that even in the Middle Ages the Septizonium was connected with the sun and the moon. Jordan and others, on the other hand, deny that there were seven tiers of columns : they fix the maxi- mum at three, which is the number represented in the earliest designs of this noble ruin. Now as the word septifolium indicates a plant with seven leaves, and the word septimontium indicates a group of seven hills, so the word septizonium must indicate, in the present case, an edifice with seven bands or horizontal lines ; in other words, with seven entablatures supjiorted by rows of columns one above the other. It is also possible that the rows were only six, if we reckon among the horizontal bands the basement and 1 Referexck. — Benedetto Mittarelli, Ann. Camaldul. (Mittheilungen, 1894, vol. ix. p. 4). - Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii. pp. 269, 547. 182 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE the stejis of the structure. Visconti also remarks that we actually have a bona fide septizonium in the Campanile of Pisa, the tiers of which were only seven in the original design of Wilhelm and Bonanno. The eighth was added about a century later. We must remember in the last case that the three rows of columns, of which the Septizonium was composed, reach only the height of 25.64 metres above the level of the Via Triuniphalis. The existing remains of the Palace of Severus are at least 55 metres high ; thei-e- Fig. 68. — Tlie Remains of the ^des Severianse and of the Septizonium, from a Sketch by du Cerceau. fore if the Septizonium was built, as we believe, to screen the con- fused mass of structures behind, and to serve as a monumental facade to the Palace of Severus, it must have been higher than we supposed. This condition of things appears evident in the above sketch by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau, which I borrowed from his volume of 1560, marked E, f/, 26 in the Cabinet des Estampes, Paris. As we have seen above (pp. 178, 179), the line AA' marks the top of the substructures and the beginning of the palace. Sup- THE SEPTIZONIUM 183 posing the Septizonium to have been only three stories high, it would hardly have masked even the substructures. The Septizonium was already in a ruinous condition at the end of the eighth centiu-y. The inscrij^tion engraved in the frieze of the lower colonnade numbered 280 letters, of which 118 were copied by the so-called Einsiedlensis on the extreme left, towards the Circus Maximus ; 45 by the anonymous Barberinianus (Cod. XXX. 25) on the extreme right, towards the Arch of Coustantine. There was consequently a gap of 117 letters between the two ends of the ruins, which were respectively called '• Septem solia niaior " and " Septem solia minor." The total length of the building being 90 or 95 metres, two fifths of it had already collapsed in the eighth centiuy. On July 22, 975, John, abbot of S. Gregory, was allowed to destroy the minor portion ; but he did not take advantage of the perniission. In the year 1084 Henry IV., while besieging the fortress of Septem Solia, in which Rusticus, nephew of Gregory Vn., had sought refuge, caused the fall of many columns (quam- plurimus columnas subvertit). In 1257 the larger portiofi was desti'oyed by Senatore Brancaleone. The last remnants disap- peared in the winter of 1588-89 by order of Sixtus V., and at the hand of his favorite architect Domenico Fontana. The destruc- tion cost the pope 905 scudi, but he recovered more than his money's worth by making use of the materials, whether blocks of peperjno and travertino or columns of rare marbles. Thh'ty-three blocks of stone were vised in the foundations of the pedestal of the obelisk in the Piazza del Popolo ; 104 of marble in the restoration of the column of Marcus Am-elius, including the base of the bronze statue of S. Paul ; 15 in the tomb of the pope in the Cappella del Presepio at S. Maria Maggiore ; and an equal number in that of Pius V. The staircase of the Casa dei jNIendicanti, or workhouse, by the Ponte Sisto ; the washing- house, or lacalore, in the baths of Diocletian ; the door of the Palazzo della Cancellaria ; the north facade of the Lateran Palace, its court and staircases ; and the church of S. Girolamo degli Schiavoni, had all theii" share of the spoils of the Septizonium. Keferexces. — Heinrich Jordan, Bullettino dell' Instituto, 1872, p. 145; and Forma Urbis Romce, pp. 37-41, tab. viii. n. -38. — Antonio Bertolotti, Artisti Lombardi, vol. i. p. 87: Libro xix. de! cav. Fontana per la disfattura dolla scola di Vergilio. Milan, Hoepli, 1881. — Christian Huelsen, Das Sep- thoniu?n, etc.: xlvi. Programm ziim Winckelmannsfeste der archaeologischen (Jesellscliaft zu Berlin. 188G. — Enrico Stevenson, II settizonio Severiano (Bullettino comm. arch., 1888, p. 269, tav. xiii.). — Rodolfo Lanciani, E Falazzo Maggiore (in Mittheilungen, vol. ix., 1894, p. 4). 184 TFIE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE XXV. The Water Supply and Reservoirs of the Palace. — Nothing is known of the water supply of the Palatine before the time of Domitian. The fact that Augustus would take his siesta in summer months " by the fountain of the peristyle," proves that his house was well provided with water from the time of its first construction. After doubling the extent of the Imperial domain on the hill, Domitian carried a powerful siphon from the reservoir of the Arcus Ca?limontani (Aqua Claudia) by the temple of Claudius, to the highest point of the hill by S. Bonaventura. The pressure must have been enormous, as the siphon crossed the valley between the two hills at a point 41 metres (41.16) be- low the feeding reservoir. It luust have reached four atmospheres. Remains of Domitian's hydraulic work were discovered in 1658 and 1742. The pipe, made of solid sheets of lead, and oval in shape, measured about a foot in diameter, and could carry 276 unities {oiicie) of water. The laying of the siphon had been inti'usted to the care of M. Arrecinius Clemens, the brother-in-law of Titus and consul a. d. 73, and its construction to a plumber named Postumius Ameiimnus. We have been able to follow the course of the water not only across the valley, but through the various sections of the Imperial palace. The pipe supplying the house of Augiistus bore the inscription dornvs avgvstan.e and the name of Evhodas, the procurato?' aquanun; that supplying the house of Germanicus, the names of Eutychus, procurator, and Hymnus, plumber ; that of the Stadium the names of Epagathus, procurator, Martialis and Alexander, plumbers, and so forth. Domitian's sijihon is thrown into the shade by the exploit of Septimius Severus. After rebuilding, repairing, and connecting in ^.S.Bonaaentura Via di s.\ Gregorio TsV.oo) ■ DDQDDQQDGQQGG ; PALATINE 250.00- SS.Ciouannl e ....Paolo ^(53.28) QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ,3B.2a, QDDQnQQjQQQQQDQ QQQQ^<2..o„ one mass the various sections of the palace, damaged by the fire of Commodus; after raising another palace of his own, to which the Septizonium served as a fa9ade ; after providing the Imperial THE WATER SUPPLY OF THE PALACE 185 residence with therms of great size and magniticence, he carried the channel of the CLiudia from the top of tiie Ca?lian to the top of the Palatine, making it span the valley at a prodigions height. The viaduct, composed of four lines of arcades, measured at least 425 metres in length and 42 metres in height. The sketch on the opposite page represents the portion above the modei-n Via di S. Gregorio. The five arches on the left on the road, shaded in black, are still in existence ; the six on the other side were destroyed, on November 14, 1596, by Caprizio Cornovaglia (Cornwall), the owner of what is now' called "Orto Botanico." The water was stored in the great reservoir, afterwards turned into a refectory for the monks of S. Bonaventura. Among the discoveries made when the convent was built, Bartoli mentions a spigot of Corinthian brass weighing ninety pounds. References. — Rodolfo Lanciani, / rnmenliirii di Frontino, etc., Koina, Salviucci, 1880, pp. 211, 234.— Kiddlliiiu Viiiuti, Homa antiai, vol. i. p. 38. XXVI. Twomore ^v» ^,^n>^. ,.,.•,,„ .,, „ .,i4p- edifices, or rather two parts of the same edifice, remain to be examined be- fore we leave the Palatine : the P.*> DAGOGiuM and the DoMus Gklotiaxa. The Domus Gelo- tiana was purchased and embodied in the crown property by Caligula, not for want of additional space and accommo- dation, but to satisfy his passion for the races of the circus, and his aifection for the squadron of the greens, /actio prasi- h.hS na, in whose stables -v ^ . i ■ ^^ . . (by SS. Lorenzo e ^^^ ^'- ^^-^^^^^ Damaso) he used Fig. to. - Plau of the Domus Gelotiana. to spend days and nights indulging in all kinds of excesses. The 186 THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF THE PALATINE hoiuse adjoined the Circus and the Carceres, where the riders were massed on race days, so that it was easy for the young prince to join his friends without leaving the Imperial palace. The Domus Gelotiana is composed of two parts : one adjoining the Circus, which is still in private hands, and is entered from the gate No. 45 Via dei Cerchi. It contains the vestibule, the atrium, the tab- linum, and the triclinium. The inner part, which is Government property, contains many smaller apartments opening on a second courtyard or peristyle, and it has become famous for the graffiti ^KlN90l Fig. 71. — One of the Walls of the Paedagogium with Greek and Latin GraflSti. which cover its walls. We learn from them that, after the death of Caligula, the Domus Gelotiana, or, at least, this inner part of it, was turned into a training-school for court pages, under the name of Psedagogium. The name occurs very often in the graffiti : Co- rinthus exit de pccdagogio ! Marianus Afer exit de jxedagogio ! as if the boys wanted to chronicle their liberation from the rod of the master on the walls which had long imprisoned them. There was another amusing allusion to the hardships of school life, composed of a vignette and its explanation. The vignette repre- sented a donkey turning the mill, and the legend said, Labora, THE PyEDAGOGIUM 187 aselle, quomodo ego lahoravi et proderit tihi. " Work, work, little donkey, as I have ^A'orked myself, and thou shalt be rewarded for it." This graffito was destroyed by an unscrupulous tourist in 1886. The most interesting of the set is the one representing a caricature of the Crucifixion of our Lord, discovered at the be- ginning of the year 1857, and removed soon after to the Kirche- rian Museum of the Collegio Romano. The front part of the house, entered by the Via dei Cerchi, No. 45, was partially excavated in 1888, when a remarkable set of fresco paintings was discovered in the dining-liall, marked A in Fig. 70. The figures, varying in height from 1.60 metres to 1.80, rep- resent butlers and waiters in the act of leading the guests to the banqueting table. The tricliniarch with a rod in his hand stands by the entrance door, whilst other men are carrying napkins, wreaths, silver plate, etc. It is to be regretted that such an inter- esting place should not be accessible to the public, and that the front and back sections of this historical house shovdd not be ex- cavated at one and the same time. The discovery of the triclinium has been illustrated by Marchetti in the " Xotizie degli Scavi," 1892, p. 44 ; and by Hiielsen in " Mittheilungen," 1894, p. 289. Literature on the graffiti of the Pa?dagogiiim. — Raffaele Garrucci, // crocifisso graffito nella casa dei Cet'dri. Rome, 1857; and GraJ/iti di I'oinpei, p. 97, plates 30, 31. — Ferd. Becker, Das sjjott crucifix d. roin. Kaiserj)al cz:: Fig. 82. —Plan of Clivus Sacer. cula was supported by two columns of portasanta; the letters TAPCEnx on the epistyle were of gilt metal. It could be recon- structed almost in a perfect state. Literature. — Notizie degli Scnri, 1879, p. 14, tav. vii., and p. 113 ; 1882, p. 216, tav. xiv.-xvi. — Bull, com., 1878, p. 257 ; 1880, ]>. 80. On the side opposite the Basilica Nova stood the XII. PoRTicT's Margaritaria, an arcade for jewelers and goldsmiths (XII in plan). — The parallelogram between the Sacra and the Xova Via, the Arch of Titus and the House of the Vestals, remained a ten-a incognita to the topographer until the excavations of 1878-7.9. Instead of the cedes Penatinm, of the house of the Tarquins, of the Temple of Jupiter Stator, and other such edifices crowded into it by the fancy of modern students, it was found to contain a })ortico; sup2>orted by ten or eleven rows of stone pilas- tei-s (twenty-two in each row), similar in every respect to the Por- ticus Septorum under the Palazzo Doria, and to the Porticus Vipsania under the (now demolished) Palazzo Piombino. The stone pilasters stand four metres apart, and the covered galleries must have been lighted by openings in the vault. The classic name of this portico is easily found by refei-ring to the Almanac 208 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA of 354, which mentions, among the edifices near to the Forum, a Porticus Margaritaria, viz., a portico occupied by jewelers and goldsmiths. Considering that the jewelers and goldsmiths of the Porticus Margaritaria call themselves de Sacra Via, it is evident that the arcades opened on that very street. Part ii. of volume vi. of the " Corpus Inscriptionum " contains scores of epitaphs of these tradesmen of the Sacra Via : there are unguejiiarii, perfumers ; aurijices, goldsmiths ; an auri vestrix, weaver of gold cloth (?) ; ccelatores, engravers also in repousse work ; coronarii or wreath- makers ; Jlaturarii, metal-casters ; (jemmarii and margaritarii, deal- ers in jewels and pearls ; pigmentai-ii, makers of cosmetics ; tibiarii. Fig. 83. — Plan of Porticus Margaritaria. flute-makers ; and negotiatores in general. Originally tliey must have exhibited their precious merchandise in booths and screens and desks under the shelter of the portico ; later on, the portico was cut up into regular shops by means of brick walls raised be- tween each jiair of stone pilasters, exactly as was done with the Septa and with the Porticus Vipsania. The space was cut up also vertically by means of wooden floors, so as to secure an office or a bedroom above the shop. The visitor who looks at the apparently barren site of the portico may wonder how and where the subtle eyes of the topographer can see all these details. The explanation is this. When the exca- vators, in search of building-materials, attacked the ruins of the TEE TEMPLE OF ROMULUS 209 portico at the time of Alexander VII., under the leadership of Leonardo Agostini, they removed only the blocks of travertine of which the pilasters were built, and left alone the partition walls of brick. The portico, therefore, is gone, except a few blocks which remain in situ here and there, especially on the side of the Nova Via, but we can judge of its shape and size and aspect from the brick walls, which still show the marks of the blocks stolen away under Pope Chigi. Many brick stamps found in the excava- tions of 1879 mention the kilns of Domitia Lucilla, wife of Lucius Verus. The shops, therefore, must date from the second quarter of the second century, probably from the year 134. The whole building was not level, but followed the slope of the ground, like the inclined wings of Bernini's portico at the end of the piazza of S. Peter's. Literature. — Notizie deijli Scai-i, 1882, p. 228. — Luchvig Preller, Die Regionen (ler Stadt Rom, p. 154. — Forma Urbis Roma, pi. xxix. — • Sante Bartoli Pietro, Mem. 50 (iu Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. 234). — Corpus inscr., vol. vi. n. 1974, 9207, 9212, 9214, 9221, 9283,9418, 94.34, 9545, 9662, 9775. Continuing our descent of the Clivus Sacer, after passing on the right the street leading to the Carinse, described in § x., we find on the same side the monumental group of SS. Cosma e Damiano, which comprises a round vestibule, once the Heroon Komuli, and a square hall, once the Templum Sacra^ Urbis. XIII. The Heroox Romuli (Temple of Romuhis, son of I\Iax- entius) (XIII in plan). — When this young prince died in o(l9, a coin was struck with the legend divo komvlo, on the reverse of which is represented a round monument erected to his memory. The " Liber Pontificalis," John the deacon, and others mention the site of SS. Cosma e Damiano as that of a templum Romuli (mean- ing the founder of the city), and this tradition has lasted to our own time. (See Nibby, Roma nell' anno 1888, part i. vol. ii. p. 710.) Commendatore de Rossi, with the help of a fragmentary inscrip- tion whicli still remained affixed to the building towards 1550, has been able to prove, first, that the round vestibule of SS. Cosma e Damiano and the Heroon Romuli are one and the same thing ; secondly, that the Heroon was still unfinished when Maxentius lost his life at the battle of Saxa Rubra on October 27, 312. The Senate comjjleted the rotunda, and dedicated it, together with the basilica, to Constantine. Pope Felix IV. (526-530) cut open a communication between the rotunda and the Templum Sacrse Urbis behind it, and dedicated both to SS. Cosmas and Daniianus, physicians and martyrs. 210 A WALK THROUGH THE ^ACRA VIA The style of the Ilevoon shows a decided decline in taste and elegance. Instead of a round marble cella surrounded by a peri- style of fluted Corinthian pillars, as we see in the Temple of Matuta, of Herciiles iNIagnus Custos, etc., we are confronted with a clumsy mixture of curved and straight lines, a round hall be- tween two rectangular ones, a front with a hemicicyle between the middle columns, and two doors between each side couple. Fig. 84. — The Portico of the Heroon Romuli. Two columns (of cipollino) are left standing ; a third was removed at the time of Urban VIII. ; the site of the fourth is only marked by its socle. The most conspicuous portion of the building is the entrance door, with bronze folds and an elaborate entablature sup- ported by two columns of porphyry. The door and its ornaments were raised to the level of the modern city by Pope Barl>erini about 1630. The Italian government restored it to its ancient site in 1879. I may add that when Urban VIII. repaired the roof of the cupola, the cupola itself was in imminent danger of collaps- ARCHIVES OF THE CADASTRE 211 ing. We found ^vedg■ed in its cracks roots of ilexes over ten centi- metres in diameter, the remains of an hortus siccus many hundred years old. LiTEKATUKK. — Gio. Battista cle Rossi, Bull, crist., 1867, p. 66. — Rodolfo Lanciaui, Bull, com., 1882, p. 29, pi. 9. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 1147. — Mariano Armellini, Chiese di Ruiau, pp.152 and 155. — Notizie de, tav. iii.-x. — Mariano Armellini, Cliitse di Homa, 2d ed. p. 152. — Leone Nardoni, Di alcune sotterr. confessloni nclle antlche basilichc. Rome, 1881. — Notizle degli Scavi, 1879-80, passim ; and Bull, cum., 1881, p. 8. On the names Urbs JJterna and Vrbs Sacra consult F. G.Moore in Transact. Amer. Philul. Association, 1894, 34. The back wall of the temple covered by the marble plan formed at the same time part of the inclosure of the Forum of Peace (XV in plan), the pavement of which is inlaid with slabs of portasanta. The pavement has been uncovered both at the foot of the wall, where it is still to be seen, and under the house Via del Tempio della Pace, Xo. 11, where it lies buried under thirty- eight feet of rubbish. I have already mentioned (§ ix.) some of THE ARCH OF FAB I US 215 the famous ornaments of this forum ; we may add to the list a gal- lory of statues of famous athletes from Greece, of which we heard the first time in March, 1891, when a marble pedestal was dis- covered at the corner of the Via del Sole and the Salara Vecchia, bearing the inscription nreOKAHS ' HAEI02 ■ nENTA0AO2 " (iro) ATKAEITOT * ('Ap76)toT. It refers to the celebrated statue of Tythokles, a work of Polykletos, the original of which was erected at Olympia, in memory of exploits of the former in the pent- athlon. There the statue was seen by Pausanias (vi. 7, 10), and there also its pedestal was rediscovered by the Germans in 1879 between the temples of Juno and Pelops. The original figure must have been leaning on the right leg, as shown by the marks on the plinth, whereas the Roman copy seems to have been leaning the opposite way, unless tlie pedestal has been made use of twice, before and after the first barbaric invasion. The loss of the Roman replica is deeply to be regretted because we have no specimen of the work of the second Polykletos. The pedestal is exhibited in the Museo Municipale al Celio. A little below the Temple of Romulus, the Sacra Via was spanned by the XV. Fornix Fabiaxus (the Arch of Q. Fabius Allobrogicus) (XVI in plan). — On the left footway of the Sacra Via, nearly opposite the street which divides the Temple of Faustina from the Ileroon Romuli, are lying several blocks of travertine, with mouldings, cornices, and capitals of very simple design. They were discovered in 1882 in the middle of the street, not one stand- ing in its original site. Ancient writers place at this exact point the fornix or archway erected by Q. Fabius INIaxinms Allobrogicus, consul 121 B. c, in memory of his successful campaign against the Allobroges and Arvernes. The monument was celebrated more from its location than for architectural value or size. Cras- sus the orator used to say of IMemmius that he thought himself so great that he could not enter the Forum without stooping his head at the Arch of Fabius. Cicero places it at the foot of the Clivus Sacer. The remains of the arch were certainly dug up in 1543, but the statements of contemporary writers are so contradictory that it seems impossible to make out the truth. Some assert that the stones inscribed with the name of the conqueror of Savoy were found built in the vault of the Cloaca ]Maxima ! Others describe not only the exact spot where the arch stood, but also its deco- 216 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA rations, trophies, victories, etc. Judging from the existing frag- ments, it was a very simple structure, worthy of the austerity of Republican times. The diameter of the archway measured 3.94 metres. It was built of travertine on the outside, with the core of tufa and travertine. Near or upon it were statues of L. ^milius Paullus and of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus. LiTEUATURK. — Cicero, De orat., ii. 66 ; and Pro Plancio, 7. — Corjnis J7isc):, vol. i. p. 178; and vol. vi. n. 1303, 1304. —Gio. Battista de Rossi, JDeW arco Fabiano nel Foro (in Annal. Inst., 1859, vol. xxxi. p. 307). — Notizie der/U Scavi, 1882, p. 224, tav. xvi. —Nichols, The Roman Forum, p. 126. — The- denat, in Daremberg and Saglio's Dlctiontiaire , p. 1.302, n. 28. The last building on the right side of the Sacra Via, before reaching the Forum, is the XVI. iEi)Es Y>w\ Pii ET Div^. Faustina, or Temple of An- toninus and Faustina — chui'ch of S. Lorenzo in jNliranda (XVII in plan). — "When Antoninus Pius lost his wife, Faustina the elder, in A. D. 141, the Senate voted a temple to commemorate her apotheosis, with priestesses attached to it, with gold and silver statues, etc. On the architrave of the temple this simple inscrip- tion was engraved : — dIvae • favstInae • ex • s • c. The same divine honors were given to Antoninus after his death in 161 ; and his name was added to that of Faustina on the frieze, with little consideration for the laws of epigraph ic symme- try. (See Corpus Inscriptionum, vol. vi. n. 1005.) The edifice was named from the last occupant, ^des divi Pii. It is prostyle, with six columns on the front and three on the sides. The col- umns are of Carystian or cipollino marble, which had come into great fashion since the time of Hadrian. The frieze, with its griffins, vases, candelabra, and festoons, is considered a marvel of art. In the wide space covered by the pronaos there were statues of friends or relatives of the Antonines, like those of Vitrasius Pollio (Corpus Inscriptionum, 1540), husband of Annia Faustina, governor of Asia and of lower Moesia, consul a. d. 138 and 176 ; and of Bassseus Rufus Qhid., 1599), one of the victorious leaders in the Marcomannic campaign. The temple is represented in contemporary medals, as well as in a bas-relief of the Villa Me- dici. (See Bull. Inst., 1853, p. 141.) Its remains, most beautifully preserved, were dedicated to S. Lawrence in the seventh or eighth THE TEMPLE OF FAUSTINA 217 century, probably by a devout lady named ^Miranda (compare the names of S. Lorenzo in Forraoso, in Daniaso, in Lucina, etc.). This saved them from destruction until the time of Urban V., 1362-1370, who allowed the temple to be reduced to the present state, to provide stones and marbles for the reconsti-uction of the Lateran. Martin V. granted the church in 1430 to the corporation Fig. 88. — The Frieze of the Temple of Faustina. of apothecaries, who built shrines and chapels in the intercolum- niations of the portico, protected by a roof the slanting traces of ■which are still \4sible. Roof and cbapels were demolished by Paul III. on the occasion of the entry of Charles Y. Fra Gio- condo da Verona mentions more than once excavations made round the temple at the end of the fifteenth century, by which he and Peruzzi were enabled to take measurements of the substruc- tures and basement ; but no further spoliation seems to have been committed until the temple was again given up by the same Paul III. to the deputies for the Fabbrica di S. Pietro. The results of the loot of 1.510 are described as follows by Ligorio (Bodl., p. 28) : " I shall now describe some marbles found at the foot of the temple, when they were searching for, and re- moving to S. Peter's, the beautiful steps, an act of vandalism 218 A WALK THE UGH THE SAC HA VIA which I cannot condemn too strongly. There was a bas-relief representing Nereids riding on dolphins ; a portion of the figure which stood on the top of the pediment ; a square pedestal with low relief, in a style like the Egyptian ; and many fragments of statues, capitals, and friezes, half burned in a lime-kiln. There was also the base of a statue dedicated to Antoninus by the corpora- Fig 89. — Graffiti oii the Caiystiau Columns of the Temple of Faustina. tion of bakers, which became the property of the Mattel." There were twenty-one steps, as ascertained in the course of the excava- tions made in 1811 by the French prefect of the Departement du Tibre. The same excavations brought to light the threshold of the door leading to the crypt below the stairs. M. Lacour Gayet discovered in 1885, and published in the " Melanges de I'Ecole fran(;aise de Rome " of that year, p. 226, a set of graffiti scratched THE REGIA 219 on the lower portion of the columns of the pronaos, after their surface had been softened by the fire of Conimodus. They rep- resent Hercules and the lion of Xemea, a Lar, the Alctory, etc. The inscriptions date from the Christian era, as if some one was hastening the " purification " of the building. There are saluta- tions like EVTiciANE VIVAS and the monogram ^ CO y^ A which must have been sketched by some one of Eastern extrac- tion, as the Latins always made the Alpha precede the Omega. The ground in front of the temple was cleared in January, 1870. Among the objects recovered on this occasion were a fragment of the fasti consulares from the year of Rome 75.5 to 760 ; a pedestal of a statue which, having been overthro'SATi by an earthquake (fa- tali necessitate collapsa), was replaced on its pedestal by Gabinius Vettius Probianus, a prefect of Eome, at the beginning of the fifth century, well known for the care he took for the j)reservation of works of art, injured in one way or another during those event- ful years ; and the pedestal of an equestrian statue raised \)\ the policemen to Geta. The ground in front of the temple is called in the inscription of Probianus celeberrimvs a-rbis locvs. Literature. — Vita Pii, 6. — Eckliel, Doctriiia numism. vet., vii. .39. — Pirro Ligorio, Cod. vat., 3374, f. 168; and Cod. Torin., xv. f. 100.— Fra Giocoiido da Verona, Uffizi, n. 202. — Tournon, Etudes statist, sur Rome, vol. ii. p. 264. — Valadier et Visconti, Raccolta delle piii itisirjni fabbriche di Roma, tav. ii., iii. — Antonio Nibby, Faro romano, p. 181. — Angelo Pellegrini, Svavi di Roma (in Buonarroti, February, 1876). — Armellini, Chiese di Roma, p. 1.57. We must now cross to the opposite side of the Sacra Via, and examine, before entering the Forum, the group of Vesta, which comprises the Regia, the temple, the shrine, and the house of the Vestals. XVIT. The Regia (X\T;II in plan). — The now vacant sj^ace of ground between the Temples of Vesta and Faustina was occu- pied by the Regia, the official residence of the Pontifex ]\Iaximus, and the centre of his administration, the foundation of which was attributed to Xuma. It contained a chapel where the lances of Mars were kept ; another sacred to Ops C'onsiva, which could be entered only liy the Vestals and by the •' sacerdos publicus ; " spa- cious archives for the safe keeping of the annals, commentaries, and books of the Supi'eme Priesthood ; and a meeting hall where 220 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA religious conventions were held (like that of the Fratres Arvales of May 14, 14 b. c, for the cooptatio of Drusus Caesar, son of Tiberius). The Regia was burnt to the ground not less than four times : first in 210 b. c. ; then in 148, when only the chapel of Mars and the laurel-trees shading the entrance were saved from the flames ; and again in 36, when it was rebuilt by Doniitius Calvinus in solid marble, and ornamented with statues obtained from Julius Ciiesar, much against his will. Pliny (Xatural His- tory, xxxvi. 18, 8) says that two of the four statues which once had supported the tent of Alexander the Great were placed before the Regia, the other two being before the Temple of Mars Ultor. In 1883 I expressed the opinion (Notizie Scavi, p. 479) that Fig. 00. —The Regia, as .sketched by Pirro Ligorio. the graceful little edifice (once more attacked by the flames in the conflagration of Nero) never rose from its ashes ; but after read- ing the account of its discovery and outrageous treatment by the deputies of the Fabbrica di S. Pietro in 1543-46, I wish to correct this statement. The illusti-ation, which I have photographed from an original sketch by Ligorio, who was present at the di?- THE TEMPLE OF VESTA 221 covery, speaks better than any other argument. The design is more a restoration of that fanciful architect than a picture of the real state of the building when first discovered (August 15, 1543 V) ; but many of the particulars are genuine, as any one can see by comparing them with the existing fragment, reproduced by Huelsen and Nichols, with Michelangelo's reconstruction in the Sala dei Fasti, Palazzo dei Conservatori, and with Panvinio's de- signs. Ligorio labored under the delusion that the edifice discov- ered was a " Janus," and so he gave it four entrances, wliile in reality there were but two. At any rate all those present at the find, Palladio, Metello, Panvinio, Ligorio, agree that there was a considerable portion of the Regia standing above ground, and that very many lines of the Fasti triumphales et consulares were found in situ, engraved on its marble walls and pilasters ; the first between 18 and 12 before Christ, the consulares in 36. Ligorio says that it took thirty days to demolish the exquisite ruins down to the level of the foundations, some of the blocks being split for the lime-kiln, others handed over to the stone-cutters of S. Peter's. Cardinal Alessandro Farnese came finally to the rescue : the frag- ments of the Fasti were piously collected by him, and removed to the Capitol, and the ground was tunneled in various directions in search of stray pieces. Michelangelo for the architectural part, and Gentile Delfino for the epigraphic, were deputed to arrange them in one of the halls of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. Other fragments have been discovered since 1870. Literature. — Coi-jms Inscr., vol. i. p. 41.5; second edition, pp. 10-12, pi. la. — Fea, Frammenti d. Fasd. — Adolf Becker, Topographie, p. 234. — De Murls, p. 23. — F. M. Nichols, The Roman Forum, pp. 118-12.5. — Heinrich Jordan, Furma Urbis, pi. 3, n. 21. — Notizie der/li Scavi, 1882, p. 226. — The dis- coveries of 1886 were illustrated b}' Nichols, The Regia and the Fasti Capito- lini (in Archaiologia, vol. 1., 1887, p. 227); by the same in Mittheil., 1886, pp. 94-98; by Jordan, Gli edijizi J'ra il tempio di Faustina, e V atrio di Vesta (in Mittheil., 1886, p. 99, pis. 5-7); and bv Huelsen, Die Regia (in Jahrbuch Arch. Inst., 1889, p. 228). XVIII. The Temple of Vesta (XIX in plan). — "In prehis- toric times, when fire could be obtained only from the friction caused by rubbing together two sticks of wood or from sparks of flint, every village kept a public fire burning day and night in a central hut for the use of each family. The duty of watching the precious element was intrusted to young girls, because girls, as a rule, did not follow their parents or brothers to the pasture grounds, nor did they share with them the fatigues of hunting or 222 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA fishing expeditions. In course of time this simple practice be- came a kind of sacred institution, especially at Alba Longa, the mother country of Rome ; and when a party of Alban shepherds settled on the banks of the Tiber, the worship of Vesta — repre- sented by the j)ublic fire and the girls attending to it — was duly organized at the foot of the Palatine, on the borders of the market- place " (Ancient Rome, p. 135). It seems that the original hut built by Numa perished in the invasion of the Gauls in 390 b. c. The Vestals, on being warned of their approach, concealed the Palladium and other relics in two earthen jars, buried them near the house of the flamen Quiri- nalis — the place was henceforth called f/o//o/a — and took refuge at Caere. A second fire in 241 destroyed the temple. While the Vestals tried to save their lives, Caecilius Metellus, the high priest, threw himself into the flames, and saved the Palladium at the cost of one eye and one arm, which was charred to the bone. The valor of thirteen slaves saved the temple from being gutted for the third time in 210, and for this action they were at once lib- erated. The architecture of the temple of those days can be seen in the coins of the gens Cassia, dating from the commencement of the seventh century.' The round structure is covered by a conical roof surmounted by a statue, and fringed around with dragons' heads. Horace describes an inundation of the time of Augustus, by which the temple was seriously damaged. Kero restored it after his own fire. Lastly, the terrible conflagration which swept over the valley of the Forum in 191 a. d., under the Empire of Commodus, destroyed with the temple the house of the Vestals, the Temple of Peace, etc. The Vestals fled to the Palatine, carrying with them the Palladium, which was thus seen for the first time by profane eyes. The reconstruction by Julia Domna, the Empress of Septimius Severus, and the mother of Caracalla, is the last recorded in history. The " vignettes " of her medals (ap. Cohen, Med. imp., 2d ed. n. 239) give an exact idea of its architecture and style ; it is also represented on several bas-reliefs, reproduced by the aiithors and in the works quoted at the foot of this section. After the defeat of Eugenius in 394, Theodosius II. shut the gates of the temple and extinguished forever the mysterious fire which had been kept burning for over a thousand years. A shapeless mass of concrete of the foundations is all that is left of the famous shrine. The responsibility for such a great loss 1 Babelon, Monnaies de la republ. romaine, vol. i. p. 331, n. 8, 9. 224 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA falls not on the would-be barbarians, but, as usual, on the genial masters of the Renaissance. When first discovered, at the time of Fra Giocondo da Verona in 1489, it was practically intact, and had suffered only slight damage. The Fabbrica di S. Pietro de- stroyed it in 1.549, removing or burning into lime not only the marble blocks of the cella, the entablature, and the peristyle, but even the tufa blocks which strengthened and surrounded the concrete of the foundations, like a ring. Thirty-five pieces only escaped by a miracle, and we found them scattered over a large area in the excavations of 1877. AMth their help, and by com- parison with the designs of medals and bas-reliefs, architects and archaeologists have attempted the reconstruction of the temple. The one I suggest is represented on pp. 159 and IGO of " Ancient Rome." Compare it with Jordan's " Der Tempel," pi. 4 ; and Auer's " Der Tempel," plates 6-8. This last is reproduced in the preceding cut. Literature. — Wolfgang: Helbig, Bull. Inst., 1878, p. 9. — Rodolfo Lan- ciani, V atrio di Vesta (in Notizie Scavi, December, 1883); and Ancient Rome, chaps, vi. and vii. — Heinrich Jordan, Ber Tempel der Vesta. Berlin, Weid- mann, 1886. — Hans Auer, Ber Tempel der Vesta. Vienna, Tempsky, 1888. — Christian Huelsen, MittlieU., vol. iv., 1889, p. 245. — J. Henrj' Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. p. 298. — H. Thedenat, in Daremberg and Saglio's Bictionnaire, p. 1285, n. 7. XIX. The Shrine (XX in plan). — The ancient practice of placing shrines of domestic gods at the corners of the main streets of each ward of the city, was raised to the dignity of a public institution by Augustus.^ Four hundred and twenty-four of these popular chapels were numbered in Rome under Constantine. The Christians accepted the institution, and developed it to such an extent that not less than three thousand two hundred and forty-six were registered in Rome in 1853. Although many inscriptions belonging to the " sediculae larum " have been found from time to time, only two may be said to exist now : the shrine of the Vicus Sobrius near S. Martino ai Monti, and that of the Vicus Vestse. The latter stands behind the temple on the right of the entrance door to the cloisters. The entablature was supported by two columns of the composite order. The frieze contains the follow- ing inscription, in letters of the golden age : sexatvs popvlvsqve KOMANv(.s) • PECVNiA • PVBLicA • FACiENDAM • cvRAViT. Under- neath there was, very likely, a statue of Mercury, a socle inscribed 1 See Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 62 ; and Suetonius, Octav.,1^, "com- pitales Lares ornare bis in anno instituit vernis floribus et icstivis." V ts :- O 226 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA DEO • MERCVRio having been found not far away. An inscription discovered in June, 1878, at S. Paolo fuori le Mura tells us the name and the history of this monument. It says that in a. d. 223, Severus Alexander being Emperor, the street magistrates of the eighth region (Forum) had rebuilt ^^edicvlam • reg • viii • vico VEST^. Vesta's Temple is separated from that of Castor and Pollux by a lane, which is evidently the Vicus Vestae mentioned above. This beautiful shrine could be reconstructed in its entirety, but the attempt has not yet been made. XX. Atrium Vest^ (House of the Vestals) (XXI in plan, and Fig. 92). — The House of the Vestals is an oblong brick build- ing, of the time of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, sur- rounded by streets on every side : by the Sacra Via on the north, by the Vicus Vestae on the west, by the Nova Via on the south, and by an unknown lane on the east. The most prominent feature of the building is the Atrium ; in fact, its size and magnificence were so great that the whole building was named from it, Atrium Vestse. The building itself is 115 metres long, 53 wide ; the Atrium 67 metres long, 24 wide. The surface of the house amounts to 6095 square metres, of which not less than one foui'th (1608 square metres) is occupied by the Atrium. Its architecture can be compared with that of our mediaeval and Renaissance double- storied cloisters, which, being the abode of people seldom or never allowed to go out, must necessarily be very airy and spacious to give the inmates the chance of taking bodily exercise. The portico on the ground floor has, or rather had, forty-eight columns of cipollino mai'ble, of the Corinthian order. Of this stately col- onnade not a piece is left standing. The site and the number of the shafts are marked only by the foundation stones (cuscini) of travertine. Not a trace has been found of the capitals and of the entablature, which was 146 metres long ; and I do not know any other instance of such a wholesale destruction of an ancient build- ing. The second or upper story had an equal number of columns, smaller in size and of the precious breccia corallina. Two whole columns and many fragments have been recovered. They have escaped destruction because the breccia corallina cannot be burnt into lime. The Atrium is surrounded by state apartments on the ground floor. On the upper it was surrounded by the private apartments of the Vestals. Of course, we cannot give their right name to the THE HOUSE OF THE VESTALS 227 single pieces, or state one by one their former use and place. At the east end of the cloisters there is a large hall, twelve metres long and eight metres wide, which corresponds to the tablinum of a Roman house. Its pavement is laid out in colored marbles, such as giallo, porfido, serpentine, etc., and the pattern belongs to the style brought into fashion under Septimius Sever us. The walls were incrusted also with rare marbles framed by a cornice of rosso antico. On each side of this hall there are three smaller rooms, making a total of six, a figure corresponding to the number of the Vestals. Their destination is doubtful ; certainly they were not used as bedrooms, in the first place because the bedrooms have been traced in the upper story, and secondly, because the damp- ness of these low cells is such that they were absolutely unfit for human habitation. The position of the house, as regards health and health-giving sunshine, is most unfavorable. Being built against the cliff of the Palatine, at the bottom of an artificial cutting, its ground floor lies thirty feet below the level of the Nova Via ; this street is actually supported by the back walls of the state apartments on the west side of the Atrium. No wonder that these walls should be saturated with damp, which must have told severely on the health of the sisters. They did their best to fight the evil. Double walls were set up against the buttress of the Nova Via, with a free space between them to allow of the circidation of air. Ventilators and hot-air furnaces are to be seen in every corner. Another precaution taken by the Vestals against rheumatism was the raising of the pavements of every room subject to damp, and the establishment of hot vapor currents in the free space between the double floors. This was done rather awkwardly. Instead of the terra-cotta cylinders or brick pillars which were commonly used by the Konians to support the upper floor of these hypocausta, the Vestals of latter days made use of large amphorje sawn across and cut into two portions of equal length. These half jars are placed in parallel rows and very near each other, and made to support the large tegulce bipedales over which the pavement is laid. Hot air was forced to circulate in the interstices between the jars by means of terra-cotta pipes from a furnace. In spite of all these precautions, the hoiise must have remained unhealthy, es- pecially from want of sunshine. Even how it is cast into the shade of the surrounding ruins of the imperial palace at an early hour of the day ; imagine what must have happened when that palace was towering in all its glory fully 150 feet above the level 228 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA of the Atrium. These unfavorable liygieuic conditions allow us to exi^lain, with a certain degree of probability, a remarkable change in the rules of the order made towards the beginning of the fourth century. Physicians were not allowed in former times to enter the Atrium. As soon as the fii'st symptoms of a case of sickness made their appearance the patient was at once removed from the nunnery and put under the care of her parents, or else under the charge of a distingiushed matron. In the fourth cen- tury we hear for the first time of an archiater or physician attached to the establishment. When the excavations began in October, 1883, we were in hope of discovering some kind of fasti which would tell us the names of the Vestal virgins, the dates of their cooptation and death, and, above all, the list of the abbesses of the monastery. The expecta- tion was disappointed ; and when we consider that amongst the forty thousand inscriptions discovered in Rome since the early Renaissance there is not a line, not a fragment, which can be attributed to the above-named fasti, we may confidently assert that they never existed. It is difficult to explain this fact. The parallel religious corporations of the Fratres Ai'vales, of the Salii Palatini, of the Augiu's, took care that the fasti of their order, year after year, should be engraved in marble ; and these marbles, more or less injiu-ed by time, have come down to us, and they are considered as the most precious documents of Latin epigraphy and chronology. Perhaps it was not customary that female corpora- tions should have special annals; perhajis these annals were only permitted to true collegia, and the Vestals, like the Curiones, were not considered as such. At any i-ate, the want of the fasti is compensated for, as regards the Atrium, by the magnificent set of pedestals, with statues and eulogistic inscriptions, raised in honor of the Vestales maximse. The fashion of these dedications seems to have come in with the Empire, and was kept until the fall of the pagan superstition. The Atrium Vestse must have contained more than one hundred "honorary" pedestals, not because there were as many abbesses during the last four centuries of Vesta's worship, but because many statues represented and many pedestals bore the name of the same lady. The stone-cutters and the lime- burners of the Middle Ages have destroyed more than four fifths of this series. We possess actually the originals or the copies of thirty-six inscriptions bearing names of Vestales maxinue of these, twenty-eight were found in the Atrium itself, two on the Palatine, six in various other quarters of the town. Comparing the infox'- THE HOUSE OF THE VESTALS 220 mation given by these marbles with tlie accounts of classical writers, we can put together an important section of the fasti 7naximatus (the word maxhiiatus has appeared for the first time in one of the new inscriptions). 1. Occia. She presided over the sisterhood from the year 38 B. c. to A, D. 19. (Tacitus, Ann., ii. 86.) 2. Junia Torquata, daughter of Silanus, the noblest of the noble Roman ladies ; maxima between a. d. 19 and 48. 3. Vibidia, the generous protector of INIessalina when the long story of her infamies was disclosed to Claudius. (Tacitus, Ann., xi. 32.) 4. Cornelia Maxima, murdered by Domitiau. (Pliny, Ep., iv. 11.) 5. Prsetextata. Her name appeared for the first time on a ped- estal discovered December 29, 1883 : " Prjetextata; Crassi Filise Virgini Vestali Maxima*, C. lulius Creticus a Sacris." Her mo- ther, " Sulpicia Crassi uxor," is mentioned by Tacitus (Hist., iv. 42). 6. Numisia Maximilla, a. d. 200. Two pedestals mention her name — one found tliree centuries ago, one discovered on Decem- ber 29, 1883, "Xumisia? jNIaximillse V.V. Maximaj, C. Helvidius Mysticus devotus beneficiis eius." 7. Terentia Flavola, A. d. 215, whose name is engraved on four pedestals, was the great-granddaughter of Lollianus Avitus, con- sul in A. D. 114 ; the granddaughter of L. Iledius Rufus Lollianus Avitus, consul in a. d. 144 ; the daughter of Q. Hedius Rufus Lolli- anus Gentianus, Salius Palatinus and consul of uncertain date. She had, moreover, two brothers, Lollianus Plautius Avitus, hus- band of Claudia Sestia Cocceia Severiana, and Terentius Gentianus, husband of Pomponia Pietina. 8. Campia Severina, a. d. 240. 9. Flavia Mamilia, A. d, 242. 10. Flavia Publicia, a. d. 247. This lady was undoubtedly the most famous and venerable chief of the order. Her eulogies and her pedestals have been discovei-ed in vast numbers. Judging from the appearance of the exquisite statue discovered, together with one of her pedestals, on December 20, Flavia Publicia was a lady of tall, queenly appearance, of noble demeanor, of a sweet and gentle, if not handsome face. Seven pedestals have been found, — one in 1497, one in 1.549, five in our own excavations. Of these recent ones the first was dedicated on July 11, 247 A. d., by her niece ^^milia Rogatilla, and by Minucius Honoratus, son of iEmilia ; the second by two captains of the army, Ulpius Yerus and Aurelius Titus; the third was dedicated on September 30, 230 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA A. D. 257, by a certain Bareius Zoticus, with his wife Flavia Verecunda ; the fourth by a M. Aurelius Hermes ; the last by T. Flavins Ajsronius, a sub-iiitendant of the monastery. 11. Coelia Claudiuna, a. d. 286. This abbess was already known from five inscriptions discovered at various times. The two others lately found tell nothing remarkable, except that she is said to have ruled over twenty years. 12. Terentia Rufilla., a. d. 300. 13. On November 5th, a pedestal was discovered bearing the following inscription : " Ob meritum castitatis, pudicitise, atque in sacris religionib usque doctrines mirabilis . . . [name erased] virgini Vestali maxima^, Pontifices viri clarissimi, pro magistro Macrinio Sossiano viro clarissimo, pro meritis." Then follows the date of June 9, a. d. 364 : " dedicata quinto idus lunias, divo loviano et Varroniano consulibus." Now, why should the name of this highly praised priestess have been erased? Two reasons only can be given : either she happened to forget the vows of chastity, or she was converted to Christianity. The first expla- nation does not seem satisfactory, not only because she was most probably a mature, if not an old woman, when the crime and the memorlce. damnaiio took place, but also because the fall of a Vestal would certainly have been noticed and registered and pro- claimed to the four winds by contemporary Christian writers. Conversion to the Gospel seems more probable ; one of these con- quests of the new faith in Vesta's Atrium seems to be mentioned by Prudentius (Peristeph., hymn 2). 14. Coelia Concordia, the last Vesialis maxima, or the last bixt one. She was a great friend of the great champion of polytheism, Vettius Agorius Pmetextatus. Some of her exploits have been revealed by the discovery of a pedestal in the house of Prtetextatus himself, which house stood where is now the Convento dei Liguo- rini, formerly the Villa Caserta, at the corner of the Via Merulana and the Via dell' Arco di S. Vito. Ccelia Concordia had raised a statue in honor of Prsetextatus in the Atrium itself ; she received the same distinction in the house of that nobleman. The statue of Prsetextatus was discovered in the Atrium the last day of 1883. In tlie four months during whicli the excavations lasted, 36,000 cubic metres of earth were carted away and the following objects discovered : jNIarble pedestals with inscriptions, 13 ; inscriptions on marble slabs, 12; brick-stamps, 102; silver coins, 835; gold coin, 1 ; pieces of jewelry, 2 ; busts and heads, 15 ; statues, 11 ; important pieces of statues, 7; columns or pieces of columns of breccia corallina, cipollino, and bigio, 11. THE HOUSE OF THE VESTALS 231 The most remarkable find was that of a ripostiglio, or hidden treasure of Anglo-Saxon coins, made on November 8, 1883, under the remains of a mediaeval house built within the northeast corner of the Atrium. About a metre and a half above the ancient pave- ment our men found a rough terra-cotta jug containing 832 silver coins, one of gold, and a piece of jewelry inscribed " Domno Marino Papa." The gold coin, a solidus, shows on one side the head and the name of the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus (827-84"2), on the other side the busts of JMichael and Constantine VIII. The piece proves only that the treasure was not buried before the first half of the lunth centmy, and proves nothing else, as Byzantine solidi have been used both in the East and in the West for centuries ; in fact, a few of them were still current not many years ago in some Turkish provinces. In the Middle Ages they were the standard international currency; the Merovingian kings even struck a certain number of these coins with the effigies and names of .Justinus, of Justinian, and so forth. Of the 832 silver denarii, 828 are Anglo-Saxon, one from Ratisbon, one from Limoges, two from Pavia. The Anglo-Saxon group is subdivided as follows : Coins with the legend aelfred rex, 3; with eadvveakd rex, 217; with aethelstax uex, 393; with eadmvnd rex, 195; with oxLAF (Anlaf, Anlef) rex or cvxvxc, G; with sitrice CVNVNC, 1 ; with the name of archbishop plegmvnd, 4 ; uncer- tain. 10 ; total, 829. Of ^Ethelstan's coins, 2 were struck at Bath, 1 at Canterbury, 1 at Chichester, 1 at Dartmouth, 4 at Derby, 20 at Dorchester, 6 at Exeter, 16 at York, 2 at Hertford, 1 at Lewes, 2 at Longport, 25 at Leicester, 66 at London, 1 at ^Maldon, 14 at Norwich, 9 at Oxford, 7 at Shrewsbury, 1 at Shaftesbury, 3 at Stafford, 14 at Winchester, 13 at Wallingford, 3 at tolie (?). The names of the monttarii are nearly as numerous as the coins tliemselves. The piece of jewelry is a kind of fibula or broocli, witli silver designs and letters iidaid on copper. It is a unique piece, not only as a work of art of a Roman goldsmith of the tenth century, but because fibula' inscribed with the name of the living pope are not to be found. It was certainly used to fasten on the shoulder the mantle of some high official belonging to the court of ]Marinus II., a pontiff otherwise obscure, who occupied the chair of S. Peter from 942 to 946 ; Albericus being tlien the Princeps romanorum and Edmund the King of England. This official must have been in charge of the pope's episcopium, which nestled among the ruins of the palace of Caligula (see 232 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA p. 155), and must have been paid with " Peter's pence " from England. His small house, destroyed in 1884, rested on the three pedestals of Ccelia Claudiana, of the condemned Vestal, No. 13, and of Flavia Publicia, which one finds on the right-hand side of the entrance (letter A in plan). The foundations of an octagonal shrine, purposely and deliber- ately leveled to the ground, appear in the centre of the cloisters. This shrine contained probably the " sacra fatalia," the sacred tokens of the Roman commonwealth, like the Palladium, intrusted to the care of the Vestals. We believe that the destruction of this innermost sanctuary was accomplished by the Vestals them- selves in the last days preceding the suppression of the order and their banishment from the cloisters, A. d. 394:. In a room near the southeast corner, marked B in the plan, is the ]nill used by the Vestals to grind meal with which the " mola salsa," a most primitive kind of cake, was prepared on February 15 of each year, during the celebration of the Lupercalia. The House of the Vestals has lost much of its fascinating interest since the best works of art, busts, statues, portraits, and inscriptions, pertaining to it, have been removed to the baths of Diocletian. Literature. — Rodolfo Lanciani, JJ atria cli Vesta, con appendice delcomm. de Rossi. Rome, Salviucci, 1884. — Costantino Maes, Vesta e Vestali. Rome, 1883. — Henirich Jordan, Dei' Tempel der Vesta und das Haus der Vestalinnen. Berlin, 1884. — Hans Auer, Der Tempel derVesta und das Haus der Vestalinnen, Vienna, 1888. — J. Henry Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. p. 229. — Joachim INIarquardt, Stuatsverwalfrmg, vol. iii. p. 32-3. — Bull. Inst., 1884, p. 145.— J/i»Ae?7., 1889, p. 245; 1891, p. 91 ; 1892, t^. 287. — Atti Accad. archeoL, 1890, p. 407. THE ROMAN FORUM. XXI. Forum Romanum Magnum (XXII in plan, and Fig. 93). — We have now come to the most interesting part of our walk, to the chief attraction of this attractive district, to the Forum Romanum Magnum, where for so many centuries the destinies of the ancient world were swayed. At the time of the foundation of Rome the bartering trade between the various tribes settled on the heights of the left bank of the Tiber was concentrated in the hollow ground between the Palatine, the Capitoline, and the Quirinal. Around this elemen- tary marketplace, bordering on the marshes of the lesser Velabrum, were a few conical straw huts, such as the one in which the public fire was kept, afterwards the Temple of Vesta. There were also clay pits on the north side, from which the neighborhood took THE ROMAN FORUM 233 the name of Argiletuin, and stone quarries under the Capitoline called Lautumia% afterwards transformed into a state prison. The market-place was well supplied with drinking-water from local springs, like the Tullianum (which tradition has transformed into a miraculous feature of S. Peter's prison)/ and the spring of Juturna, described on p. 124. According to the Roman legend, Romulus and Tatius, after the mediation of the Sabine women, met on the very spot where the battle had been fought, and made peace and an alliance. The spot, a low, damp, grassy field, exposed to the floods of the river Spinon (p. 29), took the name of " Comitium " from the verb coiVe, to assemble. It is possible that, in consequence of the alliance, a road connecting the Sabine and the Roman settlements was made across these swamps ; it became afterwards the Sacra Via. TuUus Hostilius, the third king, built a stone inclosure on the Comitium, for the meeting of the Senators, named from him Curia Ilostilia; then came the state prison built by Ancus Mar- cius in one of the quarries (the Tullianum). The Tarquins drained the land, transformed the unruly river Spinon into the Cloaca Maxima, gave the Forum a regular (trapezoidal) shape, divided the space around its borders into building-lots, and sold them to private speculators for shops and houses, the fronts of which were to be lined with porticoes. These shops, so closely connected with the early life of Rome, were at the beginning of the commonest kind: butchers' stalls (afterwards replaced by the Basilica Sempronia) and butchers' shops, from which Virginius took the knife to stab his daughter. Other tabernai were occupied by schools for children, where Ap- pius Claudius first saw Virginia reading. As the dignity of the place increased, ordinary tradesmen disappeared and their shops were occupied by goldsmiths, silversmiths, money-changers, and usurers. Hence the name " taberna; argentariae," applied, as a gen- eral rule, to all the shops ; as a distinctive name, to those on the north side. On the occasion of the triumph of L. Papirius, dic- tator in 308 B. c, the gilt shields of the Samnites were distributed among the owners of the argentariae to decorate their shop fronts. There were two rows of them, on either of the longer sides of the Forum : one called the tahernce vetei'es (septem tabernce) on the shady or south side ; one called the tahernce novce or argentarice 1 See Der mamertinische Kerker u. die romischen Traditionen vom Gefdng- nisse und den Ketten Petri, von H. Grisar, S. J., in Zeitschrift fur hath. Theologie, xx. Jahrgang, 1896, p. 102. of Rome. B. C. 257 4U7 258 400 270 484 364 390 387 367 391 303 234 .1 WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA on the sunny or north side. The same were designated concisely with the formula " sub veteribus, sub novis." It does not come within the scope of the present chapter to follow stage by stage the develojDment of the market-place into a magnificent forum surrounded by stately edifices. The chronology of its monumental transformation u^j to the time of Augustus may be found in the following table. Compare the " Geschichte des Forum Comitium und der Sacra Via " in Jordan's " Topographie," i"^, p. 315. e. B. c. September 17. — 'Eemple of Saturn dedicated by the consuls A. Senipronius and M. Minicius. Apparition of the Dioscuri by the spring of Juturna. January 27. — Dedication of the Temple of the Dioscuri. Temple of Vesta burnt by the Gauls and rebuilt. Erection of the Temple of Concoi-d voted by the Senate. The legendarj- chasm at the northwest corner of the Palatine. 416 338 Rostra decorated with beaks from the fleet of the Antiates. Chapel of Cn. Flavins on the Graecostasis. Tabula Valeria painted on the east side of the Curia. First sun-dial erected by M. Valerius Messala. Columna rostrata of C. Duilius. Temple of Vesta burnt and rebuilt. Regia destroyed hy tire and rebuilt. The first Basilica or court-house, built by M. Porcius Cato the elder (Basilica Porcia). Basilica Fulvia, by M. Fulvius Nobilior. Basilica Sempronia, by T. Scmpronius Gracchus. Second sun-dial, by L. Marcius Philippus. First clepsydra, by P. Scipio Nasica. Regia destroyed by fire and rebuilt. Reconstruction of tlie Temple of Concord by L. Opimius, voted by the Senate. Basilica Opimia, by L. Opimius. Fornix Fabianus, by Q. Fabius Allobrogicus. Temple of Castor rel)uilt by L. Ca'cilius Metellus Dalmaticus. 670 78 Basilica Fulvia (/Emilia) restored by M. jEmilius Lepi- dus. 680 74 Tribunal Aurelium, by L. Aurelius Cotta. It is evident that a forum dating from the time of the Kings must soon have become inadequate for its purpose, and for the requirements of an ever-increasing poisulation ; its area, besides, was so crowded with statues, tribunes, altars, putealia, and ob- 450 304 490 264 491 203 494 260 513 241 544 210 570 184 575 179 585 169 590 104 595 157 606 148 633 121 633 121 633 121 637 117 THE nOMAN FORUM 235 stacles of every description tliat we wonder how public meetings could be held within its precincts. In 159 b. c. P. Scipio and M. Popilius, censors, ordered the removal from the Forum of all statues of magistrates unless they had been erected by decree of the S. P. Q. K. ; and yet we hear, at the Rostra alone, of the statues of the four Roman ambassadors murdered by the Fidenates in 438 B. c. ; of the two Junii Coruncanii, murdered by Tenta, queen of the Illyrians, in 229 ; of Cu. Octavius, assassinated at Laodicaea in 162 while on a mission to the Syi'ian court; of Servius Sulpicius the jurist, who died in the camp at Mutina in 43 ; of Camillus the dictator, who, as an example of the ancient simplicity of dress, was clothed in a toga without tunic; of C. Maenius (equestrian), who conquered the Latins in 338 ; of Sulla; of Pompeius ; of Lepidus ; of Julius C»sar ; of young Octavianus ; and lastly, of the three Sibyls, which Pliny classifies among the earliest works of the kind in Rome.^ Besides these obstacles, the Forum and its vicinity were crowded by certain classes of people, not very distinguished, who so con- stantly haunted certain points and corners of the place that they were nicknamed from them. Thus we hear of the Subrostrani, lawyers without employment, keeping themselves by the Rostra in search of prey ; of the Canalicolce, described by Paul the Deacon as " homines pauperes qui circa canales fori consistebaut ; " and in a general way of the forenses, so graphically described by Plautus (Curculio, iv. 1). One of the first steps to refoi'ui this state of things was taken in the seventh century of Rome by the construction of a fish-mar- ket {forum piscatorium), in consequence of which the fishmongers, who poisoned the clients of the court-houses with the offensive smell of their merchandise, were driven away from the porticoes of the basilica?. These basilicpe, — the Porcia, oldest of all, built by the elder Cato in 184 near the Curia; the Sempronia, erected in 109 on the line of the tabernre veteres ; the Opimia, in 121, by the Temple of Concord; and the Fulvia ^-Emilia, 179-178, by the Via Argiletana, — as theyM'^ere surrounded by porticoes accessible both by day and by night, increased the public accommodation to some extent. The grand era of transformation begins with the year 700 (54 B. c), when L. iEmilius Paullus bought ]irivate property on the north side and built his superb Basilica ^Emilia. The reason for 1 See Nichols, The Roman Forum, pp. 79, 8(5-89, 20-3, 2]7; and Tliedeiiat, in Daremberg and Sagliu's Diclionnairc, ]>. 1281. 236 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA such a costly undertaking (about 12,000,000 francs) is given by Cicero : ut forum laxaremus, to enlarge the Forum. The work of iEmilius Paullus was continued by Julius Caesar, who purchased other private property and built an extension — the Forum Ju- lium — at a cost of 20,000,000 francs. This happened between the years 700 and 708 (54 and 46 b. c). Augustus followed the example of Csesar, and, in continuation of the two fora, built a third one named Forum Augustum or Forum Martis, from the Temple of Mars the Avenger, which stood at one end of it. Au- gustus himself explains in his " Res gestae " the necessity of this work, by the inadequacy of the two existing fora for the transac- tion of business and the administration of justice. It took him forty years to finish the structure, from 712 to August 1, 752 (42 to 2 B. c). During this lapse of time the old Forum Romanum had been, in its turn, vastly improved, as is shown by the follow- ing summary : — Year of Rome. b. c. 702 52 The Curia, the Basilica Porcia, and several houses burnt down by the Clodians. The Temple of Felicitas built on the site of the Curia in 705. Substituted once more by the Curia Julia in 710. Dedicated by Augustus in 725. 708 46 First Basilica Julia dedicated by Julius Ciesar ; Sub Veteribus rebuilt and enlarged by Augustus in 742. 708 46 Lacus Servilius embellished by Agrippa. 710 44 The Rostra Julia built at the other (ea-st) end of the Forum. 712 42 Temple of Saturn rebuilt by L. Munatius Plancus. 718 36 The Regia rebuilt by Domitius Calvinus. Fasti consulares engraved the same yeai', fasti trium- phales between 736 and 742. 725 29 August 18. — Temple of Ca-sar dedicated by Au- gustus, and triumphal arch of Augustus dedi- cated near the temple bj' the S. P. Q. R. 745 9 Altar of Vulcan dedicated by Augustus on the Volkanal. 747 7 Temple of Castor and Pollux restored by Tiberius. We can add to the list the restoration of the Temple of Con- cordia by Tiberius in 763 (10 A. d.) ; that of the state prison by C. Vibius and M. Cocceius about the same date ; the erection of an altar to Ops by the Temple of Saturn, August 10, 760 (a. d. 7) ; and that of a triumphal arch of Tiberius in 769 (a. d. 16). From the age of Tiberius to that of Constantine the history of THE ROMAN FORUM 237 the Forum is represented by four great fires followed by three great restorations, in the course of which the space for the ac- commodation of the crowds is vastly increased, new buildings are added, new art collections formed, etc. The first is the fire of Nero, A. D. 65, which lasted six days and seven nights, destroyed three regions of the city, and damaged seven more. The Regia, the temples of Vesta and of Jupiter Stator, the Curia, the Graeco- stasis, the Temple of Janus, and the region of the Argiletum as far as the Carinse, were devastated by the flames. The second is the tire of Titus, a. d. 80. Vespasian and Domitian repaired the damages of both, and in doing this they added two fora to the three already existing, the Forum Pacis and the Forum Transitorium. Vespasian began by clearing and rejsairing the streets " deformes veteribus incendiis atque minis," ^ and the temples, for which he was rewarded with the title of " Restitutor iEdium Sacrarum." ^ Then he took up a large section of the burnt land between the Sacra Via and the Carina, and erected on it a splendid temple to Peace, surrounded by a large open space, which must have served, like the fora of Julius and Augustus, to relieve the Forum Ro- manum. He also rebuilt the temples of Jupiter Capitolinus and of Claudius on the Coelian hill, and began the construction of the amphitheatre. In a short reign of two years Titus (a. d. 79-81) could do little more than complete the buildings which his father had left unfin- ished, like the amphitheatre, which he dedicated in the year 80. At the same time another frightful conflagration, which raged for three days and three nights, stopped all work. The fire of Titus was particularly destructive in the region of the Circus Flaminius, lying under the Capitoline hill, as well as on the hill itself. Domitian, youngest son of Vespasian, rebuilt a large area on the north and west sides of the Forum, under a new piano regolatore, the orientation of which is parallel with the Via Argiletana (and the fora of Augustus, of Csesar, and of Peace), not with the Sacra Via. The copious list of his buildings comprises the transformation of the Via Argiletana into the Forum Transitorium ; the reconstruc- tion of the Temple of Janus, of the Curia Julia, of the Grseco- stasis, of the Regia and the House of the Vestals,^ of the Meta 1 Suetonius, Vesjias., 8 ; and Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 931. 2 Ihkl., n. 9.34. 8 Thedenat, in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire, p. 1290, n. 12-14. 238 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA Sudans ; the construction of the horrea piperataria, of the Temple of Vespasian and Titus on the Clivus Capitolinus, of the Ai'ch of Titus on tlie Summa Sacra Via ; and the completion of the amphitheatre. In memory of these architectural exploits, an equestrian statue was raised to him in the middle of the Forum, the description of which by Statins (Silv., i. i) is a fundamental text for the topography of this classic district. Shortly before the end of the reign of Commodus, a. d. 191, another fire, which lasted several days, swept over the region of the Sacra Via. It began in a house near the Temple of Peace, after a slight shock of earthquake. The temple was leveled to the ground ; hence the fire spread to the spice-warehouses of Do- mitian, and from them, over the Sacra Via and the Atrium and Temple of Vesta, to tlie Palace of the Cjesars, a great part of which was desti'oyed, together with the archives of the Empire. " It was on this occasion that Galen's shop on the Sacra Via was burnt down, when, as he tells us himself, he lost some of his works of which there were no other copies in I\ome. The fire was extin- guished at last by a heavy fall of rain." ^ The damages were repaired by Septimius Severus, by his Em- press, Julia Domna, and by his son, Caracalla, with the adoption of a new piano regolatore, in consequence of which the orientation of edifices on the Clivus Sacer was shifted by 33°. This change appears most evident in the map of the Clivus Sacer (p. 207, Fig. 82), in which the ruins anterior to the fire of 191 are marked in black, those from 191 downwards in a lighter tint. It is necessary to remind the reader that the excavations of the Forum and of the Palatine have nowhere been carried to the proper depth. We have satisfied ourselves with laying bare the remains of the late Empire, without taking care to explore the earlier and deeper strata. The foundations of the triumphal arch of Augustus were discovered in 1888 hardly ten inches below the level at which the excavations of 1872 had stopped. The water-tank of Mykenean shape discovered on the Palatine while this book was in the press (August, 1896) had actually been seen in 1876, but not excavated because it lay lower than the surrounding ruins. We are still discussing the exact location of the Arch of Fabius, when it could be ascertained de facto by scraping away a few inches of ground. Severus and Caracalla repaired or rebuilt a fundamentis the Temple of Vesta, the House of the Vestals, the Templum Sacrse 1 Thomas Dyer, A History of the Cily of Rome, ed. 1865, p. 203. THE ROM AX FORUM 239 Urbis, that of Vespasian, the Porticus ^largaritaria, and the front of the palace on the Xova Via. Their names are commemorated forever in the F'oruui, in the triumphal arch erected in 203 on the border-line of the Comitium. We have no definite account of the fire of 283 under Carinus. Judging from the works of repair which it necessitated, it must have raged from the foot of the Capitoline to the top of the Sacra Via, from the Vicus Jugarius to the Temple of Venus and Rome. Diocletian repaii'ed the Basilica Julia, the Grjecostasis (?), and the Forum Julium, and rebuilt the Senate-house from its founda- tions. Maxentius repaired the Temple of Venus and Rome, and built the heroon of his son Romidus, and the great basilica after- wards named from Constantiue. Tlie monumental columns which stand on the edge of tlie Forum, opposite the Basilica Julia, date also from the beginning of the fourth century. The first incident in the history of the destruction of the Forum is the abolition of pagan worship. In 383 Gratianus did away with the privileges of temjiles and j^riests, and confiscated their revenues. In 391 Valentinian and Theodosius prohibited sacrifices, even if strictly domestic and private. This brought the pagan faction to open rebellion, as related at lengtli in " Ancient Rome," p. 173. After the defeat of the rebel leader Eugenius, which took place on September 6, 391, temples were closed forever ; but this measure contributed, for the time being, to the embellishment more than to the spoliation of the Forum and its surroundings, because the beautiful statues of the gods, removed from tlieir altars, were set up again, as mere works of Greek art, in public places like law- courts, fora, baths, main thoroughfares, etc. Information on this point is supplied by — G. B. de Rossi, Bullettino di arch, rrisf., ISO.'i, p. 5 : and Bull, della comm. arch, com., 1874, p. 174. — Corpus Iiucr. Lat., vol. vi. p. -356, n. 1651-72. — Notizie deyli Scavi, 1895, p. 459. The Forum was tolerably well jDreserved at the beginning of the sixth century. In 500 King Theodoric addi'essed the people from the Rostra, promising to maintain the pri\nleges granted by his predecessors, and the words of his promise were engraved on a bronze tablet, hung probably in front of the Senate-house. The Anonym us of Valesius,i in mentioning these events, gives to this corner of the old Forum the name ad Palmam, about which have written — 240 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA H. Jordan, Tojwgraphie, vol. i"-^, p. 259, n. 01. — Ferdinand Gregorovius, Geschichte, vol. i. p. 276. — G. B. de Rossi, Bull, com., 1887, p. 64 ; 1889, p. 363. The former name of the corner was in trlbus fails, or tria fata, from the statues of the three Sibyls mentioned by Pliny (xxxiv. 11) iuxta Rostra, and considered to rank among the earliest works of the kind in Rome. The new denomination ad Palmam originated from a statue of Claudius Gothicus, wearing the palm of victory (statua Palmata), which stood near the Arch of Sever us. It soon extended to the whole neighborhood. The promulgation of the Codex Theodosianus is said to have taken place in 438, in the house of Anicius Glabrio Faustus, qum est ad Palmam, viz., near the Senate-house. The same house is called domus palmata in a letter of King Theodoric.^ The meeting of a committee of bishops with a committee of senators, which took place here in 502 to discuss the schism of Lawrence, is called palmaris, for the same reason. The first solemn transformation of an historical building near the Forum into a Christian place of worship took place about 526, when Pope Felix IV. dedicated to SS. Cosmas and Damianus the Templum Sacrse Urbis, or Record Office. In 630 the Senate-house was dedicated to S. Hadrian by Honorius I. ; in 731 Gregory III. rebuilt the oratory of SS. Sergius and Bacchus by the Temple of Concord and the chapel of the Mamertine Prison ; in 760 Paul I. rebuilt the church of S. Maria Antiqua in the inner hall of the Augusteum, and raised a new one to S. Peter in the vestibule of the Temple of Venus and Rome (transformed in 850 by Leo TV. into that of S. Maria Nova). The Temple of Antoninus likewise was placed under the patronage of S. Lawrence, that of Janus under that of S. Dionysius, the offices of the Senate under that of S. Martina, the Basilica Julia under that of S. Maria de Foro, the ^rarium Saturni under that of the Saviour. The Heroon of Romulus, son of Maxentius, became the vestibule of SS. Cosmas and Damianus ; the so-called Baths of Heliogabalus on the Sacra Via became the church and convent of S. Csesarius in Palatio; the Basilica of Constantine was christianized under a name un- known to us. (See Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 162.) The buildings mentioned by Procopius, about 537, are, besides the Forum itself, the Senate-house, the Temple of Janus, etc. He also states that many statues by Pheidias and Lysippos could 1 Quoted by Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 58. 2 Cassiodorus, Var., iv. 30. TEE ROMAN FORUM 241 still be seen in Rome, after it had been so often sacked. In 546 the barbarians of Totila looted the city once more ; still the Forum, free of ruins, continued to be used as the meeting-place of the remaining population. In 608 the last " honorary " monu- ment, the column of Phocas, was erected in the middle of it, with marbles taken from some neighboring edifice. A few years later Pope Honorius I. (625-640) stripped the roof of the Temple of Venus and Rome of its bronze tiles, which could not but hasten the destruction of that glorious building. In 663 a Christian em- peror, Constans II., held the starving and ruined city to ransom for twelve days, inflicting upon it more damage than it had suf- fered at the hands of the Goths and Vandals. In 768 Stephen III. was elected pope in a popular meeting, held in tribus fails by the Comitium. If the so-called " Itinerary of Einsiedlen " dates really from the time of Charlemagne, it gives us a very detailed account of the state of the Forum at the beginning of the ninth century. The monuments registered in this document are : the arches of Severus, of Titus, and of Constantine ; the umbilicus RomjB, a " pendant " to the golden milestone ; the equestrian statue of Constantine ; the Curia (S. Adriano) ; the Augusteum (S. M. Antiqua) ; the Tem- jilum Sacrte Urbis (SS. Cosmas and Damianus) ; the Temple of Venus and Rome (Palatium Traiani) ; and the Meta Sudans. This is the last evidence we possess of the Forum retaining its original level. An examination of the state of its pavement shows that in former times carriages could not cross it, on account of police regulations and of the steps (and occasional palisades) by which the travertine floor was surrounded. However, all obstacles were removed after the fall of the Empire. Vehicles were then allowed to cross the Forum diagonally from the Argiletum (by S. Adriano) to the Vicus Tuscus (by S. Teodoro) and vice versa, coming in and out between the fii'st and second pedestals of the " honorary " columns on the Sacra Via, where the pavement is deeply furrowed by the friction of wheels. A curbstone, made of a broken column of African marble, is set up at the corner of the first pedestal at the turn of the Sacra Via. What happened to the Forum from the ninth to the fourteenth century it is exceedingly difficult to say. It is unnecessary to remind the student how negligently excavations were made up to a recent date. Their purpose wa^ to reach and lay bare the classic remains of the Empire, and if mediaeval or decadence monu- 242 A WALK THROUGH THE SACEA VIA ments barred the way, they were mercilessly sacrificed. We have careful descriptions of the objects discovered in these excavations, — inscriptions, pedestals, statues, bas-reliefs, columns, etc., — but not a word is said about the way they were lying in their bed of ruins, at what depth, whether in situ or overthrown, whether belonging to the place of discovery or brought from some distance to be used as building-materials, etc. The archaeologists and the excavators of the Napoleonic period, Fea, Nibby, and Amati, were far more careful in noting these particulars, the only means we have of I'econstructing the history of the decline and fall of the city. Take the Basilica Julia, as an illustration : what is left of the noble building to tell the tale of its downfall? The steps leading to it are modern for the greater jaart, and so are the pavement, the pilasters of the nave and aisles, the brick arches towards the Vicus Jugarius, the marble pillars of the Doric order on the Sacra Via, tlie opening of tlie Cloaca Maxima, etc. Even the fragments ari'anged on the pilasters are not all found on the spot. But we do not complain of restorations so much as of destructions. I have just said that part of the Basilica was dedi- cated to S. Maria de Foro ; the elegant little church was found almost intact in 1880 in the northern aisle on the Vicus Jugarius, with its double row of columns, apse, presbyterium, marble tran- sennse, fresco paintings, main and side doors, etc. The only trace left standing by accident is one of the columns of the presby- terium. The remaining portion of the Basilica had been taken possession of by the Koman marmorarii of the eleventh century, who prepared there the materia jn-ima for their cosmatesque clois- ters, ambones, pavements, etc. They had provided themselves with booths and workshops by closing with mud walls the spaces between the pilasters of the western aisles. There were about twenty such shops. The great nave was covered with a layer of chips and fragments of historical marbles, destined to feed the lime-kilns, two of which were discovered full of half-charred blocks. The east aisles towards the Sacra Via were foimd unencumbered by mediaeval partition w^alls, and we know the reason why. They were used as rope-walks, from which the place derived its name of Cannaparia. The upper strata of rubbish was composed inostly of human bones ; because, after the last devastations of Cardi- nal di Corneto, the site had been turned into a burial-ground for the Ospedale della Consolazione. The chain of historical events which made the building pass from the hand of the Roman magis- THE ROMAN FORUM 2-io tra+es into that of the priests of S. Maria de Foro, and then of ropemakers, of luarniorarii, of lime-burners, of the guardians of the Ospedale delta Consolazione, was thus illustrated by actual remains. They have all been sacrificed to the desire of bringing into evidence one period only in the history of the building, the classic. Another subject of discussion about this place was the roof. Was the Basilica vaulted over, like that of Constantine, or roofed with tiles supported by a wooden framework ? The answer was given materially, by the huge blocks of the vault with panels and lacunaria in stucco, which lay scattered on the floor of the aisles. They were destroyed for fear that they would obstruct the view. The Forum has had the same experience. The southeast side of it, facing the Temple of Caesar, was found in 1872 closed by a line of shops of the beginning of the fifth century, and of the utmost importance for the history of the place. They were mis- taken for a mediajval fortification (see Bull. Inst., 1872, pp. 234, 235) and destroyed. The same mistake was made with regard to the walls winch supported tlae platform of the Rostra. The pedestal of an equestrian statue in the middle of tlie Forum — wrongly attributed to Domitian — was likewise dismantled for the sake of some blocks of giallo antico used in its masonry. If such errors were committed in so recent an age, it is easy to understand what must have happened in centuries gone by, and what opportunities of reconstructing the Forum have been lost. The accumulation of soil began, as far as W'e can judge, after the visit of Charlemagne (800). When an officer of Pope ]\Iarinus II. built in 916 a small house within the cloisters of the Vestals, there were already five feet of rubbish above the old pavement. After tlie fire of Robert Guiscard in 1081, the Forum and its surround- ings disapi^eared altogether from the sight, and almost from the memory, of tlie living. The Frangipani and other turbulent barons occupied the ruins of temples and arclies, ci'owning and surround- ing them with battlemented towers, many of which were in their turn leveled to the ground in 1221, 1257, and 1536. See, also, upon this point — Ferdinand rircgorovius, Geschichte, iv. :J70: v. .31fi. — Heiurich .Jordan, Topographie, ii. 480; and Ephemeris epigr., 1876, p. 2-38. The Forum was then turned into a vegetable garden. In the inventory of the possessions of the Lateran basilica, -viTitten by Nicolo Frangipani about 1300, we find mentioned : " Two small houses near the image of Phocas (face magina), with their orchards ; 244 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA two orchards near the arch by the image of Phocas ; others near the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano ; one near S. Adriano, where stand the four columns," etc. The " Res gestae " of Innocent III. mention, vol. ii. p. 102, an orchard behind the church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, and another " among the columns " in the direction of the Mamertine prison. The ground was still cultivated in the middle of the sixteenth -century, when we hear of the inscription of Nsevius Surdinus found " in the gardens of the columna Maenia," viz., of Phocas ; and of the pedestal (Corpus, 1458, o) found " in the gardens by the three columns," viz., of Castor and Pollux. The area of the House of the Vestals was occupied by a harundinetum, or bamboo shrubbery. It has been said that the earth and rubbish fi-om the foundations of public and private buildings were regularly thrown into the area of the Porum, from the time of Eugenius IV. (1431-47), but no documents have been produced to prove this. I have found one — the first within my knowledge — in the account-books of Pope Paul II. (1464-71). It appears from them that the earth and rubbish excavated from the foundations of the Palazzo di Venezia were regularly thrown out " ad tres coluninas," viz., in the neighborhood of the Temple of Castor and Pollux. Considering the state of the city in the fifteenth century, the want of police regulations, and the freedom of building, destroying, and exca- vating which every one enjoyed, it is no wonder that rubbish was thrown out in the nearest convenient place, and no place was more convenient than the hollow of the Forum. I have collected many data about the periodical increase of its level ; but two instances will give the reader an idea of them. It appears that, after the obstruction of the Cloaca Maxima,^ the only outlet for rain and spring water in the district of the fora was a channel or furrow cut by the rushing stream through the bed of rubbish, on the line of the Via di S. Teodoro, passing right in front of this church. Communication between the banks of this ditch was assured by means of a bridge, called il ponticello. Albertini speaks of a dis- covery made about 1.510 ad ponticulum, between S. M. Liberatrice and S. Teodoro. Martin Heemskerk made a sketch of the bridge in 15.34.2 -pi^g if^gj; mention of it occurs in 1549 (Corpus, vi. 804) apropos of the discovery of the Vortumnus prope ponticulum ante 1 The Forum of Augustus could not have been turned into a marsh — il Pantano — unless the Cloaca Maxima, which runs under it and drains it, had ceased its functions. 2 See Mittheilungen, 1894, p. 10, n. 1. THE ROMAN FORUM 245 mdificium quadralum, " near the ponticello in front of the Temple of Augustus." Bridge and ditch had disajjpeared under the ever increasing deposits of rubbish in 1593, when Cardinal Alessandro Farnese made a present of the ground to the S. P. Q. R. for the erection of a fountain and of a watering-trough for cattle. We have the evidence of these facts to the present day in the church of S. Teodoro, built in the sixth (?) century at the level of the Vicus Tuscus ; and rebuilt in 1450 by Pope Nicholas Y. ten or twelve feet higher. In the vignette of Martin Heemskerk, just mentioned, the threshold of the church appears still above the street (1534). In 1674 it was considerably below it. Finally, to save the building from filtering waters and from the pressure of earth, Pope Clement XI. was compelled to cut a ditch round and to open a court before it, to which we now descend by a flight of steps. Such has been the fate of all ancient churches in this region. Built originally ten or twelve steps higher than the Forum, by the end of the fifteenth ceiitury they had sunk deep in the ground, and many were deserted by their attendants. The third vignette of Etienne Duperac shows people descending to the Chiu-ch of S. Adriano, the ground being almost level with the architrave of the door. A strong remedy alone could save the buildings from de- struction, and that of raising them to the level of the new city was decided upon. The thing was done, but in a reckless way, so that the present chiu'ches have nothing but their name in common with their predecessors. Those who know what the word " restora- tion " means with reference to the seicento will understand what those venerable buildings must have gone through at the hands of their restorers. The second instance I propose to quote is this. The greatest centre of traffic in ancient times was the Argiletum, a thoroughfare which ran along tiie bottom of the valley between the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline, and entered the Foi'um between the Curia and the Basilica ^Emilia.^ It retained its importance throughout the centuries until Cardinal Michele Bonelli cut through the Curia the street which bears his name (Via Bonella), and led the traffic into a new thoroughfare, better leveled, paved, and drained. A search made in 1809 at the point where the Ai-giletum fell into the Comitium showed the existence of four pavements, one above the other, viz., the stone floor of the Comitium ; another, 9 feet higher, 1 The lower section of the Argiletum was transformed bj' Domitian into the Forum Trausitorium. 246 A WALK THROUGH THE SACHA VIA dating probably from tlie time of llobert Gui.scard (1084) ; a third, 7 feet higher still, with medireval walls on each side and a curb- stone at the corner made out of a broken column ; the fourth and last pavement, at the present level, dates from the time of Paul III., who, on preparing the ground for the triumphal entry of Charles V. (1536), did not remove the materials of the several churches, houses, and towers demolished for the occasion, but leveled them on the spot. In the excavations made by Mbby between 1827 and 1834 many coins of Paul III. were discovered at a considerable deptli on the line of the Sacra Via. I have mentioned above the fountain and water-trough estab- lished by the 8. P. Q. R. about 1593, near the three columns of Castor and Pollux, on a piece of ground granted by Cardinal Ales- sandro Farnese. The fountain consisted of a large granite basin, 23 metres in circumference, placed on a high pedestal of travertine. The basin had been discovered oj^posite the Mamertine prison, together with the Marforio, in the fifteenth century. AVhen the architect Antinori suggested to Pius VII., in 1816, the removal of the basin to the Piazza del Quirinale (where it was actually placed at the foot of the obelisk two years later), the basin was sunk in the earth, so that carters used to drive their teams right across it, to refresh them in the heat of the summer. I have myself seen a portion of tlie area of the Forum increase by two metres at least in 1868, when Baron Visconti, then engaged in discovering the site of the Porta Romanula, deposited the earth on the site of the House of the Vestals, instead of carting it away. As regards the search for antiquities, we can safely say that, from the time of Urban V. (1362-70) to the end of the last cen- tury, every year is marked by a plunder of some kind or other, the worst deeds of destruction being connected witli the golden age of the cinquecento. The history of these excavations has not been written yet. Materials for such a history, however, have been collected by — Heinricli Jordan, SyUoge inscripf. fori romani (in Ephem. epigr., "1876, pp. 238-248). — Charles Biinsen, Le forum romanum, 1835, pp. 4-6. — A. Zahn, BuUeUino Instituto, 1867, p. 189. — Eugene Miintz, Les arts a la cour des Pnpes, vols, i.-iii.; and Revue archcoL, 1876, p. 158. — Orazio Marucchi, Bes- r.rizione del foro romano. Rome, Befani, 1883. But they hardly cover one tenth of the ground. Students will find a complete chronology of the facts in the " Storia degli Scavi di Roma," which I hope soon to publish as a companion text to the " Forma Urbis." THE ROMAN FORUM 247 The oldest official record dates from the year 1364, when Urban V. granted the materials of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina to the rebuilders of the Lateran, provided they would not touch the chapel of S. Lorenzo in Mu-anda, which had been set up in the portico. As an account of excavations is appended to the descrip- tion of each building, I need not enter into many particulars. In general, however, let us distinguish three periods. In the first, from Urban V. to July 22, 1540, the popes grant to building con- tractors or lime-burners the destruction of such and siich a monu- ment, one third of the profits being reserved for the Apostolic Chamber. Thus in 1431-62 the great travertine wall separating the Senate-house from the Forum of Caesar was legally destroyed by jiermissiou of Eugenius lY. and of his successors ; in 1461-62 the same fate befell the Tempi uni Sacrfp Urbis or Record Otfice ; in 14.50 the Temple of Venus and Rome ; in 1499 the House of the Vestals, etc. If the government treated the antique remains in this fashion they could certainly not expect mere}' from private hands. In reading the contracts signed between the owners of ruins and their excavators, one is reminded of the expression of PiiTO Ligorio, that " ruins were sold like oxen for the meat-mar- ket." What I may call " excavation fever " had seized every class of citizens, from the cardinals and noblemen, who wanted to link their name to a museum or a villa, to the poor w'idow, who sought to relieve her miseries by some unexpected find. Excavations may be called the '' lotto " of the sixteenth century. Sentence of death on the monuments of the Forum and of the Sacra A"ia was passed on July 22, 1540. By a brief of Paul III. (Farnese) ' the privilege of excavating or giving permission to ex- cavate is taken away from the Capitoline or Apostolic chambers, from the "magistrates of streets," from ecclesiastical dignitaries, etc., and given exclusively to the " deputies " for the Fabbrica di S. Pietro. The pope gives them full liberty to search for ancient marbles wherever they please within and outside the walls, to remove them from antique buildings, to pull these buildings to pieces if necessary; he orders that no marbles can be sold by private owners without the consent of the Fabbrica, under the penalty of excommunication lakf sententice, of the wTath of the pope, and of a fine of 1000 ducats. No pen can describe the ravages committed by the Fabbrica in the course of the last sixty 1 Published by Miintz, Revue nrcheol., mai, 1884, from the original of the Vatican archives. The importance of the docmnent has not yet been fully appreciated by archaeologists. 248 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA years of the sixteenth century. The excesses roused the execra- tion of the citizens, but to no purpose ; on May 17, 1580, the con- servatori made an indignant protest to the town council, when a portion of the Palace of the Caesars had fallen, in consequence of its having been undermined by the searchers for marble. A depu- tation was sent to Gregory XIII. to ask for the revocation of all licenses (" ad perquu*endos lapides etiam pro usu fabricse Principis apostolorum"). We may imagine what answer was given to the protests of the city when we learn that by a brief of Clement VIII., dated July 23, 1598, the archaeological jurisdiction of the Fabbrica was extended over tlie remains of Ostia and Porto ! The Forum Romanum was swept by a band of devastators from 1540 to 1549 ; they began by removing the marble steps and the marble coating of Faixstina's Temple (1540), then they attacked what was left standing of the Arch of Fabius (1540). Between 1546 and 1547 the Temple of Julius C»sar, the Regia, with the Fasti Consulares et Triumphales, fell under their hammer. The steps and foundations of the Temple of Castor and Pollux were next burnt into lime or given up to the stone-cutters, together with the Arch of Augustus. The Temple of Vesta, the Augus- taeum, and the shrine of Vortumnus, at the corner of the Vicus Tuscus, met with the same fate in 1549. The chronology of subsequent excavations is given by Charles Bunsen, "Le forum ronumum explique selon I'etat des fouilles," Rome, avril 21, 1835, p. 4 ; Antonio Nibby, •' Roma antica," vol. ii. p. 178 ; Pleinrich Jordan, " Topographie," vol. i^, p. 154, n. 1 ; and " Sylloge inscript. fori Romani " (in Ephem. epigr., 1876, p. 244) ; Orazio Marucchi, " Descrizione del foro romano," Rome, Befani, 1883, ch. ii. p. 9 ; but their accounts are only summary sketches. A great many unknown documents will be published in volumes iii. and iv. of " Storia degli Scavi di Roma," the pub- lication of which has been announced above. Froln the end of the sixteenth century downwards the more noticeable events are, first of all, the raising of christianized pagan edifices to the level of the modern city, by which they suffered great damage. Urban VIII. is responsible for the modernization of the Heroon Romuli, of the Templum Sacrae Urbis (SS. Cosma e Damiano), of the Secretarium Senatus (S. Martina), and of the Senate-house (S. Adriano) ; Paul V. and the architect Carlo Lombardo for that of S. Maria Nova in 1615; the corporation of apothecaries and their architect Torriani for that of S. Lorenzo in Miranda (Temple of Antoninus and Faustina) in 1602 ; Cardi- THE ROMAN FORUM 249 nal Marcello Laute and his architect Onorio Longhi for that of S. Maria Antiqua (S. M. Liberatrice) in 1617 ; the trustees of the Ospedale della Consohizioiie for that of S. Maria in Cannapara (S. M. delle Grazie) in 1609. Under Alexander VII. (1655-67) Leonardo Agostini excavated and destroyed the greater part of the Portions Margaritaria. In 1742 a trencli ten metres deep was cut across the Forum to put in order the Cloaca Maxima, which had become choked. The Chevalier Fredenheim excavated the Basilica Julia between No- vember, 1788, and March, 1789. The end of the eighteenth century marks also the end of the era of destruction in the valley of the Forum. Pius VII., whose memory is dear to all lovers of art and antiquities, seconded by Carlo Fea, his "commissario per le antichita," determined that the historical monuments from the Capitol to the Coliseum should be laid bare and their foundations strengthened if necessary. His work, interrupted by the French invasion of 1809, was continued by Comte Toiu'uon, the prefet of the Departement du Tibre. Leo XII. began in 1827, and Gregory XVI. completed in 18.35, another section of excavations from the Basilica Julia to the Clivus Capitolinus. The Republicans of 1848—49 extended the belt of discoveries along the north side of the Basilica Julia, and Pius IX. completed their work between 1851 and 1852. The Italian government undertook the general excavation of the ground crossed by the Sacra Via from one end to the other a few weeks after Rome was made the capital of the united king- dom. Thirteen years' untii-ing labor and a sum of 2,000,000 lire were required to accomplish the task. The progress of the works can be followed by referring to the dates appended : — 1870. December; 1871, November. — Basilica Julia. 1871. — Streets adjoining the Temple of Castores, steps of temple, monumen- tal columns on the south side of the Forum, Cloaca Maxima. 1872. — Space between temples of Castores and of Divus Julius, Rostra Julia, shops on the east side of the Forum (destroyed in 1874). 1873. — Area of the Forum, sculptured plutei, pedestal of Caballus Constan- tini. Temple of Vesta. 1874. — The neighborhood of Temple of Julius, site of Regia. 187f>. — Steps of Temple of Antoninus, and neighborhood. 1877-1879. — The Clivus Sacer from the Heroon Romuli to the Arch of Titus, Basilica Xova, Arco di Latrone, front of Porticus Margaritaria, etc. 1882. — The Sacra Via by the Arch of Fabius, Arch of Fabius, shops of the House of Vestals, shrine of the Vicus Vestae. 1883-1884. — House of Vestals, Nova Via. 250 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA We shall first study the area of the Forum, and the various monuments which it contains ; then the edifices on the north side (Senate-house, Temple of Janus, Basilica iEmilia) ; those of the east side (Temple of Julius Cfesar, Ai-ch of Augustus, Temple of Castores) ; those of the south side (Basilica Julia between the Vicus Tuscus and the Vicus Jugarius) ; and lastly, those of the west side (Temple of Saturn, Rostra, Arch of Severus, Tullianum) and of the Clivus Capitolinus (Tenrple of Concord and of Ves- pasian, Porticus Deorum Consentium, Tabularium, Capitolium, Arx). The bibliography of the Forum is particularly rich. There is no book connected with Roman archaeology without a reference to it. The works must be divided into three classes : (a) accounts of discoveries of single buildings, sculptixre, inscriptions, etc., with no attempt at a general reconstruction of the Forum ; (b) attempts at a general i-econstruction of the Forum before the final excava- tions of 1870-84 ; (c) works published after the excavations of 1870-84. In the first class we find a precious source of information. The series begins with an " Expose d'une decouverte de m. le chev. Fredenheim faite au Forum romanum en Janvier, 1779," published by Oberlin at Strassbourg in 1706, and ends with Pietro Pericoli's " Storia delF Ospedale della Consolazione di Roma," 1879, where the histoiy of the destruction of the Basilica Julia is I'elated from unedited documents. Works of this class will be quoted in con- nection with the single discoveries or monuments which they throw light upon. The second class has lost much of its importance, its elements being necessarily rather speculative than founded on fact ; yet students will find in works of this kind wonderful erudition, and copious references to classic texts. Consult, among others — Antonio Nibby, Bel foro roviano, della via sacra, etc., Rome, 1819; and Roma nelV anno 1838, part i. vol. ii. p. 277. — Stefano Piale, Del foro romano, ma posizione e f/randezza, Rome, 1818 (18.32); Delia basilica Giulia, 1824 (1833); Dei tempi di Giano, etc., 1819 (1833). — Auguste Caristie, Plan et coupe d'une partie du forum remain. Paris, 1829, fol. — Luigi Canina, Descrizione storica del foro romano e sue adiacenze. Rome, 1834. — Charles Bunsen, Les forums de Rome restaures et eapliques. Rome, 1837; and Beschreihung d. St. Rom, vol. iii. B. — Ravioli and Montiroli, Ilforo romano. Rome, 1852. — Emil Braiin, Das Forum (in Philologus, suppl. ii., 1862, p. 381, 6-^.). — Etfisio Tocco, Ripri- stinazione del foro romano. Rome, 1858. The excavations of 1870-84 have called forth a number of works. Leaving aside those that refer to single discoveries or to AREA OF THE FORUM 251 single monuments, mention of which will be found in the proper place, the few of a general character are — Heinrich Jordan, Capitol, Forum, und Sacra Via, Berlin, Weidmann, 1881 ; Die uberreste des Forum (in Topographie, vol. i'-^, p. 154) ; and Sylloge inscript. fori romani (in Ephem. epigraph., vol. iii., 1876, p. 237). — Edoardo Brizio, Relazione . . . stille scoperte archeolor/iche dtlln citta . . . di Roma, 1873. — Ferdinand Dutert, Le forum romnin tt les forums dt Jules Cesar, etc. Paris, 1876. — John H. Parker, The Roman Forum (in Archseology of Rome, vol. ii. 1876). — Francis M. Nichols, The Roman Forum. London, 1877. — Orazio Marucchi, Descrizione delforo romano e guida per la risita dei suoi monumenti. Rome, 1883. French edition. — John H. Middleton, The Forum Romanum, and its Adjacent Biiildinys (in Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. chap. vi. p. 231). London, 1892. — Levy and Luckenbach, Forum romanum. Munich, 1895. tm mm «*-,•-©-■&-*_♦ 6 • ©llilLilMimsiiCli^ BASILICA. IVLIA Fig. 93. — Map of Forum and of Basilica Julia, XXII. Area of the Forum. — The Forum is not rectangular, as prescribed by A'itruvius (v. 1), but in the form of a trapezoid. Before the construction of the Temple of Csesar, on the site where his body had been cremated, it was 160 metres long. After the 252 A WALK THROVGII THE SACRA VIA temi^le was built, its area was severed from that of the Forum, and the Sacra Via made to pass between them ; by which measure the Forum was reduced to a length of 102 metres. The breadth varies from a maximum of 45 metres on the west side to a minimum of 36 metres at the east end.^ It is surrounded by streets on three sides : by the Street ad Janum on the north, by the Sacra Via on the east and south, while the Area Concordise and the winding Clivus Capitolinus constitute its western boundary line. The Sacra Via has been already described in the opening section of this Book. The Street ad Janum took its name from the temple of that god which stood at the entrance to the Via Argiletana, between the Senate-house and the Basilica Fulvia-^milia. It ex- tended from the Comitium to the Temple of Antoninus, limiting the area of the Forum on the north side. At the beginning of the seventh century of Rome it became the rendezvous of brokers, money-changers, bankers, and usurers, who could find shelter from rain or sun under the porticoes of the basilica. Cicero and Horace describe the centre of the street — ad Janum medium — as the Bourse or Exchange of ancient Rome. Modern writers, forgetting that the adjectives " summus, medius, imus," applied to a slightly inclined road, mean its highest, middle, and lowest point, have imagined the existence on this road of three "jani" or four-faced archways, and have even produced drawings of them. Bentley on Horace (Epist., i. 1, 54) is the first to have found and suggested the true meaning of those adjectives. Literature. — F. M. Nichols, The Roman Forum, p. 240. — H. Jordan, Una rettijicazione alia jnanta del for o (in Bull. Inst., 1881, p. 10.3). — Rodolfo Lanciana, La cloaca maxima (in Bull, com., 1890, p. 98). The Forum is paved negligently with slabs of travertine wliich must date from the time of Diocletian, who repaired the ravages of the fire of Carinus. The pavement was edged with a raised border also of travertine, which, being only 0.72 metre wide, cannot be called sidewalk, semita, but simplv margo. or border. Its most noticeable feature consists of a series of square holes, which line the edge (letter A) and look like the sockets in front of our palaces and public buildings which held the fiaccole on the occasion of festivities. Such holes are also to be found at Pompeii in the street which runs along the so-called " Scuola al foro." Schoene thinks they may have served to hold a wooden fence, to direct and contain 1 According to Varro the Forum originally measured septem jugera'= 17,539.20 square metres ; its actual surface does not exceed 41.31 square metres. AEEA OF THE FORUM 253 the crowd in election days ; but such cannot have been their pur- pose in Rome, because they are to be found also in front of the temples of -Julius Cfesar and of Castor and Pollux. It is more Raised border (margo) Pauement of -045 V Sacra Via Fig. 94. — The Margo of the Forum. probable that the poles around our Forum and its neighboring temples were used to support awnings during the summer months. The situation of the Forum is such that, while it is exposed to the full violence of the rays of the sun, the Capitoline and the Quirinal shelter it from the north, and shut off refreshing breezes. In summer the temperature is often above 100° in the shade. To save the citizens from sunstroke, and to make it possible for judges and advocates to discuss their cases, and for orators to address their audience, the velaria were brought into use towards the end of the Republican period. The merit of the invention seems to belong to Julius Cjesar, who "totum forum romanum intexit, viamque sacram." INIarcellus, the nephew of Augu.stus, while aedile in 23 B. c, " veils forum inumbravit, ut salubrius litigantes con- sisterent." ^ The same thing occurred in a. d. 39, as related by Dion Cassius (lix. 23). At all events, we must not picture the Forum to ourselves as being always a grave and solemn place, only fit for legal discussions, for criminal prosecutions, popular indigna- tion meetings, and so forth. The Forum could be also a gay and festive place. Religieus ceremonies and pageants occasionallj^ took place in it ; sacrifices were offered on temporary altars ; statues of gods moved round in processions among the smoke of incense and the singing of hymns ; military reviews, hunting-scenes, gladiatorial fights, and games of every description were scenes in the drama of this great stage. Thousands of citizens would sometimes sit down in it at political or funeral banquets. Works of art and curiosities were also exhibited in the Forum. L. Hostilius Mancinus, for instance, the first Roman who entered Carthage, had a grand panorama of the siege and capture of the Punic capital set up here, while he would describe viva voce to the crowd the details of the 1 Pliny, Hist. Nat., xv. 20 ; xix. 6. 254 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA assault. Famous pictures and bronze or marble statues brought over from Greece were also shown to the multitudes ; and such wonders of nature as the serpent fifty cubits long, described by Suetonius (Aug., 43). On the occasion of triumphs or proces- sions, private citizens would lend their ai'tistic treasures and dra- peries and carj)ets for the decoration of the Sacra Via. At night the Forum was brilliantly illuminated. Literature. — Th(5denat, in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire, p. 1280. — F. M. Nichols, The Roman Forum, pp. 85-93. The area of the Forum was encumbered with monuments of various kinds. Leaving aside those of early Republican times, which disappeared under the Empire (the columna Mcenia, the pila Horcitla, the Venun Claarina, etc.), I shall only mention the few the remains of which have been or can still be traced in our days. XXIII. Columna Rostrata, or Columna Duilia, a marble pillar ornamented with beaks of war-ships, erected in memory of the naval victory gained by C. Duilius over the Carthaginians in 260 B. c. A fragment of its inscription was discovered in July, 1565, between the Arch of Severus and the Column of Phocas, and re- moved to the vestibule of the Palazzo dei Conservator!, where it is to be seen at the foot of the stairs, under a more or less fanciful model of the column. The inscription, although dating from the time of Claudius, is not a copy of the original one. It is prolix, slightly incorrect, and seems to have been made up by a gram- marian from passages of early annalists. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. i. pp. 37-40.) XXIV. The Sculptured Plutei. — Between the Column of Phocas and the Street of Janus, one of the most interesting monu- ments was brought to light in September, 1872. It consists of two screens or plutei of white marble, with bas-reliefs on either side, surmounted with a richly carved cornice. Each screen, composed of several pieces of marble (a few missing), stands on a foundation of travertine, and a plinth of marble, which is a modern and doubt- ful addition. The exact state in which the bas-reliefs were found in September, 1872, is shown in the following cut (Fig. 95). The inside panels represent the three animals sacrificed in the great lustral ceremony of the suoi^etaurilia — the sow, the ram, and the bull — all adorned with ribbons, and all moving in the direction of the Basilica Julia. The outer reliefs represent historical scenes, THE SCULPTURED PLUTEI 255 with a view of the Forum itself on the background. Their mean- ing has given rise to much controversy. Consult — Wilhelm Henzen, Rilievi cU inarmo scoptrti nel J", r. (in Bull. Inst., 1872, p. 273). — Edoardo Brizio, in Annal. Inst., 1872, p. 309, pi. 47. — Camillo Ravioli, II soggetto esposto nei bassorilievi del J", r. (in Corrispondenza scien- tilica, 1872, anno 25, n. 14, 15). — C. Ludovico Visconti, Beux actesde Domitien en qualite de censeur, etc. Rome, 1873. — F. M. Nichols, The Roman Forum, pp. 60-68. — .1. H. Parker, The Forum (in Archeology of Rome, vol. ii. pi. 13). — Orazio Marucchi, Importanza topografica del bassorilieiil delf.r. (in Gli studi in Italia, 1880, i. p. 678); and Bull. Inst., 1881, pp. 11, 33. — Heinrieh Jordan, Topographie, i^, p. 220. — Luigi Cantarelli, Osservazioni sitlla scene net bassorilievi del/, r. (in Bull, com., 1889, p. 99). It seems almost certain that the scene facing the Capitol alludes to the provision made by Trajan for the education and maintenance of children of poor or deceased citizens (" pueri et puellse alimentarii "). The J^niperor is seated on a suggestum addressing a female figure, a personification of Italy, who carries an infant on the left arm, while another child probably stood on her right. On the opposite side of the same picture the Empei-or Fig. 95. — The Fragments of the Marble Plutei, discovered in September, 1872. is represented addressing the crowd from the Rostra. The second bas-relief, facing the south, represents the burning of the registers in which the sums due to the Fiscus by negligent tax-payers -were recorded. This act of generosity of Trajan is praised by Ausonius. 256 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA The importance, however, of these panels rests in the view of the background, which represents the scene that was in reality before the spectator, the Forum and its surroundings. The view begins on the left with the Rostra Julia, from which the Emperor is addressing the crowd ; behind him we see (a) the Arch of Augustus, (h) the Temple of Castor and Pollux, (c) the THE SCULPTURED P LUTE I 257 opening of the Viciis Tuscus, {•(•// ch Ri'dnerhilline. Berlin, Weid- mann, 1884. — Ibid., Die romische Rednerbiiline (in .Tahrbuch, 1889, p. 1). XXXIX. Three monuments connected with the Rostra deserve notice : the Genius P(>j)itli liouiani. the J\Iilliariym Aureton, and the fjmhilicus. No trace exists of the first monument. It consisted of an fedicula or shrine with a golden statue of the Genius, the gift of the Em- peror Aurelian, before which sacrifices were offered on October 9. The statue was still standing in its place at the end of the fourth century, when some one scratched on the pavement of the Basilica Julia the words — GENIVS POPVLI ROM.\NI 280 A WALK THROUGH THE SACEA VIA which seem to make the half of a " tabula lusoria " (three words of six letters in three lines). The small circular shrine of the Genius {tempietto di marmo di forma circulare) was discovered in 1539. The pedestal of the Genius of the Roman armies had already been found in 1480. Literature. — Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscr., vol. i., Commentarii diurni, October 9 ; and Ueber der Chronograph vom Jahre 354, p. 648. — Ludwig Urlichs, Codex U. R. topoc/raphicus, pp. 10, 11. — Heinrich Jordan, Ephem. ejngr., 1876, p. 278, n. 40. — Ligorio, Cod. Neap., xxxiv. p. 145. Milliarium Aureum (the golden milestone). — A column of gilt bronze, on the surface of which were noted the distances from the gates of Rome to the postal stations on each of the main roads radiating from the metroj)olis. It was erected by Augustus in 29 B. c, as a record of the mensuratio totius orbis on which he and Agrippa had for many yeai-s been engaged. Its position was dis- covered in 1849-50, together with the x'emains of its exquisite marble base. The principal historical interest of the Milliarium arises from the meeting which Otho had here, a. d. 68, with the handful of Praetorians who committed the double crime of mur- dering Galba and of raising Otho to the Imperial throne.^ The Umbilicus Romcc, the round basement of which still exists at the other end of the platform, near the Arch of Severus, belongs to a much later period, probably to the age of Diocletian. It corresponded to the 6fx(paK6s of Greek cities. Ancient documents place it close to the Temple of Concord and to the church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus. This last named edifice is so closely con- nected with the topography of the west end of the Forum and of the Clivns Capitolinus that, although its remains have long since disappeared, it seems necessary to have it briefly described here. XL. The Church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus was the only one in this classic district which did not occupy the site of an ancient building, but stood in its own ground. The " Liber ponti- ficalis " mentions it for the first time in 731-741 at the time of Gregoi-y III., who transformed into a church a small oratory already existing in the Volkanal. Hadrian I. (772-795) enlarged 1 In his work Le Pinnte di Roma anteriori al secolo .rri., Commendatore de Rossi has written some admirable pages on the Milliarium Aureum, and the m.ensura totius orbis which it represents (eh. iv. pp. 25-34). Consult also Luigi Canina, Sul valore dell' nntico piede romano, Rome, 1853 ; Heinrich Jordan, Topor/raphie, vol. i2, p. 244; and Ann. Inst., 1883, p. 57; Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1892, p. 95. THE CHURCH OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS 281 and improved the structure, and Innocent III. (1198-1216) added the front portico facing the Rostra. The exact position of the church appears from the following unpublished sketch by Martin Heemskerk (Fig. 107). The three fluted Corinthian columns in the foreground are those of the Temple of Vespasian. According to Armellini (C'hiese, p. 538) the bell-tower stood on the attic of the Arch of Severus ; but he evidently mistakes it for another tower, having no connection with the church, which appears in du Perac's third vignette on the opposite corner of the arch. I have discovered in the report of the sitting of the city council of Sep- tember 9, 1636, what was the end of this tower. This sitting agreed '• that the tow'er on the Arch of Septimius be pulled down, and its materials be given to the church of Santa ^larti- na, which is in com-se of reconstruction." Paul III. began demol- ishing the church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus on the advent of Charles V. (1536). Some of its walls appear still in Do- sio's twenty - first vig- nette, dating from 1569 ; the last traces of the apse disappeared in 1812. Between the Rostra and the Sacra Via stood a beautiful little building, the so-called Schola Xan- tha, or offices of the scri- b(B librarii (book-keepers) and pnecones (heralds) of the ^Ediles Curules. Its construction is attributed by Henzen to C. Avillius Licinius Trosius, a contempo- rary of Caracalla, and bj^ Huelsen to A. Fabius Xanthus and Be- bryx Drusianus, who lived in the first century. These person- ages are all mentioned in inscriptions discovered on the spot in 1539. (See Corpus, vi. 103.) From the words of these documents, and from the account of the excavations left by Marliano and Ligorio, we gather that the Schola was built of solid marble, and Fig. lo; - The Church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus, sketched by Heemskerk. 282 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA consisted of three rooms at least, with a portico in front facing the south ; and that Fabius Xanthus and his associates had deco- rated it with bronze seats, a statue of the Victory, seven silver statues of the gods, etc. The edifice and its inscriptions were destroyed and the marbles turned into new shapes. I believe, without being able to prove it, that the Schola Xantha formed the west side of the Rostra, the otfice-room of the scribes being under its lofty platform. The pedestal of the statue of Stilicho (Corpus, 1730), which stood in 7-osti-is, was discovered at the same time with the remains of the Schola. LiTEKATUKE. — Christian Huelsen, II sitv e le iscrizloni della Schola Xan- tha, iu Mittheilungen, 1888, p. 208. XLI. The Arch of Tiberius stood at the foot of the Clivus Capitolinus, where the Vicus Jugarius diverges from the Sacra Via, between the northwest corner of the Basilica Julia and the Milliarium. It was erected in 769 (16 a. d.) in memory of the recovery by Germanicus of the eagles and flags which had been lost with the legions of Varus in the battle of Teutoburg. The name of Germanicus, so dear to the Romans, must have saved the arch from destruction, after the death and the memo7'i(K damnatia of Tiberius. According to Montiroli, many fragments were discovered in 1848, with one or more pieces of the inscrip- tion, in which the Elbe and the Rhine were alluded to, and the recovery of the flags was mentioned. These pieces now lie scat- tered all over the Forum. Litp;katiti{e. — Olaus Kellermann, Bull. Inst., IS^b, p. 36. — Giovanni Montiroli, Ilforo romano. Rome, 1852. — Theodor Mommsen, Re.< i/esto' divi Auf/vsti, ed. 1883, p. 127. — Heinrich Jordan, Ephemerm epijjr., 1887, p. 262. XLII. The Arch of Septimius Severus (XXXIII in plan) was dedicated to him and to his sons Caracalla and Geta, a. d. 203, in recognition of the benefits they had conferred on the com- monwealth by reforming the administration and extending the boundaries of the Empire. After the murder of Geta, a. d. 212, his name was suppressed in the inscriptions on either face of the attic ; but the holes left in the marble by the clami^s of the ori- ginal bronze letters give us the means of reconstructing the original text ; it contained the words (lin. 3) et (lin. 4) Getce nohilissbno ccesari, which were substituted by the acclamation optimis fortissi- misque jmncipibus, addressed to Severus and Caracalla alone. The arch has three passages connected by a transverse one. There are four columns of the composite order on each front, on THE ARCH OF SEPT IM I US SEVER US 283 the pedestals of which are carved groups of prisoners of war. (See Fig. 108.) On the spandriLs of the side archways are figures of River Gods, on those of the middle passage Victories with tro- phies. The panels above the side arches are covered with bas- reliefs illustrating the campaigns of Severus in the East. The small door on the south side leads to a set of rooms in the attic, some of which have no light. The arch was erected on the edge of the platform ( Volkanal — area CoTiconlicr), which, being six or seven feet higher than the level of the Forum and of the Comitium, was accessible only by means of steps. The roughly paved road going through the cen- Fig. 108. — Pedestals of Columns, Arch of Severus. tral arch dates from the fall of the Empire. Among the materials of which it was built, Fea discovered in 1803 a pedestal of an Imperial statue and pieces of a monumental column. No part of the Forum has been more fi*equently and more successfully ex- cavated than the neighborhood of this arch. On June 22, 1480, the pedestal of the Genius of Roman armies was tound apud 284 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA arcum. In August, 1539, the pedestals of two statues of Stili- cho were discovered ; in 1547-49 many pedestals were unearthed coniinemorating the peace restored to the world by the Flavian Emperors, — the victory of the Emperor Julius Constantius over Magnentius, a. d. 353, the feats of Flavins Valerius Constantius Caesar, etc. ; and in 1549 the pedestals of the equestrian statues of Arcadius and Ilonorius. In 1774, another pedestal of a statue of Diocletian was foiind; and in 1803 another, dedicated, a. d. 357, to Jnlius Constantius by Oriitus, prefect of the city, the latter being probably in commemoration of the raising of the great obelisk of the Circus jNlaximus (now in the Lateran). These historical documents are marked Nos. 196-200, 234, 1119, 1132, 1158, 1161, 1162, 1174, 1187, 1203, 1204, 1205, 1730, 1731, in vol, vi. of the " Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum." Fig. 109. — A Fruiterer's Shop under the Arch of Severus. Nos. 197, 199, 234, 1132, 1174, 1204 have perished. No. 1730 is to be found in the Palazzo Capranica della Valle ; No. 1731 in the Villa Medici ; Nos. 196, 198, 200, in the Museo Nazionale at Naples. No. 1158 was removed to the Farnese gardens, and brought back in 1875, together with No. 1203. Fragments of No. 1187 are dispersed all over the Fornm. No. 1119 is kejit in the Vatican Museum with No. 1161. No. 1162 is broken in three pieces : the first is missing, the second is to be found in the Vati- can, the third near the Arch of Severns ! S. PETER'S PRISON 285 Many pages could be wi'itten on the history and on the fate of this noble monument in recent times. One incident shall answer for all. The arch, being the property of the S. P. Q. R., was put to ransom in this way. The two side passages were walled in at each end, and turned into shops. I have found in the city archives two leases, one dated May 1, 1721, by which one of the dens is rented to Bonaventura Rosa for four scudi and eighty baiocchi a year ; the other dated January 30, 1751, by which both are given up to Battista Franchi for seven scudi and twenty baiocchi. The last occupant, in 1803, was a fruiterer. This odd state of things is represented in the above original sketch by Gianni, made about 1800 (Fig. 109). Literature. — Suarez, Arcus L. Septiniii Severi anaglypha. Rome, 1676. — Antonio Guattani, Roma antica, vol. i. p. 71. — Corpus Jnscr., vol. vl. n. 103;j. XLIII. The Carcer Tulliaxum (S. Peter's Prison) (XXXIV in plan), is mentioned by Livy as having been built by Ancus Marcius in a place near and a little liigher than the Forum : carcer imminens foro. It contained an underground cell, formerly a cave named Tullianum, from a tullus or jet of water which sprang from the rock. It was used as a place of execution, and Sallust depicts it as a dark, filthy, and frightful den, twelve feet under- ground, walled in and covered with massive stone walls. The fa9ade is very severe in style, and has an inscription commemo- rating the repair's to the prison, made at the time of Tiberius by C. Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Nerva. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 1.539.) Nichols justly remarks that "the Carcer plays a part in Roman history like that of the Tower of London in English. The TuUianum was, if one may say so, a Secret Tower Hill. One of the first heroes of the long tale of miseries is Plemi- nius, who, being detained in prison for his excesses at Locri, was convicted of bribing men to set fire to the city, lowered into the Tullianum, and executed. The same fate befell Lentulus, Ceth- egus, and several other conspirators during the Catilinarian trou- bles. Cicero, who played such a leading part in them, speaks of the Carcer as having been ordained by the kings as the avenger of heinous and notorious crimes. The jail is also associated with the name of King Jugurtha, starved to death in the lower hole. The body of Seianus, the disgraced minister of Tiberius, was cast on the Scalse Gemoniae (steps adjoining the prison), and also those of his innocent children, whose execution was marked by circum- stances of fria;htful atrocitv. Here also the headless trunk of 286 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VTA Flavins Sabinus, brother of Vespasian, was thrown by the soldiers of Vitelliiis, and soon after Vitellius himself met his end on the same spot. The Career," Nichols concludes, "like the Tower, had also its literary reminiscences. Nsevius is said to have writ- ten two of his plays while confined in prison for his attacks on the aristocracy." ^ The bibliography on the Career is given by Cancellieri, " Notizie del Carcere TuUiano." Rome, 1788, pp. 6, 7. XLIV. tEdes Concordia: ('Ojuoroeroj/, Temple of Concord), (XXXV in plan). — The approval of the Licinian laws in 367 15. c. was a great event in the history of the Republic, because tlie alliance between patricians and plebeians, by restoring peace and tranquillity at home, allowed the government to turn its at- tention to foreign affairs. The laws, however, did not pass with- out a struggle. During a particulai'ly violent fight in the Forum, C'amillus promised to erect a temple to Concord, as soon as peace should be restored ; and he kept his word in 367. The temple, a simple and graceful structure of stone, wood, and painted terra- cotta, was raised at the foot of the Clivus Capitolinus, between the Temple of Saturn and the prison. In b. c. 121, after the death of C. Gracchus, the Senate commissioned L. Opimius with the reconstruction of the temple, to the great distress of the ple- beians, who could not tolerate the idea that a monument com- memorating a popular victory should be made to represent the triumph of aristocracy, and so the original inscription was changed one night into the words : " Discord raises this temple to Concord." The edifice, scanty fragments of which have come down to as, dates from a. d. 10, when Tiberius reconstructed it for the second time, and dedicated it on January 16 under the title of Concordia Augusta. Designed and executed by the clever- est masters of the golden age, entirely built of white marble, pro- fusely enriched with masterpieces of the Greek school, the Temple of Concord was one of the finest monuments in the valley of the Forum, and one of the richest museums of Rome. The cella con- tained one central and ten side niches, in which were placed the Apollo and Hera by Baton; Latona nursing Apollo and Diana by Euphranor; Asklepios and Hygieia by Nikeratos; Ares and 1 On the connection of this historical monument with S. Peter, consult Der mamc'7-tinische Kerker u. die romischen Traditionen vom Gefdngnhse und den Ketten Petri, an excellent paper published by H. Grisar, S. J., in the Zeit- schriftfiir kath. Theologie, 1896, p. 102. THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD 287 Hermes by Piston ; and Zeus, Athena, and Demeter by Sthenics. Pliny speaks also of a picture by Theodores representing Cassan- dra; of another by Zeuxis which portrayed Marsyas bound to the tree ; of a third, Bacchus, by Nikias ; of four elephants cut in obsidian, a miracle of skill and labor; and of a collection of precious stones. Among these was the sardonyx set in the legendary ring of Polykrates of Sanios. I may mention in the last place the statue of Ilestia, which Tiberius had taken away almost by force from the inhabitants of Paros. Like that of Castor, the Temple of Concord played an im- portant i^art in Roman political life, and was used very often by the Senate as a meeting-place on extraordinary occasions. Cicero delivered in it his fourth oration against Catiline, denouncing the conspiracy and the names of those concerned in it. Other meet- ings are recorded in Imperial times, under Severus, Alexander, and Probus. The open space in front of the temple, originally called Volkanal, and later on Area Concordia;, is mentioned sev- eral times in connection with the " showers of blood." These were rain mixed with reddish sand from the deserts of Libya, a phenomenon by no means uncommon in Rome, for T have myself observed it on three occasions. The fate of the building after the barbaric invasions is not known. The Anonyinus of Einsiedlen saw (?) it almost perfect in the eighth century, and copied the inscription of the pronaos, which alludes to the restoration made by the S. P. Q. R. after the fire of Carinus. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 89 and 938.) The " Liber Pontificalis " speaks of it as threatening to collapse at the time of Hadrian I. (772-795). When Poggio Bracciolini visited Rome the first time about 1405, the portico was still stand- ing, but he saw it himself, soon after, fall to the ground, and its beautiful marbles were broken and thrown into the lime-kiln. The excavations of the site of the temple began on May 2, 1817. The fragments of decorative marbles found within the cella are described by contemporary witnesses as '*the most delicate, the most perfect productions of ancient art." These fragments are exhibited in the portico of the Tabularium, where dampness and saltpetre corrode their surface, and will soon reduce them to dust ; two bases of the side shrines are in the ground floor of the Museo Capitolino ; two capitals, with lambs in the place of volutes, are in the Palazzo dei Conservatory Nibby says that at the time of the discovei-y half the pavement was perfect ; but its slabs of africano, giallo, and pavonazzetto were afterward stolen one by one 288 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA by stone-cutters, and probably made into paper-weights and other such marketable articles. The threshold of the cella, one of the few pieces left on the spot, has the mark of the caduceus engraved near the left end. Literature. — Co?y)Ms Inscr., vol. vi. n. 89-94. — Ulrichs, Codex topogr., pp. 220, 238. — Stefano Piale, Degli antichi templl di Vespasiano e della Con- cordia. Rome, (1818) 1834. — Carlo Fea, Varieta di Notizie, pp. 93-95. XLV. The Clivus Capitolinus (XXXVI in plan). — The end of the Sacra Via which ascended the eastern slope of the Cap- itoline hill in zigzags was called the Clivus Capitolinus. Its pave- ment has been laid bare in the lower tract before and between the temples of Vespasian, of Saturn, and the Porticus Deorum Con- sentium, as represented in the illustration (Fig. 119) ; but its upper course is as yet a matter of speculation. It probably rounded the Porticus Consentium and emerged on the Area Capitolina, skirt- ing the south side of the Tabularium, as marked (XXXVI) in the plan. At the foot of the pronaos of Saturn are the only existing re- mains of a Roman street pavement of classic times. They owe their preservation to the fact of having been covered by the steps of the temple in one of the later reconstructions. The reader hardly needs to be reminded that all the otlier pavements that go by the name of " ancient streets " are a patchwork of the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ. XLVI. Temple of Vespasian (XXXVII in plan ; Figs. 106 and 110), erected under Doniitian in memory of his deified father (and brother). — There is no doubt that the three columns, stand- ing on a lofty platform between the Temple of Concord and the Porticus Consentium, belong to this temple, because the dedicatory inscription, copied by the so-called Anonymus of Einsiedlen when still intact, ends precisely with the eight letters estitver which we see engraved in the existing fragment. diro • uespasiano • augusto • s • p • q • r impp • ccess • seuerus • et ■ antoninus • pit • felic • augg • rESTiTVER Of this very elegant edifice only the platform, the altar, and the three corner columns of the pronaos are left standing. The frieze is decorated with the instruments of sacrifice — the " albogalerus," the " aspergillus," the " urceus," the knife, the " patera," the axe — in bold relief and in the purest style of art (Fig. 111). The cornice is remarkable for the tiny rings interposed to the dentels ; THE TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN 289 it is a characteristic of ornamental work of the time of Domitian, which occurs also in the cornices of the Flavian Palace, of the Forum Transitorium, of the Albanum, of the Serapaeum, of the Horti Largiaui — buildings erected or restored by the same Em- peror. 290 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA When the excavations of the Clivus Capitolinus were begun in 1810, it was observed not only that the three coUimns were falling out of the perpendicular by over two feet in the direction of the THE TEMPLE OF SATURN 291 Foi'um, but that their foundations liad been uprooted in the ex- cavations of the cinquecento. The ai'chitects Valadier and Campo- rese, after measuring and sketching the ruin stone by stone, took it down, rebuilt the foundations, and set it up straight again. The accumulation of rubbish, which reached nearly to the top of the shafts, was then removed, and the expectant public could see out- lined against the sky those capitals and that frieze which, only a few months before, had been trodden by the feet of tourists. This clever operation is described in Tournon's '• Etudes statistiques sur Kome," vol. ii. p. 266, pi. 21. On the opposite side of the sti'eet stands a nearly perfect Ionic hexastyle portico, which topographers agree in attributing to the XLVII. .EuKS Satukxi (Temple of Saturn) (XXXVIII in plan ; Fig. 110). — According to an old h-adition the Greek followers of Hercules had raised an altar to Saturn in the " jaws," or " at the foot " of the hill which bore his name (Collis Satur- nius), and which was inhabited, even before the Trojan war, by a colony of men called Saturnii. The tradition was founded on the fact that, in much later times, sacrifices were offered to the god in the Greek rite, the worshipers being allowed to keep their heads unveiled. A temple was substituted for the altar in 497 b. c., and dedicated on the day of the Saturnalia, December 17. Lucius Munatius Plancus rebuilt it at the request of his friend Augustus in 42 B. c, the money being taken from the spoils of the Rhaetic war. The fire of Carinus must have damaged the structure, as shown by the inscription sexatvs popvlvsqve romanvs incendio cox- SVMPTVM RESTiTviT eugraved on the architrave of the pronaos, and by the patchwork style of the pronaos itself, w^hich betrays an utter decadence of taste and a great poverty of means. The columns on the front are of gray granite, those at the sides of red, and made up of several pieces ; some of the bases are Attic, others Corinthian, and without plinth. It has been asked why the name of the S. P. Q. R. should appear on the architrave of the temple instead of the name of an Emperor. The reason is evident : the temjile was rebuilt in the fourth century, when Chris- tianity had become, if not the religion of the State, certainly the personal religion of the Emperors ; and it would not have become a Christian Emperor to see his name associated with the restora- tion of heathen temples. I believe, moreover, that the restoration by the S. P. Q. R. was undertaken not from a religious point of 292 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA view, but as a necessity of public administration, because the temple had been used, since the time of Valerius Publicola, as the civil treasury — ^rarium Saturni, — as that of the temple of Concord was used for military purposes. The ^rarium Saturni was divided into two sections : one for current business, one as a reserve fund (iErarium sanctius). Appeal was made to this last in 211 during the second Punic war, and again in 49 b. c, on the approach of Julius Csesar to Rome. There were correspond- ing strong rooms under the cella, but no attempt has ever been made to discover them. The vErarium contained also the archives of the quaestors, in which, among other records, the sentences of death were deposited. A small square opened behind the temple, called Area Satvirni. It contained a celebrated altar, raised to Ops and Ceres on August 10, A. D. 7, while the peninsula was suffering from a famine of un- precedented severity. The lofty platform on which the temple stands was reached from the Clivus Capitolinus l)y means of a long flight of stairs, designed in fragment iii. 22, 23 of the marble plan of Rome. Literature. — Theodor Mommsen, Res gestce, 2d ed. iv. 12, 13. — F. M. Nichols, The Roman Forum, p. 23. — H. Jordan, Ephemeris epigraphica, vol. iii. p. 55. — Orazio Marucchi, Le. forum romani, p. 139.— Thedenat, in Darem- berg and Saglio's Dictionnaire, p. 1285. XL VIII. PoRTicus Deorum Consentium (Portico of the Twelve Gods) (XXXIX in plan; Fig. 112). — At the highest point of the ascent, and under the southeast corner of the Tabu- larium, there is a line of cells built partly against the cliff, partly against the retaining wall of the Clivus, the front of which is decorated with a portico of the Corinthian order. It was rebuilt in A. D. 367 by Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, on the site of a much earlier shrine of the twelve deities, whose gilded images, six of gods and six of goddesses, are mentioned by Varro as existing in the Forum at a very remote age. The inscription on the archi- trave discovered in the excavations of 1834 and the remains of the colonnade were set up in 1853 by Canina. " Agorius Prsetex- tatus is known as one of the most obstinate upholders of pagan- ism, already dying out. He persecuted the Christians whenever he could do so without incurring the penalties of law ; restored the abandoned and half-ruined temples ; and, when Pope Damasus re- monstrated with him for his cruel and illegal behavior, answered, ' Make me Bishop of Rome and I shall at once become a good Christian.' " THE TABU LABIUM 293 Remains of his gardens on the Esquiline were discovered in 1873-74 near the Piazza Manfredo Fanti. The palace connected with the gardens had already been discovered in 1591 in the grounds of Federigo Cesi, near the Arch of Gallienus. It con- Fig. 112. —The Porticus Consentium. tained, like the gardens, a valuable set of works of art, among which was the statue of Coelia Concordia, a Vestalis Maxima, so perfectly preserved that even the insignia of her order, of gilded metal, remained fastened around her neck. Literature. — Olaus Kellerniann, in Bull. Inst., 1835, p. 34. — Luigi Grid, At ti accad. jwntif. archeoL, vol. xiv. p. 118. — Adolf Becker, Topo- graphie, p. 318. — Rodolfo Lanciaiii, Bull, com., 1874, p. 83; and Ancient Rome, p. 169. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 102. XLIX. Tabularium (XL in plan). — This is an immense and well-preserved building, on the slope of the Capitoline facing the Forum, destined for the safe keeping of the deeds of public interest, among which were the decrees of the Senate from the earliest days of the Kings, the plebiscites, the treaties of peace and alliance, and so forth. Bunsen calls the Tabularium "le seul edifice grand qui nous reste de la Republique, le seul edifice d'Etat de la Rome ancienne;" Emil Braun, likewise, "a grand edifice, one of the most considerable of the brightest epoch of the 294 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA Republic, . . . which desei'ves our fullest admiration ; " and yet it is one of the least visited monuments in Rome. The Tabularium is probably the work of Q. Lutatius Catulus, to whom the task of rebuilding the Capitol after the fire of 88 b. c. had been intrusted by a decree of the Senate in 78 b. c. There are two inscriptions commemorating his work : one seen by Poggio Bracciolini about 1530, which expressly mentions svhstrvctionem ct tahvlarivm ; the other discovered by Canina in 1845, which has been set into the wall of the Tabularium itself on the north side. This last contains only the general expression de sK^atus sKtirenlia FACiVNDvm (tabularium?) coeravit. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. i. p. 170, n. 391, 392.) The area of the building corresponds almost exactly with that of the Palazzo del Senatore, the official residence of the Roman municipal administration. The walls of the palace rest on the ancient ones on the north, east, and south sides, as any one can see; but I have discovered a document which proves tliat the west side, viz., the fa(,'ade of the palace towards the Piazza del Campidogiio, is likewise built upon ancient foundations. In p. 88 of the Bodleian MSS. Pirro Ligorio asserts that a beautiful " basamento di sasso tiburtiuo di bella e vaga modanatura " runs under the pedestals of the two River Gods on either side of the fountain, and gives a good outline of it. He also tells the follow- ing remarkable story about the fate of the two River Gods. They had formed part of the mediseval museum of statuary on the Piazza di Montecavallo, which comprised the two colossal groups of Castor and Pollux, two statues of Constantine, one of Cybele, and the two reclining figures of the Nile and the Tigris, known by the name of Saturn and Bacchus.^ When the River Gods were removed to the Capitol for the decoration of the Palazzo del Senatore, an influential person (tin malo consigliere) suggested that the Tigris should be transformed into a Tiber. The sug- gestion was adopted ; the head of the tiger was changed into that of a wolf, and the two sucking infants were added to the group. Ligorio says that the fingers of the right hand of one of the twins were originally part of the hair of the tiger. LiTEKATURE. — Giovaniii Aziirri, Descrlzione delV areata dorica dell' an- tico Tabulario. Rome, 1839. — Beschreibung d. Stadt Rom, vol. iii. p. 40. — Luigi Canina, Monumenti dell' Istituto, vol. v. pi. 31. — Charles Bunsen, Les forums, p. 286. — Emil Braun, Ruins and Museums, p. 14. — Theodor 1 See Michaelis, Le antichita della citta di Roma, descritte da Nicolao Muffel, in Mittheil., 1888, p. 271, n. 23, 24. THE TABULARIU.U 295 Momm>eii, Annul. Inst., 1858, p. 211; and Bull, hist., IS-l.'), p. 119, — Heiurkh Jordan, // tabulario capiloUno (in Aunal. Inst., 1881, p. 60). The Tabularium com2:)rises a substructure built of gabinian stone, an underground tloor, wliich luis long been used for a city jail, and an upper portico of the Doric order, with many halls, passages, corridors, and staircases, all in perfect preservation. The halls were used, as has been said, for state documents, engraved on bronze tablets, '' tabulae seneaj," from which the building was Fig. li;;. — OM (iatc of Tabularium blocked l.y T.-mpl.- of W-spasian. named. Three thousand tablets, called by Suetonius " instru- mentum im])erii pulcherrimum ac vetustissimum," perished in the fire of Yitellius. Vespasian restored the set by means of dupli- cates kept in other archives. 296 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA The Tabularium was accessible directly from the Clivus Capito- liiiLis and from the iErarium Saturui, by means of a staircase of sixty-seven steps, the preservation of which is truly wonderful. The entrance to it was blocked at the time of Domitian, in conse- quence of the erection of the Temple of Vespasian, as shown in Fig. 113. Nibby asserts that the many fragments of columns and capitals of travertine (of the Corinthian order) discovered at the foot of the substructure, and now piled up in front of the Portico of tlie Consentes, belong to a second or upper arcade of the Tabularium. His opinion is corroborated by documents of the time of Anacletus 11. and Innocent III., which mention two Camellarige, the lower and the upper, " Camellaria " being then the denomination of the Tabularium ; and by Poggio Bracciolini, who saw in it fornices (luplici ordine, a double tier of arcades. L. Capitolium (Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus) (XLI in plan). — This national sanctuary of ancient Rome, designed by the elder Tarquin and built by his son Superbus, was dedicated by M. Hoi'atius Pulvillus, consul, on September 13, 509 b. c. Writers describe it as raised on a platform 61.62 metres long, and 57.17 wide, in the middle of a sacred area, which was bounded on three sides by precipitous cliffs. There were three rows of columns on the front of the temple, but none at the back; the style of architecture was pure Etruscan, low and heavy, with intercolumniation so wide (areostyle) as to require the use of wooden architraves. The • cella was divided into three compart- ments, the middle one sacred to Jupiter, the one on the left to Juno Kegina, the one on the right to Minerva. The pediment was crowned by a quadriga of terra-cotta, in the manner of an acroterium ; and the statue of the Father of the Gods was of the same material. It was the w^ork of Turianus of Fregena), who had painted the face of the god in vermilion, and dressed his body with the tunica palmata and the toga picta. Considering that the wooden architraves must have been covered likewise with panels of painted terra cotta, the roof lined with antefixse, etc., we may assume that the old Capitolium did not differ from the contemporary temples of southern Etruria, a splendid specimen of which, discovered at Faleria, is now exhibited in the Villa Giulia outside the Porta del Popolo. In 386 B. c. the rugged and uneven surface of the hill around the temple was made level by means of gigantic substructures, THE CAPITOLIUM 297 which rose from the level of the plain to that of the temple itself, a work called " insane " by Pliny, and classed by Livy among the wonders of Rome. The Capitolium was only accessible from the side of the clivus by means of stately stairs, a kind of "scala santa," which Csesar and Claudius ascended on their knees. On July 6, 83 b. c, a malefactor, whose name was never dis- covered, set the buUding ablaze. Sulla undertook its reconstruc- tion, for which purpose he laid his hands on some of the columns of the Temple of Jupiter the Olympian at Athens. Sulla's work was continued by Lutatius Catulus (the builder of the Tabula- rium), and finished by Julius C«sar in 46. A second restoration took place in the year 9 b. c. under Augustus, a third in 74 a. d. under Vespasian, and the last in the year 82 under Domitian. Domitian's temple was of the same length and width as its pre- decessors, but higher and more svelte. It had Corinthian columns of pentelic marble. For many generations topographers have discussed which of the two summits of the Capitoline hill was occupied by the temple, which by the citadel. A discovery made on Kovember 7, 1875, gave me the first clue to the solution of the difficulty. While building the foundations of the new rotunda in the garden of the Palazzo dei Conservatori (where the works of art dug up on the Esquiline are now exhiliited), we discovered the edge of the plat- form built by the Tarquins, and upon it a fragment of one of the columns of pentelic marble pertaining to the last restoration of Domitian. Such a find, taken by itself, would not have been con- clusive ; but compared with others made in the course of the last four centuries, it proves beyond doubt that the Capitolium stood ou the summit of ]Monte Caprino, and consequently that the Arx and the Tarpeian rock must be placed on the Aracceli side. First as to the insame substriirtiones which supported the sacred area. They have been seen and described by Flaminio Vacca on the side of the Piazza della Consolazione, by Sante Bartoli on the side of the Piazza ]Montanara, by Ficoroni on the side of the Via di Torre de' Specchi. their thickness exceeding five metres. The travertine facing of these walls w^as covered with inscriptions and dedications in honor of the great Roman god by the kings and the nations of the world. One cannot read these historical documents, these messages of friendship and gratitude from the remotest corner of the earth, without acqiiiring a new sense of the magnitude and power of Rome.i These dedications are found only on the side of the Moute Caprino. 1 See Bull, com., 1886, p. 403 ; 1887, pp. 14, 124, 251 ; 1888, p. 138 ; 1890, p. 57. — 298 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA The platform of the Tarquins, built of small grayish blocks of tufa lamellare, without cement, exists still in tolerable preserva- tion under the garden and palace (Caft'arelli) of the German Em- bassy. A sketch in Fabretti's ''De Columna traiana" shows tliat when the Caffarellis enlarged their palace on the Monte Caprino, about 1680, fourteen tiers of stone at least were removed. The following illustration shows the only portion now left visible of this great platform (Fig. ll-l). It lies under the partition wall be- tween the Caffarelli garden and that of the Palazzo dei Conser- vatory Borings made all over the Monte Caprino in 1876 by Jordan H^Lhl, ~ il ': > ,4f??^ 7M P^Ql^^^ f "^ \t^^ ""^ i! BJJhjl^^^ , .;^^^^ ^■^^^ ^^^^^HHIkMik. . , ,., .. i Fig. 114. — Remains of the Platform of the Capitolium in the Garden of the Caffarelli Palace. and Schuj^mann have enabled us to trace three out of four sides of the parallelogram, as well as the size and direction of one of the favissce. The temple rebuilt \i\ Domitian was plundered in June, 4.55, by the Vandals of Genseric, who carried off the statues to adorn his Momm.«en, Zeitschrift fur Numismatik, xv. p. 207. — Corpus Inscrip., vol. i. p. 169. THE CAPITOLIUM 299 African residence. Froni that time the temple, stripped of its roof of gilt bronze tiles, fell into ruin, and became, like so many others, a stone quarry and a lime-kiln. In January, 1545, Giovan Pietro Caffarelli discovered the first relics in the garden behind the Palazzo dei Conservatori. Some of the pieces were sketched and measured by Antonio da Sangallo the younger, and the whole find is described as follows by Flaminio Yacca : " Upon the Tar- peian rock (Monte Caprino) several pillars of peutelic marble were found, with capitals of such size that I was able to carve out of one of them the great lion now in the garden of Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany by the Trinita de' Monti (Villa Medici). The rest of the marbles were used by Vincenzo de Rossi to carve the Prophets and other statues of the chapel of Cardinal Federico Cesi at S. ^Slaria della Pace. ... No fragments of the entablature were found, but as the building was so close to the edge of the precipice, I fancy they must have fallen into the plain below." The surmise was proved correct by subsequent discoveries. In 1780 great pieces of cornice and frieze, ornamented with bucranii and festoons, were dug up from the foundations of the house Xo. 13 Via ]Montanara at the foot of the rock ; other fragments in May, 1875, under the house Xo. 83 Via della Consolazione. The dedications by foreign kings and nations, mentioned above, have also rolled down the hill towards the Piazza della Consolazione, where they were discovered in 1887 under the Casa Moroni. An- other piece of a fluted column of pentelic marble was discovered on January 24, 1889, on the slope towards the TuUianum (S. Pietro in Carcere), where it had been dragged and abandoned by a cinque- ceiito stone-cutter. A careful examination made in 1S75 by the late Padre Luigi Bruzza proves that the statues of the Cappella Cesi are really sculp- tured in pentelic, and so is Flaminio Vacca's lion, in the Villa Me- dici. The piece of a column discovered in Xovember, 1875, is to be seen in the small garden of the Palazzo dei Conservatori ; the one discovered in January, 1889. in the Via di S. Pietro in Carcere has been buried over in the same place. The platform of the temple discovered in 1865 in the garden of the German Embassy (Caffa- relli) was buried in 1880 by Baron von Keudell. The dedicatory inscriptions found in the Piazza della Consolazione, instead of being replaced on the Capitol, to which they had been offered by the discoverer, have found their way to the Museo delle Terme ; those found in the sixteenth century (Corpus Inscr. Lat., vol. i. p. 169, n. 589) have perished. 300 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VTA Literature. — Corpus Inscr., vol. i. p. 170; and vol. vi. n. 372-374. — Rycq, Be Capitolio romano. Leyden, 1669. — Bunsen, Beschreibung d. Stadt Rom, vol. iii% p. 14. — Hirt, Der capitoliniscke Jtipitertempel (in Abhandl. d. Berlinei" Akademie, 1813). — Bureau de la Malle, Memoire sur la position de la roche tarpeienne (in Mem. Academie Inscriptions, 1819). — R. Lanciani, // tempio di Giove ottimo massimo (in Bull, com., 1875, p. 165, pis. 16-18) ; and Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 84. — I'ietro Rosa, Annali Instituto, 1865, p. 382. — H.Jordan, Osservazioni sul tempio di Giove Capitolino (in Annali Instit., 1876, p. 145) ; and TopograpMe, vol. i^, p. 67. — Fabio Gori, Archivio storico letterario della citta eprovincia di Roma, vol. i. 1875, pp. 285-334. — Christian Huelsen, Osservazioni suW architettura del teinpio di Giove Cajntolino (in Mittheilungen, 1888, p. 150, pi. 5). — Audollent, Bessein inedit d^un fronton du temple de Jupiter Capilolin (in Melanges de I'Ecole frau9aise de Rome, 1889, ]>. 120, planche 2). LI. FoKUM JuLiuM. — In spite of the construction of so many temples and basilicae on the borders of the Forum, by wliicli the space accessible to the public had been more than doubled, the Forum itself, dating from the early days of the city, had become absolutely insufficient for the wants of a population which was fast approaching a million. The first step towards the improve- ment of this state of things was taken by Julius Csesar in 54 b. c. He seems to have planned the creation of a new forum while absent from Italy ; stimulated perhaps by the example of L. ^milius PauUus, who had purchased the site of his basilica (Emilia) at a cost of 1500 talents, or 12,000,000 lire. Equally large was the sum spent by Cajsar in securing a space for his " extension." At the date of Cicero's letter (iv. 16) to Atticus, some 60,000,000 sesterces had already been expended. The total cost of ground, without including the new buildings, is said to have exceeded 100,000,000 sesterces, or about 20,000,000 lire, a sum obviously exaggerated, and which has been reduced by careful calculations to 1,343,750 lire (about 168 lire the square metre). The Forum Julium took the shape of a sacred inclosure around the temple dedicated by the dictator 45 b. c. to Venus Genetrix, the goddess from whom he professed to descend. Her statue was a masterpiece by Arkesilaos, and a masterj^iece also was the statue of the famous charger, which had been foaled in the mews of the Julian house, and whose fore feet were nearly human, the hoofs being split, as it were, into toes. Ajipianus speaks of a statue of Cleopatra by the side of that of the goddess ; Ovid of a fountain adorned with figures of nymphs called Appiades ; and Pliny of famous paintings by Greek artists, of six collections of engraved gems, and of a breastplate for the goddess covered with British pearls. THE FORUM JULIUM 301 The beautiful temple was discovered at the time of Palladio in the foundations of a house at the corner of the present streets Cremona and ^lai-morelle. He describes the structure as built of blocks of marble " lavorati eccellentemente." Tlie cor- nice was adorned with sym- bols of the sea — dolphins, tridents, etc. ; the temple itself was hexastyle, perip- teral, and pycnostyle. This last particular is expressly mentioned by Vitruvius (iii. 3), and Palladio confesses " di non hauer veduto inter- colunnii cosi jnccioli in al- cun altro editicio antico " — never to have seen such small intei-columniation in any other ancient edifice. The temple is now com- pletely hidden from view ; the only remains visible, in an alley, Via del Ghettarel- lo, No. 18, pertain to the ta- berufe, or shops which lined the Forum on the (south-) west side. They have been excavated twice at least : first about the end of the fifteenth century, when Fra Giocondo da Yerona made a design of them (Utfizi, n. l.-j^T), and again by Parker in 186G. Tliese important remains were called Forum ^lartis, ISlartis Forum, Mar- forio, in the ]Middle Ages. The statue of the River God, known as the facetious partner of Pasquino, was discovered at the foot of the street which bears his name, together with the granite basin into which the water fell from the god's ui-n. The statue was removed to the Caintol by Sixtus V., and placed by Fig. 115. —The Venus Genetrix by Aikesilaos — a Fragment iu the Museo delle Terms. 302 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA Clement XII., in 1734, in the court of the Capitoline Museum, above the fountain. The basin was removed first to the Campo Vaccino, by S. Maria Liberatrice, in 1594, and again to the Piazza del Quirinale in 1818. The place where both were discovered is marked by a tablet (written by Bartolomeo Marliano) above the door No. 49 Via di Marforio. There are several copies of the Venus Genetrix of Arkesilaos. The goddess appears clad in a thin, semi-transparent chiton, tlirough which the form of the young and lovely body can be clearly seen ; the left breast is bare. There is a replica in the Borghese Museum (Helbig, Guide, vol. ii. p. 141, n. 915); an- other in the ]\Iuseo delle Terme, reproduced in Fig. 115 (ibid., p. 213, n. 1027); a third in the Louvre (Froehner, Sculpture antique, vol. i. p. 16G, n. 135), etc. Consult Otto Jahn, "Leip- ziger Monatsberichte," 1861, p. 114; and Wissowa, "De Veneris Simulacris romanis." Wratislaw, 1882. LiTEKATUKE. — Andrea Palladio, Architettura, ed. 1570, lib. iv. c. 31. — Flaminio Vacca, 3Ie.m. 69 (in Fea's Miscell., vol. i. p. Ixxxiii.). — Francesco Cancellieri, Noiizie delle statue chtte di Marforio e di Pasquino. Rome, 1789. — Giovanni Battista Cavalieri, Antiquar. statuar. Rome, 1585, pi. 94. — Charles Bunsen, Bull. Inst., 18.36, p. 55. — Luigi C'anina, Foro Romano, 94; and Edifizii, vol. ii. pis. xcii.-xcv. — F. M. Nichols, The Roman Forum, p. 251. — Forma Urbis Roma, pi. xx. LII. Forum Augustum (plan. Fig. 110). Augustus followed the example of Ceesar and built a third and more magnificent forum in continuation of the two existing ones. Its remains, known by the name of " Arco dei Pantani," rank among the finest of ancient Rome. The most remarkable feature of the place is a wall of blocks of peperino, raised to a great height to screen the view of the mean houses clustered on the slope of the Quirinal, in the neighborhood of the present Via Baccina and Salita del Grillo. The wall is pierced liy an original archway, the Arco dei Pantani just named, through which the modern traflSc passes at a considerably higher level than the original street which led to the Subura. Against it stand the remains of the beautiful Temple of Mars Ultor, one of the few which have come down to us from the Augustan age without restorations. They consist of three fluted Corinthian columns, of part of the right wall of the cella, and of the roof of the vestibule. They stand on a substructure excavated in 1842, when the inscription in " Corpus," n. 2158, was found, re- lating to the solemn procession which the Salii Palatini made every year on INIarch 1 (and for several days following), chanting THE FORUM AUGU8TUM 303 the axamenta or saliaria carmina, and dancing sacred war-dances — whence the name of Salii. The inscription had ah-eady been seen and copied at the time of Sixtus IV. in 1477, and had been used, later on, in the restorations of the church of S. Basilio of the Priory of Malta, which occupied the southern hemicycle of the Forum. Mars (Gradivus) being the god presiding over the Col- Foro troiano CRYPTA ET PUTKUS (1263) Part excavated under Sixtus IV (1477) FORUM AUGUSTUM lia/ier Cr BoiUalliC. Fig. 116. — Plan of tlie Forum Augustuin. 304 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA lege of the Salii, its temple was selected by them as the last haltr ing-place (mansio) after their exhausting progress through the city. The splendor of the banquet which terminated the celebra- tion is praised by both Cicero and Horace, and indeed the phrases " saliares dapes " and " epulari saliarem in modum " seem to have passed into a proverb. Suetonius relates that while the Emperor Claudius was sitting one day on the throne delivering judgment in this forum, his nostrils were struck by the appetizing odor of the repast prepared for the Salii. Adjourning, therefore, the case which was being argued before him, he rushed into the tem- ple and sat down among the banqueting priests. The ii-regular form of the wall at the back of the temple and of the Forum is accounted for by the circumstance that Augustus was unable to obtain a symmetrical area, as the owners of the nearest houses could not be induced to part with their property. Flaminio Vacca says that a piece of the wall having been demol- ished, towards the end of the sixteenth century, it was found out that the blocks of peperino were fastened to each other by means of wooden clamps shaped like a swallow's tail, and that nobody could ascertain what kind of wood they were cut out of (probably box- wood). Pliny praises the Temple of Mars Ultor as one of the rnost beautiful and perfect works of man ever seen on earth, and places it on the same level with the Forum and Temple of Peace, and with the Basilica ^Emilia. The great pieces of timber used in the roof had been cut in the Rhaitian Alps, in the dog- days, a precaution which was considered to make wood indestruc- tible. Pliny also mentions among its treasures vases of chiseled iron, a statue of Apollo cut in ivory, two large pictures represent- ing a battle and a triumph, and four noble works of Apelles, one of which, representing the victory of Alexander the Great, was altered in the time of Claudius by substituting the likeness of Augustus for that of the Macedonian king. The temple also contained a set of standard weights and measures, and safes and strong boxes, where large sums belonging to private citizens were kept under the guarantee of the priests. A daring robbery perpetrated towards the end of the first century, when even the precious helmet was wrenched from the head of Mars Ultor, frightened the depositors so that the priests gave up banking, at least for the time. The main point of interest of this forum was the gallery of statues, raised by Augustus to the generals who by their exi^loits and victories had extended the boundaries of the Roman Empire. THE FORUM AUGUSTUM 305 The rules formulated by Augustus for the giving of so great a distinction were very strict, but his successors soon relaxed their severity, and statues were offered right and left, just like the equestrian orders of nowadays. L. Silanus, although a minor, was given a statue after his betrothal to Octavia, daughter of Claudius. Another was raised in honor of Q. Curtius Rufus, legate of Germany, for having opened a silver mine (near Nassau Fig. 117. — Tlie South Heuiicycle of the Foruui Augustmii. excavated in 1888. 306 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA on the right bank of the Rhine) which brought little profit to the treasury, but caused great toil and hardship to the soldiers. Nero, after the conspiracy of the Pisones was revealed to him, convened the Senate, and obtained the ornamenta triumplialia for those who had turned informers. Pliny the younger reproaches Domitian for having given statues to men who had never been in action, not even in camp, and who had never heard the sound of a trumpet except from the stage. The Forum of Augustus lost its privilege of being the national protomotheca with the construction of that of Trajan. The honors were then divided between the two places, as shown by the inscrip- tion of M. BassfBus Rufus (Corpus, n. 1599). Many important discoveries illustrating this point were made in 1888-89, when the municipality of Rome, at my suggestion, pulled down the houses and factories which concealed the southern hemi- cycle and laid bare its boundary wall and the niches once occupied by the statues of the Roman heroes. I have described the results of these great excavations in the " Bull. arch, com.," 1889, pp. 26 and 73 (compare 1889, p. 481 ; and 1890, p. 251). Besides fragments of statues in military attire, columns of giallo antico, capitals, friezes of exquisite workmanship, we brought to light the base of a donariuin, for which one hundred pounds of gold had been used, offered to Augustus by the Spanish province of Baetica ; a pedestal of a statue dedicated to Nigrinianus, nephew of the Emperor Cams, by a financier named Geminius Festus ; and inscriptions — in a more or less fragmentary state — which accom- panied the statues of some victorious generals, giving a short account of their exploits. The editors of the first volume, second edition, of the " Corpus Inscript." ^ attribute to Professor Bormann the merit of having made known the fact that these eulogistic biographies, dictated by Augustus, are divided into two parts, — one giving the name in the first case, like — M • AIMILIVS • Q • F • L • N BARBVLA . DICTATOR engraved on the plinth of the statue ; the other giving the account of his career, being engraved on a marble tablet placed below the 1 Inscription es latinee antiquissimce, editio altera, pars prior, Berlin, Reimer, MDcccxciii, p. 187, col. a. THE FORUM TRANSITORIUM 307 niche. I had myself pointed out this important circumstance so far back as February, 1889 (see Bull, com., pp. 73, 77), and I was able to prove thus that many eulogies of illustrious men — the place of discovery of which was not known — belonged to the Forum of Augustus. The eulogies, or fragments of eulogies, found in 1888-89 are now preserved in the Museo Municipale al Celio. They belong to Appius Claudius Csecus, the builder of the Via Appia ; to C. Duillius, who destroyed the Punic fleet on the coast of Sicily ; to Q. Fabius Maximus, dictator ; to L. Corjielius Scipio, who led a successful war against King Antiochus in 190 b. c. ; to Q. Csecilius Metellus Xumidicus ; to L. Cornelius Sulla Felix, dictator, etc. The area of the Forum of Augustus is covered by a double bed of ruins. The lower one, 2.75 metres high, formed the bottom of the marsh, or pond, called il Pantano, where, for want of a proper outlet, the rain-water from the slopes of the Quirinal and the valley of the Subura collected in the Middle Ages. The upper one, 3.25 metres thick, dates from the year 1570, when Pius V. and the commissioner of streets, Prospero Boccapaduli, drained the marsh, found an outlet for the waters, and raised the city to the present level. Needless to say, works of art and objects of arcliae- ological value are found only in the lower strata. Marchese Ales- sandro Guiccioli, syndic of Rome, at the time of the excavations of 1888-89 had formed tlie project of laying bare the whole extent of the Forum ; and certainly no greater benefit could have been conferred on students of ancient Rome, and no greater addition secured to the archajological w^ealth of our city than by the libera- tion of these ruins from the ignoble superstructures which hide them from view. An exchange of property between the munici- pality and the Ospizio dei Convertendi, which owns the place, had already been agreed upon, when the financial crisis of 1889 occurred, and stopped the progress of our work. LiTEKATUKK. — Theodor Mommseu, Res Gestce did Augusti, iv. 21-2(i, p. 126, 2d edit. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. 1386 ; and Inscr. lat. antiquiss., 2d edit. Berlin, Reimer, 189.3, p. 186. — Luigi Borsari, II foro di Aur/usto e il temj3io di Marte Ultore, Accad. Lincei, 3 serie, vol. xiii., 1883-84, p. 406. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1889, pj). 26 and 73. — Giuseppe Gatti, ibid., 1889, p. 481; and 1890, p. 251, pi. 14. — Christian Huelsen, Mittheilungen, vol. v., 1890, pp. 247, 305 ; and vol. vi., 1891, p. 94. — Th(?denat, in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire, p. 1311. LIII. Forum Transitorium. — This Forum, commenced by Domitian and finished by Nerva, was called transitorium or pervium o08 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA because tlie great thoroughfare of the Argiletum passed through it ; also Forum Nerval from the founder and Forum jNIinervse or Forum Palladium from the goddess to whom it was dedicated. It was a long, narrow inclosure, 117 metres by 39, more like a hand- somely decorated street than a scjuare. The inclosure walls, built of peperino and coated with marble, were lined with fluted columns supporting a richly carved entablature, of which one intercolumnia- tion alone remains, known by the name of Le Colonnacce (corner of Via Alessandrina and Via della Croce Bianca). Four hundred years ago it could still be measured in its entirety by Antonio da Sangallo the younger, Baldassarre, and Sallustio Peruzzi and others, whose drawings I have published in the " Atti d. r. Accad. d. Lincei," vol. xi. 1883. The destruction was not accomplished at once, but was the work of many generations, the monks of S. Adriano being foremost in the campaign against the edifice. I have found mention more than once, in deeds of the fourteenth century, of a great lime-kiln established near their church under the name of " calcaria ecclesise sancti Hadriani." In November, 1520, a gang oi fossores lapidum ^ opened a trench at the foot of one of the archways of the Forum, known by the name of Arcus Noe, or Arcanoe (the Arch of Noah), and began to undermine the wall of peperino. Francesco di Branca, one of the city magistrates, caused a member of the gang to be arrested ; but Cardinal Scara- muccia Trivulzio, in whose interests perhaps he was working, obtained his prompt release from Leo X. The " vignettes " of the sixteenth century, of Dosio, Du Perac, Koch, Gamucci, etc., repre- sent this Arch of Noah and the adjoining Temple of JNIinerva in a good state of preservation. The ruins were so striking and pic- turesque that many artists have selected them as a background to their compositions. The following sketch (Fig. 118) of Boscolo in Laing's collection, Royal Scottish Academy, Edinburgh, represents the meeting of some holy men before the Temple of Minerva ; the Arch of Noah appears on the right, and above it the church and belfry of SS. Stefano and Lorenzo (now SS. Quirico e Giolitta). The destruction of the arch and of the temple is commonly attri- buted to Pope Paul v., Borghese ; but Clement VIII., Aldobrandini, had already laid hands on them. Giacomo Grimaldi says that while walking one day through the Lungara with Giacomo della Porta, they saw a great block of Parian marble being removed from this temple to S. Peter's. The block, belonging to the archi- trave, measured 11.5.5 cubic metres, or about 346 cubic feet. Clem- 1 Contractors for the supply of building materials. THE FORUM TRANSITORIUM 309 eut VIII. made use of it for the high altar of S. Peter's, which he inaugurated on June 26, 1594. The rest of the temple disappeared in 1606. The columns and the frieze were cut in slabs, and made use of for the decoration of the fountain of the Acqua Paola on the Janiculum. The blocks of stone belonging to the cella and to the inclosure wall of the Forum were given by Paul V. to the prior and monks of S. Adriano. The platform of the temple still exists, althougli liidden from view ; the house at the corner of the Via Alessandrina, which faces the Colonnacce on one side and the church of 8. Agata on the other, is built upon it. Another house. No. ;58 Via della Croce Bianca, may be truly said to rest on a bed of marble. I saw its foundations sunk, in October, 1882, through a mass of broken columns, capitals, friezes, and pedestals. The pavement of the Forum lies here at the depth of 5.50 metres. Like the Forum Augustum and the Forum Traiani, this one Fig. 118. — The Forum Trausitorium : a sketch by Boscolo. had also its own gallery of portrait statues. Its institution dates from the time of Severus Alexander ; compare " Vita Alex.," 28 : "Colossal statues, single or equestrian, were raised by him in Nerva's Forum to deified Emperors or Empresses." Two speci- mens have come down to us : one of them was discovered in the 310 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA first quarter of the sixteenth century by Angelo de Massimi, and removed, first to the family palace in the Via Papale, and later on to the Capitoline Museum (ground floor, corridor No. 19). The name of King Pyrrhus attributed to it is manifestly erroneous ; at the same time we cannot agree with Helbig in identifying it with Mars, on account of the evidence of the biographer, who speaks not of gods but of deified Roman Emperors. The fragments of a second colossal (female) figure, resembling to a certain degree the Thusnelda in the Loggia de' Lanzi, Florence, were discovered by Vitali in 1882. LiTEKATURE. — Rodolfo Lauciaiii, L^ aula e gll uffici del Senato Romano (in Mem. Accad. Liucei, 1883, p. 2:3). — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. i. p. 295, 11. 405. — H. Bliimner, Annul. Inst., 1877, p. 5; and Munmnenti, vol. x. pi. 11. — Eugene Petersen, Mittheilunyen, vol. iv. 1889, p. 88. — TWdenat, in Da- remberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire, p. 1314. — Heinricli .Jordan, Forma, p. 27. LIV. Forum Traiani (Forum of Trajan, Plan, Fig. 119). — We must now enter the last and most magnificent of Roman fora, built by Trajan between a. d. 112 and 111 from the designs of Apollodorus of Damascus. It was not only a masterpiece of architecture, but also, if we recollect the difficulties its builders had to contend with to find a suitable space for it, a chef-d' ceuvre of engineering skill. The Capitoline, located in the heart of the city, was not an isolated hill, as it is at present : the tide of traffic between the northern and southern quarters could not round it on either side as is now the case. The Capitoline was a spur of the Quirinal, advancing towards the river to within a few hundred feet from its left bank. The obstruction could be overcome in one of two ways : by crossing the ridge connecting the two hills by the Clivus Argentarius, corresponding to our Via di Marf orio, only five metres wide with a gradient of ten per cent ; or else by rounding the rock on the river-side. The passage was certainly easy and level on the rivei-side, but three times as long as the cut through the ridge, and obviously insufficient for the traffic of a city inhabited by a million people. To obviate this evil, to relieve the strip of land west of the Capitoline from the pressure of traffic, and to double, at the same time, the extent of the five existing fora (Romanum, lulium, Augustum, Pacis, and Transitorium) Trajan and Apollo- dorus conceived the plan of severing the Capitoline from the Qui- rinal, and of substituting for the narrow and steep guUy of the Clivus Argentarius a level space 185 metres wide. Private prop- erty on each slope and on the top of the ridge was accordingly THE FORUM OF TRAJAN 311 bought and destroyed to the extent of over 40,000 square metres, and the ridge was cut, excavated, and bodily carted away. So great was the astonishment created by the great work that the well-known column was erected at a public cost, " ad declarandum quantas altitudinis raons et locus sit egestus " (Corpus Inscr., vi. 312 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA 11. 960), — "• to show to posterity how high rose the mountain lev- eled to make room for the I'orum." The pillar, statue included, is 42 metres high. The 700,000 or 800,000 cubic metres of earth and rock were carted away outside the Porta Collina, and spread over the cemetery between the Via Salaria Nova and Vetus. (See Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 284.) Trajan's Forum comprised seven parts : the propylaia with the triumphal arch of the founder, the square itself with the eques- trian statue in the middle, the Basilica Ulpia, the Bibliotheca Ulpia, two hemicycles, the monumental column, and the Temple of Trajan. The triumphal arch which formed the entrance to the Forum was demolished, or at least greatly injured, by the cominissioiiers of streets in March, 1.526. The case was inquired into by Fran- cesco Cenci, the chief magistrate of the city, who made a report to the town council March 26, but no redress seems to have been obtained. In the latter part of the sixteenth century (about l.'iTO) other remains were dug up near the church of S. Maria in C'anipo Carleo. Flaminio Vacca describes them as "vestigie di un' arco trionfale con molti pezzi di istorie," viz., with fragments of bas-reliefs which represented Trajan fording a river on horse- back. King Decebalus bound in chains, the seizing of the enemy's cattle, etc. The last discoveries took place in 1863, when the church of S. Maria in Campo Carleo was demolished to widen the roadway at the entrance of the A^ia Alessandrina. The arch, erected, or at least voted, by the S. P. Q. R. in a. d. 117, a few months before Trajan's death, is represented with minute details in the medal ap. Cohen, "Monnaies imper. Trajan," n. 167. Literature. — Dion Cassius, Ixviii. 29. — Codex vatic, 3439, f . 84. — Codex Berolhi., f. 36. — Flaminio Vacca, Mem. 9 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i.).— Angelo Pellegrini, Bull, fnst., 1883, p. 78. — Pasquale Adinolfi, Roma neW eta di mezzo, vol. i. p. 54. The Forum, 95 metres long and 116 wide, was surrounded by a double colonnade on three sides, the fourth side, opposite the propylaia, being occupied by the basilica. The porticoes were crowded with statues of eminent men, with an account of their career engraved on the pedestals. Many of these valuable histori- cal documents have already been discovered ; ^ they belong mostly to the fourth century after Christ. The inclosure wall of the forum was built of blocks of peperino lined with marble, like 1 Corpus Inscr., 1141, 1679, 1683, 1710, 1715, 1721, 1724, 1725, 1727, 1729, 1736, 1749, 1764, 1783. THE FORUM OF TRAJAN 313 those of the Foriiin Augustum and Forum Transitorium. No trace of it appears now above ground, but we have a careful descrip- tion of it in a deed of 1263 (quoted by Adinolfi in vol. ii. of " Roma nell' eta di mezzo," p. 54. It was called the " murus marmoreus," and crossed the whole extent of the Campo Carleo from the Capi- toline to the Quirinal hill. The equestrian statue of the Emperor rose in the centre of the square. Ammianus Marcellinus (xvi. 10) describes the impressions felt by the Emperor Constantius at the first sight of the group. " Having now entered the Forum Trajanum, the most marvelous creation of human genius, he was struck with wonder, and looked round in amazement at the gi-eat structures which no pen can describe, and which mankind can ci-eate and see but once in the course of centuries. . . . Then he turned his attention to the equestrian statue in the centre of the forum, and said to his attendants he would have one like it in Constantinoiile, to which Ilormisdas, a young Persian prince at- tached to the com't, replied, ' You must first provide your horse with a stable like this.' " I shall recall to the memory of the reader only two of the numy historical events which have taken place in this forum. First the burning of the registers of the arrears due to the Imperial Treasury {syntjrapha or tahulce dehito- rum) by private citizens, ordered by Hadrian a. d. 118. The sum was simply apjialling : " novies millies centena millia sestertium," or about 170,000.000 lire. A fragment of the inscription record- ing the event, discovered in 1812, has been set up in the modern wall behind the pillar. (See Corpus Inscr., vi. 967 ; Eckhel, Doctr. numm., vol. vii. 486 ; and Vita Hadr., 7.) The other occm-rence is related in the " Vita Marci," ch. xvii. The treasury being exhausted in consequence of the Marcomannic wars, and the Emperor being unwilling to burden his subjects with new contributions (especially as the pestilence was then raging), he put up at auction all the valuables of the crown. The auction took place in the Forum of Trajan and lasted two months, a large sum of money being realized, with the help of which the war was brought to a successful close. Marcus Aurelius sold the golden plate and vases of crystal and murrha, even the Imperial drinking- cups, the state robes set with gems and woven of silk, and also many marvelous jewels which he had found in a secret drawer of Hadrian (m repostorio sanctiore Hadriani). After the end of the war he offered to buy back the objects sold, and showed no dis- satisfaction whatever with those who refused. To support the deep cuttings on either side of the Forum, Apol- 314 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA lodorus raised two hemicycles (Fig. 119, A, B) the design and ai-- chitecture of which is so complicated that it would be difficult to describe it properly. There are few traces left of the one towards the Capitol, but the semicircular line of the houses in the Piazza delle Chiavi d' Oro shows it to have been perfectly symmetrical with the one on the opposite side. This last, very well preserved, bears the traditional name of baths of ^Emilius Paulus — Balneapauli, Magnanapoli — and consists of many-storied corridors and shops or rooms, built against the live rock of the Quirinal. The pave- ment which extends in front of the building was laid bare during the French invasion (1812). The place well deserves a visit. Apply to the custode of the Forum, or to the Ufficio dei Monu- menti via in Miranda. The remains, however, are not all accessi- ble. They cover an immense sj^ace under the Palazzo Ceva-Rocca- giovane, Palazzo Tiberi, under the barracks and monastery of S. Caterina da Siena, under the house and garden of Prince Ruspoli, and also under the houses of the Via del Grillo. LiTERATUKE. — Carlo Fea, Prodromo di nuove osservazioni, p. 4 ; and Iscri- zioni di Monum., p. 13. — Emil Braun, Ruins and Museums, p. 20, ii. 8. — Mari- ano Armellini, Chiese, 2d ed. p. 177. The remains have been measured and slcetched by Sangallo tlie elder, Cod. Barberin., f . 2 ; by Sangallo the younger, Uffizi, n. 1187; by Salhistio Peruzzi, Uffizi, 653, 654!^ 656, 665, 687;" by Gio. Antonio Dosio, Uffizi, 2540, 2565; by Martin Heemskerk, Berlin, 28, 34; and by Andrea Aleppi and Domenico Cacchiatelli, after the French excavations in 1815. The Basilica Ulpia, a hall 89 metres long and .54 wide, siuTounded by a double line of columns, 96 in all, was excavated in 1813 by the French government after the demolition of the convents dello Fig. 120. —Frieze from the Basilica Ulpia (Laterau Museuiu). THE FORUM OF TRAJAN 315 Spirito Sauto and di S. Eufemia, which occupied its site. On the return of Pius VII. in 1S14 the works were resumed, a wall support- ing the modern streets was built on the border of the excavations, and the columns of the nave and aisles were set up on their bases, many of which had been found in situ. It must be observed, how- ever, that not all tlie columns were of gray or Psaronian granite ; those on either side of the entrance doors were certainly, and those of the nave were probably, of giallo antico, and fluted. One of these last was removed to the Lateran at the time of Clement VIII. and placed under the organ of the nave Clementina ; and four went to the transept of S. Peter's. The nave was covered by a roof of bronze, the bpo^ov xa^^icov of Pausanias (v. 12, 4, and x. 5, 5), and Fig. 121. — Frieze from the Basilica Ulpia (Lateran Museum). paved with crusts of the rarest marble, many fragments of which, discovered in 1813, have since been stolen by unscrupulous tourists. The basilica faced the Forum on its longer side, as the Basilica Julia faced the Forum Romanum. There were three doors, flanked by four columns each, and above them quadrigae, and trophies of gilt metal, made ex vianuhiis, viz., with the produce of the sale of the spoils of war. The names of the glorious legions who had fought so bravely in botli Dacian campaigns were engraved on the 316 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA frieze over the doors ; we can still i"ead those of the XI Claudia, of the XV Apollinaris, and of the XX Valeria Victrix. Other trophies were set up, on the edge of the five marble steps which descended to the " ai'ea fori," on pedestals inscribed with the legend (Corpus, vi. n. 959), " The S. P. Q. R. to Traian, son of Nerva . . . consul for the sixth time (a. d. 112), father of the country, for the great services rendered to the commonwealth in peace and in war." The marvelous beauty of the marble decorations of the nave and aisles cannot be properly described. The reader may get an idea of it from the two fragments which are here reproduced (Figs. 120, 121). (Compare Helbig's Guide, vol. i. p. 468, n. 627; and p. 470, n. 629, 630.) The side of the basilica towards the Forum is represented in two medals ap. Cohen, " Monnaies imper. Trajan," n. 42, 43, 44 ; and its plan in a fragment of the " Forma Urbis," ap. Jordan, 25, 26. The basilica ended with two hemicycles, one of which was called " Libertatis." The meaning of the name is not certain, but, as we know from Sidonius Apollinaris that the formalities attending the manumission of slaves were accomplished in this Forum, it is possible that the old name of Atrium Libertatis had been trans- ferred in the second century from the neighborhood of the Forum Romanum ^ to the hemicycle of the Basilica Ulpia, a portion of which is still visible under the Palazzo Ceva-Roccagiovine. Momm- sen and De Rossi have expressed the opinion that the ceremony of manumission was again performed in the fourth century in or near the old site, in the Secretarium Senatiis. Coming out of the basilica from the side opi^osite the Forum, we enter a small court or cavasdium (24 metres by 16) flanked by two halls, which have been identified with the libraries mentioned by Dion Cassius (Ixviii. 26). They were called Bibliotheca Ulpia, and also Bibliotheca Templi Traiani. Nibby, who saw them exca- vated in 1812-14, gives a good description of their arrangement in vol. ii. p. 189 of the " Roma antica." Gellius names among their contents the edicta prcetorum, and Vopiscus (?) the libri lintei or official registers {regestd) of the acts and deeds of each Emperor. A special license from the prefect of Rome was required to inspect these records of the history of the world ; and when Vopiscus himself was asked to write the life of Aurelianus on the basis of official documents, he had to apply to Junius Tiberianus. prefect A, D. 291, for a permit to consult them. Thei-e was another set called lihri elephantini, on the leaves of which, made of sheets of 1 Cicero, Ad Attic, book iv. n. 16 ; Servius, ^ntkl, book i. v. 726. THE FORUM OF TRAJAN 317 ivory, were transcribed the Senatus consulta concerning the person of the Emperor. The documents of state were afterwards re- moved by Diocletian to his baths. The great column, columna cochlis, 128 feet, or 38 metres, high, without the statue, stands in a court of such diminutive propor- tions that it could not possibly be seen to advantage, except from the north side, that is, from the steps of the temple. It is com- posed of 34 blocks of Carrara marble, 8 of which form the pedestal, 1 the base, 23 the shaft, 1 the capital, and 1 the pedestal of the bronze statue. A spiral staircase of 185 steps, lighted by 45 loop- holes, leads to the top, viz., to the square platform above the capital. A spiral band of high reliefs describing the fortunes of the Dacic wars covers the column on the outside. The reliefs, containing 2,500 figures, were cut after the shaft had been set up, so as to make the joints of the blocks absolutely imperceptible. The same process was followed with regard to the spiral stairs, which were only roughly hewn out of the block before it was lifted into position, and then finished. Nothing can give a better idea of the exactness and ingenuity with which the great work was accomplished than to ascend the pillar ^ and examine the joints, the development of the steps, and the clever distribution of the loopholes, which, while supplying plenty of light, are so well concealed by the outer relief as to i-emain almost invisible. On Hearing the door, which opens on the platform or balcony above the capital, we see the sides of the stairs covered with graffiti, with historical names among them. The oldest dates from a. d. 663, and refers to the disastrous visit of Constans II., described in " Ancient Rome," p. 294. There is a current belief that Trajan's ashes were deposited underneath the column in an urn of solid gold. Dion Cassius (Ixix. 2) is responsible for this statement, which is confirmed by Eutropius and Cassiodorus ; but if we consider that the column was finished in 113, viz., four years before Trajan's death, that the inscription on the pedestal distinctly asserts that it was raised to mark the height of the hill cut away to make room for the Forum and not as a funeral monument, and that there is no trace of a room, recess, or vault, nor of a door and of stairs leading or de- scending to it, Dion's statement appears to us more than doubtful. The question C9uld be easily cleared up de facto by examining the foundations on which the column rests. 1 Permission may be obtained at the Ufficio regionale dei Monumenti via in Miranda. 318 A WALK THROUGH THE SACRA VIA An inscription discovered in Rome in the latter part of the fifteenth century is closely connected with the Emperor's death at Selinus in Cilicia, in Angust, 117. It mentions likewise the death of one of his faithful servants, a young man of twenty-eight, M. Ulpius Phsedimus, a butler, which took place on August 12 of the same year and in tlie same city. His ashes were also removed to Rome and given a solemn burial : " reliquiae treiectse eius ex permissu collegii pontific(um) piaculo facto." The discovery of the polychromy of the column, viz., of traces of colors (and of gilding?), was made by G. Semper on July 9, 1833, as briefly described in the "Bull. Inst.," 1833, p. 92. P. Morey, one of those who had joined Semper in his perilous expe- dition,! tried to deny the statement in a letter addressed to Bun- sen (ibid., 1836, p. 39). Later observations, made when Napoleon III. caused a plaster cast to be taken of the column, have shown Semper's theory to be the correct one. The pedestal of the column was excavated at the time of Paul III., who caused the church of S. Nicolao de Columna to be de- molished. Sixtus V. in 1.588 built an inclosure wall round the pedestal, and placed the bronze statue of S. Peter on the top of the pillar. The murder of Hugues Basseville or Basville, the envoy of the French revolutionists, took place at the foot of this column the 23 nivose, an I. (January 13, 1793). The assassina- tion is represented in a rare engraving by Berthault. Literature. — Cor/9M.s inscr., vol. vi. n. 960. — Antonio da Sangallo the elder, Cod. Barber., f. 18, and other artists mentioned in Ferri's Catalogue of Architectural Drawings in the Uffizi (Rome, 1885), pp. 156 and 167. — Pietro da Cortona, in Dr. Meade's collection of drawings at Eton College. See Bull, com., 1895, p. 182. — Alfonso Ciaccone, Hisloria utriusque belli Dacici, etc. Rome, 1576, fol. — Anton. Francesco Gori, Columna traiana . . . ab Andrea Morellio delineata; etc. Amsterdam, 1652. — Raffaele Fahretti, De columna traiana syntai/ma'. Rome, 1683. — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Trofeo o sia mayni- fica cohnna, etc., in 28 plates. — Platner and Hirt, Gesch. des Baukunst, ii. 355. ^ Carlo Fea, in Winckehnann's Storia dell' Arte, .\o\. in. p. .355.— Froehner, La colonne trajane, in 8° 1865; -in fol. 1874. — Salomon . Reinach, La colonne trajane au musee de Saint Germain, 1S8G. — Auguste Geffroy, La colonne d'Arcadius a Constantinople, extrait des Monuments et Memoires pu- blies par I'Acad. des Inscr. Paris, Leroux, 1895. In the Cabinet des Estampes, Biblioth^que Nationale, Paris (Rome, volume 3fonti, D), there are over one hundred prints of the column. A silver model carved by Valadier is now in the royal palace at Munich. The Temple of Trajan closed the monumental group on the 1 They had been lowered from the capital in a kind of cage held by ropes and pulleys. THE FORUM OF TRAJAN 319 north side. It was erected by Hadrian parentibvs svis (Trajan and Plotina), and was noted for its colossal proportions. The Corinthian capitals six feet high, and the pieces of columns of granite six feet in diameter which now lie at the foot of the pillar, have been discovered at various times under the Palazzo Imperiali- Valentini. Winckelmann describes the removal of one, found in August, 1765, while five more were left on the spot. I liave myself seen other pieces discovered when the Palazzo Valentin i became the seat of the county council. The curious set of heads of animals, alluding, perhaps, to the conquest of Arabia made by Fig. 122. 1 in the Forum of Trajan. Cornelius Pal ma, formerly in the court of the palace, was removed in 1878 to the Collegio Romano, and again in 1890 to the Museo delle Terme. (See Fig. 122.) Literature. — Corpus Inscr., vi. n. 966. — Winckelmann, in Fea's Miscel- lanea, vol. i. p. cci. n. '7; anil Storia deW Arte, vol. ii. p. 372, iii. p. 44. — ' Minutolo, in Sallengre's Stijjpl. antiq. rom., vol. i. col. 159. — Rodolfo Lan- ciaui, Bull. Inst., ISdQ, p. 237. The Forum of Trajan has been a favorite subject of study with the young architects of the French Academy, Villa Medici. A list of their drawings and restorations has been published by E. Pourchet, 15 Rue des Beaux Arts, Paris. BOOK IV URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Before giving an account of the rest of the city, I must remind the reader once more that in writing this book I do not intend to produce a manual of Roman topography, but simply a description of its existing remains. In carrying out the scheme I have endeavored, as stated in the preface, to group the buildings in regard to their chronology or destination rather than to the place they occupy accidentally in the various quarters of the city. THE RUINS OF THE C^LIAN HILL. Regio I. Porta Capena. I. The Cfelian liill and its southwestern slopes were included by Augustus within the limits of the first and second regions, the line of separation being the wall of Servius Tullius. Regio I, named Porta Capena, extended on the left side of the Appian Way as far as the river Almo (tlie Acquataccio, or Marrana della Caffarella), a distance of 2107 metres from the gate. Richter calls it appropriately "die Vorstadt der Via Appia" and also "die Vorstadt extra Portam Capenam." It was a narrow strip of land, bounded on the side opposite the Appian Way by another road, issuing from the Porta Metroni, the name of which is unknown. A third road, the Latina, crosses it diagonally, skirting the base of a hillock called by Ficoroni " il Celiolo," " Remuria " by others, "Calvarello" in the Middle Ages, and now the "Monte d' Oro." Considering the preference given by the Romans to the borders of the great consular roads for the establishment of public cemeteries, and for the erection of private tombs and mausoleums, no wonder that Regio I, crossed by three of them, the Appia, the Latina, and the one issuing from the Porta Metroni, should be in the main a region of tombs. Some of them date from a remote age, when Ftg 1Z3 y\\V OF KKGIONS T PORTA rAPFNA AND \\ CAELI>\ONTT\'M PORTA CAPENA 321 the Via Appia and the Via Latina were mere paths traced by the hoofs of beasts of burden and not leveled or yet paved by the hand of man. Such is the sepulchral cave discovered in May, 1836, in the Vigna Cremaschi, the first on the right of the Porta Latina, a description of which is given in the "Bullett. Inst.," 1836, p. 103. It was found by accident below the pavement of a columbaria of the first centiuy, at a depth of 7.80 metres. It con- sisted of "a gi'otto hewn out of the live rock, of irregular shape and without ornaments. It contained several vases of black wai-e (bucchero ?) with rough figures of animals traced on their surface in the Etruscan fashion. One of the vases contained the remains of an incinerated body." Roman tradition and epigraphic docu- ments help us in following the growth and development of this great necropolis, especially after the opening of the Vise Latina and Appia, which took place between 312 and 297 b. c.^ The first historical tomb, on leaving the gate, was that of Horatia, which Livy (i. 26) describes as built "saxo quadrate" with blocks of tufa; then followed the family mausoleums of the Catalini, of the Scipios, of the Servilii, of the Metelli, mentioned by Cicero (Tus- cul. 1, 7, 13), two of which, those of the Scipios and of the Metelli, are still in existence. II. HypoG.EUM SciPioxuM, discovered partly in 1614, partly in 1780. This venerable monument and the ground which covers and surrounds it were bought, on my suggestion, by the city in 1880. They are entered by the Via di Porta S. Sebastiano, No. 12, and can be visited every day, Sundays excepted. Entrance fee, 2.5 centimes. The discoveries of the seventeenth century have been mentioned by one epigraphist alone, Giacomo Sirmondo, in a book entitled " Antiqna? inscriptionis, qua L. Scipionis Barbati filii expressum est elogium, explanatio," Rome, 1617. Two sarcophagi were found : one, of L. Cornelius Scipio, qutestor 167 B. c, was left undisturl)ed ; the other, of L. Cornelius, son of Barbatus, consul 2.'59, was broken and its inscription sold to a stone-cutter near the Ponte Rotto, in 1 The Via Appia was munita, that is to say, leveled, straightened, and ma- cadamized by Appius Claudius Cfficus, censor in 312 b. c. (Livj-, ix. 29). The brothers Ogulnii, censors in 297, added to it a sidewallv paved with flagstones, which went as far as the Temple of Mars {ibid., x. 23). Lastly, T. Quinctius Flamininus and M. Claudius Marcellus, censors in 188, " viam silice sternen- dam a porta Capena ad Martis locaveriint" (ibid., xxxviii. 28). If we can believe the same historian, the rest of the road from the temple to Bovillje had been paved since the year 292 (x. 47). 322 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV whose shop Grimaldi saw it on September 25, 1614. Agostini bought it for twenty scudi, and gave or sold it to the Barberini, who set it into the wall of the spiral staircase of their palace, near the door of the library. The brothers Sassi, owners of the vineyard in wliich the dis- coveries of 1614 had taken j)lace, while enlarging their wine-cellar in May, 1780, came once more across the hypogseum, and laid bare its pi-ecious contents. In reading the accounts left by Morcelli, Marini, Visconti, and Amaduzzi, we cannot understand liow such acts of wanton destruction as the brothers Sassi perpetrated on this most venerable of Roman historical tombs could have been permitted or left unpimished by Pius VI., whose love for antique monuments certainly cannot be questioned. "The Scipios' tomb contains no ashes now: The very sepulchres lie tenantless Of their heroic dwellers ! " The sarcophagi were broken to pieces ; their inscribed fronts removed to the Vatican ; the aspect of the crypts altered ; tlie "^^r ■Sffl? Fv IT- CONSO i. -C EHjrOTI;Al'Dl I- 1 5 QvElE\flT-^ PvO-VXJS -TAVPAStftC l5 AVW^ Fig. in. — Sarcoi>liiigu.s of Scipio Barbatus in tlie Vatican. movable objects dispersed; the facsimiles of the original epitaphs affixed to the wrong places ; the signet ring of one of the heroes, with the image of the Victory, given away to a Frenchman, Louis Dutens, who in his turn gave or sold it to Lord Beverley. And lastly, the very bones of the illustrious men, which had been respected even by the so-called barbarians, would have been dis- persed to the four winds, but for the ijious interference of Angelo Quirini, a senator of Venice, who rescued the relics of L. Cornelius Scipio, son of Barbatus, and placed them in a marble nrn in the THE TOMB OF THE SCIPWS 323 Villa deir Alticchiero, near Padua. A remarkable fate indeed, if we recall to mind the words of Livy (xxxviii. 53): •' Scipio spent the last years of his life at Literuum, without missing in the least degree the attractions of city life ; and, if we are to believe tradi- tion, he left instructions at the point of death to be buried in his farm : monimentumque ibi sedificarine funus sibi in ingrata patria lieret." The same mother country, obdurate in her ingratitude, allowed these remains to be dispersed after twenty centuries of rest. From the descriptions left by those who witnessed the excavations of 1780, compared with a model in full relief made at the same time ^ and with the present aspect of the place, we learn the fol- lowing details about the origin and the arrangement of the hypo- gagum. The part of the ancient cemetery now occupied by the Vigna Sassi was crossed at an early period by a side road, connecting the Via Appia with the Latina, the pavement of which is still visible at the two ends. The road followed the foot of a rocky ridge ten or fifteen feet high, and passed one or more tufa quarries which had been opened in the face of the cliffs. One of these quarries, proba- bly the property of the Scipios, was transformed into their family tomb at the beginning of the third century b. c, probably on the occasion of the opening of the Via Appia, u. c. 812. The hypo- gteum, roughly modeled on the Etruscan type, formed ,a lai-ge room, with a flat low ceiling supported by four massive pillars of rock, yet very far from the regularity which it appears to have in Piranesi's drawings (Fig. 125). The fii-st occupant was L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, consul in 298 b. c. His sarcophagus, now in the Vatican Museum (Belvedere, No. 2), is the only elaborate piece of work discovered in the tomb. The frieze, which is Doric in style, consists of triglj'jjhs and of metopes adorned with rosettes : the torus of the lid ends with Ionic volutes. The inscription, in the early Italic Saturnine verse, has been translated by Mommsen as follows : — roniclius Lucius — Scipio Barbatus son of his father Gn:evus — a man as clever as brave whose handsome appearance — was in harmony with his A-irtue who was consul and censor — among you, as well as ^Edilu Tanrasia Cisaunia — he captured in Samnium utterly overcomes Lucania — and brings away hostages. - 1 Nibby saw it in 18.39 in the house of Signer Vincenzo Titoli. - Wolfgang Helbig, Guide to the Collections of Antiquities in Rome, vol. i. p. 7.5. — Corpus Inscr., vol. i. p. 16, n. 29, 30; vol. vi. n. 1284, 1285. — iJet-we de Philologie, xiv. (1890) p. 119. 324 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV The other sarcophagi were made of phiin slabs of stone, or cut out of a single block. Their respective positions are marked in tlie annexed plan. Fig. 125. — Plan of the Tomb of the Scipios, according to Piranesi. A A, Cross-road between the Via Appia and the Latina. B B, }fiirtii> or semita, raised footway. C, Arclied entrance built of rough blocks of pepe- rino. D, Base of one of the columns which decorated the front of the upper story. E, Ancient entrance to the quarry, by which the sarcophagi were nitroduced into the crypt. F, Sarcophagus of Lucius Scipio, son of Asiaticus, Corpus, vol. i. n. 31. G, H, L, T, V, Coffins of unknown personages. I, Coffin of peperino before which the marble tablet of .Julius Silanus was found. M, Sarcophagus of L. Scipio, son of Barbatus, n. -32. X, Sarcophagus of L. Scipio, sou of Cuivus, n. 34. 0, Sarcojiliagus of Scipio Bar-batus, n. 29. P, Sarco- phagus of Cornelia Paula, n. -30. Q, Sarcophagus of Scipio Asiagenes Comatus, n. 36. R, Sarcophagus of Scijiio Hispallus, n. 38. S, Marble slab with name of Cornelia Ga?tulica. XXX, Three rooms, forming part of an edifice of the second century, built of bricks. Y, Sarcophagus of P. Scipio flamen dialis, n. 33. Z, Present entrance to the crypt. THE TOMB OF THE f^ClPlOS 325 We are not sure how much faith Piranesi's plan deserves, some of the particulars being manifestly fanciful. The gallery, for instance, which runs in front of the sarcophagus of Barbatus (O), has never been finished, and its end on the right is still blocked by a ledge of live rock. The reader may estimate the amount of damage M'hich the hypogajum has suffered since 1780 by compar- ing Piranesi's plan w ith the following one, w hich shows its present state. Entrance Fig. \16. — Tomb of the Scipios. (Present State.) There are three more particulars to be noticed. The first is that the crypts of the Scipios were kept accessible as a place of his- torical pilgrimage up to the fourth century after Christ, as shown by the walls in the so-called " opus maxentianum," built here and there to keep the tomb in repair. In the second ])lace, the preference shown by the gens Cornelia, of which the Scipios were a branch, for burial as opposed to crema- tion, is proved by the presence of sarcophagi and by the absence of cinerary urns. (See Cicero, De Leg., ii. 12 ; and Pliny, vii. 54^.) The first Cornelius to give up family traditions on this point was Sulla the dictator, who, having caused the remains of Marius to be exhumed and profaned, ordered his own body to be cremated tor fear of retaliation. Sulla's ashes wei'e not deposited in this 326 URBS SACRA REGION VM XIV family vault, — which seems to have been owned only by the three branches of the Scipios called Africani, Asiatici, and Hispalli, — but in a great mausoleum on the Campus Martins described by Plutarch. What seems strange, however, is that none of the leaders of the three branches — Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Maior, the conqueror of Carthage, f 183 b. c. ; Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticiis, his brother ; and Cn. Cornelius Scipio Ilispallus, consul in 171 — should have found rest in this tomb. Livy (xxxviii. .56) says that no one knew whether the great Africanus had been buried at Liternum or at Rome, because a grave and a statue were shown in both places. Seneca likewise writes to Lucilius from Liter- num : " I address this epistle [Ixxxvi] to you from the very villa of Scipio the African, after having paid reverence to his memory and to the altar which I suspect to be his grave." The monument and statue erected in or near the Roman hypogseum have yet to be discovered. The third particular refers to the presence of an outsider in the same hypogreum, of Q. Ennius the poet, who was born at Rudise in Calabria in 289 b. c, and died in Rome at the age of seventy. Although dwelling in a humble house on the Aventine, and sup- porting himself by teaching the Greek language and translating Greek plays for the Roman stage, he was the friend of the great, and lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the elder Africanus. Livy (xxxviii. 36) says that " in Scipionum moimmento extra portam Capenam" three statues could be seen, one of which was considered to represent the poet, and Cicero adds that the statue was of marble. A laurel-crowned portrait head in peperino was actually found in the tomb in 1780, and is now placed in the Vatican Museum above the sarcophagus of Barbatus. " The un- Roman type of countenance and the jiresence of the laurel wreath, which might well be worn by a poet," have led many to attribute this head to the statue mentioned by Livy and Cicero. The objec- tion derived from the material in which it is carved (peperino instead of marble) has no great weight. I have no doubt that Cicero is mistaken in mentioning marble, because in the third century b. c. portrait statues and busts were sculptured in Rome out of stone. Literature. — Giovanni Amaduzzi, Novelle letter, forentine, 1780-83. — Gio. Battista Visconti, Antologia romana, vols, vi.-ix. — Louis Dutens, CEuvres melees. Geneva, 1784. — Enrico Quirino Visconti, in Piranesi's Monumento def/li Scipioni, Rome, 178.5 ; and Opere varie, Milan, 1827, voL i. pp. 1-70. — Lanzi, Saggio di lingua etrusca, vol. i. p. 150. — Gaetani Marini, Atti A7-val., p. THE COLUMBARIA OF POMPONIUS HYLAS 327 117, n. 109. — Carlo Fea, in Wiuckelmaiiii's Storia deW Arte, i. 30, and iii. 46. — Antonio Jfibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. .561. — Corpus Iiiscr., vol.i. pp. 11-16, n. 29-39 ; and vol. vi. p. 282, n. 1284-1294. — Wolfgang Helbig, Gtdde, vol. i. p. 75, n. 127; and p. .356, n. 484. Fig. 127. — Portrait Bust of Scipio the Elder (Capitoline Museum). At the opposite end of the Vigiia Sassi, clo.se to the chapel of S. Giovanni in Oleo and to the Porta Latiua, are to be seen — III. The Columbaria (so-called) of Pomponius Hylas. Keys with the custode of the tomb of the Scipios ; open every day except Sunday. This graceful structure, one of the best preserved of its kind in Rome, was discovered by Pietro Campana in 1831. It is known by the name of " Hylas and Vitaline," because the mosaic tablet inscribed CN • pompoxi hylae — pomponiae • cn ■ l vitalinis 328 URBS SACRA REGIONVM XIV occuj)ies the most conspicuous place opposite the entrance ; but the fact is that it was built, like so many others of the Augustan age, either by subscription among friends or relatives, or by specu- lators ready to sell the cinerary urns to the first comer. The crypt itself contains but twenty-two inscriptions, of no special interest. One hundred and seventeen more were discovered in the neighbor- hood, many of which are set into the modern wall inclosing the tomb. It apj)ears from one of them (Corpus, n. 5631) that the ground where this and the neighboring tombs are located belonged to Cnseus Manlius Hasta, a freedman of the Manlii. Some of the fediculse and niches for cinerary urns have been elaborately decorated by the purchasers, though not often in good taste. The decorations are mostly in bold relief of white stucco on a colored ground, and represent various subjects, such as the education of Achilles by Chiron, Oknos twisting the rope of rushes while the ass eats it up, the tripos of the Delphic Apollo between two griflBns (under the mosaic tablet of Hylas), Bacchic scenes and dances, etc. Literature. — Girolamo Amati, Codex vatic., 9770, p. 3, seq. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 556. — Pietro Campana, Di due sepolcri romnni del secolo di Auejusto scoverti tra la via Laiina e V Appia. Rome, 1840, fol. — Otto Jahn, Specimen epigraph, in memoriam Olai Kellermunn. Kiel, 1841. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 5539-5678. IV. The Columbaria of the Vigna Codini. — The southeast end of the necropolis, between the Vigna Sassi and the walls of Aurelian, is occupied by the Vigna Codini, famous for the colum- baria discovered within its limits since the renaissance of classical studies. The first of which w^e have an account was found towards the middle of the fifteenth century, and seems to have belonged to the freedmen and servants of the sons of Nero Drusus senior, brother of Tiberius, born 38 b. c, died a. d. 9. It contained at least eighty-six inscriptions, which were bought by several amateurs of the age — Giovanni Ciampolini, Paolo Alessi, and Francesco Porcari. They have all perished except a dozen or so which were removed from the Porcari House (Vicolo delle Ceste, No. 25) to the Vatican by Gaetano Marini. Consult the " Corpus Inscr.," vol. vi. p. 899, n. i'o'27-i4:lS. Other columbaria were excavated and destroyed under Pius IV. (1559-66). Pirro Ligorio designed one of them, belonging to the freedmen of the gens Pompeia ; and his drawings have been reproduced by Pietro Sante Bartoli in plates 39-41 of the volume " Gli autichi sepolcri," Kome, 1768. Flaminio Vacca speaks of a " magnificasepoltura" discovered and destroyed THE COLUMBARIA OF THE VIGNA COD INI 329 by Cardinal Prospero Santacroce, f 1589,^ and of some sarcophagi, inscribed Diis Maiiibus, of columns, architectural ornaments, and other fragments which he himself bought in a vineyard near the Porta Latina. Pietro Sante Bartoli likewise mentions the dis- covery of pagan and Christian cemeteries near the junction of the Ajipia and the Latina, in a vineyard of a certain Orlandi. Orlandi had collected a very rich harvest in cameos, intaglios, cinerary urns of glass, of marble, and of metal, figurines of bronze and terra cotta, and other " cose bellissime," when Donna Olimpia Pamfili, the omnipotent sister of the reigning Pope Innocent X., seized the whole collection, and carried it in four cartloads to her own palace in the Piazza Navona. Another excavation, described by Bartoli, led to the discovery of a sepulchral room containing the cinerarium of Asinia Fortunata (Corpus, n. 12,547). In 1726-33 many columbaria (gran quantita di camere sepol- crali ripiene di colomhaj) were excavated by Francesco Bevilacqua near the boundary line with the Vigna Sassi. Ficoroni speaks of many hundred urns of terra cotta and alabaster filled with incin- erated remains, of inscriptions still retaining the red color of the letters, of vases carved in marble, and of frescoes, one of which represented the figure of an architect with the instruments (the graphium, the pes, the square, the plummet) of his profession. This interesting picture would have been destroyed like the others, but for the prompt action of Marchese Alessandro Capponi, who caused it to be removed from the wall, transferred to canvas, framed, and afterwards engraved on copper. The original is now preserved in the Kircherian ^Museum. Pier Leone Ghezzi adds that the excavations of 1726 were carried on in both vineyards at the same time, — in the Yigna Sassi at the expense of Herr Wenkler of Leipzig, in the Vigna Codini at the expense of Signor Garzia Muggiani, who then owned the property. The quantity of tombs brought to light by these men is described as " prodigious." The reader may appreciate the barbarous way in which antique monuments were treated in those days from the fact that many of the inscriptions discovered in 1726-33 have perished, and the few spared are now dispersed far and wide, at Verona, A^enice, Lowther Castle near Penrith, and at Rome itself in the Vatican and Kir- cherian museums. 1 Cardinal Prospero is famous for having first introduced into Kome the tobacco leaf, which was named from him erba santa, or erba santacroce. In memory of this event Roman tobacconists used to put in the signs of their shops a white cross, the coat of arms of the Santacroce family. 330 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Literature. — Francesco Ficoroni, La boUa d' oru, p. 47 ; and Memorie (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. cxxxiv. n. 33). — Pier Leone Ghezzi (in Bull, arch, com., 1882, p. 206, n. 2 ; and p. 222, n. 60). — Theodor Schreiber, Die Fundberichte des P. L. Ghezzi (in Bericliten der k. siichs. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften, 1892, p. 111). — Corpus Jnscr., vol. vi. part ii. p. 968, n. .581.3- 5841. Excavations were resumed in 1788, near the tomb of the Scipios ; sixty-four inscriptions came to light, of wliich fourteen have per- ished ; the others were removed to the Museo Borgia at Velletri (now in the Museo Nazionale, Naples), to that of Palermo, of the Vatican, etc. A few are to be seen on the spot. (Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. part ii. p. 968, u. 5679-5743.) The three columbaria now visible in the Vigna Codini (entrance Via di Porta S. Sebastiano, No. l-S, last door on the left) were dis- covered respectively in 1S40, 1847, and 1853; the first and the sec- ond by Pietro Campaua, the third by Codini himself. The colum- barium opened in 1840 consists of one room deep under ground, and accessible by a flight of twenty steps. It measures 7.50 by 5.65 metres, and has a massive pier in the centre, to which the weight of the vaulted ceiling was intrusted. The ancient walls, 6.24 metres high, were covered with frescoes and arabesques represent- ing birds and animals. The room contains 450 pigeonholes for cinerary urns, and 'J97 inscriptions, dating inostly from the time of Tiberius and Claudius. They afford nuich interest to the student of Roman auti(|uities, and tlu'ow a considerable light on the organization and nninagement of the Imperial household. The trade in pigeonholes and cinerary urns appears to have been very brisk. The iii'ns passed sometimes through several hands. One, marked n. 4884 in the " Corpus," was sold by Porcius Philargurus to Pinarius Ruf us, who in his turn sold it to Sotericus Liicer. Pinarius Rufus is mentioned more than once as an active stock-jobber, selling at a profit what he had purchased at low price. It appears that to facilitate the approach to the upper rows of niches — there are nine in all — the tomb was provided with movable wooden balconies, supported by wooden brackets ; this is, at least, the explanation suggested for the square holes visible between the fourth and the fifth row. Inscription n. 4886 com- memorates a buffoon of Tiberius, a mute, wdio tried to divert the gloomy temper of his master by imitating the gesticulations of lawyers pleading in the Forum. Another, marked 5076, contains the fragment of a diary of a journey from the borderland of Cilicia towards Cassarea in Cappadocia. The dates go from the 12th to THE COLUMBARIA OF THE VIGNA CODINI 331 the 19tli of October, during which time the traveler proceeds from Mopsuki-ene, a frontier station near the Cilician gates, to Tyana and Audabalis on the side of Caesarea, a distance of seventy-seven miles, according to the " Itinerary of Antoninus," or of eighty- one miles, according to the Hierosolymitanum. Literature. — Pietro Campana, D'l due sepolcrl romani del secolo di Au- gusto, Tparte seconda. Rome, 1840. — Emil Braun, Colomhario scopei-to nella vigna accanto a porta Latina (in Bull. Inst., 1840, p. 136). — Otto Jahn, Speci- men epigraphiciim. Kiel, 1841, p. 28. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. part ii. p. 926, n. 4881-5178. The second columbarium was discovered by Campana in Febru- ary, 1847, not far from the preceding one. It consists of a plain square room, with nine rows of pigeonholes in each wall, num- bering 29.5 in all, with over 400 funereal tablets. Four inscrip- tions (one of which is written on the floor in letters of mosaic) tell the tale of the place. The columbarium was finished and the urns divided among the shareholders of the company which had built the place in the year a. d. 10, under the consulship of Sergius Lentulus Malugiuensis and Q. Junius Blajsus. The pavement was a private contribution of two shareholders, one a freedman of Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great, the other a freedman of C. Memmius. The majority of those whose ashes have found rest in this room belong to the servants and freedmen of Marcella the elder, who married Julius Antonius after her divorce with M. Agrippa (21 b. c.) ; and of Marcella the younger, who had also married twice, first Paullus ^Emilius Lepidus, and then M. Vale- rius Messalla. Annexed to the columbaria were the iistrina, or spaces set apart for the incineration of bodies. The indications on this particular given by the inscribed stones allow us to recon- struct a fragment of the plan of the necropolis, as follows : — Laue (via, populus). (No measure xiiij ft. xviii. ft. given.) Ustrinuin of , jj Ustrinuni of ^ Ustrinum of the the College of I_b, Vitalis and UJ" corporation of Musicians. rg Praepusa. '« wreath-makers. Ustrinum of the makers of sacks. Lane (via, populus). Literature. — Wilhelm Henzeii, Bull. Iitgf., 1847, p. 49 ; and Ann. Inst.. 1856, p. 9. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. part ii. p. 908, n. 4414-4880. 332 UUBS SACRA REG ION UM XI V The third and last columbarium was discovered by Gio. Battista Guidi ill May, 1852. The shape of the edifice differs considerably from that of the preceding ones, and presents the appearance of Fig. 128. — The Colmnb.irimu diseovei'ed in tlie Vigua Codiiii, Ma}', 185'2. a corridor the three wings of which follow each other at right angles. The stairs occupy the end of the wing parallel with the Via Appia, while the opposite wing terminates with a crypt exca- THE COLUMBARIA OF THE VIGNA COD INI 333 vated in the live rock. The bones and skulls which filled it up at the time of the discovery were considered to belong to slaves of the lowest order, whose remains had been thrown into the den as if they were carrion. The walls of the corridor are divided into compartments by means of pilasters with capitals of the composite order (Fig. 128). The niches for cineraria are not arched, as usual, but square, and contain four urns each. The characteristic of this " cooperative tomb," so evident in our illus- tration, is a set of marble brackets which project from the walls between the fourth and fifth row of niches, counting from tlie floor. They were destined to support the temporary wooden bal- cony by means of which the relatives and friends of the deceased could reach the upper tiers of niches on anniversary days, when the urns were decorated with flowers, libations were offered, and other ceremonies were performed. This sepulchral chamber ap- pears to have been tenanted by a better and wealthier set of people than the otlier two. INIany were freedmen of the ,Tulian dynasty from the age of Augustus and Livia to that of Claudius. The last places seem to have been occupied under the last-named Emperor. The room was entered again under Trajan and Ha- drian, and a few liberti Ulpii and vElii laid to rest on the only vacant space left, viz., on the floor. This has been more or less the fate of all Roman columbaria. It seems that at one time, towards the middle of the second century, no more room could be found within reasonable distance from the city for the erection of sepulchral chambers, or else that the price of land had reached a prohibitory figure above the means of the poorer classes. Old columbaria were therefore reopened, as res nullius, and new corpses crammed within their precincts. I remember having seen in the excavations of the necropolis by the Porta Maggiore one or two columbaria of the Statilian family, which had been used again as a burial-place when their pavement was already covered by a bed of rubbish tliree feet thick. Some of the terra-cotta coffins had been simply laid on this newly made ground, other bodies liad been buried in it. Literature. — Emil Braun, Bull. Inst., 1852, p. 82. — Wilhelm Hen- zen, Annal. Inst., 185G, p. 18. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. part ii. p. 9;i9, ii. 5179- 5538. In the triangle between the vife Latina and Appia and the walls of Aurelian, in fact, in the vigne Sassi and Codini alone, 15.59 tombstones have already been found, not counting those of the 334 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Scipios, one twentieth perhaps of the oi'iginal number. The ex- ploration is far from being complete. Before leaving this conspicuous section of the Ronian necropolis I must mention two monuments which connect it with the early days of Christianity. While Pietro Campana was searching the ground in his fii'st attempt of 1840, a cubiculum was discovered the paintings of which represented Biblical scenes. The Pastor Bonus was given the place of honor in the middle of the vault, while Moses striking the rock, the feeding the five thousand, the raising of Lazarus, and a fourth uncertain subject were painted on the four lunettes. Three sides of the room were occupied by arcosolia, the fourth by the door. The paintings of the arcosolia represented the " Orante " (a woman praying with hands raised), Daniel in the den of lions, Noah and the ark. The figures of the paralytic and of Job were represented on each side of the door. Two inscriptions were found in front of two arcosolia, one of which, written in a patois half Greek half Latin, bore the name of a Veratius Nikatoras (BHPAT10T2 NIKATOPA2) and ended with the sentence, O BIOS TATTA, " this is life," vita hoc est ! This Veratius was a Galatian, as is proved by the discovery made by George Perrot near Ancyra of the tombstone of his wife, which ends with the same words, o fiios ravTa. Now it seems certain that this particular plot of the necro[)olis was destined for foreigners who died in Rome. De Rossi discovered here in 1883 the broken epitaph of one of the faithful from Smyrna, and Campana the tombstone of another from the borderland of Cappadocia and Armenia. The impor- tance of the discovery lies in the fact that the crypt adorned with Christian paintings must be older than the walls of Aurelian (272), contemporary, in fact, with some of the pagan mausoleums by which it is surrounded. This remarkable monument is lost. Campana concealed its discovery from De Rossi, and revealed it only many years aftei'wards, when he had lost the memory of its exact position. De Rossi tried in vain to rediscover it in 1884. Literature. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Bull, crist., 1884-85, pp. 57, 58; and 1886, pp. 14, 17. — Raffaele Garrucci, Monumenti del museo lateran., pi. 1, n. 3; and Arte cristiana, tav. 484, 10. — Compare, also, Gian Pietro Secchi, Monumenti inediti d' nn antico sepolcro. Rome, Salviucci, 1843. The second Christian monument of this region is to be found on the opposite side of the Yigna Sassi, under the farmhouse of the Vigna Pallavicini. Mariano Armellini rediscovered it in 1875, THE C^LIAN HILL 335 all traces of it having been lost since the days of Agiucourt. It is an ancient crj^jt dedicated to Gabriel the archangel, and also to the memory of the " seven sleepers " of Ephesus. It was entirely covered with frescoes representing Gabriel with his hands raised in the attitude of prayer, the Redeemer among hosts of angels, Greek saints of both sexes, and seven tiny reclining figures under that of the Saviour, which were considered to be the '• sette dor- mienti." The frescoes had been executed in the eleventh century at the expense of Beno de Rapiza and of his wife ]\Iaria Macellaria, the same to whom we owe the paintings of S. Clemente and of S. Urbano alia CaffareUa. It seems that in those days the Greek legend, which had transformed the " sleep of the just," the " dor- mitio in Domino," of the seven young Ephesians into an actual state of catalepsy, had already found its way to Rome, and struck the imagination of the people. Tlieir anniversary feast fell on the 27th day of July. The " cavern of the sleepers " is now used as a pig-sty. Literature. — Alberto Cassio, Corso delle acqtie antiche, Rome, 17-57, p. 28. — Dissertatio de SS. septem dormientihus. Rome, 1741. ^ Mariano Avmel- liiii, Scopertd di tin' antico oratono presso In ria Ajjpia dedlcato tdl' arcungelo Gabriele. Rome, 1875. ReGIO II. C.EMMOXTIUM. V. The C.ELIAN Hill was named Querquetulanus in the early days of Rome, from the trees (quercioli, oaks) which clothed its eastern slope, as the opposite or western slope of the Esquiline was named Mons Fagutalis from the beeches (fagi) by which it was shaded. The name of Cailian was subsequently adopted in memory of the Etruscan lucumo Cieles.or Cselius Vibenna, who had settled with his followers on the hill at the time of Servius Tullius. An attempt was made under Tiberius to change the name into that of Mons Augustus because, during a terrible con- flagration in the year a. d. 27, which desti-oyed hundreds of houses and palaces, the only object respected by the flames was a statue of the Emperor placed in the vestibule of the palace of the Junii. A spm- of the hill, crowned by a shrine of Diana, was called Cseliolus, or minor Cjelius. Topographers disagree as to its posi- tion. Ficoroni and otliers place it at the Monte d' Oro, Canina at the SS. Quattro, Brocchi on the site of the Villa Wolkonsky, Nibby on the site of S. Gregorio.' The hill and the spur were included in the first region of Servius, Suburana. 1 Consult: Stefano Piale, Delle parte meridioitall di Servio, del vera sito 336 UBBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Augustus in his reform of 10-4 b. c. made of the Cfelian the second region of the city. At the time of Constantine it con- tained 7 parishes (vici), 3600 tenement houses, 127 palaces, 85 public baths, 65 public fountains, and 15 bakeries. The most curious feature consisted in the fact of its being at the same time a district of barracks (with the customary annexes, drinking and gambling dens, lupanaria, etc.) and a district of aristocratic palaces. VI. The Castra C^limontana. — The list of barracks includes — A. The Castra Equitum Singularium, a select body of horsemen, who, like our life-guards, cent-gardes, or cuirassiers du roi, were employed in the personal service of the Emperor. They were lodged in two splendid barracks, the castra vetera and the castra nova. The first were discovered between 1885 and 1887 in the Via Tasso, in the grounds of the Villa Giustiniani ; the second in 1733 and 1734, in the foundations of the Cappella Corsini at the Lateran. Both barracks were magnificently deco- rated with statues, busts, altars, and works of art of every de- scription, among which were the Bacchus in the Maraini House, illustrated by Visconti in " Bull, com.," 1886, p. 166, pi. 6, and the marble seat in the Corsini Library, considered to have been chiseled by a Greek artist. The equites singulares were sub- stituted for the old German bodyguard (collegium Germanorum, Germani corporis custodes) about the time of the Flavians, and were likewise recruited among the semi-barbarians of the estuary of the Rhine and of the Lower Danube, the Thracians being pre- ferred to all other nationalities. The regiment, one thousand sti-ong, was placed under the command of the prcefectus prcetorio. Literature. — Wilhelm Henzen, Ann. Inst., 1850, p. 5; and 1885, p. 235.— Theodor Mommsen, Ephem. epir/r., vol. v. p. 233; Hermes, vol. xvi. p. 459, 4; and KorrespondenzUaU der Westdeutschen Zeitschrift, 1886, pp. 50, 123. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull. arch, com., 1885, p. 37; 1886, p. 94; and Notizie Scavi, 1885, p. 524; 1886, pp. 12, 48; 1887, p. 139; 1888, p. 566. — Orazio Marucchi, Btdl. arch, com., 1886, p. 124. — Carlo Ludovico Visconti, BiiU. arch, com., 1886, p. 166, pi. 6.— Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 224-228, and p. 766, n. 3173-3323. — Francesco Ficoroni, Memorie (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. n. 46). B. The Castra Peregrinorum. — AVhatever may have been del Celiolo. Rome, 1824. — Bunsen, etc., Beschreibung, >, p. 478. — Antonio Nibby. Roma antica, A'ol. i. p. 19. THE BARRACKS OF THE C^ELIAN 337 the original scope of the institution of a special body of men called milites perefjrini (foreigners) and of their associates the milites fruvientarii (coanmissariat), tliere is no doubt that towards the beginning of the second century after Christ the peregrin! per- formed the duties of the modern gendarmes or carabinieri, while the frumentarii had become secret police agents or detectives. They were employed to carry disx^atches, to act as spies and informers, and to make arrests. The biographer of Hadrian says that he knew all the secrets of the Imperial household and of his friends with the help of the frumentarii : " per frumentarios omnia occulta explorabat " (Vita Iladriaui, c. 6). They were the chief agents in the persecutions of the Christians, as described by Cyprianus and Jerome. Prisoners of state were also intrusted to their custody ; Cnodomer, king of the Germans, made prisoner in the battle of Strasburg and brought to Rome, is said to have died " in castris peregrinis, qua- in Monte Cselio sunt." The fru- mentarii and the peregrin! were commanded by an officer called " princeps." The body was suppressed by Diocletian as " pestilen- tial " and replaced by another called agentes in rebus. The barracks were placed in the neighborhood of S. Maria in Dominica, but we do not know exactly where. In March, 1848, an inscription describing the baths of the barracks was discovered in situ, but Matranga, who illustrated it in the " Bull. Inst." of the same year, p. 39, keeps the secret of the find to himself, and only mentions in general terms " una vigna rimpetto S. Maria in Navi- cella." The barracks were discovered partly about 15.50, partly under the pontificates of Innocent X. (1644-55) and Clement X. (1670-76). Ligorio (Torin., vol. xv. p. 127) describes them as divided into two sections or quadrangles (one for the frumentarii, one for the peregrini?), and as occupying the space between the aqueduct of Nero, S. Stefano Rotondo, and la Navicella. Holste- nius places them between the aqueduct, S. Stefano Rotondo, and the hospital of S. Giovanni, and describes one of the rectangles as lined with cells, flanked by towers and walls 1.20 metre thick, and containing in the middle of the court a round temple with columns of porphyry and oriental granite. The works of art, statues, and busts discovered in the excavations of 1550 were probably removed to the house of Ascanio Magarozzi, where Ulisse Aldovi-andi saw- and described them in 15.53. The account which approaches near- est the truth, and settles the question of site, is jjerhaps that of Pietro Sante Bartoli (Mem. 55). He says that under Innocent X. and Clement X. great excavations were made in the garden of 338 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV- Teofilo Sartori, Via di S. Stefano Rotondo, viz., on the site of the present military hospital (Villa Casali) ; that rows of cells {ima filara di botteghe) were uncovered pertaining to the Castra Pere- grina, as well as great halls and mess-rooms, com-ts lined with colonnades, the shafts of which were of "bellissima breccia," statues, busts, heads, and various ornaments of metal incrusted with silver, which Bartoli thinks belonged to a triumphal arch. Here also was found the pedestal (Corpus, vi. 231) dedicated genio SANCTO CASTRORVM PEKEGRINORVM. Literature. — Pin-o Ligorio, Cod. torin., xv. p. 127. — Lucas Holstenius, Cod. vatic, 9141. — P. Sante Bartoli, Mem. 55 (in Fea's MiscelL, voL i. p. ccxxxv.). — Willielm Heuzen, Bull. Inst., 1851, p. 113. — Pietro Matranga, Bull. Inst., 1849, p. .34. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Le stazioni delle coortl del Vif/ili, ]). 28; and La basilica di S. Stefano rotondo, etc., p. 9 (in Studii e docuni. di storia e diritto, vol. vii. 1886). C. Static cohortis v vigilum (barracks of the fifth battalion of firemen and policemen), on the platform of the Villa Celimon- tana, formerly belonging to the Mattel dukes of Giove, and now to Baron Richard von Hoffmann. In Januarjr, 1820, two marble pedestals were found near the gate of the villa, standing in their original position on a tessellated jjavement which formed part of the vestibule. The rolls of the battalion, name by name, were engraved upon them. The first pedestal had no dedicatory inscrip- tion ; the second (and the statue upon it) were offered to Caracalla in the year 210 by C. Julius Quintilianus, prefect of police, M. Firmius, adjutant-general, L. Speratius Justus, colonel of the fifth battalion, the captains commanding the seven companies, the four physicians and sui'geons attached to the barracks, etc. The last names engraved on the front of the pedestal are those of the cap- tain and of the standard-bearer of the first company, the trustees of the fund subscribed towards the erection of the statue. The importance of these two documents, however, comes from the I'oUs of the rank and file. " In the year 205, which is the approximate date of the first pedestal, the battalion numbered 113 officers and sub-officers, and 930 men. In the year 210 the number of the former had decreased to 109, the number of the latter had increased to 1013. Taking as the average strength of a battalion 1033 men all told, the whole police of the metropolis must have numbered 7231 men." ^ The pedestals are still to be seen in the Villa Mattei at the entrance of the celebrated avenue of ilexes between the Casino and the obelisk. Luigi Rossini asserts that in the excava- 1 Ancient Home, p. 228. THE LATER AN PALACE 339 tions of 1820 the prison of the barracks was also found, " as proved "by the chains still fixed to its walls." Students are kindly allowed to visit the Villa Mattel on Thursdays. Literature. — Olaus Kellermaun, Vigilum latercula duo ccelimmitana. Rome, 1835. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Le stazioni delle sette coorti dei Vigili, p. 27 (in Anual. Inst., 1858).— Corpus Insci:, vol. vi. n. 221, 222, 1057, 1058. — P. Saute Bartoli, Mem. 79 (in Fea's Miscell., vol. i. p. ccxlii.). — Luigi Rossini, / sette colli, n. 1-3. Rome, 1829. Connected with the bari'acks of the Cfelian hill were the Lupa- naria, mentioned in the catalogues of the second region, probably a state establishment, the site of which corresponds with that of the Vigna Colacicchi, as shown by the discovery of some charac- teristic mosaic pavements made there in 1878. VII. The Palaces ok the C.elian : — A. DoMUS Lateraxorum — Egkegi.e Lateraxorum .(Edes (Lateran palace). It is a cm-rent opinion that after the execution of Plautius Lateranus in a. d. 66 for his share in the plot of the Pisones, his magnificent palace on the Cselian was confiscated by Nero, and the grounds were added to the Imperial domain of the Domus Aiirea. No classic historian speaks of such a confiscation ; on the contrary, we are informed by one of them that T. Sextius Lateranus, consul in 196, was offered large sums of money by Septimius Severus, with the help of which he restored the paternal estate on the Ctelian. This account is confirmed by the discovery made in 1.59.5 of water-pipes inscribed with the names of Sextius Lateranus and of his brother Torquatus. Another water-pipe, bearing the name of Mamnifea, mother of the Emperor Severus Alexander, found among the ruins of the palace in 1890, seems to prove that the palace had become state property only under the rule of the last (a. d. 222-23.5). It remained so until the time of Constantine, who offered part, or perhaj^s the whole, of it to Pope jNIiltiades in 313 ; this, at least, is the date of a council of bishops convened in the palace under the presidency of the pope. Perhaps it was only a case of a loan, as we find the palace called " Domus Faustse," the house of Fausta, at a later date.^ I do not yet under- stand clearly myself what happened in those days, how the trans- ference of property from the Crown to the Church was made, and which portion was transformed into a Christian basilica, " omnium ecclesiarum urbis et orbis mater et capiit." The difficulty arises 1 Fausta, second wife of Constantine, was smothered by her husband's order in .326, and her stepson Crispus was executed on the same daj'. 340 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV from the fact that the area of the basilica is cut in two by a Roman street, which runs parallel with the transept of Clement VIII. {nave Clementina), passes under the canopy of Urban V., and leads to a postern in the walls of Aui'elian still visible in the garden " dei Penitenzieri." The ruins east of this ancient street are " oriented " with it ; those on the other side form an angle of 31°. There were therefore two distinct and independent palaces, — one on each side of the street. The one on the west was certainly tlie palace of the Laterans ; the one on the east might possibly be identified with the " castra nova equitum singularium," epigraphic records of which have been found under the Corsini chapel. The nave and aisles of the church would occupy in this case the site of one of the courts of the barracks ; while the transept and the apse woidd occupy the site of the atrium of the palace. I need not remind the reader that the name of St. John the Lateran is com- paratively recent, the basilica having been dedicated originally to the Redeemer alone. Many discoveries have taken place east of the street mentioned above. In 1732 Alessandro (ialilei, the architect of Clement XII., whilst building the new facade, found walls, cells, water-pipes, and other remains. In the following year the excavations extended to the site of the cappella Corsini, and to the vacant space between the chapel and the walls of the city. Splendid remains of the barracks and of their annexes were found everywhere,^ with other sections of the watei'-pipes mentioned before, bearing the name of M. Opellius Macrinus, prefect of the praetorium, and Commander- in-Chief of the equites singulares. Other walls, decorated with frescoes of no special value, came to light in 1838 in the founda- tions of the " sala capitolare " behind the Lancellotti cliapel. In style of masonry, in age, and in direction they correspond exactly to the remains discovered by Rohault de Fleury and by myself in the cellars of the palace of the pope (Sixtus V.) on the other side of the church. - More important are the finds obtained at various epochs among the remains of the " egregife Lateranorum sedes," on the opposite side of the street. Flavio Biondo describes those of the time of Eugenius IV. (1431-47) on the site of the monastery, west of the 1 Literature. — See p. 336 and Eidolfino Venuti, Descriz. di Roma, ed. 1803, p. 179. — Lupi, Epitaph, sanctce Severce, p. 43. — Francesco Ficoroni, Gemmm litteratce, p. 126. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 22.5, 226. 2 Emil Braun, Bull. Inst., 1838, p. 6. — Rohault de Fleury, Le Latran au moyen dr/e. (Plan general.) — Rodolfo Lanciani, Forma Urbis, pi. xxxvii. THE LATE RAN PALACE 341 cloisters of Vassalectus ; and speaks of halls the pavements of which were 5.34: metres lower than that of the church, of colonnades, statues, etc. Flaminio Vacca says that when Clement VIII. removed and destroyed in 1595 the old presbyterium (un certo rialzo innanzi al coro), three large niches were found, pertaining 342 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV to an "edifizio antichissimo e nobilissimo," the pavements of which were incrusted with porphyry and serpentine. Filippo Martinucci discovered in 1853 the pavement of the street under the canopy of Urban V., as related above. Costantino Corvisieri excavated in 1873 the neighborhood of the Baptistery. Pius IX. and Leo XIII., whilst destroying the Constantinian apse and building the new one, with the sacristry and the chapter-house (1877-90), brought to light other remains, described by Stevenson in the " Annal. Inst.," 1877, pis. R, S, T, and represented in the above view (Fig. 129). I have tried to express as well as I could the results of all these excavations in sheet No. xxxvii. of the " Forma Urbis." The level of this part of the palace was 7.50 metres lower than that of the church. Nothing is left visible of the old Constantinian Basilica except a few bits of the walls which support the roof of the nave. When Borromini inflicted upon the nave itself the present hideous trans- formation, and encased the columns dividing the nave from the aisles in a coating of bricks, he left patches of the original walls visible in a set of oval panels between the windows. The ovals are now concealed by indifferent paintings on canvas. However, there is at least one set of precious relics of Constantine's age which has escaped destruction but not transformation : I refer to the four large fluted bronze columns of the Corinthian order which adorn the Altare del Sacramento, at the south end of the transept. The guide-books of Rome have suggested various theories about them, the current belief being that they belonged in days gone by to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Others contend that they were cast under Augustus with the 'bronze beaks of the ships cap- tured in the battle of Actium; others that they were removed from Solonion's Temple, etc. The columns are mentioned for the first time under Constantine, who offered them to the Church to be used as " pharocautharoi " ^ on either side of the altar. Clement VIII. and Pietro Paolo Olivieri, his architect, found them seriously injured and without capitals ; Orazio Censori, the pope's brass- founder, was asked therefore to make a tour through the cities of southern Etruria and try to collect antique objects of bronze. Hundreds of tombs must have been rifled of their invaluable treasures ; at Corneto alone Censori gathered 665 pounds of metal, and a great deal more at Civita Castellana (Falerii). The treasures were melted together with pieces of the bronze beams of the Pantheon, and the metal was employed in casting three 1 Lighthouses, or pillars supporting a circle of lights on the capitals. THE LATE RAN PALACE 343 capitals, the whole cornice and pediment of the altar, sixteen doves, sixteen stars, and two angels. It was lucky that the bronze masterpieces formerly in the Campus Lateranensis (Piazza di S. Giovanni) had been removed to a place of safety since the times of Sixtus IV. and Paul III., otherwise they would probably have shared the fate of the bronzes from Tarquinii and Falerii. The mediaeval collection of bronzes at the Lateran comprised the equestrian statue of M. Aurelius, removed by Paul III. to the Piazza del Campidogiio in 1538 ; the she-wolf ; the colossal hand with the globe ; the Zingara or Camillus ; the head of young Nero (?), removed to the Palazzo dei Conservatori by Sixtus IV. ; and the " lex regia," now in the Capitoline Museum. The follow- ing sketch by Martin Heemskerk represents tlie Campus Late- ranensis about 1531, with the statue of M. Aurelius in its proper Fig. 130. — Campus Lateraneusis, about 1534. place. The four columns in the foreground supported a slab of marble wliich was thought to mark the height of the Saviour. Heemskerk's view has already been published by T. Springer, in 1885.1 Literature for the Lateran Palace. — Louis Duchesne, Le liber pontijicalis, vol. i. passim. — Rohault de Fleury, Le Lntran au moyen age. Paris, 1877. — Giovanni Ciampini, De saci-is (Bdificiis a Constantino magno extructis. Rome, 1693. — Cesare Rasponi, Be basilica et patriarchio Late- ranensi. Rome, 1656. — Nicola Alemanni, De Lateranensibus parietinis. Rome, 17.56. — Eugene MUntz, Les arts a la cour des papes, vol. iii. passim. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull. Inst., 1870, p. 50 ; and Itinerario di Einsiedlen, pp. 70 and 102. — Enrico Stevenson, Scoperte di antichi edijizi al Laterano {in 1 In Gesammelte Studien zur Kunstgeschichte : eineFestgabe zum iMai 1885. Fiir Anton Springer, Leipzig, 1885. 344 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV Annal. Inst., 1877); and Topogrnfia e momcmenti dl Roma in-Ue piltnre di Sisto v., etc., plate iv. n. 2. The bronzes formerly in the Lateran are illustrated in Annnl. Inst., 1877, p. 381. — Riim. Mittheilimyen, vol. vi. 1891, p. 14. — Refue archeol., xliii. 1882, pp. 20, 28. — Wolfgang Heli)ig, Guide to the Coll. of Class. Antiquities, vol. i. p. 402, n. 538 ; p. 454, n. 612, etc. B. DoMUS Vectiliana, a favorite resort of the Emperor Corn- modus, whither he used to repair when sufteriug from insomnia, and where he was strangled in a. d. 192. Its site is not known, but it cannot have been very far from the Lateran. The eques- trian statue of Marcus Aurelius, of which we hear for the first time in a. d. 966 (when Peter, prefect of Rome, was hung by the hair from the horse for his rebellion against John XIII.), must have come from this Domus Vectiliana. The house was certainly discovered at the time of Ficoroni, about 1735, by a man named Giuseppe Mitelli, but the site of the excavation is indicated only by thev ague formula " nell' estremita del Monte Celio " (at the extreme point of the Cselian hill). The family of M. Aurelius and Commodus was closely con- nected with that of the Annii. Annia Faustina the elder, wife of Antoninus Pius ; Annia Faustina the younger, wife of M. Aure- lius; Annia Cornificia, his sister; Annius Verus, his son; Annia Lucilla, his daughter, have made the name illustrious in the annals of the Empire. By a singular coincidence we find a Domus Anniorum on the Cselian, close to the supposed site of the Vectiliana in which Commodus was assassinated. One of the new streets of the Cselian, the Via Annia, has been named from it. The house is distinctly mentioned by the biographer of M. Aurelius, chapter i. : " Marcus was born on the Cselian hill, in the family villa (Jiurti) in the year (a. d. 121) in which his grand- father Annius Verus was consul with Augur. . . . He was educated in the villa in which he was born, as well as in the palace of his grandfather, near that of the Laterans." The palace of Annius Verus was discovered for the last time in 1885-87, on the site of the present military hospital (Villa Casali). LiTEUATURE. — 5m?Z. arch. com., 1885, pp. 95, 104, 166, 175, 176-; 1866, pp. 50, 93, 109, 278, 342, 369, 405 ; 1887, pp. 27, bl.—Notizie derjli Scavi, 1885-89, passim. See index. Villa Casali. C. Domus Tetricorum. — C. Pesuvius Tetricus, one of the " thirty tyrants," and the last secessionist ruler of Gaul (a. d. 267-274), was defeated by Aurelian at the battle of Chalons, and obliged to grace the triumph of the conqueror with his presence. THE PALACE OF THE VALERU 345 After the tiiuiuph he was treated with kindness and distinction by Aurelian. The biographer who wrote the " Tyranni Triginta " in the first decade of the fourth century says, " The palace of the Tetrici, one of the most beautiful in the city, is still to be seen on the Cailian, in the street called ' inter duos lucos,' oi^posite the Temple of Isis Metellina." The site was indicated in the Middle Ages by a church of 8. Maria inter duo or inter duas, which stood in the valley between the Ctelian and the Esquiline (cf. Armellini, Chiese, p. 1-10). 1). DoMiT.s Valekiorum. — There was on the Cselian, between IS. .Stefano Kotondo and the Lateran, a palace belonging to the descendants of the Valerii Poplicohv, namely, to Valerius Severus, prefect of Konie in a. d. ;58(J, and to his son Pinianus, husband of Melania the younger. The palace was so beautiful, and contained so much wealth, that when Pinianus and Melania, grieved by the loss of all their children, put it up for sale in 404, they found none willing to X3urchase it : " ad tarn magnum et mirabile opus acce- dere nemo ausus fecit." Seven or eight years after the capture of Rome by Alaric, August, 410, the same palace was given away for little or nothing, " domus pro nihilo venumdata est," having been " dissipata et quasi incensa " by the barbarians. There must be some inaccuracy in this account, which Commendatore de Rossi has found in a MS. of the library of Chartres. In the first place, a considerable part of the j^i'operty was transformed into a hos- pice and a hospital under the title of " Xenodochium Valeriorum " or " a Valeriis," which flourished until the ninth century, and the transformation must have been the work of Pinianus himself and not of an outsider. In the second place, the house w^as discovered in 1554, 1561, and 1711 in such a wonderful state of preservation that we must exculpate the Goths from the charge of having pil- laged and gutted it in 410. The account of the find sounds like a fairy tale. When the workmen entered the atrium of the palace in the first excavations of 1554 and 1561, the deeds and records of the family, engraved on bronze tablets, still hung to the columns of the peristyle. The tablets contained mostly decrees in honor of the Valerii, or treaties of friendship witli their house passed by the corporations of Zama, Hadrumetum, Thenae, and other cities of Africa. Four pedestals of statues dedicated to Valerius Aradius by the corporations of the grocers, bakers, etc., were discovered under the portico. The excavations were stopped perhaps for fear of undermining the church and the monastery of S. Erasmus, or whatever was left standing of this celebrated abbey, the medi- 346 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV reval representative of the old Xenodochium a Valeriis. Under the pontificate of Innocent X. (1644-55), when no traces were left of S. Erasmo, the atrium of the jaalace was entered again, and seven " bellissime statue " were brought to light, among them two fauns dancing to the sound of the Kp6Ta\a ; they were purchased by Monsignor Mazarino. The experiment was tried again under Clement X. (1670-76) with equal success. Bartoli mentions statues and busts, among them two of Lucius Verus bought by Cardinal de Bouillon ; the group of Cvipid and Psyche, now in the Galleria degli Uffizi ; the finest specimens of fresco paintings ever seen in Rome; columns of rare breccias; and the bronze lamp representing a ship with the figure of our Lord at the helm, also in the L^ffizi at Florence. Literature. — Corpus Jnscr., vol. vi. n. 1684-94. — Pietro Sante Bartoli, Mem. 53, 54 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. ccxxx.). — Pietro Bellori, Lucerne antiche, p. 11. — Gio. Batt. de Rossi, II monastero di S. Erasmo e la casa dei Valerii sul Celio (in Studi e docum. di Storia e Diritto. vol. vii. 1886; and Bull, com., 1890, p. 288). — Giacomo Lumbroso, Notizie di Cassiano dal Pozzo. Torino, 1875, p. 50. E. DoMus Philippi, probably of the Emperor M. Julius Phi- lippus (a. d. 244-249), which he must have acquired while prefect of the Prsetorium. The only clue in regard to its position is given by an altar (Corpus Inscr., vi. 150) dedicated by a " servus Philipporum " to a local spring, which was found in the slope of the Villa Mattel, towards the Marrana. Near the same place a statue was discovered in 1747 representing a hunter with a hare in the right hand, which Ennio Quirino Visconti attributes to the age of the Philippi. The statue, signed by the artist (Polytimvs lib), is now exhibited in the Capitoline Museum. Literature. — Fieoroni, Mem. 91 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. clxiii.). — E. Quirino Visconti, Catnlogo del museo Jenlcins, p. 22. — Pierre Aube, Le Christianisme de I'emp. Philippe (in Revue arch., vol. ix. 1880, p. 140). — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide to the Collections (^Antiquities, vol. i. p. 370, n. 506 (27). F. DoMus L • Marii • Maximi, discovered in February, 1708, in the Villa Fonseca. It contained the pedestals of statues (Cor- pus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 1450, 1451) dedicated to him, the first by an officer of the third legion, Cyrenaica ; the second by a friend, Pompeius Alexander. Other pedestals from the same noble man- sion are described by the " Corpus," n. 1452, 145.3. G. DoMus OF THE Symmachi, discovered in 1617 in the gar- den of Sartorio Teofili, afterwards included in the Villa Casali. THE PALACE OF THE SYMMACHT 347 L. Aiirelius Avianius Symmachus, the great scholar, statesman, and orator of the latter half of the fourth century, proconsul of Africa in 373, prefect of the city in 381-386, consul in 391, speaks of this paternal house on the Cselian in Ejiist. 18 of Book vii. : " de Formiano regressus in Larem C«lium." Compare Epist. iii. 12, 88. Although constantly exposed to danger and disgrace, as leader of the pagan side of the Senate, he never diverged from his path. Having been delegated by the House in 382 to remon- strate with the Emperor Gratian on the removal of the altar of Victory from their council hall, and on the curtailment of the sums annually allowed for the maintenance of the Vestal Virgins, he was ordered by the indignant Emperor to withdraw from his presence and to i-etire to his villa at Formije ; and yet, two years later, we find him prefect of Rome, and engaged in rebuilding with unusual magnificence the bridge now called Ponte Sisto (see p. 24). Among the objects discovered in the excavations of 1617 we find the pedestal of a statue dedicated to him by his own son, and a second set up in honor of his father-in-law Virius Nico- machus Flavianus, another great leader of the pagan faction. The ruins were searched again in 1885-87. I do not remember having ever seen such a scene of devastation as that presented by the remains of this palace of the Symmachi and of the Nicomachi. Columns, pedestals, statues seem to have been purposely hammered and ground into atoms. The headless female statue of gray basalt, now in Hall V of the Museo ]\Iunici- pale al Celio, was put together by us in 1896 out of seventy-four pieces. If we remember that basalt was a worthless material to the destroyers of ancient Rome, unfit for the lime-kiln and too hard to be worked anew, we must find another reason for their treating that noble figure so wantonly. The explanation is given, if I am not mistaken, by the discovery of another statue broken into one hundred and fifty-one pieces, which represented the Vic- tory. When the pagan faction was put down forever at the battle of September 6, 394, in which the usurper Eugenius and Nico- machus Flavianus lost their lives, the recollection of the duel fought before Valentinian II. and Theodosius, between S. Ambrose on the Christian and Symmachus on the pagan side, on account of the statue of Victory, was still fresh in the minds of the people. No wonder that, on hearing the news of the battle, and of the decisive collapse of the party led by the Symmachi and by the Nicomachi, the populace should have pillaged their palace on the Cfelian and satisfied their desire for vengeance. 348 URBS SACRA REG I ON UM XIV From this point of view the statue, which we have recalled to life out of one hundred and fifty-one fragments, and exhibited in the Hall II of the above-named museum, is one of the great his- torical monuments of the fourth century. Literature. — Corpus Jnscr., vol. vi. n. 1699, 1782. — Angelo Mai, Script, vett. nova collectio, vol. i. append, pp. xviii.-xxiv. — Morel, in Revue archeoL, June, 1868. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Ancient Rome, pp. 162-173. H. The House of SS. John axd Paul. — This house and the church (Titulus Byzantis, Titulus Pammachii) built upon it at a later period are given a place of honor in early itineraries of pilgrims because they contained the only martyr's tomb within the walls of the city. The account of the lives of the two brothers John and Paul, and of their execution under Julian the apostate, is apocryphal ; but no one who visits the remains of this house and the records it contains will deny the fact that some one was Fig. 131. — Plan of the House of SS. .Tolin and Paul, and of the Cliurcli built above it. murdered or executed for his faith here, and that over the apart- ment in which the event took place a church was built at a later age. On this occasion the Roman house was left intact with its spacious halls and classical decorations to be used as a crypt, while the basilica was raised above the level of the ceilings. The murder of the saints seems to have taken place in a narrow pas- sage (fauces') near the tablinum or reception-room. Here we see THE HOUSE OF GREGORY THE GREAT 349 the " fenestella coufessionis " by means of whicli pilgrims were allowed to behold and touch the venerable graves. Two things strike the visitor : firstly, the variety of the fresco decorations of the house, which begin with pagan Genii holding festoons, and end with stiff, uncanny representations of the Passion, of the ninth and tenth century ; secondly, the fact that such an impor- tant monument should have been buried and forgotten ^ until Padre Germano of the Passionists rediscovered it ten or twelve years ago. Padre Germano has given us a delightful account of his work in a volume entitled " La casa celimontana dei SS. JNIai'tiri Giovanni e Paolo scoperta ed illustrata." Rome, Cuggiani, 1894. This house and another one annexed to the nymphseum of the gardens of Sallust are the only ones in Rome which show the third floor in one case, the fourth in the other. The student walking up the Clivus Scauri, between the house of John and Paul on the left, and the house and library of Agapetus on the right, may fancy himself transported into the midst of a street scene of " declining " Rome towards the end of the sixth century. I. The House of Gregory the Great. — The " Liber pon- tificalis " (vol. i. p. 313, edit. Duchense) leaves no doubt that the present church and nujnastery of S. Gregorio are built on the site of the paternal house of the great pontiff, son of Gordianus and Sylvia, of the Petronian branch of the Anicii. The transforma- tion of the palace into a coenobium, where Gregory and his asso- ciates lived under the rule of S. Benedict, seems to have taken place in 575. John the Deacon describes it as placed " within the walls of the city, on the Clivus Scauri, close to the church of SS. John and Paul," and as containing an atrium with a fountain of elaborate design in the middle (nymphwum). The spring, called "mirabilis immo saluberrimus," was probably the same known in classic times by the name of Fons jNlercurii. The site of the piscina can still be traced on the east side of the present chui'ch. There was an inner court within the clausnra, around which opened the cells of the monks. The establishment was also fur- nished with a hostelry for pilgrims and visitors, with stables and granaries, and with a grand triclinium, in which the monks took their siesta during the hot hours of the day. The name of S. Gregorio given to the abbey is comparatively recent, the old establishment being placed under the patronage of S. Andrew. His chapel was splendidly decorated with paintings and mosaics. There were also other chapels or oratories under 1 Parian and ChriMian Rome, p. 159. 350 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV the invocations of the Virgin Mary (the S. Andrea of the present day) and of S. Barbara (the present triclinium). Save a few bits of antique walls, which appear here and there under the modern plastering, nothing is left visible of the home of S. Gregory and of the monastery " SS. Andrese et Gregorii ad clivum Scauri," one of the most powerful in central Italy, and the owner of the Cii'cus jMaximus, of the Septizonium, and of the palace of the Caesars. The first blow to the institution was struck in 1573, when the Camaldolese monks took the place of the Benedictines. Cardinal Scipione Borghese and his architect, Giovanni Soria, destroyed the old vestibule and the atrium in 1638 ; all the rest was modern- ized in 1725. I have discovered in the Kupferstich Kabinet at Stuttgart a sketch by a contemporary of Martin Heemskerk, I'ep- resenting the Monasterium ad Clivum Scauri before the modern profanation. I give here a facsimile of this rare design. fc.- Fig. 132. — A View of the Church and Monastery of S. Gregorio in the First Half of tlie Sixteenth Century. The two leading edifices of the Ctelian hill which remain to be described are the Temple of Claudius and the Rotunda of S. Stefano. VIII. Claudium (Temple of Claudius), begun by Agrippina the younger, niece and fourth wife of that Emperor. After the THE TEMPLE OF CLAUDIUS 351 murder of Agrippina, which took place in a. d. 59, Xero her sou took possession of the unfinished temple and turned it into a nymphseum and reservoir for the Aqua Claudia, joining it to the main aqueduct " ad Spem veterem " (Porta Maggiore) by means of the Areas Cx'elimontani or Arcus Neroniani, which still forms so conspicuous a featm-e of the Ctelian hill. After the suicide of Xero, A. D. 68, the place was restored to its original use by Ves- pasian under the name of " Templum divi Claudii," which the people shortened into tliat of Claudium. A bull of Ilonorius III., dated February 2, 1217, shows that the classic term was still in use in the thirteenth century (Clodeum). The causes and tlie date of its final collapse are not known ; but the fact that one of the travertine capitals from the substructure was made use of in the reconstruction of the house of SS. John and Paul (first door on the left on the Clivus Scauri) proves that men had already laid hands on the noble building in the time of Julian the Apos- tate (360-363), or else of Pammachius, the builder of the churcli (t 410). Flaminio Vacca relates the following discoveries made at the time of Pius IV. : " In a vineyard between the Coliseum and SS. Giovanni e Paolo the foundations of a building were dis- covered, made of 'grossissimi quadri di travertino,' and also two marble Corintliian capitals, one of which was removed by Pins IV. to the church of S. ^laria degli Angeli, and placed on one of the columns of the nave. I remember also the discovery of a marble ship 8.92 metres long, and of a fountain sjilendidly deco- rated witli marbles, which, however, appeared nuicli damaged by fire." Etienne du Perac mentions the finding of some fragments of statues of heroic size, and calls the platform of the temple facing the Coliseum the " cemetery of the church of S. Gregorio." Xo words can convey the idea of the beauty and peacefulness of the garden of the Passionist fathers which now occupies the plat- form of the temple, and of its secluded paths, shaded by ilexes on the west side, and by cypresses on the side of the Coliseum. The garden, unfortunately, is under the monastic clausura, and ladies are refused admittance. The only parts of the building visible to all without hindrance are the substructures of the platform. ^ which, strange to say, differ in design and style of masomy for each side of the rectangle. The substructures on the west side, upon which stands the beautiful campanile of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, are comjiosed of a double row of arches in the so-called rustic style so much in favor at the time of Claudius (Fig. 133) ; 1 Ai^ply to tlie sacristan of the iliiircli. 352 URBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV those facing the Coliseum appear divided into receptacles for the storage of water required for some of the veuationes of the amphi- theatre ; those on the Via Claudia show a succession of square and semicircular recesses, the object of which it is not easy to imagine, especially as they are separated from the mass of the platform by a corridor or vaulted passage, less than a metre wide, which fol- lows their capricious outline. Two Christian churches or ora- tories have been found hidden, as it were, in these substructures. Fig. 133. — The Substructures of tlie Claudiuni, We.st Side. THE TEMPLE OF CLAUDIUS 353 Ciampini speaks of the first in " Cod. vatic," 7849. In September, 1689, while the modern vandals were excavating and ijestroying the northern front of the platform for the sake of building mate- rials, a door w^as discovered with the sign of the cross on one side, and a star or crux decussata on the other. After passing another door on the right, a room was entered, 7.80 metres long, with fres- coes in the apse representing the Redeemer giving the scroll of the law not to S. Peter — as de hire in early Christian iconography — but to S. Paul. Two smaller figures of Pope Formosus (891) and of Michael, the first converted king of the Bulgarians, were painted at the feet of the Saviour. The figure of Pope Formosus had been carefully obliterated after his memorke damnatio at the hands of Stephen VII., his successor. This historical monument was very likely destroyed by its discoverers. The second churcli, called " ecclesia S. Laurentii supra S. Clementem," was established in the fourth recess (a square with an apse) of the east side of the substructures on the Via Claudia. Ai-mellini mentions having seen traces of Christian frescoes in the apse when first cleared of the rubbish in 1881, but he and the late Commendatore de Rossi are mistaken in identifying this second place of worship with Ciampini's oratory, which opened not on the east but on the north side, and among ruins not of brick but of reticulated work. LiTERATUKK FOR THE Claudium. — Heiiiricli .Tordan, Forma Urhis Eomce, pi. X. n. 45. — Suetonius, Vespas. [). — Luigi Canina, Indictiziune di Roma aniica, p. 73. — Otto Richter, Topor/r., p. 167. — P. Germaiio di S. Stanislao, Im casa celimontana del SS. Giovanni e Paolo. Rome, 18!l4, p. 19. — Etienne du Perac, Vedute di Roma, pi. 14. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 10,251«. — R. Lauciani, / comentarii di Frontimo, p. 152. — Giuseppe Gatti, Annal. Inst., 1882, p. 205. Literature for the Christian Oratories. — Jlariano Armellini, Chiese, 2d edit., pp. 135, 513. — Gio. Batt. de Rossi, Bull, crist., 1868, pp. 59, 00 ; and 1882, p. 98. IX. Macellum (S. Stefano Rotondo). — Commendatore de Rossi, in his splendid volumes " I musaici delle chiese di Roma," and also in the memoir already quoted, " La basilica di S. Stefano rotondo," etc., proposes some architectural and topographical problems in regard to this mysterious structure, which, he thinks, is not a pagan but a Christian edifice of the beginning of the fifth century ; and he brings in support of his theory the author- ity of Hiibsch (Die altchristlichen Kirchen, p. 36) and of Rahn (Ursprung des Christl. Central- und Kuppelbaus, p. .53). To tell the truth, tlie theorv is strictlv Italian, and over a cen- 354 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV tury old. See Yaladier in Canina's " Supplementi al Desgodetz," p. 15 : " Le defaut de documents ne permet pas d'admettre I'opinion de Desgodetz, leqiiel suppose que ce fut un temple dedie au dieu Faune. ... II faut le regarder comme TomTage du pape Simplicius I., dedie a S. Etienne et restaure depuis par Nicolas V." Yaladier's opinion is proved correct by the general style of the S. STEFANO ROTOXDO 355 rotunda, by the quality and variety of its columns, capitals and bases, spoils of older edifices, by the crosses cut in bold relief on the cushions of some capitals, and above all by the fact that the present edifice rests on the remains of an earlier one of the first ceutui-y after Christ. They were discovered by Valadier in or about 1814, between the seventh and ninth columns of the outer circle on the right of the present entrance. Other walls of the best pei'iod, profusely decorated with marbles, were found six years ago under the adjoining convent and garden of the Theresian nuns. However strange may appear the fact of great structures being raised in Rome at the end of the fourth century, when all resources had given out, and the want was felt not of the luxuries but of the necessaries of life, and when monuments were col- lapsing in all quarters for want of repairs, it is certain that the rotunda of S. Stefano, this alleged Temple of Faun, of Bacchus, of Jupiter Peregrinus, this alleged Macellum Magnum, or INlica Aurea of Xero, has lost forever its position among the classic buildings of Rome. Who was, then, its true founder, and what was tlie true object of its foundation ? The " Liber pontificalis " (i. 249) attributes to Pope Simplicius (468-482) the dedication " basilicse S. Stephani in Coelio monte." For a long time an exaggerated value has been attributed to the formulae of the Papal chancery, "dedicavit, fecit, optulit," etc., and accordingly Felix IV. has been called the builder of SS. Cosma e Damiano, Ilonorius I. of S. Adriano, Helena of the " Hierusalem," and Simplicius of S. Andrea on tlie Esquiline, while they had simply adapted to the Christian worship edifices of classic times, — the Templum Sacra^ Urbis, the Senate-house, the hall of the Sessorian Palace, and the basilica of Junius Bas- sus. This rotunda likewise, built for civil and public use, under- went the same transformation at the hands of Simplicius. Its architectm'e has nothing to do with a place of worship, whether Christian or pagan. It consists of an inner circle of twenty-two columns supporting a drum pierced by twenty-two windows ; of an outer portico of thirty-six columns and eight pilasters, open to wind and rain ; of four open courts ; of four covered storerooms ; and of an inclosure wall pierced by eight doors-. There is no place for an altar, no apse, no presbyterium (see Fig. 135). The names of mausoleum and of baptistery have also been suggested, on no better grounds, because no burial v\'as allowed within the walls, and no great church existed in this part of the Cjelian, to which the rotunda could be attached as a baptistery. We cannot hope 356 UBBS SACEA REGIONUM XIV to tear away the veil of mystery in which this " sfinge celimon- tana " is wrapped ; at the same time we may accept the following points as probable, if not certain : — A. The rotunda of S. Stef ano stands on the remains of a classic edifice of the same architectural type, probably the INIacelhim Magnum or " great market-place " of Nero, which occupied the middle of a square lined with porticoes and shops. ASSE Piazza dcUa | Navicclla. ASSE Fig. 135. — Plan of S. Stefano Rotondo. B. This edifice of classic times, having come to grief for reasons unknown to us, was reconstructed at the end of the fourth century for civic purposes, probably for the same use of a market. JSIS AND tiERAPlS 357 We may cite in support of this idea the contemporary reconstruc- tion of the Macdluru Licke on the Esquiline, at the hands of Valens and Gratianus. C. After the plunder of the city by Ahiric and Genseric, the half-deserted Cselian being no more in need of a public market, Pope Simplicius occupied the edifice and dedicated it — with some slight alterations — to the memory of S. Stephen. This happened al)out one century after its reconstruction as a market-place. D. The apse adorned with mosaics, the transformation of one of the open courts into a presbyterium and high altar, tlie closing of seven doors out of eight, and the porch over the only one left open, are the work of Theodore I. (642-049). Ruccellai, who visited S. Stefano in the jubilee of 1450, describes the drum and the inclosure wall as inlaid with finely cut crusts of porphyry and serpentine, grapes and leaves of mother-of-pearl, "tarsie et altre gentileze." These beautiful works of art were destroyed in 1453 by Pope Nicholas V. THE RUINS OF THE OPPIAX. Regio hi. " Isis et Sekai-is." X. The third region occupies that portion of the Esquiline ridge which was properly called Mons Oppius. The first and unitpie inscription mentioning the Oppiiin, its compital shrines, and its organization as a ward of the city in Republican times, was dis- covered in September, 18S7, in the cellars of the ex-convent of le Cappuccine alle sette Sale — " ]Ma:g(istri) et Flamin(es) monta- n(orum) montis Oppi(i) de pecunia mont(anorum) sacellum clau- dend(um) et cofequandum et arbores serendas coeraverunt." The name " montani " applies strictly to the inhabitants of the septi- montium — even to the present day (monticiani) — while those of the suiTounding districts were called "pagani." The yearly cele- bration called by Varro " septimontiale sacrum " was performed on the Palatium, Cermalus, Yelia, Fagutalis, O^jpian, Cispian, and in the Subura, in memory of the first settlement of the population in those places. The festive groups gathered round tlie oldest shrine of the ward, led by their own popular magistrates and priests. The shrines were surrounded by clusters of old trees, such as lurches {I ucus fagutalis), oaks (lucus querquetulanus), laurels (vicus Loi-eti), and so forth. The inscription found on the Oppian shows how carefully these historical woods were preserved.' 1 LiTEKATUEE. — Giuscppc Gatti, Bull, com., 1887, p. 150. 358 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV We do not know what name was given to this third region by Augustus, that of Isis and Serapis being of a later age. The temple of the two gods (Isium Metellinum ?) stood between the Via Leopardi, the Via Curva, and the Via Macchiavelli. It was a magnificent structure, rich in masterpieces of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman art, and yet the only mention we have of it is a brief pas- sage of Bartoli (Mem. 2) ; " An Egyptian temple has been discov- ered near the church of SS. Pietro e Marcellino, the figures of which were designed by order of Cassiano dal Pozzo." And so thoroughly did the seicento excavators destroy it that not one stone is left in situ. Its marble spoils seem to have been scattered far and wide soon after the prohibition of pagan worship. Many hundred fragments were discovered in 1888 under the house at the corner of the Via Labicana and the Via Macchiavelli, having been used as building-material in a foundation wall of the sixth or seventh century. They represent Jupiter Serapis ; Isis crowned with poppies and " spica? ; " Isis veiled, with the crescent on the forehead ; three replicas of the same type ; and a female figure wearing the Egyptian head-dress, probably a portrait statue. A figure of the cow Hathor, the living symbol of Isis, cut in the rarest kind of spotted granite, was discovered, half in the founda- tions of the Palazzo Field, Via Merulana, half in those of the con- vent of the Sceurs de Cluny, Via Buonarroti. A pedestal inscribed with the name of the goddess came to light in 1889, a few yards from the Coliseum. I may mention in the last place the find of another wall in the Via Labicana entirely built of blocks of ame- thyst, which seemed to belong to one or more columns. The designs of Cassiano dal Pozzo are in England. Some small Egyptian figurines are in the Capitoline Museum, ground floor, first room on the left. The blocks of amethyst are in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The altar of Isis is in the Museo della Terme, and the marble statues in the Museo Municipale al Celio, Halls II. and V. ; the cow Hathor in the coftee-house of the Villa Field ! ^ The monuments of the third region, which we must take into consideration in this chapter, are the Golden House of Nero, with its reservoir called the Sette Sale; the baths of Titus and the baths of Trajan, built on the remains of the Domus Aurea ; and the Flavian amphitheatre with its annexes. XI. Domus Aurea (the Golden House of Nero). — Of the 1 Literature. — Forma Urbis, pi. xxix. — Ludovico Visconti, Bull, com., 1887, pp. 131-1.36; and 1889, p. 'il . — AthencBum, n. Zl^l. — Notizie Scavi, 1888, p. 626. THE GOLDEN HOUSE OF NERO 359 wonders of the Golden House — a park one mile square laid out by- Nero after the fire of July, 64 — it is enough to say that it con- tained waterfalls supplied by an aqueduct fifty miles long ; lakes and ponds shaded by ancient trees, with harbors for the Imperial galleys ; a vestibule with a bronze colossus 120 feet high ; porticoes 8000 feet long ; farms and vineyards, pasture-grounds and woods teeming with game ; zoological and botanical gardens ; sulphur baths supplied from the aquae Albula? ; sea baths supplied from the Mediterranean ; thousands of columns with capitals of Corinthian metal ; hundreds of statues removed from Greece and Asia Minor ; walls inlaid with gems and mother-of-pearl ; banqueting halls with ivory ceilings, from which rare flowers and costly perfumes fell gently on the recumbent guests. More elaborate still was the ceiling of the state dining-hall. It is described as spherical in shape, carved in ivory so as to I'epresent the starry skies, and kept in motion by machinery in imitation of the course of stars and planets. Remains of this fairy-like establishment have been found during the last four centuries, wherever the proper depth was attained, below the level of the Imperial buildings of a later age in the space between the Palatine and the gardens of Maecenas on the Esquiline. Some of the apartments are still visible under the Temple of Venus and Home, and in the gardens formerly of Cardinal Pio di Carpi and of Cardinal Marzio Colonna, now belonging to the Ospizio delle jNIendicanti. A nympha?um (Fig. l-iT) incrusted with shells and enamels has just been found (1895) near the Via della Pol- veriera in the same Vigna de Xobili in which Pietro Sante Bartoli witnessed the discovery of " diverse stanze sotterranee adornate di marmi, pitture, fontane, e statue." Alberti Giovanni says that in the first half of the sixteenth century a considerable portion of the Golden House (ruine del ajjpartamenio di Nerone) was excavated in the vineyard of the monks of S. Pietro in Vincoli, at the depth of 9.36 metres, and that there were " most beautiful rooms " with stucco carvings on a golden ground, and jiaintings ; porticoes with columns of the rarest breccias, and capitals of the Ionic order, and other such relics. Another wing of the palace, a corridor on which opened five guest-rooms, with a rich set of mosaic pictures, was excavated in 1668, 55.75 metres east of the Coliseum in the direc- tion of Trajan's baths.^ The mosaics, the paintings, and some of 1 Literature on discoveries connected with the Golden House : Pietro Sante Bartoli, Mem. 3, 51 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. pp. ccxxii, ccxxxiv). — Carlo Fea, Varieta di notizie, p. 124. — Alberti Giovanni, Cod. Borgo S. Sepolcro, 360 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV the marbles were removed to the Massimi Palace. The collection was sold by the present prince. Fig. 137. — Nyinphieum discovered near the Via della Polveriera. The principal building of Nero's park lies half buried but almost intact under the baths of Trajan, as shown in the accompanying map (Fig. 1-38). It consists of a long row of halls A, A', A", opening on one side due north, on a garden B, B', which is surrounded by a jiortico C, C, C", C", and has a fountain U in the centre ; and on the other side opening due south, E, E', E", on a great court F, surrounded also by a colonnade G, G'. By this arrangement the palace was made equally pleasant in winter or summer. When Trajan deter- mined to erect a great bathing-establishment on the adjoining- heights of the Oppian, he made use of this noble house to supjiort the semicircular portion of the platform on the side nearest to the Coliseum. For this purpose he built a series of parallel walls, some at right angles with the masses of buildings already in exists ence, some sloping towards them, in the manner of buttresses, at an angle of 61°. Trajan's substructures are easily distinguished 40', 41'; Bull, arcli. com., 1895, pp. 174-181. — Christian Huelsen, Mittheil., 1891, p. 289; and 1896, p. 213. — R. Lanciani, Ancient Rome, p. 124; and Bull, com., 1895, p. 174. tXg. 13 PL OF • ^^ X PLAN OF THE GOLDEN HOL'SEAND OF THE BATHS OF TFIVS AND TRA.iA HTILT ABOVE H THE GOLDEN HOUSE OF XERO 361 by their style of masonry, — a perfect specimen of opus reticula- tum divided into panels by bands of bricks, — while Xero's walls are all in opus lateritium, with a coating of plaster. These ruins were first visited by Giovanni da Udine at the beginning of the sixteenth century.^ He made a careful study of their fanciful paintings, to which the name of " grottesche," viz., •• found in underground ruins or grotte," has since been given. r'-'''^^^ ^^PTI aBfeEBW' ^■r"^'^. *^^P I^^Hito^ "-'^. :;J Fig. 139. — A View of the South Wing of the Domus Aurea. Giovanni's sketches (the originals of which are now dispersed in various European collections) inspired his master, Raphael Sanzio, to produce the immortal creations of the Loggie Vaticane. Only a few traces of these celebrated frescoes are now visible in the cryptoporticus H, H', on the north side of the garden B, B', and in the halls marked A, A'. They help us to appreciate the power possessed by the ancient house-decorators to increase the apparent extent of a limited space by perspective drawings of this kind. It seems almost certain that these halls were used, or perhaps in- 1 Xibby has found the date 149-3 written in one of the rooms by an un- known visitor. On the visit of Raphael and Giovanni Rieamatore to the crypts, see Vasari, Vita di Giovanni ; and Rodolfo Lanciani, Rendiconti Lincei, 1895, p. 3. 362 UEBS SACRA RE G I ON U 31 XIV habited, even after their conversion into substructures, light and air being supplied by skylights opening in the terrace .of the baths. Fifteen skylights open on the cryptoporticus H alone. A point of interest to the modern visitor is the chapel dedi- cated to S. Felicitas at the beginning of the sixth century (I, in plan). Its paintings, now much effaced, have been illustrated by MaruUi, Piale, Armellini, and copied in facsimile by Ruspi. The principal group represented the Saviour offering a crown of jewels to Felicitas Cvltrix Roinanarvm. The heroic woman is surrounded by her seven sons, four on the left, Silianvs, Martialis, Philippvs, Felix; three on the right, Vitalis, Alexander, Zeuva- rivs. The names were written twice, once in red, once in black letters. The side walls are covered with graffiti mostly of the class of p7~oscine7na, or devout salutations. One of the legends began with the words ivstinvs domo • . . ; another tells us that the domus was that of an Alexander (AAE2ANAPOIO A0M02) ; and as Alexander is the name of one of Felicitas' sons, who shared with her the glory of martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius, it is highly probable that this memorial chapel was consecrated after the peace of the Church in the verj^ house in which he lived. Literature. — Troiano Marulli, Lettera sopra U7i' antica cappelln nelle terme di Tito. Naples, 181.3. — Antonio Guattani, Memorie Encidopediche, 1816. — Girolamo Araati, Cod. vat., 9776, f. 6. — Mariano Armellini, Chiese di Roma, p. 136. The walls of the Golden House are covered here and there with graffiti (published by Correra, Bull, com., 189.5, p. 197), which proves that these underground rooms were left permanently accessible, and were resorted to for pui-poses not always lawful. In one of the apartments on the left of the (present) entrance door there is a latrina, and above it the painting of two serpents coiled around a tripos, the meaning "of which is to be found in the first satire of Persius, v. 127 : pinr/e: duos anfjues : pueri, sacer est locus ! Near the entrance to the cryptoporticus H H', at the place marked K, remains are to be seen of a building, destroyed by the fire of Nero, and consequently older than his Golden House. The cryptoporticus itself was discovered for the first time in 1818. The state in which it was found, with the ceiling most exquisitely painted on a white ground, while the walls had received only their first rough coating of plaster, and the work of laying the pave- ment had not even begun, proves that this wing of the Golden THE BATHS OF TITUS 363 House was not finished at the time of Nero's death. The ara- besques of the ceiling have been published by De Romanis in Ijlates viii. and ix. of the "Camere Esquiline." Neglect, damp, and the smoke of torches have nearly effaced them. Towards the middle of the corridor, on the right hand, there is an altar, and above it another representation of the two snakes, with a legend declaring in the most crude and undisguised form what the sym- bol of the snakes meant. The text can be found in Nibby (Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 829) and De Romanis (Camere Esquiline, p. 7). Its meaning is, " Commit no nuisance." Other remains of the Golden House are to be seen in the garden annexed to the Scuola degli Ingegneri (ex-convent of S. Pietro in Vinculis) under the building called " la Polveriera," and also in the Vigna Gualtieri and in the Villa Field. They are practically in- accessible. The Villa Field contains also the magnificent reser- voir, known by the name of Le Capoccie or the Sette Sale, divided into nine compartments by eight parallel walls. The nine sections communicate by means of four openings through the cross-walls, placed not opposite each other but diagonally, so as to prevent the violent rush of the water from one receptacle to the next. The reservoir seems to have been kept in use, first for the baths of Titus, and afterwards for those of Trajan. The Camere Esquiline are entered by the first gate on the left of the (modern) Via Labicana. Open every day, Sundays excepted. XIL Therms Titian^ (Baths of Titus). Classic inscriptions and early ecclesiastic documents mention two great baths on the platform of the Oppian, between the Coliseum, the Sette Sale, and the Basilica Eudoxiana (S. Pietro in Vinculis) ; namely, the baths of Titus, " Thermai Titianai," and the baths of Trajan, " Thermae Traianfe." Topographers have discussed the question whether the two edifices were really independent and distinct from each other, or whether they were but one and the same establishment, built in haste (velocla munera) by Titus, and rebuilt, enlarged, and embellished by Trajan. The supporters of the first theory quoted in their favor the " Notitia," which mentions among the edifices of the third region Thermas Titianas et Traianas ; and the inscription of Ursus Togatus, the pilicrepus or juggler of the time of Hadrian, famous for having played with a light glass ball in Thermis Titi et Traiani. Those who believed in the one edifice having had two names, that of the founder and that of the restorer, quoted the case of the baths of Nero by the Pantheon, 364 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV which became the Thermae Alexandrianse after their reconstruc- tion by Severus Alexander. I have myself been a supporter of this second theory, because, in surveying the platform and the slopes of the Oppian for the construction of Sheets xxiii. and xxx. of the " Forma Urbis," I could not find the proper space for two baths of such size in that district. At the beginning of last year (1895) the question stood therefore in these terms. Had the baths of Titus lost their name and their identity through restora- tion and enlargement by Trajan ? There was no doubt that the extensive ruins, known, described, and designed for centuries, between the Coliseum and the Sette Sale, belonged to them. The site of those of Trajan — in case of an independent building — was vaguely pointed out in the neighborhood of San Martino ai Monti. The question has been since decided theoretically by means of a discovery which I have made among the drawings of Palladio (formerly at Chiswick, now intrusted to the care of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Condxiit Street, London), and prac- tically by the finding of the propylaia of the true baths of Titus in the course of the excavations carried on in the spring of 1895 on the northeast side of the Coliseum. Palladio's drawings prove that on the northeast side of the Coliseum (^per mezo el colixeo) there were still standing about 1550 remains of baths which he attributes to Vespasian ; that their level was 17.50 metres above that of the street surrounding the amphitheatre ; that they were approached by stately stairs open- ing on a piazza or platform ; and lastly, that the thermae were molto ruinate, so that in many points his plans and drawings were simply conjectural. After Palladio's time every trace of them disappeared under the increase of modern soil. Valuable marbles were dug up about 1590 and made use of in decorating one of the chapels of the Chiesa del Gesii, and granite columns were found in 1797. The excavations for the construction of a new humble quarter — especially calculated to disfigure this classic corner of old Rome — and those made last year by Commendatore Baccelli, minister of public instruction, while confirming in the main lines the exactness of Palladio's drawings, have enabled us to give a definite place to these much discussed baths in the map of the ancient city, and to restore to the adjoining ruins of the Oppian their proper name of Therma; Traiani. Towards the end of the fourth century the front portion of the Baths of Titus had already collapsed. An extension of the offices THE BATHS OF TRAJAN 365 of the prefect of the city was built on its site, remains of wliich are still to be seen. Literature on the Offices of the Prefect. — Rodolfo Lanciani, (?/i edifici della prtfettura urbana fra la Tellure e le tei'ine di Tito e di Traiano (in Bull, com., 1892, p. 19). Compare Bull, cum., 1882, p. 101; and Mittheil., 189.3, p. 299. XIII. Thehm-k Traiaxi (Baths of Trajan). — No account of their construction is to be found in classics, except in a brief pas- sage of Pausanias (v. 12), where the baths " which bear Trajan's name," indpvfxa aiiTov, are placed at the head, of the list of his works. When the statues of the gods were removed from the temples, in which divine honors had been paid to them, and dis- tributed among the state buildings of Rome as simple works of art, the Baths of Trajan received their full share at the hands of Julius Felix Campanianus, prefect of the city at the beginning of the fifth century. Officers from the staff of the establishment are mentioned in Nos. 8677, 8678 of the " Corpus Inscr. : " a Phi- letus, " exactor," and an Ireneus, " adjutor thermarum traiana- rum." The extensive ruins did not lose their identity until a comparatively recent date. The " Itinerary of Einsiedlen " calls them by their proper name, thermas Traiani ad Vincula, and all the artists of the Renaissance adhere likewise to the right denomination. The fault of adopting the wrong one lias been attributed to Pope Julius II., who wrote on the pedestal of the granite basin, removed from S. Pietro in Vinculis to the Vatican Belvedere, the words " labrum . . . ab Titi Yespasiani thermis in Carinis ... in vaticanos hortos advexit ; " but the legend is correct, the basin having been seen in 1450 by Ruccellai on the true site of the Thermae Titi, " in una vigna ap- presso al coliseo." The change of name took place towards the end of the sixteenth century. The history of the destruction of this noble edifice, as I have been able to reconstruct it from documents preserved in Roman archives, would fill a volume. The monks of S. Pietro in Vinculis are responsible for it : they sold the marbles to lime-burners, the bricks to master masons, and allowed excavators to tear up the foundations of the frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium. While the architects of the sixteenth century were still able to draw their plan and design their shape without difficulty, very little is now left standing above ground, either in the garden of the scuola degli Ingegneri or in the Villa Field. These few remains, a per- 366 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV feet specimen of Roman brickwork of the golden age of Apollo- dorus, are well taken care of, and appear to great advantage in their frame of evergreens. Students are allowed to visit the beau- tiful grounds. If they wash to single out the various remains which they contain, they must remember that the Domus Aurea (and the Baths of Titus) were " oriented " on the meridian line, while the axis of the Baths of Trajan diverges towards the east by 30°. Many works of art have been found in this classic district, but it is not possible to say exactly where. The first is the granite tazza just mentioned, which was seen by Ruccellai, during the jubilee of 1450, " in una vigna appresso al coliseo," removed by Julius II. " in vaticanos hortos " a. d. 1504, and buried at the time of Pius IV. in the " teatro di Belvedere." Its place of con- cealment was pointed out to Paul V. by a master mason named Battista. Paul V. caused it to be restored in 1616 and used it as a basin to his fountain in the same teatro di Belvedere. Another oval granite tazza, twenty palms long, ornamented with rings and lions' heads, was seen by the Gobbo da Sangallo at S. Pietro in Vinciilis in the first quarter of the sixteenth century. Its fate is not known. Cherubino Alberti speaks of columns of portasanta, africano, etc., found and broken (spezzate) on one of the peristyles of Trajan's baths ; Ligorio of a statue which he calls " imagine simbolica del mondo ; " Vacca of several statues and " infiniti ornamenti ; " Aldovi-andi of a statue of Hercules discovered by Niccolo Stagni near the Sette Sale ; Bartoli of twenty-five statues " di meravigliosa conservazione e bellezza " discovered by Cardinal Trivulzio in 1547 in the same place ; Brunelleschi of an altar dedicated to Jupiter by Vespasian, discovered also at the Sette Sale, or Capoccie, on January 8, 1509 ; Ficoroni of a bronze lamp in the shape of a human head, with its wick of threads of amianth, found in 1696. The Laocoon was found, on June 1, 1506, in the vineyard of Felice de Fredis at the Sette Sale, in a hall which, ac- cording to Pliny 1(H. N., xxxvi. 4, 11), must have formed part of the house of Titus (Laocoon, qui est in Titi imperatoris domo, opus omnibus et picturse et statuarise artis prajponendum). The group must have been removed by Trajan to his own thermfe, when the site of the Domus Titi was occupied by the new struc- ture ; but it is also possible that the Domus should have been allowed to stand as a historical monument in the space between the baths and the Sette Sale. Here, in fact, some exquisitely adorned apartments were brought to light in 1683, the designs THE COLISEUM 367 and description of which I have discovered in the Cabinet des Estampes, Paris, in a vohune marked G, d, 2. A statuette of Pluto, of indifferent workmanship, discovered in 1814, before the Chapel of S. Felicita, is now kept in tlie Capitoline Museum, Room III., on the ground floor. Literature on the Baths of Titus and Trajan, and on the Domus AuuEA, UPON WHICH THEY ARE BUILT.— Giuseppe Carletti, Le antiche camere delle terme di Tito, e le loro pitture delineate . . . da Lodovico Mirri (Sniu- gliesviecz and Brenna). Rome, about 1780, folio atlas. — Carlo Fea, Delia casa aurea di Nerone e della Torre cartularia. Rome, Boulzaler, 1832. — Antonio (le Romaiiis, Le antiche camere esquiline dette comunemente delle terme di Tito. Rome, 1822. — Luigi Canina, Lttorno un frammento della pianta mar- morea capitolina (in Memorie romaue di Antichita, vol. ii. 1825, p. 119); and Edijizi, vol.vi. pis. 202-204. — Stefano Piale, Belle terme traiane, della domus Aurea e della Titi domus. Rome, Piiccinelli, 1832. — Vue du palais dore de Neron (tir^ du Spectacle de I'histoire romaine par M. Philippe, grav(§ par Ransonette), 1776. — Cesare Trivulzio, in Lettere pittoriche, vol. iii. n. 196, p. 231; and Francesco SaTigallo , in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. cccxxix. — Rodolfo Lanciaui, Picturce antiqum cryptarum romanar. (in Bull, com., 1895, p. 174); and Gli scavi del Colosseo e le terme di Tito (ibid. p. 110}.— Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 369, 1670, 9797, 12,995. — Heinrich Jordan, Forma Urhis Roma, p. 42, n. 109. XIV. Amphitheatrum Flavium (the Flavian Amphitheatre — Coliseum). — The name " amphitheatre," although of Greek origin, dates from the last century of the Roman Republic, and was formed and adopted to indicate a new type of public building, strictly national, and used for gladiatorial fights (ludi gladiatorii) and fights with wild beasts {venationes). Such exhibi- tions had taken place in former times either in the Forum or in the Circus, or wherever a free space could be found inclosed by higher grounds or buildings from which the spectators could com- mand the view. The idea of a special structure was suggested, as the name itself implies, by the already existing theatre for scenic plays ; in fact, the first amphitheatre, erected by C. Scribonius Curio, the partisan of Cfesar, for the celebration of his father's funeral games in 46 b. c, was essentially a double theatre, viz., composed of two theatres, " placed on pivots, so that they could be turned round, spectators and all, and placed either back to back, forming two separate stages for di-amatic exhibitions, or face to face, forming an amphitheatre for the shows of gladiators and wild beasts." ^ It was not, however, till the fourth consulship of 1 William Wayte in Smith's Diet, of Antiq., i. 107. Other passages of this section are quoted from the same excellent article. 368 UEBS SACRA REGION VM XIV Augustus, 30 B. c, that a permanent edifice was erected by Stati- lius Taurus, in that part of the Camx^us Martius which is now called Monte Giordano (Orsini). The mound, about 450 metres in circumference, and about 20 metres high, formed by the ac- THE COLISEUM 369 cumulation of ruins, was crowned in the Middle Ages by a shrine or chapel of Michael the archangel, to whom other con- spicuous ruins (the mausoleums of Augustus and Hadrian, etc.) were dedicated ; and this chapel was called De Rota, a special mediaeval denomination for an amphitheatre. That of Statilius Taurus was destroyed in the biirning of Rome, a. d. 64, and we argue from this fact that its shell alone was built of stone and marble, while the seats and staircases were of wood. The second permanent amphitheatre was built by Tiberius (?) at the extreme end of the Esquiline, for the training of the vena- tores and of " performing " beasts. The design of Augustus, how- ever, that an amphitheatre, proportioned to the magnitude of the capital of the Empire, should be erected in the very heart of the city, was carried into effect only by the Flavians. Nothing can furnish a better example of the prodigal contempt of labor and expense which the Emperors displayed in their architectural works than the selection of its site. Hie ubi conspiciii veaerabilis amphitheatri Erigitur moles, stagna Neronis erant. Martial, De Sped., ii. 3, The hollow between the Cfelian, the Oppian, the Velian, and the Palatine was marshy, damp, unsteady even before Nero's artificial lake, the abundance of the local springs being so great that any accidental stopping of the drains produces an inundation. I have already mentioned the event of 1875-78, when, after the late Com- mendatore Rosa undertook to excavate the arena without providing in advance an outlet to the flood, the substructures were covered by twelve feet of water, which four powerful engines could lower only by a few inches. We have no account of the means adopted by Vespasian's architect to overcome the difficulty found in getting firm foundations, and to give the soil steadiness. I have seen them explored but once, in 1864-6.5, by a Signor Testa, while searching for the " Frangipani treasure," which, to the best of our knowledge, had already been found in 1805 by Signor Lezzani, while laying the foundations of the buttress (sperone) of Pius VI. Signor Testa discovered the upper belt of the substructures, arched like those of the ambulacra, above ground ; and underneath them a bed of concrete which must descend to a considerable depth. " This wonderful building, which for magnitude can only be compared to the pyramids of Egyi^t, and which is perhaps the most strikino; monument at once of the material and the moral 370 . URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV degradation of Rome under the Empire," was commenced by Ves- pasian, and inaugm-ated by Titus in the year 80, the event being recorded by the medals Cohen (Imper., vol. i. p. 359, n. 163 ; and p. 362, n. 184 i). An entry in the Chronographer of a. d. 354 attributes to Domitian the completion of the edifice ; and the phrase " amphitheatrum usque ad clypea (f abricatum est) " has been interpreted as if Domitian had added the whole fourth story, besides the ornamental work. The statement is contradicted by other documents, such as the coins of Titus, naentioned above, and the celebrated passage in the " Acta Arvalium," which describes the loca adsignata in amphitlieatro (the places assigned) to that brotherhood in the first distribution of places, a. d. 80.^ The " Acta " speak of the mctnianum primiim, secundum, and of the iiuenianum summum in Ugneis ; the amphitheatre, therefore, had reached its extreme height the very year of its inauguration. The event must have been celebrated by one or more inscriptions, which are now lost. Hiibner thought he had found fragments of them on two or three blocks of travertine used by Severus Alex- ander in the restorations of the upper belt, A. d. 223, but Professor Spinazzola, who climbed to the height of the cornice at the risk of his life (March, 1896), has found the name of Nerva engraved upon the stones ; the inscription, tlierefore, refers to the restorations of Nerva Trajanus mentioned by Pausanias in § xii. 4 of the 'RKmkSiv. Trajan's work is not recorded otherwise ; and the " Vita Pii " is the only authority concerning the repairs made at the time of Antoninus Pius. On August 23, a. d. 217, Macrinus being Emperor, the amphi- theatre was repeatedly struck by lightning. The tahulationes of the fourth story caught fire and the falling embers set the floor of the arena ablaze. In fact, there must have been more wood and timber in the structure than we generally believe. The seven battalions of firemen, helped by the detachments of marines from the ports of Ravenna and Misenum, and by a waterspout (^ rov ohpav'iov eirippoia, -rrAeiffrt] re Kol (rcpoBpOTdrr) jfuo/xepr) — Dlon CasS., Ixxviii. 25), did not get the fire under until the stone and marble 1 Compare Donaldson, Archit. numism., n. 79; and Parker, Colosseum, pi. 24, n. 1. There is another coin forged by the Padovano. 2 LiTERATUKE.— Gaetano Marini, Arvaii, p. 224. — Luigi Canina, Edifizi di R. A., vol. iii. p. 26. — Hiibner, Ann. Inst., 1856, p. 52. — Theodor Mommsen, Ann. Inst., 1859, p. 125. — Wilhelm Henzen, Acta Armlium, p. cvi.— Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 2059, p. 506. — Christian Huelsen, II jwsfo degli Armli nel Colosseo (in Bnll. com., 1894, p. 388, pi. 15). THE COLISEUM 371 work had suffered great damage ; so great, indeed, that the amphi- theatre was abandoned for many years and the games were cele- brated in the circus. The catastrophe had taken place on August 23, the ver^- day of the " Volkanalia," the celebration of which had been forbidden by Macrinus a few days before. The population was so terror- stricken by the occurrence that the '• games of A^ulcan " were re- established at once. Heliogabalus began and Severus Alexander finished in 223 the work of reconstruction, the funds being taken from what the Italians used to call " fondi segreti del ministero dell' interne." The repairs of Severus and Heliogabalus can be examined to the best advantage from the iipj^er platform ; they consist of a patch- work of stones of every description, trunks of columns, pieces of entablatures, lintels, and architraves recovered from the portions damaged by fire or taken away from other buildings. The con- struction of this upper story is altogether hasty and negligent: the joints of the stones are irregular and the composite pilasters are not all straight nor placed on the same perpendicular as the columns below. In 210 the Emperor Pliilippus celebrated the millennium of the city with the secular games, in the course of which all the wild beasts collected by Goi'dianus the younger in view of his Persian triumph were slain. The biographer mentions among them 30 elephants, 10 elks, 10 tigers, 10 wild lions and 60 tame ones, 30 tame leopards, 10 hyenas, 19 giraffes, 20 wild asses, 40 wild horses, 1 hippopotamus, 1 rhinoceros ; there were also 1000 pairs of gladi- ators. Another great display of venationes took place in a. d. 281, on the occasion of the triumph of Probus. One hundred of the finest breed of lions (iubati) were let loose in the arena at the same time. Their thundering roars shook the great amphitheatre to its foundations. They were followed by 100 lionesses, 100 leopards from Nubia, 100 leopards from Syria, and 300 bears. The slaughter of these noble animals without offering them fair play and letting them fight for their lives revolted the assembh' ; the biographer calls the sight " magnum magis spectaculum quam gratum." From the time of Decius (a. d. 2.'50), who rejiaired the damages of another fire, to the earthquake of 422 the history of the building is not known. We are well informed, on the other hand, about the campaign undertaken by slowly spreading Christian influence against the gladiatorial shows. In 325, the year of the council of Nicsea, Constantine addressed to Maximus, prefect of the pr^etorium. 372 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV the constitution " Cod. tlieod.," xv. 12, 1, forbidding those human butcheries ; but it had no eftect. Constantius and Julianus on October 16, 857, and Arcadius and Honorius in 397, renewed the injunction with about the same results. They also tried to show a great partiality towards the athletes, whose performances were, to be sure, less cruel. In 365-375 Valentinian and his colleagues raised a statue to a champion fighter named Philumenos ; Theodo- sius did the same in 384-392 to celebrate the deeds of another athlete named Johannes (a Christian or a Jew) ; ^ yet the old passion could not be uprooted from among the populace. The celebrated mosaic representing the edltiones (jladiatorkc of the Symmachi (^Nlarini, Arval., 165) belongs to the middle of the fourth century, and so does the great fighting-scene discovered near Torre Nuova in 1834, illustrated by Henzen in 1845 in vol. xii. of the " Attidell' accademia romana di archeologia," p. 73. The only provision of the Imperial constitution which seems to have been enforced was that forbidding the magistrates to condemn Christians to fight in the arena. In one of his strongest poems Prudentius urges Honorius to put an end to the " detestable " prac- tice, but the feeble son of Theodosius still hesitated to comply with the request. At last, in 404, seventy-five years after the first decree of Constantine, the self-sacrifice of Telemachus, who threw himself into the arena and was stoned to death by the mob while he at- tempted to w'rench the deadly weapons from the fighting pairs, induced Honorius to suppress forever the gladiatorial shows.^ After this memorable year the amphitheatre was used occasionally for venationes or, perhaps, for boxing-matches, but no further mention occurs of gladiators. The earthquake of 422, described by Paul the Deacon, must have done the building serious injury. An inscription discovered by Fea in 1813, and now placed in the north vestibule (Corpus, vol. vi. n. 1763), speaks of restorations made by Theodosius II. and Valentinian III. between 425 and 450. There are also copious fragments of three inscriptions, each 70 or 80 metres long, com- memorating other work done under the latter Emperor, by Flavins Paulus, prefect of the city in 438. A second ahominandus terrce motus is mentioned in three inscriptions bearing the name of Decius Marius Venantius Basilius, who repaired its damages 1 Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 10,153, 10,154. 2 LiTERATUKE. — Tlieodovetos, v. 26. — Tillemont, Histoire des empei-eurs, vol. v. 533. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Bidl. crist., 1868, p. 84. — P. T. Meier, De rjladiatura romana. Bonn, 1881. THE COLISEUM 373 about 508 a. d. These iu:^criptiolls are to be seen in the same north vestibule. Eutaricus Cillica, son-in-law of Theodoric, gave the last show- but one in the arena, on the occasion of his election to the con- sulate in 519. Cassiodorus, the king's secretary, says that wild beasts were imported from Africa, the sight of which was a novelty for the living generation. The venationes of Anicius Maximus in b'2'i are the last i-ecorded in the history of the place. Here I must observe that, while repairing the drains and under- ground passages of the arena in 1878, we discovered a consider- able (quantity of* bones, which were identified by Professor de Sanctis as pertaining to domestic animals, like bulls, horses, and stags. The discovery shows how insignificant the last shows must have been in comparison with those of the golden age. The amphitheatre, its shell at least, was intact in the eighth century, when Bede wrote his famous proverb, " (^uamdiu staint Coliseus stabit et Roma : quando cadet Coliseus cadet et lloma." When was it reduced to its present ruinous state? By whom, and under what circumstances, was this done ? The possibility of a spontaneous collapse must be rejected. If we look at the Coliseum from the east side, where it appears intact, and consider the prodigious solidity of its structure and the clever way its stones are wedged and fastened into each other, we are led to discard the idea that it could be damaged to any serious extent by age, atmospheric agents, fire, or even earthquakes. Yet it is possi- ble that the shaking of tlie earth might have produced a crack like that which cuts the back of the Pantheon in the Via della Palombella ; and this contingency is even more probable if we recollect that while the drum of the Pantlieon is solid, and fifteen feet thick at least, the shell of the Coliseum is pierced by four tiers of arclies and windows. The equilibrium once broken, the process of disintegration could not be stopi^ed by luiman power, especially when shrubs and plants began to take root in the joints of the stones and in the opening of the crack, and to act like powerful levers. At the same time we cannot deny the fact that at a given moment, the date of which has yet to be fixed, the whole of the western half of the shell fell towards the Caelian and gave rise to a hill, or rather to a chain of hills, of loose blocks of travertine and tufa, which supplied Rome of the Renaissance with building-materials for the lapse of five centuries. The following view (Fig. 141) shows the precarious state in which the inner walls of the maeniana were left after the collapse of the outside 374 UBBS SACRA REGWNUM XIV arcades towards the Cfeliau. The date of this event must be restricted to the period between 1332 and 1362. On September 3 of the former year the Roman nobility were still able to meet in the arena free from ruins and take part in a bullfight which cost the lives of eighteen young patricians, while nine more were badly mangled.^ In 1362 the Romans, the legate of Pope Urban Fig. 141. — The Shell of the Coliseum after the Collapse of the Western Arcades. v., and the Frangipani were already quarreling over the spoils of the fallen giant, " de f aciendo tiburtinam " with the stones of the Coliseum. The collapse, therefore, must be attributed to the earthquake of Petrarch, which ruined so many monuments of ancient and mediaeval Rome, September, 1349. A few years later, in 1386, the S. P. Q. R. made a present of one third of the Coliseum to the " Compagnia del Salvatore ad sancta Sanctorum." The event is chronicled to the present day on the walls of the amphi- theatre — above the sixty-third arch, towards the Meta Sudans — 1 Literature. — Ludovico Muratori, Rerum Italic. Scriptores, vol. xii. p. 332. —Antonio Nibby, Roma ant'ica, vol. i. p. 413. — Pietro Ercole Visconti, Spltndore di Roma nel secolo xiv, Rome, 1867, p. 23. THE COLISEUM 375 by a marble bas-relief with the bust of the Saviour between two burning tapers (Fig. 142) ; and above arch No. LXV. by the coats of arms of the Company and of the S. P. Q. R. painted on white plaster. The mountain of stone caused by the fall of the western belt — known in contemporary documents as the Cosa, Coxa, or Coscia Colisei — ranks first among the petrale or stone quarries within the walls. It has taken four centuries and fifteen generations of Fig. 142. — The Insignia of the Compagnia del Salvatore on the Coliseum. stone-cutters and lime-burners to exhaust it. Its history has yet to be ■Written. A document published by ISIiintz in the " Reviie arch.," September, 1876, certifies that one contractor alone, in the space of only nine months, in 1452, could carry off two thousand five hundred and twenty-two cartloads of travertine. I have dis- covei'ed a brief of Eugenius IV. (1431-143.9) in which he expresses his regret to hear that the rapacious hand of Roman masons had been laid even on the standing remains of the amphitheatre ; and while leaving them free " ut de locis subterraneis a Colised distan- tibus lapides evellere possint," he threatens them with his wrath if they dare to touch " vel minimum dicti Colisei lapidem." There is a tradition, registered by Vacca (Mem., 74), that the same pope 376 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV inclosed the remains within a boundary wall, placing them under the protection of the monks of S. Maria Nuova ; yet Poggio Brac- ciolini describes the same as " maiori ex parte ad calcem deleta." The travertines for the palace of Paul II. (Palazzo di Venezia) and for the Pons yEmilius (Poiite Rotto), restored on the occasion of the jubilee of 1575, were taken from the same quarry. The arena was transformed at the beginning of the sixteenth century into a kind of Ober-Ammergau stage, and Passion plays were per- formed among the ivy-clad ruins for a number of years. The perspective plan of Jerusalem, painted above the main entrance on the side of the Sacra Via, is a recollection of these Passion plays of the time of Paul III. (?). At the same time the Coliseum served as headquarters to those who believed in witchcraft, one of the nocturnal meetings (1532) being described by Benvenuto Cellini in the second book of his memoirs. Under Sixtus V. the monument ran the risk of being converted into a manufactory of woolen goods (1585). The plans prepared by Domenico Fontana, the pope's architect, are described by Bellori, and by Fontana himself (Delia Transportatione dell' obel. vatic, ii. p. 18). The Compagnia del Salvatore rented its part, March, 1594, for a glue-factory; the contractor, however, was put in prison by the S. P. Q. R. and his lease canceled. On June 28, 1604, the same S. P. Q. R. made a barter with the Compagnia on these terms : that the Compagnia would let the municipal administration draw from the Coscia Colisei as much travertine as was necessary to finish the building of the Museo Capitolino, while the Compagnia, in its turn, was allowed to pull down the famous Arco di Basile (over which the Aqua Claudia crossed the Via Cselimontana) to use its stones in the building of the Hospital del Salvatore. In 1639 the S. P. Q. R. transferred to a certain Bramante Bassi the right of excavating " within the circuit of the Coliseum," one third of the produce being set apart for the Capitoline Chamber. On JNIarch 2, 1697, the quarry was placed at the disposal of Dome- nico Ponziani, a contractor for muiiicipal works, on the condition that the great blocks of travertine should be ti'iturated on the spot, and the chips used in macadamizing certain streets. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the supply seemed to be exhausted, when another accident, the earthquake of February 3, 1703, filled the quarry with new material. The stones were mainly used in the construction of the Porto di Ripetta, one of the most graceful and useful works of Clement XI., destroyed six or seven years ago to make room for the new embankment. The same pope closed THE COLISEUM 377 the lower arches with wooden railings and transformed the glorious monument into a deposit of manm-e for the production of saltpetre. Benedict XIV. consecrated the arena to the memory of those who had suffered martyrdom in it ; the cross which he erected in the centre, and the " stations " or shrines around it, were pulled down by Rosa in February, 1874. Pius VII. in 1805, Leo XII. in 1825, Gregory XVI. in 1845, and Pius IX. in 1852 contributed liberally to save the amphitheatre from further degradation, by supporting the falling portions with great buttresses. The lower floor and a portion of the arena were excavated under the French administra- tion between 1810 and 1811. Other excavations were undertaken by Rosa in 1874, which led to the discovery of many epigraphic and architectural fi-agments, and made students more closely ac- quainted with the arrangement of the arena and with the manage- ment of the venationes. The flora of the Coliseum was once famous. Sebastian! enu- merates 260 species in his " Flora Colisea," and their number was subsequently increased to 420 by Deakin. These materials for a hortus siccus, so dear to the visitors of our ruins, were destroyed by Rosa in 1871, and the ruins scraped and shaven clean, it being feared by him that the action of roots would accelerate the disin- tegration of the great structure. The amphitheatre does not stand in a commanding position : the heights of the Oppian on the east, of the Caelian on the south, of the Palatine on the west, of the Velia on the north, surround it so as to leave but one narrow outlet for the spring and rain water, that of the Via di S. Gregorio. The state of things must have been even worse in classic times, when those heights were respec- tively crowmed by the baths of Titus and Trajan, by the Temple of Claudius, by the Palace of the Cassars, and by the Temple of Venus and Rome. To mend matters as well as the local condi- tions would allow, the amphitheatre was surrounded first by a pavement, 17.50 metres wide, and then by a street which expanded into squares at either end of the longest diameter (Fig. 140). The pavement, made with slabs of travertine, was lined by a set of stone cippi, each fm-nished with two pairs of bronze rings, through which wooden bars were made to slide (Fig. 143). The explana- tion of this arrangement, and the reason why the amphitheatre was provided with this outer temporary fence, must be found in the necessity of regulating the movement of the crowd on days when there were spectacles. A double control was established on such occasions : one at the gates of this outer fence, at which the 378 URBS SACRA REGJONUM XIV holders of tickets were admitted in a general way; another at each of the 80 (76) arches of the ground floor, where the number of the ma^nianum, of the cuneus, of the vomitorium, and of the step and the seat marked in the ticket were verified. Fig. 143, Cipiii .siinciundiiig the Coliseum. The numbering of the arches begins from the side of the Cfelian, and precisely from the first to the right of the west state entrance. Nineteen arches are numbered on each of the four sectors of the ellipse, making a total of 76, the foiir state entrances not being THE COLISEUM 379 numbered. Two of these last were reserved for the Imperial fam- ily and grand dignitaries, namely, those between Nos. LXXVI. and I. on the side of the Caelian, and between Nos. XXXVIII. and XXXIX. on the side of the Oppian. They ai'e more spacious and better adorned than the other two ; in fact, the (once) painted and gilded stucco reliefs on the walls and on the vault of the east passage rank among the finest specimens of Roman decorative art, and have been studied with delight by the artists of the Renaissance. I have found copies of them in the Queen's library at Windsor Castle (Cod. Vincenzo Vittoria, f. 24) ; in vol. xi. f. 29 of the Laing collection in the Royal Scottish Academy, PMin- biirgh ; in box of drawings No. IV. at Chatsworth, the Duke of Devonshire's seat in Derbyshire ; and in plates 40 and 61 of Destailleur's album in the Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin. Very few visitors of the Coliseum are aware of their existence. In entering the great building we must direct om- investiga- tions, first, to the way in which the vast crowds of spectators were handled, directed, and distributed over the seats on exhibition days; secondly, to the arrangement of the arena and of its sub- structures. The official Almanac of 354 says that the amphitheatre could accommodate 87,000 spectators. Professor Iluelsen, considering that there is certainly no room for more than 45,000 jjeople, per- haps for 50,000 if we take into consideration the pulloti who stood looking at the performance from the top of the attic, attributes to the term " locus " (amphitheatrum capit loca Ixxxvii) the significa- tion not of "place" or "seat" but of "length in feet." In other words, the Coliseum contained, according to Professor Huelsen, 87,000 feet of seats, each spectator occupying a space of 18 or 20 inches.^ There was accommodation, therefore, for only 50,000 people. Such a crowd is, at all events, very large and difficult to deal with, and the most minute precautions were taken to direct its movements towards the place of destination, and again towards the exits when the show was over. The entrances, staircases, passages, and vomitories were contrived with such exquisite skill that each person, whether of tlie senatorial, of the equestrian, or of the plebeian order, could gain his seat without trouble or con- fusion. An ivory ticket for the amphitheatre of Frusino is said 1 The word "locvs," in its genuine signification oi place or sent, is still in use in Rome. The crv of men offering places and seats for hire on the occasion of a public pageant or exhibition of any kind is, "ecco sedie, ecco lochi," "here are chairs, here are places." 380 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV to be labeled " the sixth cuneus, lowest row, seat No. 18 ; " in those for the Coliseum the number of the entrance arch must also have been specified, and, indirectly, that of the stairs leading to the proper mainianum. The seats of honor were on tlie ledge above the podium, as the nearest to the arena and the most accessible from the four state entrances. The ledge could contain only three rows of (marble ?) thrones, some of which, transformed into episcopal chairs in our mediaeval churches, are still in existence (IS. Stefano Rotondo, S. Gregorio, the biga of the Vatican Museum, etc.). Cushions or pulvini had come into fashion since the time of Caligula, before the amphitheatre was built. No trace is left of the Imperial suggestum nor of the cubicula connected with it. The balcony or pulpit (editoris tribunal) re- served for the magistrate who exhibited the games has also dis- appeared. We have, on the other hand, many epigraphic i-ecords of the places pertaining to senators, knights, high priests, ambas- sadors, guests of the S. P. Q. R., etc., according to the distribution made in a. d. 80 by the Imperial commissioner, Manius Laberius Maximus, assisted by an officer named Thyrsus. The places were not assigned to individuals, but collectively to the body or college or corporation to wliich they belonged ; for instance, " to the ex- consuls, one hundred and ten feet," or, "to the school-teachers, . . . feet." Towards the middle of the fourth century this divi- sion by classes was given up, and spaces for one or more seats were permanently occupied by the same individual, or by the same family, whose name was accordingly engraved on the marble pavement or on the parapet of the podium ; and as families were extinguished in the course of years, and individuals died away, the names were erased, and those of the newcomers engraved. Some of the marble slabs appear to be reduced to half their ori- ginal size by this process of erasing and substituting names. The following cut (Fig. 144) represents one of the steps from the sena- torial ranks (?), with the name of an Insteius most negligently cut upon it. I have published in the " Bull, com." of 1880 one hundred and ninety-three inscriptions of seats, and a few more have been discovered since. The " Corpus inscriptionum " of the Flavian amphitheatre numbers over two hundred and sixty speci- mens, which, if properly arranged and exhibited on the spot, would revive its history and make us conversant with details which it is difficult to make out from books and manuals. The amphitlieatre, in fact, is not so poor in architectural or ornamental THE COLISEUM 381 marbles as we make it appear to be. It would be an easy and also a most useful and noble undertaking to put back these mar- bles into theii- proper places, and fully restore one of the " cunei " of this wonderful structure. There are about forty shafts of columns belonging to the upper loggia, and as many capitals of the Corinthian order, some of the time of the Flavians, others of the fourth century ; there are hundreds of marble steps and seats, and many exquisite screens or parapets once placed on the side or above the vomitoria; there are inscriptions making the round of the edifice ; and yet all these valuable materials are "!y'';rp Fig. 144. — Step-seat of the Coliseum, with the Name of a Fabius lusteius. allowed to lie useless and scattered in great confusion, and some pieces have actually been taken away and removed I know not whither. The arena or central open space, where the shows took place, derived its name from the sand with which it was covered for the purpose of absorbing the blood. Such Emperors as Caligula, Nero, and Carinus showed their prodigality by using cinnabar and borax instead of the common arena. It was composed of a boarded floor supported by beams which rested on a series of walls, some parallel with the main axis, some following the curve of the ellipse 382 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV (see Fig. 145). A great piece of wooden floor was discovered in the excavations of 1874 at the bottom of the middle corridor, as shown in the following illustration, but we are not sure whether it did really belong to the arena or to the floor below it. I am in favor of the second surmise, and I believe that when the substruc- tures of the amphitheatre became damp and wet on account of the Fig. 145. - Wooden Floor discovered in 1874 in the Substructures of the Arena of the Coliseum. THE COLISEUM 383 neglect in keeping the drains in repair, the old floor of opus spica- tum must have been covered with a floor of wood resting on those supports of stone, which appear so distinctly in the illustration above. Every trace of the woodwork has been allowed to disappear since 1874. In the same excavations of 1874-75 the sockets were discovered to which windlasses, capstans, or lifts (peymata) were fixed, by which the cages of wild animals were i-aised to the level of the trapdoors of the arena. Lifts, cages, and trapdoors are represented bj- Parker in plate xvi. of his work on the Coliseum. AVe must not suppose that the animals could be kept for any length of time in the dark and stuffy dens below the arena or the podium. They were kept in readiness in the west porticoes of the C'laudium and brought up in rolling cages as they were wanted. From this point of view, that is, from the point of view of exhibi- tion of gladiatorial or hunting shows, the Coliseum appears to us as the capital of a kingdom of its own, as the centre of a vast administration, with branch offices in Syi'ia, in Africa, on the Red Sea, and head offices in Rome itself, occupying large tracts of the second, thii'd, fifth, and sixth regions. Literature. — .Justus Lipsius, De amphitheatro (in Graevii Thesaur., vol. ix. p. 1292, chs. xi.-xv.). — Giuseppe Suarez, Diatriba de foraminibiis lap'ulum in priscis iecUJicih. Rome, 1651. — Carlo Foiitaiia, Z' anfiteatni Jlavio descritto e delineatu. Aia, 172.5. — Scipioue Maffei, Dtyli (infiteatri. Verona, 1727. — Giovanni Marangoni, Delle memorie sacre e profane dell' unfit. Jiav. Rome, 1745. — Carlo Fea, Osservazioni suW arena e sul podio deW unfit, flar., Rome, 181.3; Ntiove osservazioni, Rome, 1814; and Xotizie degli scavi dell' anfit.fiur., Rome, 1813. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. i. p. 529. — Luigi Canina, Edifizii di Roma antica, vol. iii. p. 2-3; and vol. iv. pis. 164-177. — Hiibner, Iscrizioni esistenti sui sedili dei teutri ed anfiteatni (in Annal. Inst., 1856, p. 52, pi. 12). — Eflisio Tocco, Dell' anfit.fiur. e dei gladiatori (in Buonarroti, 1869 and 1870). — Fabio Gori, Le memorie storiche dell' anfit.fiur. Rome, 1874. — J. H. Parker, The Flavian Amphith. Oxford, London, 1870. — .Joachim Mar- quardt, Staatsvericaltunff, vol. in. p. 462. — Rodolfo Lanciani, fscrizioni dell' an/.fiav. (in Bull, com., 1880, p. 211, pis. xxi.-xxiii.). —Christian Huelsen, Bull', com., 1894, p. 312. XV. Connected with the venationes were the Vivarium, the Amphitheatrum Castrense, and the Claudium ; with the gladiato- rial shows, the Samiarium, Siioliarium. Armamentarium, Ludus ^lagnus, Ludus Dacicus, Ludus Matutinus ; with athletic sports, the Curia Athletaruni ; and lastly, with shows in general, the Castra Misenatium (and Ravennatium?). The Vivarium was a large rectangle built on the type of a Ro- man camp, on the south side of the Castra Prsetoria. (See Forma 384 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Urbis, pi. xi.) It was composed of an inclosui-e wall built of great blocks of stone like that of the barracks of the second legion, Parthica, at Albano ; and of a row of cells against it, where the menagerie was kept. A euripus or channel, with plenty of flush- ing water, ran in front of the inclosures. The barracks of the venatores and of the custodies vivarii, a special detachment of the Prpetorians to which the care of the establishment w^as intrusted, occupied probably the centre of the rectangle. The Vivariixm, separated from the Pr?etorian camp by a street starting from the Porta Chiusa of the walls of Aurelian, is men- tioned very often in medifeval documents, under the name of " Vivariolum," and its remains appear in plans and perspective views of Rome of the sixteenth century, as of an edifice of great importance. Its last traces disappeared in 1876. See Procopius, Goth., i. 22. — Corpus Inscr., vi. 130. — Bull. arch. com. 1876, p. 188. — Forma Urbis Romce, pi. xi. Fig. 14G. — Palladio's Diagrams of the Amphitheatrum Castrense. THE AMPHITHEATRUM CASTRENSE 385 The Amphitheatrum Castrexse, a small amphitheatre built at the extreme end of the Esquiline for the training of the vena- tores, and also for the taming and training of animals destined to perform special games in the arena. Its construction has been attributed to Tiberius, like that of the Praetorian camp, but con- sidering that at the time of that Emperor there was no state amphitheatre in Rome — that of Statilius Taurus being private property — I am inclined to refer it to a much later period, pos- sibly to the times of Severus and Caracalla. Aurelian and Hono- rius included part of the edifice in their line of walls. In the sixteenth century Palladio was able to measure it in its entirety, as shown by the drawing in the possession of the Duke of Devon- shire, which is here reproduced for the first time. (Fig. 146.) Since Palladio's time the amphitheatre has suffered great dam- age. The upper floor has disappeared, and so have the mseniana and the steps which surrounded the arena. The arena has been excavated at least six times. Ficoroni (Roma antica, p. 121) speaks of discoveries made towards 1740 by the prior of Santa Croce, concerning the crj-pts, which were full of " ossa di grossi animali." Other excavations made in 1828 led to no results. The present remains of the amphitheatre are seen to the best advantage from the Sti-ada delle Mura, between the Porta S. Gio- vamii and the Porta Maggiore. Literature. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. i. j). 399. — Adolf Becker, 7)e Mtiri.t, ])p. r2(), 121. — Kodnlfo Lanciani, / amientarti di Frontino, p. 217, n. 34, 35. The Clai'dium. — The Vivarium being one mile and a quarter distant from the Coliseum, the beasts destined to a special venatio were removed (I suppose by night) to a place much nearer to the show, viz., to the substructures of the Temple of Claudius by SS. Giovanni e Paolo, which communicated with those of the arena by means of an underground passage. This passage can still be seen ; it enters the amphitheatre by the fifth arch on the right of the west state entrance, and leads to the lifts and to the trapdoors described above. (See Fig. 140.) The Samiarium — a name otherwise unknown — is described by some as a temporary hosj^ital where the wounded gladiators were given first aid, and by others as the factory in which the weapons for gladiatorial fights were made or repaired. The Spoliarium corresponds to the " Morgue," to which the bodies of those who had fallen in the arena were removed. 386 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV The Armamentarium must be understood as the arsenal or armory where the bucklers (pannce) and the short crooked cut- lasses (siccb) of the Threces ; the shields (^scuta), crested helmets (galece cmta^cc), wadded breastplates (spongice), and greaves (oc?'e«;) of the Samnites ; the coats of mail of the Hoplomachi ; the nets (iaculd) and three-pointed spears {fuscince) of the Retiarii, were kept. The pedestal mentioned in " Corpus," n. 999, must have been found among the ruins of the Armamentarium. The site of these three buildings is only appi'oximately known. Regular academies, called Ludi Gladiatorii, or simply Ludi, were instituted for the training of prize-fighters, under the care of a kumta. The tiroiu's, or uudrilled novices, were instructed in the principles of tlieir art, and made to practice with heavy wooden swords called " rudes," while their bodies were brought into condition by regular exercise and special food {sagina). Many of these ludi were kept by private speculators, who sold or let out for hire the " paria gladiatorum " exhibited in country towns ; but the Roman ludi were a regular Imperial institution, man- aged by Imperial officers. There were four of them, the INIagiuis, the Gallicus, the Dacicus, and the JVIa- tutinus. The first is represented in fragment i. 3 of the marble plan ; its remains were excavated by Reinach in 1875, in the level stretch of ground at the corner of the Via Labicana and the Via delle Sette Sale. (See Forma Urbis, pi. xxx.) It contained an oval ring surrounded by porticoes and by rows of cells. The Ludi Gallicus and Dacicus were named after the nationality of the gladiators trained in them. The Matutinus is not considered by Preller as a school of gladiators, but as a place where the venationes w^ere pre- pared, because these were exhibited in the morning, whilst the gladiatorial shows took place at a later hour of the day. The Chronicle of Cassiodorus attributes to Domitian the institution of the Ludus Matutinus, whilst the Catalogue of Ekkardt makes him responsible for the institution of all four, as a necessary com- plement to the great amphitheatre which his father had begun and his brother had continued. Fig. 147. — Plan of the Ludus Magnus. AXXEXES TO THE AMPHITHEATRE 387 These establishments were under the management of a large staff of officers, like the M. Ulpius Callistus, pnvpositiis armamen- taria liidi magni (Corpus, n. 10,164); Tigris, cursor (n. 10,165); Nymphodotus, dispcnsator (n. 10,166) ; M. Calpurnius, medicus, etc., dii'ected by a governor or procuratur familim (jladiatorke Ccesaris iiidi magni, selected from the equestrian ranks. We hear also of a curator Spoliarii, of a medicus ludi Matutini chirurgus, of a medicus ludi (rallici, etc. The Summum Choragium, placed between the Castra Mise- natiuin and the Ludus INlagnus, was also an annex to the amphi- theatre, but nothing is known about its name, origin, and special appointment. Its staff of officers was even larger aiad of a higher standard than that of the ludi. (See Coi-pus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 297, 776, 8950, 10,083-10,087.) Canina thinks that it was a repository for the pegmata or machinery and scenery required for the vena- tiones. The Castka Misenath'm were the barracks of the marines fi-om the fleet of INIisenum, called to Rome for the manoeuvring of the velarium or awning of the amphitheatre. The site of these buildings, between the Baths of Trajan and the Summum Chora- gium, was discovered on March 9, 1812. In 1888, however, the whole line of cells forming the south side of the quadrangle was brought to light when the drain of the Via Labicana was opened. (See Forma Urbis, pi. xxx. ; Corpus, n. 1091 ; Kaibel, Inscr. gr. Ital., 9.56.) LiTKRATL'RE.— Corpus Imcr., vol. vi. 6, 6-31, 6-32, 1063, 10H4, 1091. — AVilhclni Henzen, Ann. Inst., 1862, p. 64 ; and Atti Accad. pontif. arch., vol. xii. p. 73-157. — Theodor Mommsen, Hermes, v. 303. — Heinrich .Jordan, Tipoijr., ii. 116 ; and Forma, pi. i. n. 5. — .Joachim Marquardt, Staatsoerwaltung, vol. i. p. 538. — Gaetano Marini, Inscr. albane, c. 12. — Ridolfino Venuti, Alar- morn nJhana. Rome, 1756. — Domenico Scutillo, De. collcf/io r/ladiator. Rome, 1756. — Luigi Caniua, Indie. Topogr., p. 112. The Curia Athletarum or HT2TIKH 2TNOA02 was discovered in February, 1.569, and again in 1660-1661 and 171:3-1716, in the garden of S. Pietro in Yincoli, on the northeast side of the Baths of Trajan, where remains of their meeting-hall can still be seen (Villa Ilickson Field). These remains, as well as the athletic brotherhood who had here their headquarters, have been illus- trated by — Pirro Ligorio, Cod. torin., xv. 95. — Ottavio Falconieri, Inscr. athl. Romm reperta. Rome, 1668. — Kaihel, Inscr. gr. Sicil. et Ital., n. 1102-1110.— Corpus Inscr. Lnt., 10,1-53, 10,154, 10,161. — SL'rafino Ricci, La curia Athle- tarum (in Bull. arch, com., 1891, p. 185, pi. vii.). 388 URBS SACRA REGWNUM XIV THE VIMINAL, THE CESPIAN, THE SUBURA, AND THE VICUS PATRICH. Regio IV. XVI. The fourth region of Augustus, named Sacra Via from the historical street wliich formed its southwestern boundary, extended over the Viminal and the Cespian as far as the present railway station. The " Notitia " and the " Curiosum " give the fourth region a circumference of 13,000 feet (3861 metres), and say it con- tained 8 parishes, 2757 tenement-houses, 88 palaces, 65 baths, 81 fountains, and 15 bakeries. Its principal edifices, the temples of Venus and Rome, of the Sacra Urbs, of Romulus, of Antoninus and Faustina, the basilicse Emilia and Constantiniana, the Colos- sus of Nero, and the Forum Transitorium have been described al- ready. There are no important remains visible in the other parts of the region, nor excavations of any kind ; but a walk through the Argiletum (Via della Madonna de' Monti), the Subura (Via Leonina), the Clivus Suburanus (Via di S. Lucia in Silice), and the Vicus Patricii (Via Urbana) cannot fail to attract the student on account of its classic associations, and also of the great discoveries which have taken place in the adjoining districts. XVII. The Subura. — The Argiletum was the great book- market, the Paternoster Row of ancient Rome. Here the librarii and the andquarii (booksellers and copyists) kept their well-fur- nished shops, so often mentioned by Martial and Horace. Adver- tisements giving the title and price of literary novelties wei-e hung on either side of the entrance door. Each of the leading book- sellers secured the privilege of the works of a leading author ; the Sosii brothers were the agents for Horace, Atrectus and Secundus the publishers of Martial, Tryphon of Quintilian, and Dorus of Seneca. (See Ancient Rome, p. 183.) The Subura is generally considered to have been the noisiest, the most vvdgar and licentious street of the city. Martial calls it " clamosa," and Juvenal says he preferred living in the island of Procida rather than in such a rowdy neighborhood, and yet his- torical personages did not disdain to live in it, Julius Csesar (Sueton., 46) and L. Arruntius Stella (Martial, xii. 3) being among them. The long street was divided into sections. First came the Fauces Suburse, called also the Prima Subura. Then we hear of THE SUBURA 389 a Subui-a Maior • (the rendezvous of pickpockets, who would assemble at the close of the day in its dark alleys to dispose of the produce of their thefts), which seems to call for a Subura Minor. There was also a tract called ad turrbn Mamiliam. We hear of this place iu connection with the contest between the Suburanenses and the Sacravienses for the possession of the head of the horse which was slain in honor of Mars on October 15, at a place called " ad Ciconias nixas " near the Trigarium. If the bloody trophy remained in the hands of the Sacravienses it was to be affixed to the walls of the Regia; if the Suburanenses gained the contest, it was to be affixed to the Turris Mam ilia. The steep gradient at the top of the valley, now called Salita di S. Lucia in Silice, is described by Martial as a bad bit of road, with the pavement always wet and slippery, and crowds of beasts of burden dragging heavy loads towards the uplands of the Esquiline. alta Suburani vincenda est semita clivi et numquam sicco sordida saxa gradu : vixque datur longas mulorum rumpere mandras, quisque trahi muho marmora fune vides. (V. 22. See x. 19.) Ancient epitaphs speak of a Q. Gavius, crepidarius de Subura (shoemaker) ; of a Crescentio, ferrarius de Subura (ironmonger) ; of a L. Marius, lanarius de Subura (merchant of woolen goods) ; and of a M. Livius, prajco (public crier). The name has survived in the present " piazzetta della Suburra," and in the churches of S. Agata, S. Barbara, S. Bartolomeo, and S. Salvatore. LiTEKATUKE. — Heinrich Jordan, Forma Urhia, pi. ii. 8. — Corpus Tnscr., vol. vi. n. 1953(1956), 9284, 9399,9491, d52G. — Bull. arch, com., 1883, p. 398. — Fioravante Martinelli, Dlacon. S. Af/aihce. Kome, Wn.— Corpus Inscr., voluminis i. editio altera, 1893, p. 332. — Emiliano Sarti, Archivio Societa storia patria, vol. ix. p. 20. Near the top of the ascent, the Clivus Suburanus was crossed by the Vicus Sobrius. The compital shrine which stood at the junc- tion of the two streets was discovered in April, 1888 (corner of Via di S. Martino and Via dei Quattro Cantoni), and I have described and illustrated it in " Pagan and Christian Rome," p. 34. The inscription on the face of the altar, still left standing, says " the Emperor Augustus dedicated this shrine (and statue) to Mercury, in the year of the city 744, from money received as a new year's gift, while absent from Rome." The statue was nicknamed Mercurius Sobrius, " Mercury the teetotaler." 1 " Donatus qui manet in Sebura (m)aiore ad nimfa(s)." Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 9526. See also the Schol. Crucq. ad Horace, Sat., i. 6, 116. 390 UEBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV XVIII. The Vicis Patricii. — The Subura bifurcated at the foot of the ascent. The branch on the left ran up the valley between the Viminal and the Cespian, taking the name of Vicus Patricii in the lower tract, and of Ciivus Patricius in the upper, between our piazza dell' Esquilino and the railway station. The street, already famous in the classic age, continued to enjoy the same privilege in Christian times, on account of the house of Pudens, in which the first Roman converts had met for prayers. Pudentiana, Praxedes, and Timotheus, daughters and son of Pudens, obtained from Pius I. the privilege of transforming their house into a regu- lar parish assembly (Titulus Pudentis, afterwards Ecclesia Puden- tiana). Some pieces of household furniture which had been used Pig. 148. — Remains of Public Baths near S. Pudeuziana. by the " prince of the apostles " were preserved in it. The " Liber Pontificalis " says that the church occupied part of the batlis of Novatus, but the remains of ancient walls which can still be seen under the present church can hardly be attributed to Roman thermae : they pertain to a building of a more modest nature and dimensions. (See Parker's " plan of the subterranean chambers of the palace of the Pudens family Csic)," and Sheet xvii. of my Forma Urbis.) At the same time there are two documents prov- ing the existence of thermaj in this very district of the Vicus Patricii : the inscription quoted by De Rossi (Bull, crist., 1867, p. .5.5) MAXIMVS HAS OLIM THERMflS . . . DIVIXAE MENTIS DVCTV CVM . . . and a fragmentary plan by Sallustio Peruzzi (Uffizi, n. 654), of which the above is a reproduction. Sallustio calls these remains " balneum apud S. Pudentianam," THE VIC US PATRICII 391 a bath near S. Pudentiaua, and says that the street or [)atli leading in the sixteenth century to tlie baths of Diocletian passed through them. This noble hall or caldarium, with its semicii'cular recesses, and niches for statues, and strong walls, may well have formed part of the baths of Timotheus or Novatus mentioned in church documents. The connection of this group of buildings with the apostolate of SS. Peter and Paul made it very popular from the beginning. Pope Siricius (384-397), his acolytes Leopardus, Maximus, and Ilicius, and Valerius Messalla, prefect of the city (396-403), contributed to transform the old meeting-place into a handsome church, and to make the Vicus Patricii one of the best streets of the city of the decadence. An inscription discovered in 1.S.50 in tlie Villa Caserta, Via Mervdana, says, " Ilicius, priest, has built at his expense the arcade [represented in the mosaic of the apse of the chiu'ch, and still existing half buried under the houses to the left of the Via del Bambiu Gesu] which you see connecting the Memoria Sancti Martyris Hippolyti with the Ecclesia Puden- tiaua." The memoria of S. Ilippolytus is now represented by the church of S. Lorenzo in Fonte ; ' the arcade of Ilicius was therefore 4()() metres long, such being the distance between the two edifices at each end. The work of the worthy priest was not remarkable for its solidity ; because a few years later another devout man, a patrician, an ex primicerius notariorum Sacri Palatii, was compelled to rebuild it from the foundations : detersis sqvaloribvs porticvm A fvndament/s renovavit. (See Corpus Inscr., y. 1790.) It had prol)ably been damaged by the Goths of Alaric in Angust, 410. Another inscription (ibid., 1775) speaks of other work of embellish- ment done by Valerius Messalla, prefect of the city, ad splendorem PVBLICVM IN VICO PATRICIO. LiTKRATUEE. — Heiiirich Jordan, Forma Urhls, iil. ii. ii. !J. — Gio. Battista (le Rossi, Bull, crist., 1867, p. 43, s(j. ; and Momlri (telle chieKC dl Roma, fasc. xiii. xiv. — Rodolfo Laiiciani, Pagan' and Christian Rome, p. 112. — Gaspare Celio, Memoria dei nomi der/U arlefici, p. 81. — Hartmann Grisar, Un affresco sotto la chiesa di S. Pudenziana (in Civiltii cattolica, 1896, vol. i. p. 7-3.'J). — Bull. arch, com., 1891, p. 305, pis. xii. xiii. flg. 1; and p. 311, pis. xii. xiii. tig. 2. XIX. The characteristic of the fourth region was the predomi- nance of private dwellings over public buildings. It was an essen- tially popular quarter, the reverse of the eighth and ninth regions, in which we can hardly find room for insula? and domus. The excavations which have taken place on the Viminal and Cespian 1 The well which gives the name to the church is still accessible. The place deserves a visit. 392 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV and in the intermediate valley since the revival of classical studies have always yielded a rich harvest in objects and works of art pertaining to private nninsions, the remains of which appear to RUINS ON THE C ESP I AN 393 be in wonderful preservation. The history of these excavations has not yet been written, and many of the finds are yet unknown to students. Here is one instance. In 1684 a new street was opened along the north slope of the Caspian, halfway between the Via Urbana, which runs at the bottom of the valley, and the Via Sforza- Paolina, which runs on the edge of the plateau. The street, called Via Graziosa, from the name of Pietro Graziosi, a rich local landowner, was cut right across a group of old Roman houses, beautifully preserved and full of objects of interest. The pre- ceding unpublished sketch, made by Pietro Sante Bartoli at the time of the discovery, shows the state of the remains as they appeared when the street was cut. I have found the original on p. (J5 of Bartoli's volume " donne an Cabinet des Estampes du Koi par M. le Comte de Caylus en 1764," which now bears the mark G, d, 2, n. 3871 ^ of the Bibliotheque nationale. The drawing is explained by the following notes : — (I) Crypt in which S. Lawrence was imprisoned. (II) Spring with the waters of which S. Ilippolytus was baptized. Tlie crypt could be reached in two ways, by a spiral staircase (III) and by an inclined corridor (IV) entered by a heavy travertine gate (XV). (The crypt, the well, and the corridor are still to be seen under the church of S. Lorenzo in Fonte.) (VII) Hall with walls and vaulted ceiling covered with mosaic, shells, and enamel. (VIII) Aqueduct. (IX) A colonnade of the Doric order with shafts of travertine coated with stucco. (X) Room with walls of reticulated work. All these remains built on virgin soil (marked V) were covered by a bed of rubbish (marked XI) which had rolled down the slope of the Cespian. No. XIII marks the cut- ting of the Via Graziosa, and No. XII the new houses in course of construction when Bartoli made his sketch. He speaks of the same excavations in his " Memorie," edited by Carlo Fea. •' When a new street was opened (on the slope of the Cespian) opposite S. Lorenzo in Panisperna, remains of ancient edifices were found, and an exquisite fragment of a Venus, which was restored by Ercole Ferrata for Queen Christine of Sweden. Duke Livio Odescalchi bought it with the rest of the queen's marbles, which were ultimately removed to the museum of S. Ildefonso, Spain. There was also a Baccliic flute of Corinthian brass, three palms long, and several other objects, which, for reasons known to me, I must 1 I have described the contents of this volume, one of the most precious in the Cabinet des Estampes, Paris, in the Bull, com., 1895, p. 166. 394 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV abstain from mentioning (Mem. 17). ... A mosaic pavement has been laid bare in the foundations of the house of Signor Focavena, with birds and arabesques in bright colors " (Mem. 26). On Jan- uary 8, 1613, the lararium or chapel of the house of L. Crepereius Rogatus was discovered at the foot of the Salita di S. Maria Mag- giore ; ^ but the most important find by far is that of November, 1848, when the set of frescoes with landscapes and scenes from the Odyssey were discovered in repairing the foundations of the Monastery delle Turchine at the corner of the Via Sforza. Re- productions of the frescoes, which are now pi-eserved in the room of the Nozze Aldobrandine in the Vatican library, have been given by — Noel des Vergers, Bull. Inst., 1849, p. 17. — Heinrich Brunn, Ibid., p. 129. — Matranga, La citta di Lamo stabilita in Terracina. Rome, 1852. — Woer- mann, Die antiken Odysseelandschaften vom esquilinschcn Hiigd. Munich, 1876. — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. ii. p. 175. The Via Graziosa exists no more. The great Via Cavour runs in its place at a higher level. The building of the Via Cavour, therefore, gave no opportunity of fresh discoveries ; and in fact, if anything lies still at the level of the ancient city it may be truly said to be beyond the reach of man. THE GREAT PARKS ON THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE CITY. Regions V, VI, and VII. XX. No modern capital of Europe can be compared with ancient Rome for the number and extent of public parks and gardens. While the nine larger parks of London, with their aggregate surface of 2,000 acres, represent a thirty-ninth part of the city area, those of ancient Rome, extending over the chain of hills for two miles at least, on either side of the Tiber, represent an eighth part. If such open spaces act as lungs to a city, no city ever breathed more freely than Rome. The accompanying sketch- map (Fig. 150) may help the student to locate the various horli mention of which occur in classics or in inscriptions. The city was not only surrounded and inclosed by them, but intersected in every direction. Those on the eastern chain of hills followed each other (from south to north, as ancient maps are oriented) in this order : — 1 Bull. arch, com., 1891, pp. 305, 341. GARDENS OF VNKNOWN SITE. mciANi. tPAPHRODITIAMI. - SCATONIANI SERVIUANl , LIBITINAE. P.'S. PRA.ENESTINA ANCIENT ROME THE VARIAN GARDENS 395 Regio V. Esquiline. Horti Vcariani. ,, ,, )i Liciniani. J, ,, ,, Torquatiani, Pallautiani, Epaphrodotiaui. ,^ ,, ,, Tauriani, Calyclauii, Vettiaiii. J, ,, ,, Laiuiani, Maiaui. J, ,, „ M;\;ceuatiani. ,, ,) )) Lolliani. Regio VI. Alta Semita. ,, Sallustiani. Regio VII. Via Lata. ,, Luculliani. ,, )) II Aciliani. These gardens did not make one continuous stretch of verdure : they were intersected by streets like the SaUiria Vetus, the Alta Semita, the Vicus Portpe Collinaj, the Vicus Porta? Viminalis, the vise Tiburtina, PrsBnestina, Labicana, etc., by groups of houses and palaces, and by a few public buildings of large area. I shall describe first the parks, then a few of tliese prominent buildings set as they were in a frame of green. ^ XXI. HouTi Variaxi. — The extreme southeast corner of the city, between the line of the Claudian aqueduct and the Aniphi- theatrum Castrense, seems to have been the property of the Varian family from an early period, and to have been transformed into a park by Sextus Varius Marcelliis, father of the Emperor Helio- gabalus (Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus). Heliogabalus enlarged and improved the gardens, which became part of the Imperial domain. Here he retired to conspire against the life of his cousin, Severus Alexander, and here he was found, starting a chariot race, by the praetorians eager to take a revenge for the attemjited assassination of tlie cherished young prince. The gardens, officially named liorti Spei veterix, from the old Temple of Hope whicli stood close by the Porta Maggiore, were cut in two by Aurelian's walls. AVe do not know whether the part extra muros was abandoned; probably it was not, and the communication across the line of tlie walls may have been kept open by means of posterns. The section intra muros continued to be an Imperial garden and residence, and attained great notoriety at the time of Helena and Constantine. Three of the Varian edifices deserve notice : the Circus, the Palace, and the Thermae. The approximate situation of the Circus in respect to the neigh- 1 On Roman gardens in general consult Wiistermann, Ueber die Kunst- gdrtnerel bei die alten Riimern. Gotha, 1846. — Woermann, Ueber landsckaft- lichen Natursinn der Griechen u. Romer. Municli, 1871. — Ancient Rome, p. 271. 396 UJiBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV boring monuments is shown in this fragment of a perspective plan of the sixteenth century, and also in Bufalini's map of 1551. When Antonio da Sangallo the younger examined the ruins in the second quarter of the sixteenth century, the obelisk was still lying broken in three pieces (along the spina ?) in the vineyard of a Messer Jeronimo Milanese, which was then being excavated by a stone-cutter named Rugieri. Sangallo also saw and designed (UfRzi, n. 900) a graceful nympha^um not unlike that still exist- Fig. 151. — Ligorio's Perspective View of the Horti Variani. (From sheet iv. of the Andqiiiv Urbis Imago. Rome, 1551.) ing in the gardens of Sallust. The remains of the Circus were very conspicuous in those days, and bore the name of " Ciercho, Cerchio, Circo Vetere," and also of " lo Girolo." The obelisk was dug out in 1570, and the brothers Curzio and IMarcello Saccoccia, who owned the ground, put up a tablet commemorating its dis- covery, which is still to be seen in one of the arches of the Acqua Felice. The obelisk was removed in the following century to the Barberini garden, Via delle quattro Fontane, where Bernini wanted to raise it in front of the palace. President de Brosses and five other gentlemen from Burgundy asked leave from Pope THE VARIAN GARDENS 397 Clement XII. to erect it at their expense in front of S. Luigi de' Francesi. The project hickily failed, bat the odyssey of the pillar did not end then. Princess Cornelia Barberini presented it to Clement XIV., who caused it to be removed to the Giardino della Pigna in the Vatican. Pius VI. planned to place it, first, on the pedestal of the column of Antoninus Pius in the same gardens, and again on the top of the tower of the Porta Pia. Valadier and Pius VII. erected it at last in the central avenue of the passeggiata del Pincio. It is a work of Hadrian's time, cut in memory of his favorite Antinous. Literature. — Andrea Fulvio, Antiqq., iv. — Andrea Palladio, Antichita, ed. 1554, p. 9. — Pirro Ligorio, Circhi, p. 9. — Gio. Battista Cipriani, Ohelischl^ p. 21. — Fea Biancoui, Circhi, ch. ii. p. ix. — Winckelmaun, Storia delle arti, vol. i. p. 96, n. C. — Antonio Nibby, Roma anticn, vol. i. p. 607. — Christian Huelsen, Mittheil., 1896, p. 122. The Palace, inside the walls, is known in documents of a later age as the Palatium Sessorianum. The origin of the name is obscure,^ but the fact that it was an Imperial residence of the third and part of the fourth century is vmdoubted. Helena, mother of Constantine, preferred it to the Palace of the Caesars, and the place is full of associations of her. Here were found the pedestals of statues raised to her by Julius Maximianus, a digni- tary of the Constantinian court ; and by Flavius Pistus, keeper of the \>ri\y purse (Corpus, n. 1134:, 1185) ; and here also, in the vine- yard of Girolamo INIuziano the painter (f 1550), was found a bust considered to represent her likeness. I confine myself strictly to archaeological evidence : but Church documents give fuller details about lier woi'ks, and about the transformation of the great hall of the palace into a Christian place of worship under the title of Hierusalem. This hall resembled very closely in shape and dimensions the Templum Sacra- Urbis turned into a church by Felix IV., having the same line and number of arched windows under the roof, and the same wall decorations in "florentine" mosaic, composed of crusts of porphyry, serpentine, and other "pietre dure."^ Constantine left the hall as it was; he only closed the lower arches opening on the garden, and added an apse at the east end. The columns by which the hall was divided into nave and aisles are an addition of Gregory II. (715-731). The church remained in its old form until the beginning of the last century. I have found in the state archives a plan of the church 1 Adolf Becker, De miiris, p. 120; and Topofjrapkie, p. 556. ■•! Sano-allo tlie yonnger, Uffizi, n. 899. 398 URBS SACRA REG TON UM XIV and cloisters taken on May 15, 1716, by the architect Melchior Passalacqua, full of interesting details. Benedict XIV. in 1744, with the assistance of Passalacqvia and Gregorini, reduced the glorious monument to its present grotesque form, a work which Milizia justly condemns as "nefando." This was done at the expense of another hall of the palace, known in ordinary guide- books by the name of Tempio di Venere e Cupido. This beauti- ful hall, of which only the apse, standing in the garden north of the church, is left, was almost intact in the sixteenth century, with its columns of red granite, its portico and vestibule, etc. Benedict XIV. and his acolytes destroyed it for the sake of a few cartloads of bricks. No student should omit to visit the Vigna di S. Croce in Gerusalemme.^ The remains of the Claudian aqueduct which inclosed the Imperial gardens on the north, of the walls of Aiire- lian which run across them on the south side, of the " hall named Hieriisalem," and of the so-called Temple of Venus and Cupid, nuxke it one of the loveliest spots of Rome. The statue of Sallustia Barbia Orbiana, wife of Severus Alex- ander, who was himself cousin of Heliogabalus (now in the Cor- tile di Belvedere, Vatican Museum, No. 42), is said to have been found in these gardens as early as the time of Julius II. Ligorio mentions another statuette of Venus cut in rock crystal (?) ; and Ficoroni describes the works of art foun.d in 1741, when Benedict XrV. cut away a knoll called INlonte Cipollaro, which rose in front of the church. They include the Boy struggling with a (ioose, prol)ably after Boethos, now in the Capitoline Museum, room of the Faun, No. 16 ; a head of Caracalla ; a second resembling the Carneades of the same museum ; a third unknown ; and a column of bianco e nero. Marchese Campana tried the ground again in 18.55, but he found only a wine-cellar with rows of amphora? of white clay. The Therma? Helenianae and the reservoir which supplied them with water can be seen in what is now called the Vigna Conti (entered by the last gate on the left of the Via di S. Croce). I was able to give a careful plan of tliese therm;i? in sheets xxxi., xxxii. of the " Forma Urbis," from unpublished drawings by Palladio (Devonshire Collect.) and Antonio da Sangallo the younger (Ufhzi, 1439). The inscription, now in the Vatican Museum, sala della Croce greca (Corpus, vol. vi. n. 1136), says that "Helena the venerable, mother of Constantine, etc., etc., rebuilt the baths 1 Kin» at the first gate on the left of the church. 400 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV after a fire " — (thermas incendio destrvctas restitvit). This inscription was probably discovered in tlie excavations of Lelio Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, described by Bartoli (Mem. 12), in the course of wliich five " bellissime " statues v^^ere found in an under- ground room, with fragments and marbles of every description. It seems that after the fall of the Empire one or more rooms of these baths were adapted to Christian worship. Flaminio Vacca saw images of saints painted on their walls, and Cherubino Alberti adds that S. Helena was said to have been buried in one of them ; he also gives a sketch of the place. I have myself seen traces of painting in some extensive apartments which run deep under- ground in front of the present church. Literature. — Albert! Giovanni, Cod. san Sepolcro, f. 7. — Alberti Cheru- bino, ibid., vol. i. f. 37'. — Pirro Ligorio, Cod. vatic, 3439, f. 32. — Liber pon- lific, Duchesne, i. p. cxxvi. note C, and p. 196. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 781, 782, 2251, 2252. — Flaminio Vacca, ifem. 114 (in Fea's Miscell., vol. i. p. ci.). — Francesco Ficoroni, 3fem. 71; ibid., p. clii. — Ridolfino Venuti,i?o?»a antica, vol. i. p. 130. — Carlo Fea, ad Winckelmann, Storia delV arte, vol. iii. p. 44. — Henry Stevenson, Annnl. Inst., 1877, p. 371. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Itin. di Ein- siedlen, p. 58. — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. i. p. 84, n. 142 ; and p. 382, n. 518, XXII. HoRTi LiciNiANi, at the southern end of the Viale Principessa Margherita, between the church of S. Vibiana and the Porta JNIaggiore. The Licinian family must have possessed property on the Esqui- line from the time of the Republic. Cicero mentions certain atria Licinia outside the Esquiline gate, belonging to INI. Licinins Cras- sus. A columbarium of f reedmen of the same name was discovered at the time of Pope Barberini near the Church of S. Vibiana.^ The " Vita Gallieni " (c. 17) calls the gardens " horti nominis sui," that is to say, " Horti Liciniani," that Emperor being a Licinius himself. The " Vita " says that Gallienus was very fond of residing in such a delightful place, that he was followed there by the whole Court, and that every officer of state was admitted to the Imperial table and baths. "When one of these officers, named Aurelius Victor, determined to erect a standing testimonial of his devotion to Gallienus and to his Empress Salonina, he chose for its site the high street leading to the gardens, and changed the old Esquiline gate of Servius into a travertine arch inscribed with the name of his masters (see Corpus, n. 1106). Ecclesiastical 1 Raffaele Fabretti, Inscr. domest., pp. 13, 373. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 330. — Corpus Inscr., n. 9154. THE LICINIAN GARDENS 401 documents place the church of S. Yibiaua near the " Palatium Licinianum," \\z., near the decagonal nymph?euni of the gardens, the so-called Minerva Medica of the loresent day. The nymphajum, the first ruins to strike the eye of the stranger on his entering the walls of the Eternal City,i and the most conspicuous landmark of this district, were called Galluce, Galluccie, Caluce in the Middle Ages, and have been known as the Basilica Caii et Lucii since 1527. The name of Minerva Medica given to the ruins towards the beginning of the seventeenth ceutui-y by Nardini and others is doubly wrong, because it belongs to a street and to a street-shrine half a mile distant (discovered in 1887 in the Via Curva, west of the Merulana), and because it is not true that the statue of the goddess (No. 114 Braccio Xuovo), with a serpent at her feet, was found among these ruins. The seicento archpeologists supposed the harmless creature — the protector of olive gardens so dear to Minerva — to be the serpent of ^•Esculapius, and therefore to allude to Minerva's medical science. At all events the beautiful statue was discovered not on the Esquiline but near the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, among the ruins of the temple raised to her by Pompey the Great. Literature. — P. Sante Bartoli, Mem. 112 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. ccliv.). — Emil Braun, Ruins and Museums, p. 15.3, n. 14. — GaUeria Giusti- niana, vol. i. p. .3. — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. i. p. 31, n. 51. The nymphaeum was once covered with mosaics and slabs of porphjTy, and its dome incrusted with shells and enamel. The '• vignettes " of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries show it in a much better state of preservation. It has nine semicircular re- cesses and one door on the ground floor, and ten windows above. Tlae greater part of the dome fell in 1828, and the rest was much shattered by a thunderbolt in the following year. It was first ex- cavated, as far as we know, by ]Messer Cosmo Jacomelli " medico," at the time of Julius III. (1550-1555). The produce of the exca- vations is described by Ligorio, and his statements are substantially corroborated by Flaminio A'acca. Numbers of statues were dis- covered lying in pieces before their respective niches ; they were thought to represent Pomona (in black marble with heads and hands of bronze), ^sculapius, Adonis, Venus, Hercules, Antinous, and several Fauns. Ligorio adds to the list a " ^linerva with her dragon," and says that the Minerva, the Venus, the yEsculapius 1 The nymphannn stands close to the Tre nrcki, by which all the railway lines enter the city. 402 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV were given to Pope Julius III, who was then collecting marbles for his Villa Giulia outside the Porta del Popolo ; and as the Pope was in need of a naked statue to pair with another already in his possession, he caused the God of Medicine to be deprived of his mantle and condemned to a state of nudity. Cosmo Jacomelli also found four columns of verde antico and ten fluted spiral Fig. 153. — Statue of a Komaii M;i!,'i-ti,it.' d ihc I'uuitli i.'eutuii giving the Signal for a Cliariot Kace. THE LICINIAN GARDENS 403 columns of giallo. One of the Fauns, restored by Flaminio Vacca, was purchased by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. In another por- tion of the gardens, owned by Francesco d' Aspra, treasiu'sr to Julius III., many other statues were found, as well as bronze busts of Emperors ; medals, marbles, etc., removed likewise to the Villa Giulia. It is no w'onder that, after so many finds, our ow'u exca- vations in 1875-78 shoiUd have led to no results. The only objects recovered were the bust of Manlia Scantilla, wife of the Emperor Didius Julianus, now in the Palazzo dei Consei'vatori, Rotunda Xo. 44, some fanciful capitals and columns w-ith Bacchic reliefs, and two statues of Roman magistrates of the fourth century (the two Symmachi ?) in the act of giving the signal to start the races in the circus by throwing into the arena a piece of cloth (mappa). One of these is here represented (Fig. 153). There was also a bas-relief representing the " Foi'ge of Vulcan." (See Bull, com., 1874, p. 131; 1878, pp. 142, 199 ; 1879, p. 240; 1883, p. 17). RESENT 1-EVE1_ Of GROVMD Fig. 1 j4. — Columbaria discovered in li«??- cull or pits, into which men and beasts, bodies and carcasses, and all kinds of city refuse were thrown in a horrid confusion. About seventy-five puticuli were discovered and explored in the cutting of the Via Napoleone III., some containing a uniform mass of black, viscid, pestilent, vmctuous matter, whilst in others the bones could in a measure be singled out and identified. The neighbor- hood of this field of death was set apart for the daily refuse of the city. The suppression of this hotbed of pestilence, with the sanitary reform of public cemeteries, took place under Augustus at the suggestion of his prime minister C. Cilnius Maecenas. The whole district, alongside the Agger of Servius Tullius, was buried under a mass of earth six to eight metres high, and gardens were laid out on the newly-made ground, which became the world-famous Horti Msecenatiani. The event was sung by Iloi'ace (Sat. i. 8, 14) : — "Nunc licet Esquiliis habitare saluhrihus, atque Aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes Albis informem spectabant ossibus agrum." The gardens contained a palace and a tower or " belvedere," which Horace describes as reaching the clouds: " molem propinquam nubilnis." Nero is accused by Suetonius of having watched from this lofty observatory the progress of the flames in the fire of July, 64, while singing the capture and burning of Troy in a theatrical robe ; but the fact is contradicted by Tacitus. No further mention occurs of the gardens in classics. In the Middle Ages they took the name of Massa luliana, which has survived to our own times in the church and convent of S. Giuliano.^ There are two groups of remains within the area of the horti : one in the Piazza Fanti, in the grounds of the Aquarium, consisting of a few rooms with mosaic pavements ; one at the corner of the vie Merulana and Leopardi, which deserves a visit. It is a noble hall built of reticulated work, half underground, with six niches on each of the side walls, and seven steps in the curve of the apse. The following cut (Fig. 158) shows the hall in the state in which it was found in March, 1874. The apse and the niches were covered with exquisite landscapes, in the style of those of Livia's villa at Prima Porta. These have since all faded away except a few bits under the shelter of the niches. Visconti gave the hall 1 Louis Duchesne, Liber pontif., vol. ii. p. 44, n. 84. — De Rossi, Bull, crist., 1871, p. 28. THE GARDENS OF M^CENAS 411 the name of auditorium or " sala de recitazioni," assuming that it could accommodate 334 spectators ; others believe it to have been a conservatory for rare and delicate plants. The hall is on view every Thursday, and permits are delivered at the Ufficio della Commissione Archeologica Municipale, Aracoeli, Capitol. The catalogue of the works of art discovered at various times in the gardens of Maecenas is vei-y copious. Hermae or busts of Fig. 158. — The Conservatory of the Uardi-ns ol M;icenas eminent men come in the first place. Vacca calls them " portraits of philosophers . . . one of which is of Socrates." One of Homer was found in 1704 between S. Antonio and S. Vito, and a replica in the Via Merulana. A portrait statue of Euripides with the name of his tragedies engraved on a tablet came to light in the same district. Between 1872 and 1878 twelve mo^e heads were found, and removed to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, together with a superb figure of a mastiff in verde ranocchia, a semi-colossal group of Herciiles and (one of) the horses ]>\\t together out of 137 pieces, a replica of the so-called " genius of the Vatican," a figure of Marsyas of pavonazzetto, a statue of Silenus, an exquisite head of an Amazon, several cai'yatides, and marble fountains of various shapes, one of which is here reproduced. This graceful object is 412 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV signed by nONTlOS, an Athenian artist, and presents the form of a drinking-horn or rhytou placed on a group of lotus leaves. The mouth of the rhyton may have been used as a flower-pot, while the water fell from the mouth of the winged monster. All these objects are exhibited in the octagonal hall and gallery of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The epigram of Kallimachos painted ^"^^^S^^j,- Fig. 159. - The Fountain of Pontics the Athenian, discovered in the Gardens of Maecenas. on the walls of the greenhouse, illustrated by Visconti and Dressel, is preserved in the Museo Municipale al Celio, Hall No. II. LiTEKATUKE. — Aiitoiiio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 339. — Carlo Liido- vico Visconti, in Bull, com., 1874, p. 137, pis. xi.-xviii. — August Mau, Bull. Inst., 1875, p. 89; and Ann. Inst.f. 1880, p. 137, note. — Heinrich Dressel, RirJista di filologia, anno 111, April-June. — Eidolfino Venuti, Cod. vatic, 9024, f. 232. — Flaminio Vacca, Mem. 39 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. Ixxii). — Francesco Ficoroni, Vestir/ie di Roma antica, vol. i. p. 10. — Winckelmann, Storia delle arti, vol. ii. p. 63; and Mem,. 2 (in Fea's MiscelL, vol.i. p. clxxxiii). XXVI. HoiiTi LoLLiANi. — In building the foundations of the " Istituto ]\Iassimi," at the corner of the Via Princiise Umberto and the Piazza di Termini, some terminal stones were found in- scribed with the words, " These stones mark the boundaiy line of the gardens of Lollia [Horti Lolliani], which are now the property of the Emperor Claudius." Lollia Paulina was made an Empress THE GARDENS OF SALLUST 413 by Caligula in a. d. 37, in spite of the protests of her legal hus- band, Menimius Regulus ; but Caligula soon grew tired of the al- liance and Lollia was banished from the Imperial house. Eleven years later Claudius, being in quest of a wife after the death of Messalina, hesitated for a while between the two professional beauties of the age, Lollia and Agri[>pina. Agrippina won the day, and her tirst act was to obtain the banishment of her rival and the confiscation of her property. The Horti Lolliani thus became part of tlie great Imperial park on the Esquiline. LiTEKATURE. — Raifaele Garnicci, in Civilta Cattclica, serie xii. vol. iv. fasc. 800, p. 205. — Ancient Home, p. lOi. — Xotizie Scavi, 1883, p. 339.— Cor- pus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 31,284. XXATI. HoRTi Sallustiani — originally laid out by the his- torian Sallust with the wealth acquired during his governorship of Numidia. After his death they passed into the hands of Q. Sallustius Crispus, to become crown property at the time of Tiberius. They were a favorite residence of many Emperors, who enlarged the domain with subsequent acquisitions, embellished it with the costliest works of art, and supplied it lilierally witli water. There were several reservoirs for the storage aiul distribution of the water over the grounds : one of them, two hundred metres long, runs parallel with the Via Venti Settembre under the Hotel Royal and the houses facing the Ministero delle Finanze ; another can still be seen in the riding-grounds of the king's corazzieri, Vicolo di S. Nicola da Tolentino ; a third was discovered in 1888 right under the Casino dell' Aurora. The water-pipes bear the names of Claudius, Trajan, Severus Alexander, and of one of the Valentinians. Among the historical events connected with Sallust's gardens are the attack made on them by Antony, one of the generals of Vespasian, in the campaign against the Vitellians in a. d. 70 ; the long residence of Vespasian, who ordered the gates of the park and of the palace to be kept open to every one and removed the sentinels from them ; the death of Xerva in his seventy-second year, which took place a. d. 99 ; the long residence in them of Aurelian, who built a colonnade called port ic us Milliariensis, be- caiise it was 1000 feet (297 metres) long. Under the shelter of it he would fatigue himself and his horses by constant riding, al- though already advanced in years. A curiosity was shown in the crypts of the palace : the bodies of two giants named Possion and Secundilla. each 10 feet 3 inches long (3.04 metres). Palace and 414 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV gardens were burnt down and devastated by Alaric on August 10, 410. The principal ornament of the gardens was the Temple of Venus Erycina, afterwards named Sallustiana, or else " Venus hortorum Sallustianorum." Classics described it as standing at the head of the valley between the Pincian and the Quirinal, out- side the Porta Collina. Its construction had been promised by the consul L. Porcius while engaged in the Ligurian war of 184 B. c, and its dedication had taken place two years later. Fig. ICO. - Part of the Marble Throne of the Veuus Sallustiana, now in the Ludovisi Museum. The temple was discovered in the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury in the vineyard then belonging to Gabriel Vacca, father of Flaminio, who describes it as round peripteral, with the peristyle of fluted columns of giallo antico, and with four pairs of columns of alabaster at the four entrances. The discovery aroused the interest of antiquaries. Pirro Ligorio sketched and described it in "Cod. vatic," 3439, f. 28; "Cod. paris. (fonds St. Germain)," 86, etc. ; and Panvinio wrote a brief comment on Ligorio's de- signs. The temple contained a statue of the goddess seated on a throne ; the upper pai't of the throne here reproduced (Fig. 160) was discovered in the summer of 1887, near the junction of the vie Boncompagni and Abruzzi ; the head of the statue — a won- derful specimen of Greek archaic art — has formed part of the Boncompagni-Ludovisi Museum since its first institution (n. 33, Pioom III.). THE GARDENS OF SALLUST 415 Literature. — Carlo Ludovico Visconti, Bull, com., 1887, p. 267, pis. xv., xvi. — Eugt'iie Petersen, MittheiluiKjen, 18'J2, p. 32, pi. ii. — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. ii. p. 112, n. 882. — Kodolfo Lanciaui, Bull, com., 1888, p. .3. — Christian Huelsen, Mittheilungen, 1889, p. 270. The gardens contained also a group of buildings of Egyptian style, so much in fashion in Rome at the time of Hadrian. To these structures belong the four statues, formerly in the Capitoline Museum and now in the Vatican, two of which were discovered in 1714, two in 1720. They are clever Roman copies of Egyptian originals, and are cut in red granite and gray basalt. The obelisk now in front of the Trinitk de Monti formed part of the same group. Ligorio saw it lying in the vineyard of Messer Paulo Patella about 1550, and made a sketch of it in " Cod. vat.," 3439, f. 3. Sixtus V. had planned to raise it in front of the church of S. Maria degli Angeli, but he had not time to carry the project into execution. In 1733 one of the Ludovisi princesses made a present of it to Clement XII., who caused it to be removed to the Lateran, then in course of reconstruction. I have found in volume (t, 1, of tlie Queen's Library at Windsor a sketch by Carlo Eontana, showing the exact place in which the two jiieces of the obelisk were lying in 170G, when that architect was urging Pope Albani, Clement XL, to erect it in the niche of the Fountain of Trevi. It was ultimately set up at the top of the steps of the Trinita by Pius VI. in 1808. Its socle, of red granite, measuriiig 323 cubic feet, was discovered accidentally in 1843, near the gate of the villa. It now lies abandoned in the Piazza del Maccao, near the reservoir of the Acqua Marcia. Literature. — Bottari, Museo Capitol., vol. iii. ii. 76, 77. — Braschi, De tribus statuis, i. 5. — Gio. Battista Cipriani, De[/li Obelisclri, p. 19. — Eniiliano Sarti, Archivio Societa storia jmtria, vol. ix. p. 436. The only remains now visible in the Piazza Sallustiana, at a great depth under its level, belong to a nymphseum built over the springs of the river Petronia, which were originally called Catifons. The nymphfeum is connected with a palace of very curious design, of whicli not less than four stories can still be traced. Excellent designs by Ligorio can be found in " Cod. jaarisin. (fonds St. Ger- main)," n. 1139, f. 311-314 ; and in " Cod. vatic," 3439, f. 27, 30, 48. These gardens of Sallust had practically survived the shocks of time and lasted to our own days. I think that, as regards natural beauty and taste in the arrangement of their shady walks, open vistas, floral decorations, artificial ponds, etc., the Villa Ludovisi 416 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV and the Villa Massimo, which covered the same ground, were not inferior to the old Roman park. The Museo Liidovisi contained, perhaps, more masterpieces of Greco-Roman art than Sallust and his Imperial successors had been able to gather in the gardens. Both villas, the pride of modern Rome, were mercilessly sacrificed by their owners in 1886, and to no purpose whatever. It is true Fig. IGl. — A Group of Pines in the Villa Ludovisi, cut down in 1887. that the villas have disappeared, that their magnificent ilexes have been burnt into charcoal, their great pines used for timber, their hills and dales cut away or filled up to a dead level, and their deliciously shady avenues destroyed to make room for broad, straight, sun-beaten thoroughfares ; yet no one seems to have gained by it. Those who sold and those who bought the grounds have failed alike in their speculations, and the new quarter remains still unfinished. Besides the head and the throne of tlie Venus Sallustiana, many works of art have passed from these gardens into our museums. Ligorio mentions the discovery of life-size figures of Niobe and the Xiobides in full relief, belonging jM-obably to the pediment of THE GARDENS OF SALLUST 417 a temple, of statues of Bacchus and of a Faun, together with several Nymphs of fountains. The celebrated Silenus with the infant Dionysos in his arms, formerly in the Villa Borghese and now in the Louvre (Frohner, Catalogue, 1889, p. 265, n. 250), and the Bacchic Vase in the same museum (ibid., p. 302, n. 311) were discovered about 1575 near the present Casino Massimo. The statue of Zeus, n. 326 Sala dei Busti, Vatican Museum, seems to have been discovered near the site of the obelisk, together with other works of art formerly in possession of the Verospi family. Winckehnann mentions a group of two young girls playing with the 6.ffTpdya\oi, discovered in 1765 and bought by General Walmoden. There is no doubt that the Dying Gaul of the Capitoline Museum and the group of a Gaul and his wife of the Boncompagni Museum ^ belong to the same artistic composition, and to the same place, tlie Gardens of Sallust. Helbig contends that the composition, of which the group occupied the centre and the Dying Gaul the extreme right corner, cannot " have formed the sculptural decora- tion of a pediment, because the plinths are oval instead of rectan- gular. The life-like details of the works would also have been lost at so great a height. It is therefore probable that the group of the Villa Ludovisi, the Capitoline figure, and the other statues of the series were placed side by side on one or more pedestals of moderate elevation," like the Niobides of the Horti Lamiani. Helbig also thinks that the composition did not represent "Par- nasi eiectos de vertice Gallos," a companion subject to the slaughter of Niobe's children, but a victory gained by King Attalos I. of Pergamos over the Gauls. We must remember, however, that Ligorio's account of the existence of statues of Niobides in these gardens is confirmed by the discovery of a fragment of one of the female figures made in 1887. The fragment is preserved in the Museo Municipale al Celio. Another portion of the Gardens of Sallust, the beautiful valley in the shape of a circus, with the cliffs shaded by evergreens, dis- appeared in 1881-82, when Herr Spithoever, the librarian, who had bought the ground from the Barberini, filled up the valley with the materials of the Servian embankment which crowned the cliffs, and turned one of the most picturesque corners of the city into flat building lots. Xo traces of the temple of Venus Erycina (Venus Hortorum Sallustianorum) were found ; but tlie foundations of that of one of the three Fortunes ad Portam Collinam came to light near the 1 The so-called Dying Gladiator, and group of Arria and Pietus. THE ACILIAN GARDENS 419 junction of tlie A"ia Venti Settenibre and Via Salaria. Many works of art were collected by Spithoever on this occasion. Twenty metres below the platform of the temple, at the bottom of the moat which protected the Servian embankment from the outside, a statue was found, life-size, and of good workmanship, representing P2ndymion asleep on the rocks of Mount Latmos. A few steps farther a statue of Leda and the Swan came to light, a good copy of a better original, and also the figure of a dog finely cut in rosso antico. Literature. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. pp. 281 and 348. — Wolfgang Helbig, Gulih, vol. i. p. 164, n. 245 ; and p. 396, n. 533; vol. ii. p. 117, H. 884. — Kodolfo Lauciani, I comentarii di Frontino, p. 224, n. 87-94; and Itlnenirio di Einsiedlen, pp. 27, 28. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. 122, 4327, .5863, 8670, 8671, 'MOb. — BuU. com., 1880, p. 133; 1885, p. ICtb. — Forma Urbis Romie, pi. iii. — Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscr., vol. i. second edit. pp. 31.5, 319, 335. XXVIII. HoRTi LucuLLiANi, ou the slope of the Pincian hill, now crossed by the vie Sistina, Gregoriana, due Macelli, and Capo le Case. These gardens, laid out by Lucullus and l)rought to perfection by Valerius Asiaticus, contained a palace, the favorite residence of ^lessalina ; porticoes and libraries in which Lucullus gathered the leading savants of his age ; and a banqueting-hall named from Apollo, where Cicero and Pompey the Great had been entertained at dinner. No traces remain of these buildings, except some mosaic pavements under the houses Via Sistina No. 57 and Via Gregoriana No. 46, and some walls under and near the Mi- gnanelli palace. Two well-known works of art have been found on the site of these gardens : the so-called Arrotino, or Scythian sharpening his knife for the execution of Marsyas, now in the Tribuna degli Uffizi, Floi'ence ; and the head of Ulysses, discovered in the foundations of the Colonna della Concezione, Piazza di Spagna, now in the Vatican ]\Iuseum. Literature. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 336. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1891, pp. 150-153. XXIX. HoRTi AciLiANi (Passeggiata del Pincio, Villa Medici). — The promenade of the Pincian is known to strangers and to most of the Romans as a simple pleasiu'e-ground, giving opportunities for a pleasant walk in shade or sunshine, and for meeting friends. Its terraces overhanging the valley of the Tiber, and the plains crossed by the Via Flaminia, seem to have been created by the genius of Valadier for the enjoyment of our golden sunsets, when the opposite ridge of the Monte Mario appears 420 URBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV fringed with a glowing halo of fire. There is, moreover, another attraction unknown to the " valgus profanum," the historical and archaeological associations of the place. Many suppositions had been made by topographers as to the former state of the hill, until the controversy was settled by an accidental discovery made in 1868. Whilst new water-pipes were being laid in the avenue which leads from the Trinita de' Monti to the " rond point," where the Cairoli monument has lately been erected, a votive marble tablet was discovered at a depth of three feet, inscribed with the following dedication: Tychicus frecdman of (Manius Acilius) Glahrio, and intendant (or keeper) of his (jardens, has dedicated (this shrine) to Silvanus. The tablet is of delicate workmanship, with edges cut sharply in the shape of a swallow's tail; and as these pointed edges were in pei'fect con- dition, it is evident that the tablet was found not far from its original place. The family of the Acilii, of whose gardens Tychi- cus was intendant, may be called the noblest among the noble in ancient times. It was divided into several branches, such as the Acilii Aviolae and the Acilii Glabriones. The latter is especially known in Roman history, from the time of the battle of Ther- mopylae, in which Acilius Glabrio, consul 191 b. c, defeated King Antiochus. His great-grandson and namesake, the consul of 67, and commander-in-chief in the Mithridatic war, is better known to students as the Praetor Urbanus who presided over the im- peachment of Verres (70 b. c). In Imperial days the name of the family appears not less than eleven times in the fasti consulares, therefore it is not possible to determine who is the Glabrio mentioned in the tablet as owner of the Pincian villa. The palaeography of the inscription seems to pertain to the end of the second century, in which a Manius Acilius Glabrio twice obtained the consulship. The discoveries made by De Rossi in the catacombs of Priscilla have thrown an unexpected light on the history of these Acilii Glabriones. De Rossi had repeatedly expressed a doubt as to whether the Acilii had become Christians at a very early period. Thrice he has discussed the problem in his " Bullettino " (1863, p. 29; ISe.'), p. 20; 1869, p. 78), but the evidence he was able to collect was merely circumstantial. The discovery of a beautiful hypogaeum of the second century in the very heart of Priscilla's cemetery, containing the tombstone of IManius Acilius Verus and Acilia Priscilla, son and daughter of Manius Acilius Glabrio, consul A. D. 1.52, proves that the " noblest among the noble " had embraced our faith from the first announcement of the gospel in Rome. THE AC I LI AN GARDENS 421 To come back, however, to the Pinciau Hill, we must remark that the gardens of the Aciliau family were not confined to the narrow limits of the Promenade, but comprised within their present boundary line the Villa Medici, a portion of the Villa Borghese, and the convent and garden of the Trinita de' Monti. Many discoveries have taken place in this vast sm-face of ground, from the time of cardinals Riccio di Montepulciano and Ferdinando de' ]\Iedici to the present day. The accounts left by contemporary writers, compared with the existing ruins, enable us to reconstruct the general outline of the villa, as well as the detailed plans of some of its leading structures. These structures may be classified as follows. In the first place, there are the supporting walls of the terraces facing the north and the east, afterwards inclosed by Aurelian in his line of city walls ; then come the buildings connected with the supply, storage, and distribution of water, such as nymphaja, reservoirs, aqueducts, fountains, etc. ; thirdly, the palace of the Acilian family, and the residences of their servants, gardeners, gamekeepers, etc. ; lastly, the wine-cellars, which form one of the most interesting features of the estate. The substructures facing the east and the north side of the rectangle, towards the Villa Borghese, have been mostly concealed l)y modern buttresses, raised between 1850 and 1865 by Vescovali. They are built of reticulated work, with edges of small tufa blocks, a style of construction which is considered especially characteristic of the time of Sulla. Their surface is corrugated by a luimber of niches, with buttresses projecting between them, so as to give to the whole construction the look of an aqueduct. This is probably the reason why, in a document of 10"26, edited by Tommasetti, the substructures are called (jli arcioni (the arcades). In the second decade of this century. Count Tournon, prefect of the Napoleonic department of the Tiber, aided by Valadier and other eminent artists, laid out the plans for turning the vineyards, then belonging to the Augustinian monks of S. Maria del Popolo,^ into a public promenade. The works began in 1812, on the slope facing the Campus Martins, and were watched by Giuseppe Guattani, to whom the archaeological interests of the enterprise had been intrusted. 1 Tlicro aru two relics left of this ri//nOMiT(«ae) L,vc(illae), which seems to confirm the opinion of those anti- quaries who place the gardens of the Domitian family on the Pincian hill.^ "The destruction of this singular and interesting monument should be put in the list of those due to the thoughtlessness and rapacity of landowners, and to the indifference and avidity of their workmen, a subject of everlasting regret in Rome." Fresh excavations were opened in the same place, along the northern slope, in 1813, and they led to the discovery of other groups of amphorse, set up against the walls of the caves in par- allel lines. Other amphorte came to light in 1868, together with the inscription of Tychicus near the gate of the Trinita de' Monti. This last find seems to indicate that wine-cellars were established not only in a place naturally exposed to the tramontana and shaded from the sun, but wherever the building of the substruc- tures afforded an opportunity to create subterranean vaults under the terraces of the villa. Literature. — CorjOiw Inscr., vol. vi. n. 62-3. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull. Inst, 1868, p. 119.; Bull, com., 1891, p. 132; and Forma Urbis, sheet i.— Lovatelli Ersilia Caetani, // rnonte Pincio (in Miscellanea Archeologica, p. 211. Rome, 1891). XXX. I have remarked already that the public and private parks on the hills of the left bank were intersected by roads, by 1 The brick-stamps of Domitia Lucilla prove only that the crypt was built towards the middle of the second centurj'. 428 URBS SACRA REG ION VM XIV popular or aristocratic quarters, and by great public buildings. Three of these, belonging to the sixth region, Alta Semita, are partially left standing : the Temple of the Sun in the Villa Colonna, the baths of Diocletian, and the Praetorian Camp. (See map, Fig. 165.) XXXI. Templum Solis Aureliani. — Communication be- tween the plains of the Via Flaminia and the Quirinal hill, the favorite abode of Roman patricians, had always been difficult, owing to the steepness and narrowness of the streets leading to the three Quirinal gates, the Salutaris (Via delle Quattro Fontane, Via del Giardino), the Sanqualis (Salita della Dateria), and the Fontinalis (Salita delle tre Cannelle). When Aurelian, after the conquest of Palmyra, determined to offer to the Romans a speci- men of eastern architectural splendor, by raising a great temple to the Sun on the very hill on M'hich it had been worshiped from time immemorial (soli indigeti in colle quirinali, feast day, August 9), and on the very site of the " Pulvinar Solis," which Quintilian places near the Temple of Quirinus, he combined archi- tectural magnificence with public utility. The temple was placed at the top of great steps, which, like our Scalinata della Trinita de' Monti, were destined to afford a direct and easy communica- tion from the Campus Martins to the plateau of the hill. The steps were designed so that great crowds could ascend or descend them, without meeting or crossing each other. The temple itself was of immense size. It covered an area of 16.890 square metres, and towered to the height of thirty metres above the pavement of the sacred inclosure. The shafts of the columns were 17.66 metres high, the Corinthian capitals 2.47 metres, the entablature 4.83 metres. A fragment of the cornice lying in the Villa Colonna weiglis a hundred tons, and measures 34.27 cubic metres. The fountain of Sixtus V., formerly in tiie Piazza del Popolo, has been cut ou+^^ of one of the bases, and also the fountain of Piazza Giudea. The pavement of the Colonna gallery has been inlaid with marble, cut out of one piece only of the frieze. Such colossal proportions make clear the wish of the conqueror of Palmyra to give the Romans a taste of the wonders he had himself admired in the East, especially at Heliopolis, where stones 60 feet long and 13 thick were raised to a height of 21 feet at the northwest cornier of the platform. Classics and inscriptions give us very little information about this temple. The " Vita Aureliani " calls it " magnificentissi- THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN 429 mum," adding that the vaults and crypts of the temple were used for storing the wine which some of the lands of the Peninsula were wont to send to Rome as a " contribution en natiu'e " to the treasury. This is an instance of the practical good sense of the Romans, which enabled them to seize every opportunity offered by edifices of this kind, and to turn such buildings as were ostensibly erected for the purpose of display to very practical purposes. The destruction of the temple began at a very early age, if it is true that eight of the porphyry pillars used by Justinian in the Pig. 166. — The Ruins of the Temple of the Sun in the Sixteenth Century. decoration of S. Sophia were removed from it. Towards the end of the Middle Ages we find it already reduced to the state shown in this view of 1575 by Etienne du Perac (Fig. 166). The ruin, crowned by a battlemented tower, was called " Torre Mesa," or " Torre di Mecenate," and more commonly the " Frontispizio di Ne- rone," and formed part of the fortified inclosure of the Colonnas. It consisted of a portion of the cella, built of blocks of peperino, and of the right corner of the pediment, the same which is now lying in the Colonna gardens. The Torre Mesa was still standing 430 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV in 1616, when A16 Giovannoli made another — and the last known — sketch of it. It disappeared at the time of Urban VIII. The destruction of the substructures of the tem2:)le began in January, 1549, and lasted at least up to February, 1555. In the first period of the works search was made for marbles alone. A regular lease had been signed between the Princess Giulia Colonna and the representatives of Pope Paul III., then engaged in finishing the Palazzo Farnese. From January 2 to November 9, 1549, 4131 scudi were spent simply in wages of men employed in the work of destruction. After the death of Paul III., Prince Ascanio Colonna made a present of what was left of the Temple to Julius III., then engaged in building his Villa Giulia. For three consecutive years hundreds of cartloads of stone ^Yere re- moved every month from the Colonna gardens. Besides the Palazzo Farnese and the Villa Giulia, the Cesi chapel in S. Maria Maggiore had its share of the spoils. Sixtus V. began in 1587 the destruction of the platform of concrete upon which the temple rested; Innocent XIII. in 1722, Pius IX. in 1866, and the muni- cipality of Rome in 1878 blew up the rest to make room for the pontifical stables, for the new Salita della Dateria, and for the new Via del Quirinale. On this last occasion some crypts were discovered with Greek and Palmyrene inscriptions written with charcoal or red chalk on the white plaster of their walls. These interesting recollections of Queen Zenobia's fate are now exljibited in Hall VI. of the Museo Municipale al Celio. The marble steps of the great staircase w'ere removed to the Aracoeli in 1348 by Lorenzo di Simone Andreozzo. One of the most remarkable facts connected with this temple is the respect shown by the semi-barbarian Romans of the INIiddle Ages for some works of statuary which adorned the steps in front of the propylaia. This museum of marbles, which may well compare with the museum of bronzes at the Lateran, comprised the two incomparable groups representing the Dioscuri in the act of mak- ing their fiery steeds feel the power of the bridle, now in front of the Royal Palace ; the two River Gods now in the Piazza del Campidoglio ; and a figure of Rome seated on the throne, which was bought by Cardinal d' Este. Later on the three statues of the Constantines, now in the Piazza del Campidoglio and in the vesti- bule of the Lateran, were added to this popi;lar collection. The following reproduction of an engraving by Lafrery, dated 1546, shows how the Dioscuri were then placed, and what dam- ages they had suffered in the course of centuries. Sixtus V. and 432 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Domenico Fontana removed them to tlieir present position, after horsemen and steeds had undergone a thorough restoration. Ber- tolotti has published an account of the work full of useful infor- mation. It cost 2334 scudi. Literature. — Corpus Inscr., vol. i'-^, p. 324; and vol. vi. n. 726. — Flaminio Vacca, Mem., 40, 78, 88, in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. — Francesco Ficoroni, Mem., 115, ibid. — Notizie Scavi, 1878, p. 309. — A. Bertolotti, Artisti lombardi a Roma, vol. i. p. 75. — Christian Huelsen, Rheinischen Aluseuiii f. Philologie, 1894, p. 392; and Bull, com., 1895, p. 39. — Kodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1894, p. 297; and 1895, p. 94. XXXII. Therms Diocletian^e, built by Diocletian and Maximian, and opened a. d. 306, i after their abdication from the throne. According to Olympiodorus, they contained about 3000 marble basins, besides a swimming piscina of 2400 square metres. They contained also a library, the Bibliotheca Ulpia, removed from the Forum of Trajan, gardens, gymnasia, and club-rooms. Together they covered an area of 130,000 square metres. The ex- cavations made in the last twenty-five years for the building of the railway station, of the Grand Hotel, of the Massimi palace, for the opening of new streets, and for the laying out of new gardens have enabled us to find out the names and the plans of some of the edifices destroyed by the two Emperors to obtain a site for the baths. Amongst them are the offices of a Collegium Foi'tunse Felicis, a temple built on foundations of conci'ete ; a portico or a shrine, rebuilt once by one of the Valerii Messallte and again by Cn. Sentius Saturninus ; pavements of streets ; walls of private houses ; and pieces of the largest and longest water-pipe ever found in Rome. It went fi'om the Porta Viminalis to the Alta Semita, and through the Alta Semita to the Forum of Trajan. The tube, made of sheets of lead three centimetres thick, is inscribed with the name of the Emperor Hadrian, and of Petronius Sura, his procurator aquarum. The tube was at least 1750 metres long, and as it weighs 132 kilogrammes and 74.5 grammes for each metre, 231 tons, at least, of metal must have been used in its construction. Inscriptions placed above the four principal gates described and praised the great work of Diocletian and of his colleague. The fate of these historic documents is truly remarkable : pieces of them have been found at various times in the Certosa, at S. Antonio on the Esquiline, at S. Alessio on the Aventine, at the Monte della Giustizia, in the foundations of the Treasury buildings, 1 Between May 1, 305, and July 24, 300. THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAX 433 and in the Via Principe Umberto. The last piece came to light in June, 1890, from the foundations of the Grand Hotel. The history of the baths is not known. Probably they suffered damage during the sack of Alaric, because a fragmentary inscrip- tion seen by Fra Giocondo da Verona on the spot (about 1495) speaks of repairs made in the course of the fifth century. They were still in use under King Theodoric ; the collapse of the Marcian aqueduct must have soon brought about their abandon- ment. The compiler of the " Itinerary of Eiusiedlen " saw one of the great inscriptions still fixed above one of the gates. In the year 1091 Pope Urban II. made a present of the ruins to S. Bruno and to Gavin, his friend, for the establishment of a Carthusian brotherhood. In 1450 Giovanni Ruccellai saw a great many columns of white or colored marble standing on their bases and crowned by finely cut entablatures. Francesco Albertino mentions the first discoveries of statues and pedestals made under Julius 11. at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Jean du Bellay, ambassador of Francis I., created cardinal by Pope Paul III. in 1533, purchased the greater portion of the baths and laid out gardens among their picturesque ruins, known by the name of Horti Belleiani ; at his death, however, in 1560, creditors seized the estate and divided it among themselves. The Horti Belleiani fell to the lot of S. Carlo Borromeo, who sold them in his turn to his uncle Pope Pius IV. This pope took up the old project of Urban II. for the transformation of the baths into a Certosa, and of their tepidarium into a magnificent church. His bull of grant to the monks of S. Croce in Gerusalemme is dated July 27, 1561, and says among other things that the malaria raged so virulently at S. Croce that the abbot and his flock were in constant danger of life. The work of transformation, begun on April 24, 1563, and finished on June 5, 1566, cost 17,492 scudi. The state of the tepidarium, when Michelangelo entered it for the first time, is shown in the following sketch made by a contemporary artist. ^ Michelangelo converted the great hall into a Greek cross by adding to it the present vestibule and the choir, the entrance being from 1 Photographed by Miss Dora Biihver from f. 90 of the sketch-book of an unknown artist, now in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge (marked R, 17, 3*). There are other valuable sketches by Du Ferae (/ Vestif/i, f. 30); Dosio {u'EdiJi riorum reliqin'w, 44, 45, 46; and UJfizi, 74, 76, 79, 2573); .Jean Vander Wylt, in the Laing collection, Edinburgh; Lafrery (plate not num- bered; very scarce; a copy in the Cabinet des Estampes). Volume "Rome, rione Monti A," of the same Cabinet des Estampes contains 72 views of the baths. 434 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV the southeast side, opposite the present railway station. Vanvitelli changed Michelangelo's plan : the nave was converted into a transept, and a new entrance made from the present Piazza di Termini. To avoid damp Michelangelo raised the low-lying pave- ment by three feet, so that the original bases of the columns re- main bui'ied to that depth. Of the sixteen columns of the church, the eight in the transept are antique, of red granite and of won- derful size. Those of the nave, of bricks, covered with painted stucco in imitation of granite, are an addition of 1740. One of the marble capitals comes from the temple of Claudius on the Cselian. No discoveries seem to have been made in the course of the works : that of a bell with the name " Firnii Balneatoris " is said Fig. 168. — The Tepidariuin of the Baths of Diocletian, before its Transformation iuto the Church of S. M. degli AngeH. by Doni to have taken place in 1548. Gregory XIII. in 1566 trans- formed a portion of the baths into grain stores ; these " horrea Ecclesise " were afterwards enlarged by Paul V. in 1009, by Urban VIII. in 1630, and by Clement XI. in 1705. Sixtus v., while engaged in building his beautiful Villa Peretti Montalto, as a present to his sister Donna Camilla, destroyed about one fifth of the baths. Ilis books of accounts certify that between May 16, 1586, and May 15, 1589, not less than 94,482 cubic metres of Diocletian's masonry were demolished witli the THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN 435 help of gunpowder. About the same time Fhimiiiio Vacca registers the discovery of eighteen busts of " philosophers," sold first to Giuliano Cesarini, and by him to Cardinal Alessandro Faruese. They are now at Naples. In January, 1-39-1, Caterina Sforza, Countess of Santafiora, con- verted into a church and presented to the Cistercians the circular hall which foi-nied the southwest corner of the outer circuit of the baths (S. Bernardo). In cleaning the cellars of their new abode the monks found great masses of lead, which, made into sheets, were sufficient to cover the whole dome of the rotunda. The fresco paintings of the same hall were whitewashed on account of their profane character. No works of art of anj^ consequence have been found in these baths, except, perhaps, a headless athletic statue, which appears in Lafrery's engraving, and a beautiful head of Venus discovered in January, 180.5, by Petrini. The present generation has not treated the remains of the thermae kindly. A wide street, the Via Cernaia, has been cut right through the halls on the left of the tepidarium; a tunnel bored diagonally across the rectangle to convey the Acqua Felice to the Fountain of Moses ; other halls destroyed in building the approaches to the railway station, the Massimi Palace, the Treasury, and the Grand Hotel. The only redeeming point is the transformation of ^lichel- angelo's portico into a museum in which objects of art and antiqui- ties, discovered on government land and in government works, are exhibited. (See Helbig's Guide, vol. ii. p. 188, n. 961-1108.) The famous group of cypresses which shaded the fountain in the centre of the quadrangle was half destroyed h\ a tornado in the summer of 1886. The noble trees contemporary with the foundations of the Certosa ai'e represented in the following illustration (Fig. 169), from a photograph taken in 1874. Literature. — Corpus fnscr., vol. vi. ii. 1124, 1130, 1131, 1131% 31,242.— Ridoltiiio Yemiti, Antickita cU Roma, vol. i. p. 168. — Beschreibung, vol. iii-, p. 331. — Tlieodor Mommseu, Archceol. Zeituiuj, 1846, p. 229. — Angelo Pellegrini, BUsertazione suUe rorine delle ternie diocleziane (in Buonarroti, serie ii. vol. xi. August, ISld).— BuU.com., vol. viii. 1880, p. 132. — Nothie Scavi, 1886, p. 36; 1890, pp.185, 21.5. — Paiilin, Restauratioii chs thermes de Diocletien. Paris, 1890. — Christian Huelsen, Rhelnhche Muaeum f. Philologie, 1894, p. 388. — Rodolfo Lanciani, / comentarii di Frontlno, p. 96; and Forma Urbis, sheets n. X., xvii. — Henry de (Jeymuller, Documents inedits sur les . . . thermes de Diocletien. Lausanne, 1883. The designs, sketches, and plans of artists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are innumerable. The best set, by far, is to 436 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV be found in a portfolio of drawings, formerly in the possession of the architect Destailleurs, Paris, and now in the Kunstgewerbe Musenm, Berlin (f. A, 377). The name of the artist (French) is not known. Cardinal Perrenot de Granvelle employed Sebastian THE PRAETORIAN CAMP 437 de Oya, a Flemish architect, to design the baths, and his dravings were engraved on twenty-six copper plates by James Cock of Ant- werp. The edition, dated 1558, has become very rare. XXXIII. Castra Pretoria (fortified barracks of the Praeto- rian guard). — The name jjrcetorium, used in a military sense, signifies the " commando," the headquarters, whether of a general commander-in-cliief or of the Emperor himself. When Augustus reorganized the Roman army and navy, the legions and the auxil- iary forces were quartered on the frontiers of the Empire, the fleet stationed partly at Misenum, partly at Ravenna, while Rome and his own person were intrusted to the protection of two or three thousand picked men, quartered in various districts of the city and of the suburbs, not in military barracks, but in houses of peaceful aspect — " nunquam plui-es quam tres cohortes in urbe esse passus est, eaque sine castris " (Sueton., Octav., 49). After the death of Augustus, Tiberius changed tactics at once, hardly appearing in public without an escort ; and, with the excuse of keeping the Praetorians in stricter discipline, " procul urbis inlecebris," away from the seduction and corruption of the city, he built magnificent barracks in a field between the Via Nomentana and the Via Tibur- tina, in imitation of a Roman fortified camp. This was done in A. i>. 2o, on the suggestion of Sejanus, then prefect of police. The chief power in the Roman state was thus placed practically in the hands of the Prjetorians, and " the readers of the historians of the Emjaire will recall the many vivid pictures of their rapacity and violence. To go to the Prfetorian camp and promise a largess to the guards was the first duty of a Roman Emperor." " Here oc- curred that memorable and most melancholy scene in Roman his- tory, when the Praetorians shut themselves within their camp after the murder of Pertinax and put up the throne to auction. Julian and Sulpicianus . . . bid one against the other, and at last they ran n\) the \>v\ce little by little to 5000 drachmas to each soldier. Julian then impatiently outbid his rival by offering at once 6250, and the Empire was knocked down to him. This was not by any means the first or only time that its fate had been decided here." ' The Pra?torians furnished the guard of honor at the gates of the Imperial residence, on which occasions they wore the toga instead of the ordinary sagum. Their supreme commander was, of course, the Emperor, but practically they were under the rule of one or more " prsefecti praetorio." The number of their cohorts varied 1 See Burn, Ancient Rome, London, 1895, p. 189. 438 URBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV from a maximum of sixteen under Vitellius to a minimum of nine under Vespasian ; tliey were cohortes milliariae equitatse, viz., 1000 men strong, with a squadron of cavalry each. Their term of ser- vice lasted sixteen years ; their pay was about 720 denarii a year. THE PR.ETORfAX CAMP 439 The Praetorians were recruited from volunteers from the more civilized provinces of the Empire ; but Septimius Severus having dissolved the corps at the beginning of his reign, to reorganize it under a different system, the men were recruited henceforth from the most tried and trustworthy barbarians, and Rome was thus iilled with bands of savage-looking Prsetorians, sj^eaking unknown languages, and of uncouth and barbarous manners. Under Maximus and Balbinus, the citizens tried to put down Fig. 171. — The Walls of the Prsetorian Camp, with Aurelian's Super-structure. their violence l)y cutting the water-pii)es wliicli supplied the castra from the reservoir by the Porta Viminalis, and thus to subjugate them by water famine. Aurelian and ['rol)us included in their line of fortifications the north, east, and south side of the rectangle, and raised the height of the walls by ten to fifteen feet. The line of separation between the original walls, which were battlemented, and Aurelian's superstructure can still be traced on the north side. (See Fig. 171.) The Prfetorians were finally suppressed in 312 by Constantine, who caused the front or western wall of the camp to be demol- ished. The cam]"* is nearly square, being 4o0 metres wide by o71 deep. It was approached by a triumphal arch, — dedicated, it appears, to 440 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Gordiauus the younger, and to his EnipreHS Tranqnillina, — splen- did remains of which have been found on three occasions : first in 1495, when Bramante was searching for marbles for the decoration of the Palazzo della Cancelleria, belonging to Cardinal Raifaele Riario ; then in 1873, when the workshop was discovered in which the spoils of the arch were adapted to their new purpose (Via Gaeta, near the Villino della Somaglia) ; and again, in the winter of 1886-87, in the foundations of a house at the corner of the Via Solferino and the Viale Castro Pretorio. This last discovery took place while I was away from Rome on long leave. I am told that the winged Victory represented in the following cut, now in Copenhagen, was found on this occasion. It belongs to the left spandril above the middle archway. Fig. 172. — One of the Victories from the Arch of Gordianus III. THE PLAIN ON THE LEFT BANK OF THE TIBER. Kegio IX. The C.vmpus Mautius and the Circus Flaminius. XXXIV. The plain which extends from the foot of the Pincian, Quirinal, and Capitoline hills to the left bank of the river was not changed from a grassy swamp into a region of architectural won- ders by one man or at one time. The transformation was the work of centuries, and the result of the combined efforts of wealthy citizens and of enterprising Emperors, from the time of Pompey the Great to that of Severus Alexander. The architectural de- 05 < b O ^ u (-> s 'CD s to •i-i f- > < tlH O s X •( a- M- < 10 5; p. THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 441 velopment of the Campus Martins, moreover, did not proceed at random, but by zones or districts, which follow each other in chro- nological order; and each of these groups was designed by one man according to his own piano regolatore, and generally with a different orientation from that of the neighboring districts. The fundamental lines for such orientation are the Via Flaminia (Corso) running 16° 30' west of the meridian ; the Via Recta (Acquasanta, Coppelle, S. Agostino, Coronari), which runs due west; and a third street, name unknown (vie di Pescheria, del Pianto, de' Giubbonari, de' Cappellari), which runs from southeast to northwest. For a long time the natural aspect of the Campus Martius was not altered : the river Petronia continued to flow towards the " Goat's Pond " (Caprce palus), not yet transformed into the " Stagnum Agi-ij^pae." Romans and foreigners continued to seek health at the springs of the Tarentum, not yet cU'awn into a canal around the Ara Ditis et Proserpinai ; the youth continued to race in the Trigarium, to bathe in the Tiber, to hold athletic sports in the Campus Martius, and to enjoy the shades of the vEsculetum. The first impulse towards the transformation of the Campus was given by C. Flaminius, censor in 2'20, by the erection of a circus, and by the opening of the Via Flaminia. The Flaminian group, otherwise called " Ad Cii'cum " or " In Circo," comprises the following structures : — Circus Flaminius. (Stabula fjuatiior Factioiium vi.) Columna bellica. iEdes Bellonaj Pulvinensis. iEdes Martis. ^des Kastoris. ^des Pietatis. ^des Volkani. ^des Herculis Magni Custodis Via Flaminia. A commercial quarter had been formed in the meantime at the southern end of the plain, near the cattle and vegetable markets, the wharves of the Tiber, and the bridges (Sublician, .Emilian, Fabrician, Caestiau) through which provisions were brought in from the Etruscan or transtiberine orchards and farms. The group of the Forum Holitorium comprised in due time — Forum Holitorium. (Porticus)Minucias duas, Veterem et Frumentariam. Porticus usque ad Elephantum. iEdes Spei. ^des Pietatis. yEdes lunonis. iEdes lani. The building over of the plain, in accordance with a carefully studied project, began in the last century of the Republic, and was 442 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV the joint work of Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great. Caesar had planned to divert the course of the Tiber along the foot of the Vatican ridge (" secundum montes Vaticanos "), so that the city could expand over the Campus Martius, and to make a campus of the present " Prati di Castello " (Cicero, Ad Attic, xiii. 33) ; but he had no time to accomplish his scheme. Pompey, on the contrary, could see his idea carried into execution. With the Pompeian buildings, and vi^ith the additions made to them in later times, a third group is formed, called " Ad Theatrum Lapideum " or " Pompeianum." It comprises the — Theatrum Lapideum, with the Curia. Porticus Pompeianse, withtlie Horti. Hecatostylon. ^des Veneris Victricis. JSdes Honoris, Virtutis, Felicitatis ^dus FortuniB Equestris. Jides Minervai Campensis. We come now to the age of Augustus. He may truly be said to have found this region built of bricks and to have left it of marble. Suetonius (Octav., 29) says : " He was fond of erecting costly structures under the name of his wife, of his sisters and laephews, like the Basilica of Caius and Lucius, the Portico of Livia, that of Octavia, and the Theatre of Marcellus. He would also urge his wealthy friends to follow his example by raising new build- ings, or by repairing and adorning old ones. His call was re- sponded to by Marcius Philippus, who built the ^des Herculis Musarum ; by Lucius Cornificius, who rebuilt the Temple of Diana on the Aventine ; by Cornelius Balbus with his theatre ; by Sta- tilius Taurus with his amphitheatre. Agrippa surj^assed all of Ihem in the number and greatness of his constructions." Strabo the geographer gives the following account of the Campus Martius as it appeared in the early part of the reign of Tiberius : " The old Romans were so bent upon things and actions of more serious consequence for the commonwealth, that they paid little or no at- tention to the beauty of their city ; but the Romans of the present day . . . have filled it with many and noble structures. Pompey, Caesar, Augustus, his sons, his wife, his sister directed all their energy and lavished great sums of money on the purpose. Of this we have ample evidence in the Campus Martius, which, in addition to pleasantness of site and charms of landscape, has been vastly improved by architectural beauty. It affords at the same time plenty of space for the multitudes who gather in its green fields to train themselves in chariot and horse races, and in athletic sports of all kinds. The buildings of white marble, framed by masses THE CAMPUS MART I US 443 of green, the hills which inclose the plain on the opposite side of the river delight tlie eyes of the stranger. There is another campus, adjoining the one called Martius,^ containing porticoes, sacred woods, three theatres, one amphitheatre, so close to each other that it appears to form part of the city itself. The campus being held sacred in the minds of the citizens, many illustrious men and women have selected it for their last resting-place. Con- spicuous among all is the so-called JNIausoleum, raised on a pedestal of white marble near the banks of the river, and shaded by ever- greens to the summit of the mound, where a bronze statue of the founder of the Empire has been set up. His relatives are buried in the crypts below." Three groups can be formed of the works of the Augustan and Tiberian age. The first, or Augustan, comprises the — Ara Fortune reducis. Ara Pacis Augustiv. Solarium or Hurrildgium. Ustrinum. Mausoleum. SilvaB et Ainbulationes. Ripa> Tiberis. Porticus ad Nationes. Porticus Oetaviie. Porticus Corinthia Cnei Ootavii. Tlu'atrum iNIarcelli. The second, or Agrippianum. extended from the foot of tlie hills, by Capo le Case, to the Ponte Sisto. The INIonumenta Agrippse are — Porticus Pollaj or P. Vipsaiiia. Campus Agrippas. Diribitorium. Ductus et Laciis Virginis. (^des Juturme.) Pantheum. Thermte. Stagnum, witli the Euripus;. Porticus Eventus Boui. Horti. ( Neptunium. \ Porticus Argonautarum. Swpta lulia. Villa publica. Pons Agripp*. CloacEB. The third group may be called the '• Spectacular Buildings " raised by Augustus, and by his friends and successors. It com- prises the — Theatrum Marcelli. Theatrum Balbi. Crypt a Balbi. Ampliit boat rum Tauri. Stadium. Odeum. Xo otlier constructions by zones or districts are recorded for the 1 Strabii means the Prata Flaminia, at the south end of the plain. 444 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV space of over a century. Tiberius repaired the scene of Pompey's theatre ; Claudius the aqueduct of the Aqua Virgo. Nero built other great baths near those of Agrippa. In the conflagration of July, 65, the flames avoided, or vi^ere made to avoid, the Campus Martins, probably to save the newly built thermae of Nero, so that the homeless inultitudes could find shelter in the Monumenta Agrippae. However, in the last days the fire got the better of those trying to keep it within the prescribed limits, and consumed some of the porticoes and gardens (porticus amoenitati dicatae), some of the temples, the iEmilian gardens of Tigellinus (praedia ^miliana Tigellini), and the Statilian amphitheatre. ^ The fire of Titus, a. d. 80, damaged considerably the Diribi- torium, the portico of Octavia, the Temple of Isis and Serapis, the Saepta lulia, the Admiralty (Neptunium), the Baths of Agrippa, the Pantheon, and, of course, the public and private buildings of secondary importance wedged in among the great ones. Some of them, like the Diribitorium, were abandoned forever ; others re- paired by Domitian (the Temple of Isis and Serapis, the Pantheon, the Porticus Minucia Vetus, the Minervium of Pompey the Great), who added " de proprio " an odeum and a stadium ; others re- paired by Hadrian (many temples, the Sa?pta lulia, the Thermae Agrippiana?, and again the Pantheon and the Admiralty), who added also " de suo " a temple in honor of Marciana, sister of Trajan, and of Matidia his mother-in-law ; others finally repaired more than a century later (?) by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, like the scene of Pompey's theatre, the portico and the libraries of Octavia, and probably the theatre and the crypta of Balbus. The district on the left of the Flaminia, between the " zone " of Augustus (Via in Lucina) and that of Agrippa (Piazza di Pietra), had been occupied in the meantime by the Antonines. This group, which we may call Antoninianum, comprises the — (So-called) Arch of M. Aurelius and L. Verus. Columna centenaria divi Marci, with the Hospitium of its kee-per Adrastus. Templum Antonini. Columna divi Pii. Ustrinum et Ara Antoninorum. If we take into consideration the object of some of the build- ings mentioned above, instead of the name and epoch of those who raised tliem, and the age to which they belong, we can make up a last and most important group, the group of the Porticoes, 1 Tacitus, Ann., xv. 40. Dion Cassius, ///.«/., Ixii. 18. THE CAMPUS MART I US 445 under the shelter of wliich it was possible to cross the plain from one end to the other. Under the Republic they were comparatively rare, and the few that existed at that time were built not as places of pleasant resort, but with a definite and more practical aim. The Minucia served for the distribution of grain ; the Emilia for the storage of merchandise brought by river and by sea; those of the Forum Ilolitorium as a vegetable market ; the Porticus Pompeian?e as a place of refuge in case of rain. Augustus made porticoes popular ; under his rule the whole campus was covered with colonnades. lie himself built that of Octavia, and a second called Ad Xationes on account of some colossal statues, representing the nations of the world, and rebuilt a third, named Corinthian from the capi- tals of its columns, cast in (gilt) Corinthian brass. Balbus added a crypta to his theatre ; JMarcius Philippus surrounded with a por- tico the Templum Hercidis Musarum. To Agrippa the Romans owed the Porticus Vijisania, the Sajpta, used for electoral meetings under shelter, the Villa Publica, the Porticus Argonautarum, the Porticus Eventus Boni (and the Porticus Europas ?). The example set by Augustus and his courtiers found imitators down to the very fall of the Empire, and even after it, as shown by the Horti Largiani, the Portico of Constantine, the Porticus Maximse of Gratian, Valentinian, and Theodosius, and lastly by those which led from the ^Elian bridge to S. Peter's, from the Porta Ostiensis to S. Paul's (and from the Porta Tiburtina to S. Lorenzo). No attention has been paid by topographers to the special nature of these structures ; they have been studied individually, as simple inclosures of temples, annexes to theatres, picture- galleries, museums of statuary, and places of meeting and resort ; but if we consider them as successive manifestations of the same original plan, and part of a whole system, their importance increases tenfold. They were designed so that the citizens could walk in every season and at any hour under shelter from wind, rain, cold, and the heat of the sun. Needless to say this happened after the taste for luxury and comfort had superseded the previous austerity of Roman life. Whenever the poets, and Martial espe- cially, speak of the porticoes, they allude to one idea, to the delight of enjoying there the warmth of sunshine in winter while out- siders were shivering from the blasts of the tramontana. The spaces between the colonnades were intersected in graceful designs by the tppida huxeta, walls of boxwood. Towards the end of the Empire it became possible to walk under shelter from the 446 URB8 SACRA REGIONUM XIV region of the Fora to the church of S. Peter, a distance of nearly two miles ; and the sight would have struck the least enthusiastic person in the world with wonder. The development of the twelve larger colonnades of the Campus Martius amounts to 4600 metres ; the sheltered surface to 28,000 square metres ; the total area, central gardens included, to 100,000 ; the number of columns was about 2000. These columns were of the rarest kinds of marble. Tlieir capitals were sometimes of gilt Corinthian metal, and their pave- ments were inlaid with jasper and porphyry. Each portico con- tained a museum of sculpture and a gallery of pictures, and the space inclosed by them was laid out in gardens, with thickets of box, myrtle, laurel, arbutus, pine, and plane trees shading lakes, fountains, and waterfalls. Each one offered to the visitor a special attraction. In the Porticus Vipsania the maps of the Roman world surveyed at the time of the birth of our Lord were displayed. The Sispta contained curiosity-shops, where antiquities and manu- factures of the Far East, China included, were exhibited. Lastly, in the portico of Philippus ladies could find the latest fashions in wigs and hair dressing that the fancy of Roman coiffeurs could contrive. Literature. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Ipoiiic! della rec/ione ix. (in Ann. Inst., 1883, pis. A, b). Ancient Rome, p. 94. — Lnigi Borsari, Sui]}ortici delta regione vii. (in Bull, com., 1887, p. 141). — Heinrich Jordan, Forma, p. 33. My description of the existing remains of the ninth region will follow the division by chronological zones or groups, in this order : (a) Monuments illustrating the original state of the Campus Martius ; (b) Monuments ad Circum (Flaminium) ; (c) Monu- ments ad Forum Holitorium ; (c/) Monuments ad Theatrum Lapi- deum (Pompeianum) ; (e) The Augustan Group ; (/) The Monu- menta Agrippse ; (y) The Spectacular Buildings; (h) The group of the Antonines ; (/) The Porticoes. A. Monuments Illustrating the Original State of the Campus Martius. XXXV. The Tarentum. — In the early days of Rome the northwest section of the Campus jMartius, bordering on the Tiber, was conspicuous for traces of volcanic activity. There was a pool called Tarentum or Terentum, fed by hot sulphur (?) springs, the efficacy of which was attested by tlie cui-e of Volesus, the Sabine, and of his family. Dark vapors liungover tlie springs, and tongues THE TARENTUM 447 of flame si^rang from the cracks of the earth. The phice became known by the name of the Fiery Field {campus iynifer), and its connection with the infernal regions was soon an established fact in folk-lore. An altar was erected to the infernal gods on the borders of the pool, and games were held periodically in honor of Dis and Proserpina, the victims being a black bull and a black cow. The games, originally called ludi Tarentini, became in pro- gress of time the hull Sceculares, and their direction was intrusted to a college of priests named the" quindecemviri sacris faciundis." No other object of Roman topography, no otlier feature in Roman religious institutions, has been better illustrated by recent discov- eries than have this famous altar and these famous games. We have found the altar itself and the basin of the spring, the resi- dence of the Quindecemviri, and the oflicial report of the celebra- tion of the games under Augustus and under Septimius Severus and Caracalla. The discovery of the Ara Ditis et Proserpinae took place in the winter of ISSfi-ST, while the new Corso Vittorio Emmanuele Fig. 174. — Plan of the Ara Ditis et Prosperiiiae. was being opened at the back of the Cesarini Palace. The posi- tion and shape of the monument are sliown in the accompanying drawings. No traces of the altar and of its triple inclosure have been left visible, except two pieces of the pulcini of tlie altar removed to the court of the Palazzo del Conservatory 448 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV The scliola or residence of the Quiudeceiuviri was discovered on April 16, 1889, under and near the (now destroyed) oratorio di S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini, Via del Consolato. There were Fig. 175. — Fiagments of the Pulviui of llie Ara Ditis. remains of a hall of basilical type, built of red and yellow bricks, and divided into a nave and aisles by two lines of columns. These ruins were far more consjjicuous in bygone days : the Mirabilia give them the name of " Secretarium Neronis." The drain of the Corso Vittorio Emmanuele cuts the apse of the hall in a slanting direction. I ara sure that, if a proper search were made, historical documents of great value would be brought to light. The official compte rendu of the celebration of the ludi sseculares was discovered on September 20, 1890, by the workmen employed in the construction of the .sewer between the Ponte S. Angelo and that of S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini. The fragments of marble upon which the precious records were engraved lay embedded in a mediaeval wall. There were one hundred and thirteen fragments in all ; of which eight refer to the games celebrated by Augustus in 17 B. c, two to those of Domitian, the rest to those celebrated by Septimius Severus in a. d. 204. The fragments of the year 17 fit together so as to make a block three metres high, containing a hundred and sixty-eight lines. Tlie others are in a more frag- mentary state. They are all exhibited in the Museo delle Terme, first room, first floor. Literature. — Rortolfo Lanciani, Z' itinerario di Einsiedlen, p. 108; and Pagan and ChriMian Rome, p. 73. — Theodor Mommsen, / comentarn del ludi secolari Auf/usfei e Sereriani (in Mon. ant. Lincei, vol. i. .3, a. 1891); and in Ephemeris epi,a;r., 1892, vol. viii. pp. 22.5-.309. — Carlo Pascal, Bull. com. 189.3, p. 195; and 1894, p. 54. — Giovanni Pinza, ibid., 1896, p. 191. XXXYT. Campus Martius. — The nintli region of Augustus, bordered by the Via Flaminia, the Servian walls, and the Tiber, was divided into two sections, one named (from the) Circux Fla- minitis. the other. Campus Martin.-:. The latter, in its turn, was THE CAMPUS MART I US 449 subdivided into a Campus Martins motor and a Campus Martius minor. The origin of these sections and denominations must be briefly explained, but the evidence to be gathered from classics is rather conflicting. Livy (ii. 5) says that the field on the left bank of the Tiber was dedicated to Mars, and obtained accordingly the name of Martius only after the expulsion of the Tarquins. Dionysius (iv. 22 ; v. 13) asserts that the field was consecrated to that deity before the time of Servius Tullius, but without saying when. It is certain tliat an " Ara ]\Iartis " existed from a very ancient date in the campus, and also an " ^l-^des Martis," distinct from and probably much older than that erected by Brutus Cal- laicus near the Circus Flaminius. Its ruins (?) were discovered by Baltard in 1837, and again by Vespignani in 1873, under the block of houses bounded by the Via and Piazza di S. Salvatore in Campo and the Via degli Specchi.^ On the whole, we may con- clude that the field had been set aside for public use, and placed under the protection of the gods, before the time of Tarquinius Priscus. Tarquinius Superbus appropriated and cultivated it for his own use; and when, after his flight, the consuls Brutus and Valerius proceeded to confiscate his estates, the campus was cov- ered with standing corn. The crop, being deemed accursed, was thrown into the river, where it lodged on a mud-bank and formed the insula Tiberina (di S. Bartolomeo). We hear for the first time of the PratQ Flaminia as a section of the same plain about 445 b. c. It was at the time of the second secession, brought about by Virginius, when the tribunes, restored to power, held an assembly of the people in the above named meadows, situated under the Capitoline hill, at the southern end of the plain. The meadows, therefore, formerly owned by the Flaminii, must have become public proj^erty; and indeed they appear to have been, at least in part, consecrated to Apollo and called the Apollinar (Livy, iii. 63). Some time later a Temple of Apollo, voted in 433, in propitiation of a pestilence, was erected near this site, and dedicated by the consul Cn?eus Julius in 43!). The well-preserved remains of this venerable monument are to be seen in some caves that can be reached from the convent of S. Maria in Camintellio 1 LiTERATUKE Oil the Temple of Via degli Specchi, so little known to stu- dents. — Luigi Canina, Aimed. Inst., ]8;38, p. 1, pis. a, r.; and Edijizil di Roma (tntica, vol. ii. pi. vi. — Uvlichs, Besclirtihunfi, iii^, p. ,30. — Virginio Vespi- gnani, Bull, com., 1873, p. 212, pis. v., vi. — Brnnn, in Sitzunf/shcrirhte der Miinchener Akad., 1870, p. 343, identities these remains with the Templum Neptiini in Circo Klaminio. 450 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Literature on the Temple of Apollo, the yEcles Apolliiils Medici of Livy, xl. 51. — Kodolfo Lanciani, Bull. Jn»l., 1878, p. 218; and Bull, com., 1883, p. 188. — Carlo Pascal, II piii antico tempio d' Apollo a Roma (in Bull, com., 1893, p. 46). — Gioacchino Corrado, Memorie di S. Maria in jwrtico, pianta lett. S. Rome, 1871. Besides the estate of the Flaminii, we hear of another field bequeathed to the people by the vestal Tarracia. Then comes the section set apart for the breaking in of horses (Trigariiim), and another where horse races, said to have been instituted by Rom- ulus in honor of Mars, were celebrated (Equirriorum Campus). The bank of the river was lined with bathing-houses, where the young men, tired of horse-riding, could refi'esh themselves with a plunge in the cool stream. There were also quays for the landing of wine (Portus Yinarius) and other merchandise brought in by barges from Etruria and Sabina. At the time of Augustus the campus was alreadj' divided into the "greater" and the "lesser." (See Strabo, v. 3; and Catullus, Iv. 3.) The origin and the scope of such division are not clear : one thing is certain, that in the first century of our era, while the name of Circus Flaminius had been extended to the whole ninth region, that of Campus Martins had been restricted to a very limited space, lined by stone cippi, one of whicli (Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 874) was discovered in 1.592 in the foundations of the Palazzo Serlupi Crescenzi, Via del Seminario. This fragment of the historical campus, as it were, destined to perpetuate the memory of a state of things which had long ceased to exist, is located in the region of the present Palazzo Serlupi, also by the " Vita Sev. Alex.," 26. Literature. — Rodolfo Lanciani, La /jaaillca Motidiet: vl Murcianeit (in Bull, com., 1883, p. 11). B. The Monuments of the Prata Flaminia (ad Circu.'m Fi-a:\iinium). The group comprises the Circus Flaminius, indirectly connected with the .^tabula quatuor Factionum sex ; the Temple of Hercules, keeper of the Circus ; those of Bellona (of Mars), of Castor, of Piety, of Volkan ; and lastly, the Via Flaminia. XXXVII. Circus Flaminius. — Among the important works undertaken for public convenience in the period between the first and second Punic wars, those of C. Flaminius Nepos, censor in 221 B. c, and killed at Lake Trasimenus in 217, hold a j^rominent place. He Vmilt a circus in that section of the campus which bore THE CIRCUS FLAM IN I US 451 his family name, and opened a highroad between Rome and northern Italy. The proximity of the circus to the gates of the city and to the Capitol made it a favorite place for popular meet- ings, like the one of 211 b. c, in which Marcellus cleared himself of the accusations brought forward by his enemies ; and the other of 189, in which Fulvius Nobilior, the conqueror of ^Etolia, con- ferred tlie military rewards on his officers and men. The tribuni plebis used it constantly for meeting and addressing their constitu- ents ; and fairs {liundince) were held periodically under cover of its arcades. Augustus filled the race-course with water in 6 b. c, and gave the citizens a specimen of alligator-hunting, in wiiich thirty of these monsters were killed. The remains of the circus were very conspicuous in the Middle Ages, and disappeared from view only in the second half of the sixteenth century. Three documents describe them in detail : a bull of Celestin III. of 1192 ; a passage in Andrea Fulvio's " Antiqq. Urbis," book iii. p. Ixv. ; and another in Ligorio's " Circhi," p. 17'. The Inill of Celestin calls the ruins " the golden castle " {castellum aureum) ; mentions the arcades which ran the whole length of the circus (parietes altre et antiquce in circuitu positfe) ; the principal doorway in the middle of the carceres opening towards the cam- pitello ; a garden near (or within ?) the circus full of great re- mains ; the slopes upon which the seats for the spectators were placed ; and lastly, churches and houses built against and above the ruins. Fulvio says : "The shape and the plan of the circus can still be easily made out ; there are traces of the seats at S. Caterina de' Funari, so-called from the ropewalks established under the porti- coes. The length of the circus is marked by the house of Pietro Margani and the church of S. Salvatore in Pensili at one end, and the palace of Ludovico Mattel at the other ; the width runs between the street called le Botteghe Oscure on one side, and the Torre del Cetrangolo on the other. The head of the circus (viz., the curved end with the Porta Triumphalis) is to be seen by the Mattel Palace, in the region called Calcarara on account of the lime-burners who use the arcades for kilns." Ligorio, while confirming Fulvio's statements as to the size and orientation of the circus, says that Ludovico Mattel is responsible for the destruction of its last remains. " Only a few years ago [about 1550] 1 was able to design the curved end, and measure its plan ; but in laying the foundations of his house Messer Ludovico has uprooted its remains, made of great blocks of travertine ; I have 452 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV seen the floor of the arena, made of concrete (optit< dgninum) very hard and thick, covered here and there with patches of mosaic ; and also the channel (euripus) which separates the seats from the arena. Water still runs in the euripus, from a spring called il Fonte di Calcarara, visible under the house of a dyer close by." The Mattel Palace mentioned by Ligorio is not the present one opjaosite the church of S. Caterina de' Funari, but the Palazzo Paganica on the street and piazza of the same name, in the court and in the cellars of which a few walls are still to be seen. The spring of which he speaks has been lately rediscovered by Nar- ducci.^ Some of the marble ornaments brought to light in the course of the excavations are to be seen in the cortile of tlie present palace. The name of le Botteghe Oscure given to the street w^hich skirts the circus on the south side is a recollection of the long line of arcades which gave shelter to the rope-makers and lime-burners. While the statements of Fulvio and Ligorio, and the existing remains of the round end at Piazza Paganica, allow us to locate the circus within well-defined limits, and to assign it a length of about 297 metres, and a width of about 120, the drawings of Antonio da Sangallo the elder, of Antonio the younger, of Vinandus Pighius, and of Baldassare Peruzzi give us the means of restoring its plan and elevation. Peruzzi's sketch is to be found in sheet 408 of the " Uffizi." The intercolumniation (from centre to centre of the Doric semicolumns of the lower portico) measured about 7 metres, the diameter of the semicolumns 0.74 metre, the abacus of the capital 1.02 metre ; the direction of the circus diverged by 19° from the west. Sangallo the elder gives the sketch of the cornice of the lower order (Uffizi, 2050), while Sangallo the younger designs ''uno basamento di uno edifitio trouato in casa di messer Gregorio di Serlupis presso alia torre del melangolo," the same tower where Fulvio places the car- ceres of the circus (Uffizi, 2087). In the last place, A'inandus Pi- ghius gives a sketch of an architrave with the inscription of Anicius Faustus (Fig. 177, p. 4.54), discovered about 1550 (Cod. Berolin., f. 120'). Literature. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. i. p. 607. — Giacomo Lumbroso, Meinor. di Cassiano dal Pozzo, p. 48. — C. Ludovico Visconti, Bull, com., IST.i, p. 217. — Notizie Scan, 1877, p. 80. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi.n.l676, 842.3, 9136. — Emiliano ^urti,' Arch ivio Sncicta storin pntria, vol. ix. p. 484.— Mariano Avmelliiii, Chiese, pp. 5.52, 55.5, 5.58. — Heiiiricb Jordan, Topogr.,\o\. li. p. 383. 1 Dtlla Fof/natura, p. 38. =^' =1 t: M Aut J.cSc^'^'^ ^t-"-' »"K ^^. J.^^^ ^ ^ y |a ' ^A ff^j IcAVc,^ Imm^ '^0 Fig. 176. — Architectural Details of tlie Circus FIaminiu8. 454 UMBS SACBA REGIONUM XIV AN lCtV5.ACILIVS-6LABRia-rAMiTV5-Nrc ■•PRAlF-VR FATALl-CASV' SV^VE:RSAAA-fN-^OR-AAAAA»T^KISCI-Mi Fig. 177. — The Inscription of Anicius Faustu.s, from tlie Circus Flamiuius (?). XXXVIII. Stabiila qx'atuoh Factionum VL : barracks of the four (six) squadrons of charioteers, connected with all Roman racing grounds, but especially with the C'ircus Flaniinius by loca- tion and proximity. The factiones were distinguished by a color. At first there were only two, the red, " russata," and the white, " albata ; " next came the blue, " veneta," pi'obably in the time of Augiistus; and soon after the gTeen, -'prasina." Lastly, Doniitian added the purple, "purpurea," and the golden, "aurata." The barracks in which they and their race-horses were quartered are generally placed on the site of the 2:)resent church of S. Lorenzo in Damaso and of the Palazzo della Cancelleria, because one of the denominations of the same church is //) prosino : but the fact that only one of four (or six) factions is alluded to, coupled with the discovery of a pedestal dedicated to an agitator factionis Praslna', at la Cancelleria, and of a water-pipe on which the name "factionis prasinpe," and no other, is engraved,^ proves in my opinion that there was not one great establishment for the four squadrons together, but four establishments, one for each. They covered approximately the space l^etween the churches of S. Lucia della Chiavica, and S. Lorenzo in Prasino, and the English college. Via ]Monserrato, in the foundations of which an interesting inscription (Corpus, n. 621) and " una bellissima statua di un Fauno " were found in 1682. The blues are recorded in n. 9719 [Crescens, na- tione Bessus, (olearius) de portic(u) Pallantian(a) Venetian (o rum)] ; and in No. 10,044, a pedestal erected in memory of one of their great victories, found at S. Lucia della chiavica. The cemetery of the charioteers was in the Vatican district, along the Via. Tri- umphalis. Literature. — Lovatelli Ersilia Caetani, Bidl.com., 1878, p. 164. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Ancient /?ome, p. 21.3. — Friedliinder, ^Ittenrjeschichte, fiinfte Aufl., 1 Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 10,058 (and 10,0f)3) ; Bull, com., 1887, p. 10. THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES 455 1881, vol. ii. p. 4(J0.— Corpus Jnscr., vol. vi. part ii. pp. 1307-1321. — Pietro Sante Bartoli, J/ew. 107 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. ccliii.). XXXIX. Templum Herculis magni Custoois ad C'ircum Flaminium (Temple of Hercules, the great keeper of the Circus Flamiuius). — In the garden of the small cloisters annexed to the church of S. Mcolo ai Cesarini there are remains of a circular temple with fluted columns of tufa coated with white plaster, and resting upon a basement of travertine. The cliurch itself . - rests on the foundations of an- other temple, rectangular in shape, and built likewise of tufa coated with stucco. Both appear in fragment xvi. 110 of the " Forma Urbis," here reproduced. Three or four hundred years ago they were in a much better state of pres- ervation. The round temple was named " Veneris in Calca- rario," " calcararium " mean- i ng the region of the lime-kilns and of lime-burners, which ex- tended from the Piazza dell' Olmo and >S. Lucia dei Ginnasi to the church of the Stimmate, once called of SS. Quaranta in Calcarari. The name, however, was wrong : the elegant little structure belongs to Hercules the protector of the circus, to Hercules the oracular god, so much in favor with the charioteers. It stands in the same relation to the Circus Flaminius as the round Temple of Hercules Invictus of the eleventh region stood to the Circus jNlaximus. Speaking of the temples of Hercules in general, Vitruvius (i. 7, 1) contends that they must be raised near the gymnasium or the amphitheatre of each city ; and in case there should be no gymnasium or amphi- theatre, near the circus at least. Vitruvius therefore places the god in relation first to athletes, then to gladiators, lastly to chari- oteers ; but in Rome the charioteers were his favorites. The birth- day of the god, February 1, was celebrated with races (Corpus, vol. i. 336, 337), and other races were run on June 4, near the Porticus Minucia, before a colossal bronze statue of him. Literature. — Ludwig Preller, Gr. MythoL, ii. 3, p. 276. — Theodor Fig. 178. — A Fragment of the Forma Urbis showing round Temple of Hercules. 456 URBS 8ACRA REGIONUM XIV Mommseii, Gesch. d. riim. Munzioesens, p. 619, n. 259. — Babelon, DescriiH. des monnaies de la Rqmblique, ii. 565, gens Volteia, n. 1-5.— C'o?7WS Jnscr., i. n. 1538, p. 561 (and p. 301); vi. 335; ix. 421. — Roscher, Ausfilhrliches Lexi- con, p. 2979. By an almost inexplicable coincidence, which is certainly unique in the annals of the plunder and destruction of ancient Rome, the Hercules Invictus and the Hercules Magnus Gustos, both cast in bronze, both of colossal size, both still glittering under their coating of gold, have been found concealed near their respective temples. We possess but scanty information about the finding Fig. 179. — The Finding of the Bronze Statue of tlie Hercules Magnus Gustos, August 8, 1SG4. of the Hercules Invictus, ad duodecim portas, viz., near the car- ceres of the Circus Maximus, which took place under Sixtus IV. (1471-1484).^ That of the Hercules Magnus Custos took place on August 8, 1864, near the Piazza di Campo de Fiori, in the foun- dations of the Palazzo Pio-Righetti, which stands on the ruins of Pompey's Theatre. The statue was lying in a deep cavity, 1 Gio. Battista de Rossi, V ara massima di Ercole (in Annal. Inst., 1854, p. 28). — Heinrich .Jordan, Topographie, i^, 491. — Coi-jms Inscr., vol. vi. pp. 313- 319. — Rodolfo Laneiaui, Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 69. THE TEMPLE OF HERCULES 457 between two walls of peperino, and was carefully pi'otected with slabs of portasanta placed one against another like the tiles of a roof. It is evident that the charioteers, still flourishing in Rome at the time of the first barbarian invasions, exerted themselves to save the valuable bronze images of their god from outrage and plunder ; and they succeeded so well that it took ten centuries to rediscover the hiding-place of the Invictus, and fourteen and a half that of the Magnus Gustos. The accompanying original sketch of 1864 represents this last event. (Fig. 179.) The statue, slightly restored by Tenerani, has been given a place of honor in the rotunda of the Vatican Museum, No. .544. That of the Invictus has been removed from the salone of the Capitoline Museum to a hardly decent room in the Palazzo de' Conservatori. (Compare Helbig's Guide, vol. i. p. 211, n. 299 ; and p. 4.54, n. 613.) Literature. — Ovid, Fasti, vi. 209. — Fabio Gori, Nuova dimostrazione die la statua scoperta al Biscione, etc. Rome, Chiassi, 1864. — Carlo Liidovico Visconti, Osservazioni mlla statua di bronzo, etc. (in Giornale arcadico, vol. xxxix., nuova serie, 1804). — Enrico Fabiani, L' Ercole del palazzo Pio, Rome, Menicanti, 1864; and Ancora dell' Ercole del palazzo Pio, same year, Nov. 1. — Ugo Koeliler, Bull. Inst., 1864, p. 227. — Rodolfo Lanciani, ^wraa/. Jnst., 1883, p. 11, tav. A, B. — Gio. Battista de Rcssi, Bull, com., 1893, p. 191. — Furtwaengler, Masterpieces, p. 296, n. 3. A third centi'e of the worship of Her- cules by the charioteers was discovered in August, 1889, outside the Porta Por- tese, at the southwest end of the new railway station. It consisted of a sa- cred cave hewn out of the live rock, with a niche and an altar at the bot- tom, and dedicatory inscriptions stating that the whole had been done by a cer- tain L. Domitius Permissus by order (imperio) of the god. There were two arce, a statuette of Hercides Victor, an- other of Hercules Cubans, architectural fragments, fragments of pottery, and above all a set of seven portrait-hermse of charioteers, in white marble. Hel- big thinks that the seven hermae, al- though by different sculptors, date from ^'§ ^^'^: -/!'« Shrine of the => .» _ !■ 1 . Hercules luvictus, discovered the same period, that of the Julian Em- in 1889, on the via Portuensia. 458 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV pevors. This discovery must be compared with that (made in the same place, March, 1632, by Andrea Brngiotti) of an inscription describing how Plotius Romanus, a consul suffectiis of uncertain date, had raised a temple to Hercules Invictus in this tract of the Via Portuensis. This interesting group of monuments has been unhappily dis- persed : the sacred cave and the altar covered with bas-reliefs of stucco was destroyed in 1889 ; the seven heads of charioteers are exhibited in the south wing of the quadrangle of the Museo delle Terme, somewhat apart from each other (n. 16, 18, 22, 24, 30, 34, 38). I do not know the fate of the stone statuettes and of the two arae of Domitius Permissus. Literature. — iVoh'stV, degli Scavl, 1889, p. 2-23. — MiffJi ell iingen, 1891, p. Ii9.— Corjms Inscr., vol. vi. n. 332. — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. ii. p. 206, n. 1007, 1013. C. The Monuments ok the Forum Holitorium. (See § lix. p. 511.) XL. The Forum Holitorium (Piazza Montanara), the central market for vegetables, will be described in § lix., with other similar establishments lining the left bank of the Tiber " above and below bridge." From a monumental point of view the Forum Holitorium was remarkable, on account of the many temples and porticoes by which it was inclosed on every side. The temples were four at least, viz. : — A. iEDES Spei (Temple of Hope), vowed by M. Atilius Cala- tinus in 2.54 b. c, during the first Punic war, burnt to ashes sev- eral times, and rebuilt lastly by Germanicus. B. ^DES PiETATis, vowed by Manius Acilius Glabrio at the battle of the Thermopylai, 191 b. c, and dedicated by his son ten years later. C. ^DES luxoNis SospiT^, built in 197 b. c, by C. Cornelius Cethegus. D. Templum Iani, connected with the legend of the Fabii (Festus, Mull., p. 285), rebuilt first by C. Duilius in the third century before Christ, and secondly by Tiberius: The Roman calendars in mentioning the feast-days of this temple, August 17 and October 18, place it " ad theatrum Marcelli." The porticoes were two at least, the Minucia vetus and the Frumentaria, the work of M. Minucius, consul in A. d. 110. THE POMP EI AN BUILDINGS 459 D. The Pompeian Buildings. XLI. The group of buildings raised by Pompey the Great in the centre of the phiin, known to topographers as the group ad theatrum Lapideum, presents this curious fact: that while it is known in every particular, from texts of classics, from plans and designs taken at various times, and from discoveries made to the present day, no trace of it exists above ground. The theatre, which con- tained 17,580 seats (loca) ; tlie curia, where Julius Csesar was murdered on March 15, 44 b. c. ; the Porticus Pompeiana, inclos- ing exquisite gardens ; the portico of the hundred columns (heca- tostylon) ; tlie Temple of Victory on the highest point of the cavea ; and the Temple of JNIinerva Campensis, have all been leveled to the ground or have disappeared. The description, therefore, of the Theatrum Lapideum and of the monuments near it cannot find a place in a book which treats only of existing rviins. Among the many works of art saved from the wreck of these buildings, two are deservedly popular among stiidents : the Pompey of tlie Palazzo Spada and the Minerva of the Galleria Giustiniani. The discovery of the colossal statue of the hero (so-called) is thus described by Flaminio Vacca : " I remember that in the Via de' Leutari, close to the Cancelleria, at the time of Julius III. (1553), a marble statue of Pompey, fifteen palms high, was found in a cellar. The parting wall with the next house happened to fall just across the neck, so that the owner of each house claimed it for his own : the first because the largest part of the statue was lying on his side of the wall, the second because the head, the noblest pai't, and that which gave a name to the statue, happened to be on the other side. After mature discussion the ignorant judge decided that the head should be severed from the body and each part handed over to its legitimate possessor. Poor Pompey ! It was not enough that he should have suffered once the same evil fate at the hands of Ptolemy ! When Cardinal Capodiferro ' heard of this foolish arrangement, he made an appeal to the pope. Julius III. had the statue carefully excavated on his own account, leaving a sum of five hundi'ed scudi to be divided among the two fighting- neighbors, and made a present of it to the cardinal " (Mem., 57). Modern art critics, who seem to delight in making us disbelieve 1 Girolamo Capodiferro, a Roman patrician, born in 1502, legate to France and Portugal in 1541, bishop of Nice in 1542, cardinal of S. Giorgio in 1544, built a noble palace in the piazza M'hich still bears his name. After his death in 1559 the palace passed into the hands of Cardinal Bernardino Spada, 4G0 UUBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV what were once considered fundamental points in the history of ancient art, deny any connection between this noble portrait-statue and Pompey the Great. Carlo Fea, in his " Osservazioni intorno alia celebre statua detta di Pompeo lette il 10 settembre [1812] neir Accad. rom. d' Archeologia," called the attention of archaeolo- srists to the traces of a band or ribbon, visible on the sword-belt Fig. 181. —The so-called Pouipey the Great of the Palazzo Spada. THE PO.UPEIAN BUILDINGS 461 near the left shoulder, and on tlie cloak behind the clasp, which cannot possibly belong to the present head, but to an original one encircled by a garland or a tsenia. Wolfgang Helbig, comparing in 1886 the Spada head with those on the family coins of Sextus Pompeius, and with three portrait heads of the hero undoubtedly genuine, said it was needless to discuss a question already settled in the minds of most arch.Tologists. Helbig has again taken up the controversy in vol. ii. p. 170 of the " Guide," concluding with these words : " The writer feels it utterly superfluous to waste more words on the point, since a head has recently been found which . . . may be unreservedly recognized as a likeness of Pompey. The head placed on the statue is of an unknown individual ; . . . the two neck pieces do not harmonize ; . . . the head also differs from the body in the quality of the marble. . . . The alien head had been placed on the body in ancient times." T^iTEK.VTUKE. — Carlo Fea, Notizie decjli Scavi dell' anfiteatro Flario. Rome, 181:5, ]i. 31. —Wolfgang Helbig, Mitth'eilumjen, 1886, p. .37, pi. ii.; and Guiilv, vol. ii. p. 172. — Emil Braun, Ruins and Museums, p. 459. The Minerva, formerly in the jiossession of the Giustiniani and Prince Lucien Bonaparte, and now one of the ornaments of the IJraccio Nuovo in the Vatican (n. Ill), was certainly found near the church named after her (S. Maria soi:)ra Minerva), among the ruins of the temple erected by Pompey the Great in 62 b. c, injured l>y the fire of Titus, and restored by Domitian under the name of '• Minerva Chalcidica." Pliny (vii. 27) gives a copy of the inscriji- tion probably engraved in front of the temple : '■ Cnseus Pompeius Magnus, triumphant general, having brought to a close a war of thirty' years, having defeated and put to flight or death, or made prisoners, 1,201,803 men, taken 846 war vessels, conquered l.^);]8 o[)Bn or fortified towns, and occupied the lands between the Red Sea and the Pains Ma?otis (Sea of Azov), offers this temple to Minerva." Andrea Fulvio describes the temple as nearly perfect in 1513. It seems to have been destroyed by Clement Vlll. in l.'')27, except the inclosure wall of the sacred area which appears in one of A16 Giovannoli's sketches of 1619. E. The Augustan Buildings. There are remains of the ]\Iausoleum, of the Sun-dial, of the Ara Pacis, of the portico of Octavia, and of the theatre of INIarcellus. XLIT. Mausoleum, Ustrinum, Silv^ et Ambulationes. — Of tlie mausoleum, built by Augustus in 27 b. c, forty-one years 462 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV before his death, we have a description by Strabo, and ruins which substantiate that description in its main lines. It was composed of a circular basement of white marble, 88 metres in diameter, which suppoi'ted a cone of earth, planted with cypresses and ever- greens. The bronze statue of the Emperor towered above the trees. The vaults were approaclied from the south, the entrance being flanked by monuments of great interest, such as the two obelisks now in the Piazza del Quirinale and the Piazza dell' Esquilino ; the copies (in marble or bronze) of the decrees of the Senate in honor of the personages buried within ; and above all, the Res gestm divi Augusti, a political will, autobiography, and apology, the importance of which surpasses that of any other epigraphic document relating to the history of the Roman Empire. Literature on tlie Res i/eslce. — Theodor Mommseu, Res yestm divi Augusti, 2cl edit. Berlin, Weidniann, 1883. — Geppert, Zum Monuinentum Ancyranum. Berlin, 1887.— Gaston Boissier, Le Testament. d'Auffuste (in Revue des deux niondes, xliv. (1863) p. 734). — Luigi Cantarelli, L' iscrizione di Ancyra (in Bull.com., 1889, pp. 3, 57). The gates of the mausoleum were opened for the first time in 28 B. c. to receive the ashes of young Marcellus, whose premature death is so touchingly lamented by Virgil (vi. 872) ; for the last in.A. D. 98, for the reception of the ashes of Nerva. We hear no more of it until 410, when the Goths must have ransacked the Imperial vaults. No harm, however, seems to have been done to the building itself. Like the mausoleum of Metella, of Severus Alexander, and of Hadrian, it was subsequently converted into a stronghold. Mausoleum and stronghold were nearly destroyed in 1107 by the popidace, infuriated at the news of the defeat which the Roman army, led by the Colonnas. had suffered on Whit ]\Ion- day of the same year in the territory of Tusculuin. Tlie shapeless ruins were again put into a state of defense by the Colonnas in 1241. The corpse of Cola di Rienzo was cremated here in October, 18.54. Archaeological exploration began in 1519. On July 14 of that year Baldassare Peruzzi discoveied and copied some of the historical inscriptions m situ, and made drawings of the basement which I have reproduced in the " Bull, com." of 1882, p. 151, pis. xvi., xvii., from the originals in the " Uftizi,'" n. 393, 394, 2067, and 2068. The obelisk, now in the Piazza dell' Esquilino, was found also in 1519 near the church of S. Rocco. The Soderini family turned the place into a hanging garden about 1550, and filled it with remarkable works of statuary. In the spring of 1777, while the corner house between tlie Via THE MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS 463 del Covso and the Via degli otto Cantoui was being built, the Ustrinum, or sacred inclosure for the cremation of the members of the Imperial family, came to light -with many historical monu- ments. The tirst object to appear was the beautiful urn of ala- bastro cotognino now in the Galleria delle Statue, n. 421 ; then came several inscribed pedestals, some intended to indicate the 464 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV spot on which each prince had been cremated, others the places where the ashes had been deposited, — tlie former end with the formula "hie crematns [or cremata] est;" the latter with the words " hie situs [or sita] est." The cippi mention the names of Caius Caesar ; of Tiberius, d. 37 ; of Agrippina, wife of Germanicus, d. 33, buried in the mausoleum 37 ; of Nero, Gains, Gaius Tiberius, and Livilla, sons and daughter of Germanicus ; of Jnnia Silana, first wife of Nero Caesar ; of Tiberius Caesar, son of Drusus and Livia, murdered 37 ; and of Vespasian, son of T. Flavins Clemens, and nephew of the Emperor of that name. The mausoleum of Augustus and its contents have not escaped the spoliation and desecration which has raged in past times, and occasionally rages still. The building, formerly a bull-ring, is now used as a circus ; its basement is concealed by mean houses ; the two obelisks liave been removed, one by Sixtus V. in 1.587 to the Esquiline, the other by Pius VI. in 1786 to the Quirinal ; the urn of Agrippina, used as a grain measure in the JMiddle Ages, is kept in the Palazzo dei Conservatori ; six urns belong to the Vatican ; three others liave been destroyed. The shell of the mausoleum, built of reticulated masonry, can be examined from the court of the Palazzo Correa, Via de' Ponte- fici, and from that of the Palazzo Valdambrini, Via di Ripetta, n. 102. Literature. — Co/yws Inscr., vol. vi. p. 157, n. 884-895, 914, 868G.— Strabo, v. 361.— i^es t/eske, 2d edit. p. ix. — Pietro Saute Bartoli, Gli untichi sepolcri, pi. 72. — Antonio Nibby, Roma untica, vol. ii. p. .520. — Otto Hirsch- feld, Die Kaiserlichen Grnbstatten in Rom, Sitzungsb. d. Berl. Akad., Dec. 9, 1886. — Liiigi Borsari, Bull, com., 1885, p. 89. — Flaminio Vacca, Mem. m {in Tea's Miscellanea, vol. i. p. xciv). XLIII. HoROLOGiUM or Solarium (sun-dial). — Pliny (xxxvi. 10), speaking of the obelisks removed from Egyi)t to Rome by the first Emperors, says that Augustus had turned to a practical pur- pose the one raised by him (in the year 10 u. c.) in the Campus Martins south of the mausoleum. It served as a yvcifiuv or needle to a great sun-dial, the lines of which were traced on a pavement of white marble, with rules of gilt metal. Pliny says that thirty years before he wrote the " Natural History " the sun-dial had iiecome defective, but he could not tell whether in consequence of an earthquake or because the frequent floods of the Tiber had made the foundations of the obelisk sink. The inscriptions of the pedestal (Corpus, 702) are exactly like those of the obelisk of the Circus Maxinnis now in the Piazza del Popolo : "im]). Ca'sar THE SUN-DIAL 465 Augustus . . . ^gupto in potestatem popvili romani redacta, Soli douum dedit." Both came from Heliopolis : the one of the Circus, 23.91 metres high, dates from the time of Ramses the Great ; the one of the Ilorologium, 21.79 metres high, from the time of Psam- metik I. The obelisk was still standing on its base-in the eighth or ninth century, and the date and the circumstances attending its downfall are still a matter of specuhition (Xormau Fire of 1084?). In the year 1463, while Cardinal Filippo Calandrino was laying the foundations of the chapel of SS. Philip and James in S. Lo- renzo in Lucina (where he was buried in 1476), a considerable por- tion of the dial was laid bare. Another portion seems to have come to light from the foundations of the chapter-house, about the time of Sixtus IV. The lines of gilt metal were still set in their marble g^'ooves ; and on the border of the dial there were the images of tlie winds, accompanied by their names, aqvilo, sep- TKXTRio, BOREAS, etc. The discovery of the obelisk itself is thus related by La^lius Podager (the gouty) in a marginal note to ^lazochio's " Vatic, cod.," f. 11 : "In the time of Julius II. (1503- l.')13), while a certain barber was digging in the garden of his house between S. Lorenzo in Lucina and the house of Cardinal Grassi, he discovered the lower portion of an obelisk and its ped- estal, the inscription of which mentioned the conquest of Egypt by Augustus. I recognized at once in this monolith the dial mentioned by Pliny, and I learned from people living in that neighborhood that, every time they had excavated the ground for their wine-cellars or drains, they had come across wonderful celestial signs, beautifully designed with lines of metal. Applica- tions were made to Julius II. to have the pavement cleared and the obelisk set up in its former place, but he was too distracted by his wars to mind these things. The barber lost patience and buried the pedestal over again." Ligorio affirms having seen the obelisk under the house of the celebrated banker Spanocchi. Sixtus V. gave a commission to his architect Fontana to report on the possibility of raising it on its pedestal, but he found it too much damaged by fire to be of any use. It was examined for the third time about 1666, when Athanase Kircher proposed to Alex- ander A^II. to set it up in front of S. IMaria degli Angeli. in the Piazza di Termini, not yet incumbered by the granaries of Clem- ent XL (170.5). At last Benedict XIV., in 1748, caused it to be brought to the surface, under the skillful guidance of Maestro Zabaglia. Pius VL in 1792 restored the damaged portions with 466 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV the granite of the column of Antoninus Pius (p. 510), and set up the obelisk in front of the Cui'ia Innocenziana, now the House of Parliament. While searching for tlie missing portions, Zabaglia discovered a round stone 1.75 metre in diameter, with squares, triangles, and other geometrical emblems engraved upon it. The stone was removed to the Villa Valenti Conzaga, now Bonaparte. Literature. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 702. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Note pomponiane di topogr. rom. (in Studii e docum. di stona e divitto, 1882, p. 55). — Codex musei florent ., 7", f. 103'. — Baldassare Peruzzi, Cod. vat., 3439, f. 2'. — Giuliauo da Sangallo, Cod. Siena, 8, iv. 5. — Ridolfino Venuti, Cod. vat., 9024, f. 181. — Angelo Baiidini, Dell' ubelUco di Cesare Aur/usto. Rome, 1750. — Francesco Cancellieri, II Mercato, etc., p. 170 ; Colonna antonina, p. 24 ; Descrizione delle carte cinesi dellu villa Valenti, p. 14. XLIV. Ara Pacis Augusts. — Among the honors voted to Augustus by the Senate in 18 b. c, on the occasion of liis trium- phal return from the Germanic and Gaulish campaigns, was the erection of a votive altar in the Curia itself. Augustus refused it, consenting at the same time to the erection of an altar in the Campus Martins which should be offered to Peace. Its dedica- tion took place on January 30 of the same year. Judging from the fragments which have been brought to light at various times from the foundations of the Palazzo Fiano Ottoboni, at the corner of the Via del Corso and Via in Lucina, the Ara Pacis was one of the most exquisite artistic productions of the Golden Age. The discoveries were made in the second quarter of the sixteenth century, in 1568, and in 1859. Tliree pieces were found on the fii'st occasion, and removed, first, to the Palazzo della Valle Ca- pranica, later on (1584) to the villa of Cardinal Feixlinando de' JNIedici ; fifteen or twenty on the second, which were purchased by Cardinal Ricci di Montepulciano ; all the rest on September 7, 1859, in the recess which the Palazzo Fiano makes in the Via in Lucina between n. 16 b and 16 c. All these fragments, dispersed in Rome (Palazzo Fiano, Villa Medici, Museo Vaticano), Florence (Uffizi), and Paris (Louvre), have been illustrated by Petersen in the " Roemischen JNIittheilungen " of 1894 ; he also proposes a I'econstruction of tlie monument from the designs of V. Rau- scher. Literature. — Res gestce, 2d edit. (Mommsen), p. 49. — Von "Dvihn, Ann. Inst., 1881, p. 302. — Eugene Petersen, V ara Pacis augitstm {in MittheiL 1894, p. 171, pL vi). XLV. Opera S. Portictts Octavi.e. — The portico was THE OPERA OCTAVI.E 467 originally built by Q. Csecilius Metellus about Wl b. c. to inclose the temples of Jupiter Stator (?), the first marble structure of its kind in Rome, built by himself from the designs of Hermodoros ; and that of Juno Regina, erected by ^l^^milius Lepidus in 178. In the year 82, both the temples and the colonnade which surrounded the sacred area were rebuilt on a scale of greater magnificence by Pig. 183. — The Ara Pacis Augustn- — Details. Augustus, under the name of his sister Octavia. Augustus availed himself of the " manubise " of the Dalmatic war, and of the skill of his favorite architects Sauros and Batrachos. Pliny says that, as they were denied the privilege of signing their work with their names, they hit upon the device of carving among the flutings of the columns their armoiries parlantes, a lizard, aavpos, and a frog, jSorpoxos. The same writer has another anecdote regarding the statues of the two gods. When the temples were ready to receive the statues, the porters by mistake placed the statue of Jupiter in 468 UUBS SACllA RHaiONUM XIV Juno's cella, and that of Juud.inthe.cella of Jupiter. The augurs to whom the case was submitted decided that it was the will of the gods tliat tlieir images' should remain as they were. There are exquisite remains, of [both, temples in or under the houses Via di S. Angelo in Pescheria,-n.:8 andu. 11 : those of Jupiter above ground, those of Juno: below ; but they are allowed to remain in, such a state of neglect and filth that it is hardly worth while to try to approach them. Fig. Ib4. — The Aia I'acis Augustae — Details. THE OPERA OCTAVIJ£ 469 The portico was in the form of a rectangular double colonnade, with " lani," or four-faced archways, at the four corners, and beau- tiful propylaia on the side fronting the temples. It measured 135 metres in depth, 115 in breadth. On the side opposite the pro- pylaia, viz., behind the temples, there were a " schola," a curia for the meeting of the Senate, and two libraries, one for Greek, one for Latin works. The whole group of buildings, the " Opera Octavise," as it was technically called, was crowded with masterpieces ; and in the area in front of the temples were ranged the seventy-five bronze equestrian statues of the generals and friends of Alexander the Great who perished at the ford of the Granikos. They were the work of Lysippos, and had fallen a prey to Metellus at the close of the Macedonian war. It is not improbable that the beautiful broiaze horse found in April, 1849, in the Vicolo delle Palme, Trastevere, and now in the hall of Bronzes of the Palazzo dei Conservatori, originally formed part of the herd exhibited in the portico of Octavia. The temple of Jupiter contained the statue of Juno by Dionysios, the Pan and the Olympus wrestling, a marvelous group by Helio- doros, the Venus and the Dasdalos by Polycharmos, and a Jupiter carved in ivory by Pasiteles. The temple of Juno contained the statue of Jupiter by Polykles and Dionysios, sons of Timarchides, the jEsculapius and the Diana by Praxiteles, the Juno by Polykles, and the Venus by Philiskos. The schola or " conversation-hall," as Nibby calls it, contained pictures by Antiphilos representing Hesione, Alexander, Philippus, and Athena ; four Fauns by an unknown artist ; and a statue of Cupid with the thunderbolt, or rather of Alcibiades under the attributes of Cupid, a work attributed by some to Skopas, by others to Praxiteles. It was probably the same Cupid that was offered by Praxiteles to Phryne or Glycera, and by her to the city of Thespise. Caligula brought the precious work to Rome in spite of the remonstrances of the Thespians, who said they owned no other work of Greek sculpture. Claudius gave the masterpiece back to its legitimate owners, but Nero took it away for the second time. It was consumed by the flames in the fire of Titus. On April 13, 1878, traces of another Greek masterpiece were found be- tween the propylaia and the temple of Jupiter : an oblong pedes- tal (now in the court of the Palazzo dei Conservatori) bearing the double inscription — no URBS SACRA REG J ON UM XIV OPVS • TISICRATIS CORNELIA • ArRICANi • F GRACCORVM The pedestal, which measures 1.76 by 1.20 metres, was made to support the sitting statue of Cornelia, daughter of 8cipio Afri- canus, and mother of the Gracchi, a statue seen and described by Pliny, xxxiv. 31, — "in Octavise operibus." The fire of Titus destroyed all the works of art of the " opera," the statue of Cornelia included, as shown to the present day by the calcination of this pedestal. Septimius Severus and Caracalla, the restorers of the portico, placed upon the vacant and half-chari-ed support a biga guided by a woman, a joint work of Piston and of Teisikrates from Sicyon, a distinguished pupil of Eutykrates. On the alleged dis- covery of the Venus of the Medici, now in Florence, see Bartoli, " Mem.," 108. The inscription on the entablature of the propylaia commemorates the restoration of the portico " incendio corruptam," made in 203. The portico, therefore, had been allowed to remain in a ruinous state for the space of one hundred and twenty-three years, which seems to me hardly credible. Literature. — Heinrich .Jordan, Forma, p. 34, plate v. n. ZS.— Corpus fnscr. vol. vi. n. 1034, 2347. — Antonio Nibby, Roma flnr/c«, ii. p. 600. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Scavi nel portico di Ottavia (in Bull. Inst., 1878, p. 209). — Angelo Contigliozzi and Angelo Pellegrini, Bull. Inst., 1861, p. 126; Annal. Inst., 1868, p. 114; and Buonarroti, serie ii. vol. xi. — Wolfgang Helbig, Guide, vol. i. p. 452, n. 608; and p^. 455, n. 615. — Notizie Scavi, 1878, p. 93; 1883, p. 420; 1888, p. 27Q.—Bull. com., 1888, p. 132; 1890, p. 66. On the orticers attached to the Greek and Latin libraries, see Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 4431-4433, 4435, 4461, 5192, 8708. The description of the theatre of Marcellus will be found on p. 490, under the head of " Spectacular Buildings." F. The Monumenta Agripp.e. XLVI. This most important monumental group of the Campus Martins occupied the plain from the foot of the Pincian and of the Quirinal to the banks of the Tiber by the modern Ponte Sisto. It contained the Porticus Pollaj or Porticus Vipsania, the remains of which I discovered and identified iu 1892 on the left of the Via Flaminia (Corso), between the Via di S. Claudio and the Piazza di Sciarra, vmder the (now destroyed) Palazzo Piornbino ; ^ the 1 Literature. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1892, p. 272; and Itinerario di .Einsiedlen, p. 35. — Luigi Borsari, Bull, com., 1889, p. 146. THE MONUMENTA AGRIPP.E 471 Cainjius Agrippfc, which extended behind tlie portico, in the direction of the Quirinal ; ^ and the Diribitorium, an edifice where the bulletins of voters on election days were verified and sorted by a committee of nine hundred delegates, — an operation described by the technical verb diribire (= dis-hibere). The Diribitorium was the largest " roofed " hall in Rome, the trusses being composed of larch-beams from 29.70 to 35.64 metres long. Its position is not known. Dion Cassius (Ixvi. 24) mentions it among the edi- fices burnt to the ground in the fire of a. d. 80, after the Pantheon and before the theatre of Balbus, and as an absolutely independent l)uilding from the Saepta lulia (Iv. 8). I believe it must have occupied a space on ground to the right (east) of the Via Flami- nia opposite the Ssepta, the same on which the Catabxdum, or oftice for parcel-post, was afterwards established.- The S^pta Iulia. — In a letter to Atticus dated September 30, 04 B. c, Cicero, speaking of the projects of Caesar for the trans- formation of the campus, says : " We expect to build of marble, and to cover with a roof the space where the comitia tributa have been in the habit of meeting, surrounding it with a lofty portico one mile [1480 metres] long, and adding to it the Villa Publica." The space where the comitia tributa had assembled up to that time was a long strip of land on the left (west) of the Via Flami- nia, divided by palisades or ropes into as many compartments as there were electoral sections : thirty for the comitia curiata, thirty- five for the comitia tinbuta, eighty or eighty-two for the comitia centnriata. On the side of the parallelogram opposite the one by wliich the electors entered there was a platform called " the bridge " (pons), with as many wooden stairs of access as there were elec- toral compartments. The president sat in the middle of the pons, while the voters, mai'ching past one by one, handed over their voting pajier to the rogator. Caesar did not live to see his projects accomplished ; after his death the works were continued by M. Lepidus the triumvir, who built the portico jiarallel with the Via Flaminia. Agrippa fin- ished it in 27 b. c, under the name of Scepta or Sejjfa Iulia. AVith the suppression of political liberties, the building lost its impoi-- tance : it was used sometimes for the meeting of the Senate, more 1 Literature. — Adolf Becker, Topnr/raphie, p. 595. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1802, p. 276. — Christian Huelsen, ihicl., 1895, p. 45. - Literature. — Fedele Lampertico, / Biribitores, Venice, 1833. — Chris- tian Huelsen, Bull, com., 1893, p. 136. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Itinerario di Ein- siedlen, p. 38. 472 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV frequeutly as a place where curiosities were exhibited for sale. It was restored twice after the fire of Titus, ouce by Domitian, once by Hadriau. Remains of the portico can be seen under "the church of S. Maria in Via and under the Palazzo Doria-Pamfili. The Ssepta Julia began at the corner of the Via del Corso and the Via del Caravita, and ended precisely under the side door by which the church of S. Marco is entered from the Piazza di Venezia. An ancient well-paved street, running at right angles from the Via Flaminia westwards, was discovered under that side door in March, 1875. Literature. — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Campo Marzio, pi. xxv.; and An- tichitd di Roma, vol. iv. p. 47. — Heinrich Jordan, Forma Urbis, p. 34, pi. vi. n. 34, 35, 36. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Itinerai-io di Einsiedlen, p. 39. — Christian Huelsen, Bull, com., 1893, p. 119, pis. vi., vii. Little or nothing is known of the Villa Publica. It was erected on the south border of the campus, between the (subsequent site of the) Ssepta, the Circus Flaminius, and the cliffs of the Capito- line hiU, probably on the other side of the above-named street which runs across the Palazzo di Venezia. The villa was finished in 432 B. c, and used for taking the census in the same year. It served also for other public business, which could not be trans- acted within the walls, such as the levying of troops, the reception of foreign ambassadors before they obtained an audience from the Senate, and of victorious generals awaiting their decree for a triumph. Publius Fonteius Capito rebuilt it at the time of Augustus, to efface, perhaps, the memory of the wholesale slaughter of 8,000 prisoners of war, the " flos Hesperife, Latii iam sola inventus " of Lucanus (ii. 197), perpetrated by order of Sulla on November 4, 82 b. c. The Villa Publica was not simply a field shaded by trees, but contained splendid edifices, which appear in the coins of the Didii and of the Pompeii. Varro, who came to vote in the Ssepta in the elections of 54 b. c, says that his friend Q. Axius and himself, to avoid the scorching sun while waiting for the i-esults of the scrutiiiy, retired under the shade of the trees of the villa. The villa and the Saepta served also for the organization of triumphs, the pageant moving afterwards in the direction of the Portico of Octavia and of the Porta Triumphalis of the Servian walls, through which the victorious general was wont to enter the city. It seems that the portico under shelter of which the pro- cession was organized took the name of Portions Triumphi, and that it was exactly one mile long ; but whether it is the same THE MONUMENTA AGRIPP^ 473 as that mentioned by Cicero in the Sfepta, or whether it belonged to the viUa, it is not possible to say. At all events this Porticus Triumphi, one mile long, became the prototype of similar places in Roman villas for taking a " constitutional " on foot {amhulatio) or in a lectica (gestatio). However, as very few privileged ones could afford to have in their gardens or villas an avenue or a portico one mile long, it became the fashion to put at the entrance of such ambulationes or gestationes an advertisement to this effect : " If you go round ten times this [oval or circular] allee, you make exactly one thousand paces, or five thousand feet ; " or else, " If you go up and down five times in this apple yard, you will cover a mile." In progress of time these private walks or drives took the regular name of Porticus Triumphi. Three inscriptions relating to them have already been found : one by Ficoroni in Hadrian's villa,^ one outside the Porta INIetroni by IMatranga, the third at Baise by de Petra. The last says : " This Porticus Triumphi is 556 feet long, 1112 if you go back and forth ; 1112 feet correspond to 222 (double) steps and a half ; therefore, if you go five times over the same length you will cover 556 (double) steps, over a mile." This practice explains the old proverb, " post csenam stabis aut passus mille meabis." Literature. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 842. — Adolf Becker, Topographie, p. 624. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Notizie Scnvi, 1888, p. 709; and Miscellnnen di notizie . . . per la topografia, etc., n. 24, 32. — Babelon, Monn. de la Repuhl., Fonteia, n. 18. The bridge of Agrippa, the cloacae by which he drained the lowest and dampest district of the campus, and the aqueduct of the Virgo have been described in their proper places. I shall now give an account of the two great creations of that statesman, which still stand in their glory among so many ruins of the Campus Martins, — the Pantheon and the Neptunium. XLVII. Pantheon. — The Pantheon of Agrippa well deserves the name of the Sphinx of the Campus Martins, because, in spite of its preservation, it remains inexplicable from many points of view. This uncertainty relates to the general outline as well as to the details of the building. The rotunda is obviously dis- jointed from the portico, and their architectural lines are not in harmony with each other. On the other hand, it is evident that the Pantheon seen by Pliny the elder, in Vespasian's time, was not the one which has come down to us, because there is no place 1 Corpus Inscr., vol. xiv. n. 3695 a. 474 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV in the present building for the Caryatides of Diogenes the Athe- nian, and for the capitals of Syracusan bronze which he saw and described as crowning the columns of the temple. Therefore, when I was asked in 1881 to write an official account of the ex- cavations undertaken by Gnido Baccelli, the Minister of Public Instruction, who freed the Pantheon from its ignoble surround- ings,^ I began the report by stating that the veil of mystery in which the monument was shrouded had by no means been lifted by these last researches, and that perhaps it never would be. We were far from supposing that before a few years had elapsed we should discover another, nay, two more Pantheons under the exist- ing one, and should be able to -declare that Agrippa's name en- graved on the epistyle of the pronaos is historically and artisti- cally misleading. To make the case clear, I must give a brief account of the for- tunes of the building, from Agrippa's time to the last restoration by Septimius Severus and Caracalla. There are two witnesses to the origin of its construction : the legend on the face of the building, m • agrippa • l • f • cos • ter- TiVM • FECIT ; and the record of Dion Cassius, liii. 27, " [Agrippa] finished the construction of the so-called Pantheon." The date of the inscription is 27 b. c, while Dion relates the events of the year 25. This discrepancy of dates may be reconciled if we sup- pose the inscription to commemorate the material completion of the structure, and the historian to be recording the solemn dedication of the Pantheon and of the Lakonikon, which stood close by. The same histoi'ian relates that the Pantheon was dedicated to the ancestral gods of the Julian family, namely. Mars and Venus, and that " Agrippa wished to raise a statue to Augustus also, so that the temple might be placed under his protection. Augustus, however, declined the j^roposal. In consequence of his refusal, only the statue of Julius C«sar was placed inside ; those of Augustus and Agrippa outside in the pronaos." From this passage we gather the evidence that Agrippa's temple was furnished with a i^ortico or pronaos. Now, as I remarked at the beginning, between the present rotunda and the portico inscribed with the name of the founder there is no artistic or structural connection. The cornices of the round body are cut 1 II Pantheon e le Terme di Ar/i-ippn. Prima relazione a sua Eccellenza il Miuistro della Istruzione pubblica. Rome, Salviucci, October, 1881. Ibid., Seconda relazione, August, 1882. THE PANTHEON 475 up by the portico, while those of the portico are intercepted by the round body. There is a break between the two, five and a half centimetres wide, through which the light shines. This state of things has been discussed by Milizia, Fontana, Piranesi, Lazzeri, Hirt, Fea, Piale, Nibby, and Canina. The majority believe, and I believed with them in 1881, that the portico was a later addition ; in other words, that before the refusal of Aiigustus to permit his statue to stand within the temple, Agrippa's architect had not thought of the portico, and that it was added by him when the Emperor selected for his own statue a site outside the rotunda. No less debatable is the relation between the Pantheon and the Thermaj of Agrippa. Regarding this architects and archaeo- logists are divided into two groups. Some believe that the rotunda belongs to the original plan of the baths, and that it was designed for a "caldarium; " others deny any connection between the two. It is interesting, in view of the light now thrown on this subject, to recall what Emil Braun wrote forty-two years ago : " The incomparable circular edifice originally intended by Agrippa to form the termination of the Therms, with which it is intimately coimected, is one of the noblest and most perfect productions of that style of architecture specifically denominated Roman. When the first wonderful creation of this species came into existence, the designei' of this glorious dome appears to have himself shrunk back from it, and to have felt that it was not adapted to be the every-day residence of men, but to be a habitation for the gods. It is as difficult to reconcile the statements of different authors respecting the original idea of Agrippa as it is hazardous to attempt to prove the successive metamorphoses which the plan sketched by the artist has undergone. This much is, however, certain : that with respect to the modal transformation of the whole the consequences have been most melancholy and injurious. The combination of the circular edifice with the rectilinear masses of the vestibule . . . has been unsuccessful, and the original design of the Roman architect has lost much of its significance. . . . No one previously unacquainted with the edifice could form an idea, from the aspect of the portico, of that wonderful structure behind, which must ever be considered as one of the noblest triumphs of the human mind over matter in connection with the law of gravit3^" Eheu, (jiiantum mutatus ab Ula ! How differently we are obliged to sjieak and write after these last discoveries. At the same time, the reader will notice that Emil Braun himself, in 1854, considered 476 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV it difficult, if not impossible, to wrest from the Sphinx of the Campus Martins the secret of its existence and metamorphoses. We kiiow a great deal more now, but the difficulties remain the same. The Thermae were built six years after the dedication of the Pantheon and of the Lakonikon ; namely, in 19 b. c. It appears also that in this second period of the great undertaking Agrippa must have changed his mind more than once. At all events, after the year 19 we hear no more of the Lakonikon, but only of the Thermae. Was the Pantheon connected directly or indirectly with the baths, or did it stand by itself, alone, indei^endent, at the northern end of the quadrangle? In other words, is it possible that the Pantheon, originally dedicated to the gods, should have been used, six years later, as a caldarium, and thus have been ab- sorbed as an integral part of the great whole ? The question must remain unanswered ; so many alterations have taken place at the point of contact between the rotunda and the baths that nothing is left of the first design. No other Koman structure, except the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, has been so unfortunate, and has undergone so many trials. In the year 80, during the fire of Titus, the baths and the Pantheon were burnt down. Domitian restored both. In 110, under the rule of Trajan, a thunderbolt set the building on fire, and destroyed it to the level of the ground. How such a thing could have happened is a mystery, to be added to the many others connected with this structure. In the years 120-124 Hadi-ian reconstructed the rotunda and the baths, as shown by his biogra- pher, ch. 19. Some other dreadful accident must have happened soon after, for Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius, is said to have restored templum Agrippce. In the year 202 Septimius Severus and Caracalla PANTHEVM VETVSTATE corrvptvm restitvervnt. These words, engraved on the same entablature which is inscribed with the name of the founder, are more than enigmatic. How is it possible that a structure of immense solidity, only eighty years old if we reckon from the restoration of Hadrian, fifty or sixty if we reckon from the restoration of Antoninvis, should have become in so short a time " vetustate corrupta " ? It may help us to explain the fact if we assume that, while the upper part of the Pantheon was often struck by lightning and attacked by fire, the lower part was siibmerged by the Tiber three or four times a year. Fire and water must have increased tenfold the destructive power of time. THE PANTHEON 477 Summing up the information supplied to us by writers and inscriptions, we had come to the following inferences, which were hypotheses rather than conclusions : first, that the present Pan- theon, inscribed with the name of Agrippa, was sub- stantially his work ; sec- ond, that the portico was a later addition to, or al- teration of, the original plan ; third, that some de- tails of the structure, espe- cially the inner decoration, were the work of Hadrian and of Severus and Cara- calla ; fourth, that the Pan- theon had never been used as a caldarium. Such were the current theories at the beginning of 189'2. At that time the Depart- ment of Antiquities was raising a movable scaffold- ing to repair the dome in two or three places, where rain-water had filtered in and damaged the coating of stucco. A distinguished pupil of the French Acad- emy (Villa Medici), Louis Chedanne, then engaged in the architectural study of the Panthe- on, was allowed by the department to take advantage of the scaf- folding and to examine the structure of the great dome. He was surprised to find it built of bricks stamped with a date (Agrip- pa's bricks are not dated) ; and the date was of the time of Ha- drian. It was felt to be desirable to ascertain at once whether these bricks belonged to a local and unimportant restoration of the beginning of the second century, or whether they bore testimony to the chronology of the whole edifice. The masonry of the rotunda, like that of Hadrian's mausoleum, is faced with small triangular bricks, and with rows of tegulae bipedales at intervals of five feet, one above the other. (See p. 47.) Since these tegulte bipedales are dated, as a rule, holes were bored Fig. 186. —The Pantheon flooded by the Tiber. (From a water-color by Pannini, in possession of the author.) 478 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV into them in about fifty places, and as many brick-stamps were found ; some on the outside facing, others in the thickness of the wall, in the foundations, in tlie dome, in the staircases, in the arches and vaults ; in short, wherever the search was made. The dates vary from a. d. 115 to 125. I mean, they are the dates of tilers who produced bricks between those dates. A stricter chronological investigation, too minute and technical to be recorded in these pages, has enabled us to ascertain that the reconstruction of the Pantheon began in the year 120, and was finished in 124. It was absolute, complete, from the lowest depths of the foundations to the skylight of the dome ; it included the rotunda as well as the portico, whose foundations have also been explored to a depth never reached before. In short, the present Pantheon, the world-known masterpiece, — counted by Ammianus Marcellinus among the wonders of Rome, considered by Michel- angelo "disegno angelico e non umano," proclaimed by Urban VIII. "fedificium toto terrarum orbe celeberrimum," ^ — is not the work of Agrippa, whose name it bears, but the work of Hadrian. The fact, however startling, is confirmed by other evidence, to whicli little or no attention has been paid. In a pamphlet entitled " Conclusione per la integrita del Pantheon," Rome, 1807, Carlo Fea, then Commissioner of Antiquities, describes how, on Septem- ber 13, 1804, he found three brick-stamps of the time of Hadrian, — one in the thickness of the round wall, one under the flagstones of the portico, one in the so-called Lakonikon. Piranesi, who wit- nessed the barbaric " restorations " of Benedict XIV. in 1747, read likewise on the brick of the attic other names and dates of the same period. We must now meet the question which at once confronts us in this new state of things. In rebuilding the Pantheon in its entirety, from top to bottom, from the steps of the portico to the small apse at the opposite end of the structure, did Hadrian respect the architectural form of Agrippa's (and Domitian's) building, or did he erect a new structure of his own design, alto- gether different in general outline and details? The following considerations may help the student to unravel the tangle. If we read on the face of the Pantheon the names of Agi-ippa, the founder, and of Septimius Severus, the restorer in 202 b. c, and not that of Hadrian, the explanation is ready at hand. " Ha- drian never inscribed his name on the monuments which he designed and raised, with the exception only of the temple which 1 See inscriptiiin on the vestibule. THE PANTHEON 479 he dedicated to Trajan," at the northern end of the Forum. So says his biographer in ch. 19. The omission of the name is thus easily explained. Some one, however, has succeeded in finding it inside the rotunda. In a paper read before the Archaeological Academy by Stefano Piale, June 26, 1828,^ I find the following passage : — " I have been kindly informed by our secretary, Filippo Aui-elio Visconti, that when the tribune (the main altar and apse) of the rotunda was restored, a short time ago, the name of Julia Sabina, the Empress of Hadrian, was found engraved on the columns of pavonazzetto. This confirms the theory which I have long held, that the apse does not belong to the original structure, but is the work of Hadrian. He made use of it as a bench, when he, together with other magistrates, sat in the Pantheon to administer justice and dictate the law, as we are told by Dion Cassias." The inference to be drawn from these remarkable statements is that the inscription on the face of the building, which we had always supposed to be the "signature," as it were, of the first builder of the Pantheon, must be considered simply as homage paid to his memory by some one who did the work over a century and a half later. This unknown person was a great artist, in the true sense of the word, a worthy rival of the great ApoUodoros, the builder of the Forum of Trajan. The Temples of Veiuis and Kome, of Matidia, of Trajan, of Neptune, designed and built by Hadrian, his own mausoleum, the bridge which leads to it, count among the architectural masterpieces of ancient Rome. To a man possessed of such genius the rebuilding of the Pantheon must have proved an almost irresistible temptation to show his power ; it is more than probable, therefore, that the original design would have been changed, enlarged, improved. This supposition, namely, that the pre-Hadrianite structure was different in shape, size, material, etc., seems to be supported by the record of the two fires in the times of Titus and Trajan. The present building is absolutely fire-proof ; ^ therefore the Pantheon of Agrippa and of Domitian, wrecked by fire in the years 80 and 110, must have been different from that of Hadrian and Septimius Severus, which does not con- tain one inch of inflammable matter. To pass from theory to fact, from speculation to substantial evi- deHce, there was but one way left open : to make a search under 1 Uii momimenlo . . . delta basilica di S. Paolo. Rome, 1828. - Tlie wooden fraiuework of the roof of the portico is an innovation of the seventeentli century; the original trusses were cast in bronze. 480 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV the rotunda and its portico. The work has been carefully carried out by all concerned with it, but the results are rather disappoint- ing : they have led only to greater confusion and uncertainty. First as to the interior of the rotunda. The excavations made in a line from the centre to the chapel of the Madonna del Sasso, and also from the centre to the entrance gate, have shown the existence of an earlier marble pavement at the average depth of six feet under the present one (Hadrian's). The pavement is com- posed of a bed of concrete, over which are laid slabs of giallo antico and pavonazzetto, marbles which were used in this form and for such purpose only under the Empire. The pavement is not hori- zontal, but slopes from the centre towards the circumference, like the lower floor of the arena of the Coliseum. The pavement, therefore, belongs to a circular space open to rain ; and a cii'cular wall, built of reticulated masonry, has actually been discovered around the j^resent structure, to which it is concentric. It is marked in red in Fig. 185. The same pavement has been found running under the portico, at a depth of five feet. The bed of con- crete is one foot thick ; the marble slabs from two to three inches. As regards the portico itself — under and near which the exca- vations have been carried on with much more freedom than those inside — it has been found to rest on a magnificent substructure of travertine, much larger and of different design (marked also in red in Fig. 185). The level of the platform is nearly eight feet lower than the floor of Hadrian's portico, and between the two there are traces of an intermediate one. It is very difficult for me to make this account clear without the help of plans and diagrams. However, summing up the facts which I have tried to describe, and the results of the search made by the Department of Antiquities, we reach the following con- clusions. (1) The present Pantheon, portico included, is not the work of Agrippa, but of Hadrian, and dates from A. d. 120-124. (2) The columns, capitals, and eiitablature of the portico in- scribed with Agrippa's name may be original, and may date from 27-25 B. c. ; but they were first removed and then put together again by Hadrian. The original portico was decastyle, as shown by the foundations of travertine, which project right and left of the present octostyle portico enough to admit one more interco- lumniation at each end (see plan). (3) The original structure of Agrippa was rectangular instead of round, and faced the south instead of the north. It resembled THE PANTHEON 481 in shape the Temple of Concord, that is to say, the facade was on one of the longer sides of the parallelogram, and not on one of the smaller. This shape is special to the Augustea, and the Pantheon belonged to this class of buildings. (4) In front of the rectangular temple opened a round space, inclosed by a wall of reticulated work and paved with slabs of giallo and pavonazzetto. The wall can still be seen at the level of the foundations of Hadrian's rotunda, with which it is concentric. (5) The platform, built of huge blocks of travertine, some eight feet below Hadrian's level, dates from the time of Agrippa. (6) The intermediate marble floor (from two to three feet higher than Agrippa's, from five to six feet lower than Hadrian's) dates most likely from the time of Domitian. (7) Septimius Severus and Caracalla did not alter the shape of the structui-e. Their restorations were only superficial, and relate mostly to the attic inside, which they incrusted with slabs of por- phyry and serpentine. Their beautiful decorations were destroyed by Pope Benedict XIV. in 1747. (8) If the outside architecture of Hadrian's rotunda is rather coarse, and not worthy the exquisite beauty of the interior, we must remember that the round body — the front excepted — was entirely concealed and made invisible by the therma?. The history of the building, from its last restoration in a. d. 202 to our own time, is too well known to be narrated again in these pages. I shall mention two episodes only : one relating to the destruction of the roof of the portico by Pope Barberini, the other to the discovery of Raphael's body in 1833. Giacinto Gigli, a diarist contemporary with Urban VIII., thus describes his shameful action : " In 1625, while the war-cry was raised from one end of the peninsula to the other. Urban VIII. made a great provision of arms and ammunition, and more especially of artillery. To provide himself with a copious stock of ' materia prima,' he caused the portico of the Pantheon to be stripped of its bronze roof, a marvelous work, resting on the capitals of the columns. But no sooner was the destruction accomplished than he found the alloy of the metal not hard enough for casting guns.^ Meanwhile, the population, who flocked in great numbers to see what was being done at the Pantheon, were deeply grieved, and urged that such a beautiful work of antiquity, the only one which had escaped plunder from the barbarians, should not now be dis- mantled. But the intention of the pope was not to destroy the 1 Gigli affirms that the metal "was copiously mixed with silver and gold." 482 URBS SACRA REG I ON UM XIV Pantheon : he gave orders for the construction of a new roof, and showed his willingness to make other improvements. The weight of the metal stored in the apostolic foundry was 450,251 pounds, of which 440,877 represented tlie weight of the beams, 9374 that of the nails alone. Besides the four columns of the baldaccluno in S. Peter's, eighty guns were cast from it, and mounted on the bastions of Castel S. Angelo." Fig. 187. —The Pantheon at the time of Urban VIII. (1C25). The story about the casting of the four columns of the baldac- cluno is not correct : the bronze, save a few thousand pounds, was all absorbed by the guns of Castello. Giano Nicio Eritreo, another eye-witness, tlius speaks of the event : " Our good pontiff, Urban VIII., could not bear the idea that such a mass of metal, intended for loftier j)urposes, should humble itself to the office of keeping off forever the rain from the portico of the Pantheon. He raised it to worthier destinies, because it is becoming that such noble material shoidd keep oft' the enemies of the Church rather than the rain. At all events, Agrippa's temple has gained more than it has lost, because Pope Urban VIII. has provided it with a much better roof" (tectum multo quam antea eleganttus). Carlo Fea has discovered among the accounts of the pope's treasury that concerning the fate of the bi-onze. Tlie casting of THE PANTHEON 483 the eighty guns (homhanlf) used up 410,778 pounds, worth 67,260 scudi. The snuill traction that was left was handed over to the Apostolic Chamber and used for other purposes. The metal for the baldacchino was supplied from A^enice. Fig. 188. — The Bronze Trusses of the Prouaos of tlie Pantheon, from a Sketch by Dosio. I have found in the Uffizi in Florence, and in other private col- lections, a set of drawings by Sallustio Peruzzi, Sebastiano Serlio, Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Jacopo Sansovino, and Cherubino Al- berti, which show the construction of the bronze trus,ses in their minutest details. The main beams were composed of three sheets, two vertical, one horizontal, riveted together in this shape. The beams as well as the heads of the nails \ f^ =j] were ornamented with gilt rosettes. One of the nails ""' '"'' ' was presented as a souvenir to the Duke of Alcala and was placed in the private museum of that dis- tinguished statesman. I have also discovered docu- ments which prove that the bronze doors, so often brought forward as a specimen of antique workmanship, were practically cast over at the time of Pius IV. The second and latest episode in the history of the Pantheon is the discovery of the remains of Raphael, which took place on 484 L^RBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV September 14, 1833. The search began in the early morning of September 9, in the presence of a committee of eminent artists, prelates, and public notaries. It took five days to remove the massive masonry of the altar and to reach the arcosolium under the statue of the Madonna del Sasso, the place distinctly men- tioned by Vasari in Raphael's biography as well as in Lorenzetto Lotti's. " Raphael provided in his will for the restoration of one of the antique tabernacles in the chui'ch of S. Maria Rotonda, and expressed the wish to be bitried in it, under the new altar, and under a marble statue of Our Lady." In the " Life of Lo- renzetto " he adds : " In execution of Raphael's M'ill, he modeled a marble statue four cubits high, to be placed over his tomb in S. Maria Rotonda, in the tabernacle restored at his expense." The arcosolium appears to have been built in a hurry, together with the wall which sealed its opening — a particular which agrees well with the account of the burial. Raphael died in the night between Good Friday and Easter Eve (1.520). His remains were laid to rest on the following night, and the wall which seals the opening of the crypt must have been finished before dawn ; that is to say, before the Easter office began. Every kind of material was used in it, bricks, tufa, travertine, and chips of porphyry and serpentine. At noon of September 14, 1833, the last stone was removed, and the excited assembly beheld for the first time the remains of the " divine painter." They were lying in a coffin made of deal boards nailed with small iron nails. It seems that the waters of the Tiber, by which the Pantheon is periodically inundated, had filtered into the tomb, in si^ite of its being surrounded by a wall two feet thick, and had caused the wooden coffin to decay, and the bones to be covered by a layer of mud. Tlie first bones to appear were the right scapula and the crest of the right ilium. At 2.25 p. M. Gaspare Servi announced the discovery of the skull, the lead- ing feature of which was a double set of strong, healthy, shining teeth. At 2.30 Baron Camuccini, the painter, made a jsencil sketch of the skeleton, which shows that the body had been laid to rest well composed, with hands crossed on the breast, and the face looking up towards the Madonna del Sasso, as if imploring from her the peace of the just. The size of the skeleton, from the vertex of the skull to the protuberance of the heel, was measured by means of a wooden compass of the kind used by marble-cutters : it was given at 1664 millimetres, exactly eight times the measure of the head. The sceletognosis, or expert examination of the bones, THE PANTHEON 485 was made by the " last of the Frangipani," the learned surgeon Baron Antonio Trasmondo. Among the peculiarities described in his report, there is a " great roughness of the thumb," which is characteristic of painters. The mud which filled the arcosolium was sifted most carefully, Fig. 189. — The Remains of Raphael, discovered September 14, 1833. (From a contemporary drawiug.) with no result worthy of notice. The missing tooth of the lower jaw (the last molar on the left) was not found. There were, how- ever, some tags and small rings for lacings, which proves that Raphael was buried in his official robe of " cubicularius ponti- ficis," a design of which is given by some contemporary painters. After being exposed in a glass case for some days, Raphael's remains were again buried under the Madonna del Sasso, near those of Maria da Bibiena, his betrothed, the niece of the well- known Cardinal Bernardo Divizio, as the inscription over the girl's grave says : l.etos hymeneos morte pr^evertit, et ante NUPTIALES FACES VIRGO EST ELATA. The ]3roposal to demolish the houses which surrounded the Pan- theon on three sides, concealed its proportions, and destroyed its 486 URBS SACRA REG I ON UM XIV architectural effect, dates from the age of Pomponius Letus, who complains of the state of things in his " Dialogues." Eugenius IV. lowered the rubbish accumulated against the portico, and paved the piazza and the adjoining streets. Urban VIII., having stripped the roof of the portico of its bronze beams, restored the east corner of the colonnade, and destroyed the shops built between the granite pillars. Alexander VII. put two columns from the baths of Nero (found in the Piazza di S. Luigi de' Francesi) in place of those missing, and pulled down some houses from which the canons of the Rotonda derived an income of 1500 scudi a year. Pius VII. demolished the booths of fishmongers which surrounded the fountain. Pius IX. in 1854 carried the demolition of the houses as far as the Palazzo Vittori-Bianchi on the corner facing the Minerva. The city of Rome in 1876 cut away one half of the Crescenzi and Aldobraudini palaces. The minister of public in- struction, Guido Baccelli, brought the matter to a close in 1882, at a cost of over £30,000. The works were inaugurated on July 1, 1881, and completed in the following January. Houses and palaces of 150 metres frontage were demolished, two thousand square metres of Agrippa's baths excavated, two thirds of the Pantheon restored to view, and many thousand metres of debris carted away. The literature on the Pantheon up to 1881 is given by the Notizie Scavi, 1881, p. 256 ; after that date by Huelsen, Nomendator, p. 49. The latest work is Giovanni Eroli's Raccolta f/enerale delle iscrisioni nel Pantheon di Roma. Narni, Petrignani, 1895. XL VIII. The name of Lakonikon has been given to the beautiful hall laid bare by Baccelli at the back of the Pantheon towards the Via della Palombella, but it is not certain whether we are right in applying it. The hall, which extends under the street and under the Palazzo della Accademia Ecclesiastica for a length of 45 metres and a depth of 19, seems to me more a frigidarium of the baths of the time of Hadrian than an original work of Agrippa. The hall has sixteen niches for statues, and a tribune for a group of great size, back to back with the apse of the Pan- theon. The ceiling was supported by four fluted columns of pa- vonazzetto and four of red granite. The frieze, of which many fragments vs^ere found and replaced in situ, is a marvel of art, pro- bably of the time of Agrippa. This hall was excavated for the first time (?) during the stay in Rome of Giovanni Alberti, whose drawings are the best that THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE 487 we have. It seems that when the ceiling of tliis hall gave way, and thundei'ed down with a sudden crash, some one who happened to be underneath was crushed to death. The bones of this poor fellow, who had probably selected the ruins of Agrippa's baths for his dwelling, were found in December, 1881, under a piece of the cornice weighing many tons. Not far from this strange grave an earthern vase was discovered containing about 2,000 coins of the thirteenth century. This is perhaps the date of the final collapse of Agrippa's baths. There are other indifferent remains visible in the Via dell' Arco della Ciambella and under the adjoin- ing houses. XLIX. Basilica Nkptuni, Neptunium, llOSElAnNlON, Por- Ticus Argoxautarum (the Temple of Neptune and the portico of the Argonauts, the Admiralty of the Empire). — In commemo- ration of the naval victories against Sextus Pompeius at Mysse and at Naulochos (36 b. c), for which he received the naval crown, and of the share he had taken in the battle and victory of Actium (31), Agrippa erected in 26 a group of buildings in the Campus Martins, which comprised a square 108 metres long, and nS metres wide, surrounded by a colonnade and by halls of various kinds, and a temple in the middle of the square dedicated to the (Jod of the Seas. The group is called Uoaeihdiviov, Neptunium, by Dion Cassius, while the portico was named Argonautarum, from the jiaintings of naval subjects — like that of the " Sailors of the Argo " — which it contained. " If we inquire as to the object of so extensive a structure, having in its design so much in common with the fora of the Emperors, we must be satisfied with the answer that, according to all analogy, no other building of ancient Rome seems so suitable for the seat of the Admiralty as this sanc- tuary of Neptune." ^ Like the Iseuni, the Saspta, the Pantheon, the Therm» Agri]>pianfe, and the Diribitorium, it was destroyed in the conflagration of a. d. SO, and restored by Hadrian. A consider- able portion of the temple, including eleven columns of the nortii side, with the corresponding wall of the cella and of the richly decorated ceiling, stands in the Piazza " di Pietra," so called from the " petraia " or marble quarry established within its boundaries in medifeval times. The pillars and their heavy entablature are much injured by fii-e ; the proportions of the order, although not so perfect as was usual at the time of Hadrian, are good, espe- cially if we i-emember that its lofty substructure is buried deep 1 Emil Braun, Ruins and Museums, p. 63. 488 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV undei" the modern soil. This substructure was decorated with figures of Roman provinces, one beneath each column, and with trophies and panoplies, one beneath each intercolumniation. Three provinces and two trophies were discovered under Paul III. (1534-50), and removed, first to the Palazzo Farnese, and then to the Museo Nazionale of Naples, except one fragment left in Rome. Under Innocent X. (1644-55) two more provinces w^ere dug up and presented to the Capitoline Museum, where they were placed, one in the courtyard, one in the lower corridor of the museum. The ti-ophy set in the wall on the first landing of the stairs of the Altieri Palace was probably discovered at the time of the Altieri pope, Clement X. (1670-76). Under Alexander VII. (1655-67) another couple of provinces were discovered in situ, viz., in the basement under two of the existing columns. The pope kept them for himself, and they are still to be seen in the staircase of the Chigi-Odescalchi Palace at SS. Apostoli. In 1876 our Archaeological Commission found six bas-reliefs in the same Piazza di Pietra, placed upside down, in the pavement of a medi- aeval church called S. Stefano del Trullo (demolished by Innocent X.). On February 9, 1883, three more pieces were dug up from the same place, making a total of thirteen provinces and of six panels with panoplies. The peristyle of the temple numbered thirty-six columns, which is the number of the provinces of the Empire when the temple itself was restored by Hadrian. If the wishes of artists and archaeologists had been listened to, provinces and panoplies would have been restored long ago to their original places, so as to make the remains of the Temple of Neptune one of the most beautiful and impressive monuments of Rome ; but the request made to this purpose in the year 1883 was negatived by the state, and the sculptured pieces were allowed to remain scattered in five pajaces or museums, and in two cities, two hun- dred miles apart. The same thing may be said of the Forum, the 150 inscriptions of which, found at various times, are dispersed in eighteen different places, although it would be so easy to restore them to the Forum, if not in the original, at least in plaster casts. Theodor Mommsen, speaking of the " Hemerologium Allifanum," a fragment of which is kept in Naples, the other at Capua, justly exclaims, " Hoc enim voluerunt sive fatorum iniquitas, sive caeca hominum studia, ut eiusdem monument! reliquiae expositae sint in duobus museis, publicis ambobus, et ambobus italis." The Nep-. tunium, however, has gone, and quite recently, through other vicissitudes, which would appear grotesque if the interest of the THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE 489 monument were not at stake. When Innocent XII. turned the place into a " Dogana di terra " (the maritime custom-house was then at the Ripa Grande), his architect plastered over the cornice, not according to its old moulding, of which Palladio and others had taken and left careful designs, but according to his own imagination. In 1878, when the Italian government took down -t T" r C^r 4 "T^^fiES: Fig. I'JO. — The Temple of Neptune : an unfinished Study by Vespignani. the " nu)dernizations " of Innocent XII., it was decided to restore the cornice to its original shape. The person intrusted with the work, having read in Xardini (Nibby, vol. iii. p. 120, n. 1) that a genuine piece of the cornice, discovered under Clement XII. (1730-40) had been removed to the Capitol,^ went there, took by mistake the cast of the cornice of the Temple of Concord, and applied it to that of Neptune — not to the whole of it, but to a 1 The statement is groundless. The beautiful piece of carving was not removed to the Capitol, but sawn into slabs and used in the restoration of the Arch of Constantine. 490 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV space comprising five columns out of eleven. The student who looks at the entablature will find it sectioned in three parts, differ- ent in shape, size, style, and epoch. The (unfinished) sketch of the front of the Neptunium (Fig. 190) is by Vespignani the elder, who in 1880 directed the works for transforming the cella of the God of the Seas into the Bourse of the capital of Italy. A crucifix of a comparatively recent date is sculptured on the fourth column, counting from left to right, about 4.50 metres above ground. The upright piece of the cross falls into the first fluting on the right of the middle one. A genuine piece of the entablature is to be seen in the garden of " la salita delle tre Pile," the winding street whicli leads from the Piazza dell' Aracoeli to that of the Campidoglio. Narducci, who in 1887 explored the network of drains connected with the temple and with the portico of the Argonauts, speaks of them with admiration. They are 2 metres high, 0.70 metre wide, and are covered with large tiles stamped with the names of Faustina the elder and of Annia Lucilla, wife of Lucius Verus. The Neptunium was a favorite subject of study with the artists of the sixteenth century. The vignettes of G. A. Dosio (1.569), of Etienne du Perac (1575), the drawing of Palladio (Archit., iv. c. 15), of Antonio da Sangallo (Uffizi, 1407), of Giovanni Alberti (Borgo S. Sepolcro, p. 38', 39), and of the " Cod. Barberin.," xlviii. 101, enable us to form a better idea of the monument than we can gather from the ruins in their actual state. Literature.— Kodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1878, p. 10, pis. ii. to v.— Gio. Battista Pirauesi, C(un,po Marzio, pi. (xxxiv.) xxxv. — Enrico Nardiieci, Foiinatura, p. 28.—Notisie Scavi, 1878, pp. 64, 92; 1879, pp. 68, 240, 267, SU; 1880, p. 228. G. The Spectacular Buildings. L. TiiEATRUM Marcelli (Theatre of INIarcellus), begun by Julius Cfesar on the site of many public and private buildings ; as, for exanq^le, the Temple of Piety, from the demolition of which he was suspected to have gathered large sums of money. He was also accused of having burnt many statues of gods, carved in wood. The work, unfinished at the time of the death of the dictator, was continued by Augustus, and dedicated in 13 b. c, under the name of his beloved son-in-law Marcellus, then recently deceased. The architecture of the semicircular part resembles that of the Coliseum, the arcades of the lower tier being of the Doric order, those of the upper, of the Ionic. Above the open THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS 491 porticoes was au attic pierced with rectangular windows, and ornamented with pilasters of the Corinthian order. The architect of the Coliseum has certainly designed its exterior in close accord- ance with the lines of this theatre. Both are built in travertine from the Cava del Barco. On the dedication day the " Ludus Trojae " was performed by the sons of illustrious patricians, led by Caius Csesar, the nephew of Augustus; and six hundred wild beasts from Nubia were slain in the circus. The breaking down of the Sella Cm-ulis, on which the Emperor sat to witness the performance, caused him to fall on his back ; but the accident had no serious consequences. Vespasian restored the stage after the fire of Xero, and celebrated the event with scenic plays and musical concerts, in the course of which Apollinaris the tragedian received a gift of 400 sestertia ; Terpnos and Diodoros, harpists, another of 200 each,i besides several crowns of gold. A passage in the Life of Severus Alexan- der, ch. 44, seems to indicate that the theatre was no more used in the first half of the third century (Theatrum Marcelli reficere voluit) ; but the almanacs of the fou.rth century and the poet Ausonius assert the contrary, and give the theatre a capacity of 20,500 seats {loco), which is reduced by Huelsen to about 13,400 by interpreting the word loca in the sense oifeet. ^ When Avianius Symmaclius restored the Cestian bridge (a. d. 365-370), under the rule of Gratianus, he laid his hands on the disused theatre, and made use of some of the travertine blocks belonging to the Doric arcade. After the death of Gregory YII. in 1086 it was turned into a stronghold by the Pierleoni, and for two centuries at least was subject to the same vicissitudes through which the Coliseum and other prominent edifices passed in the time of the barons of that turbulent period. The Pierleoni gave shelter in it to Pope Urban II. (1099), and in it that pope died in 1118. On May 24, 1368, Luca di Jacopo Savelli purchased " plures domus et palatia et antiqua cedijicia cum cryptis posite in monte " (the Monte Savello of the present day), and after the extinction of that family in 1712, the property passed into the hands of the Orsini. The section of the outside shell, visible at present, a magnificent ruin in outline and color, is buried fifteen feet in modern soil, and supports the Orsini palace erected upon its stage and ranges of seats. What stands above ground of the lower or Doric arcades is rented by the prince for the most squalid and ignoble class of shops. Other corridors and rooms are tolerably well preserved ; 1 £3200 and £1600 respectively. 2 Bull, com., 1894, p. 319. 492 URBS SACRA REG I ON UM XTV but being now converted into offices belonging to the palace which has insinuated itself into these ruins, they are not accessible to strangers. The stage lay towards the Tiber, and being lower than half the belts of seats, afforded the spectators massed in the upper mseniana a tine view of the chain of hills on the right bank of the river. The arcades which are seen from the Via del Teatro di Marcello are not the only remains accessible to the student. There are Fig. 191. — Remains of the Hall of the Theatre of Marcellus, from a Sketch by Dii Perac (1575). walls in the cellars of the " Osteria della Campana " close by, described by Venuti as corridors leading to the vomitoria of the equestrian order, and to the orchestra where the senators had their seats. Other walls can be examined in the court of the house Via del Portico d' Ottavia, No. 22. The pillars and cornices of travertine which appear near the gate of the Palazzo Orsini belong to the " aula regia " or " curia " on the left of the stage. This beautiful hall was nearly intact three centuries ago, and the public street leading from the Piazza Montanara to the Ponte Quattro Capi passed through it, as shown in the above sketch by Ktienne du Perac. THE THEATRE OF BALE US 493 LiTEKATUKE. — Corpus Iiiscr., vol. i. p. 392 (April 27); vol. vi. n. 95G, 1660, 9868, 10,028. — Heinrich Jordan, Forma Urbis, pi. iv. n. 29. — Theo- dor Monimsen, Res gestw, iv. 22, p. 88. — Ridolflno Venuti, Antich., vol. ii. p. 75. — Mariano Armellini, Chiese, p. 622. — Kodolfo Lanciani, Bull, corn., 1875, p. 173; 1886, p. 206. —Antonio da Sangallo the elder, Barberln., 4, 37, 71'. — A. da Sangallo the j'ounger, U^ffizi, 930, 932, 1107, 1122, 1270. — Baldassare Peruzzi, Ujjizi, 626. — Vincenzo Scamozzi, Uffizi, 1806. LI. Theatrum et Crypta Balbi, built by L. Cornelius Bal- bus, a friend of Augustus, with the riches acquired during the Fig. 192. — Arcades of the Theatre of Balbus, from a Sketch by Sangallo the Elder. Garamantic war, and dedicated in the year 13, on the return of the Emperor from his campaigns beyond the Alps. An inunda- tion of the Tiber obliged the distinguished company invited to attend the opening ceremony to reach their destination in boats. The fire of Titus did great damage to the structure, but we do not 494 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV know by whom, or at what time, it was repaired. It could accom- modate 11,600 spectators (7700 according to Huelsen). Like the tlieatre of MarceUus, that of Balbiis gave rise to a mound of ruins, called " Monte dei Cenci " from the family of that name who had occupied and fortified it. The name was accepted by the Renaissance in substitution for that of Theatrum Antonini used in the Middle Ages. The remains visible when Piranesi was preparing his magnificent plates of the Campus Martins were two walls once covered by the inarble seats of the cavea ; he saw them in the cellar of a wine-shop, right under the church of S. Tommaso a Cenci, in the Via di S. Bartolomeo de' Vaccinari.^ Those two converging walls have allowed us to trace the exact location of the whole building, the curved part of which faced the Tiber, while the scena was parallel with our Via del Pianto. The want of existing ruins, however, is amply atoned for by a set of drawings taken by the elder Sangallo before the final collapse of the tlieatre, and by the discoveries made in 1888, when the Via Arenula was opened and drained at a great depth on the north side of the theatre. I have as yet had no opportunity of putting together the plans and notes p.'^X Sangallo Barberin. f. 1.2. ^^^ which I took in 1888. To show, however, what valuable documents we possess in con- nection with this theatre, I re- produce in the above illustra- tion (Fig. 192) a sketch taken by Sangallo at the beginning of the sixteenth century, repre- senting a section of the jiortico behind the scene. The-sketcli sIioms a particu- lar quite unprecedented in the history of Roman architecture, that of columns cutting in two the space between the corre- sponding pilasters, and stand- ing right in the middle of the passage, so that the number of columns on the outer line was 1 More walls were visible under the church in the sixteenth century; in a deed of April 15, 1513, they are described as " arcus volti subtus ecclesiam Sancti Thoniae." Fig. 193. THE CRYPTS OF BALE US 495 :r r double that of the pilasters on the inner. Tlie arrangement was really such, as we can gather from fragment n. 115, pi. xvii. of the marble plan, and from another drawing by Sangallo, here re- produced (Fig. 193). The Crypta Balbi. — The name of " crypta " is peculiar to underground porticoes, lighted from windows or skylights above, cooler in summer and warmer in winter than the ordinary open colonnades. We do not know why it was given to the portico built by Balbus behind the scene of his theatre (a portico entirely above ground), unless it was on account of the darkness or " dim religious light" into which the inner halls were plunged owing to the existence of an ujjper story. The crypta, a parallelogram llS.oO metres long and 4'1..5.5 metres wide, occupied the space now bounded by the Via di S. Maria in Cacaberis, Via del Pianto, Via Arenula, and Piazza (xiudea. Two pilasters with engaged columns with their entablature of bricks and travertine are visible on each side of the door No. 23 Via di S. Maria in ,z^^L^.^j:^:xiiim::m Cacaberis; but the whole block of ^i'' 7 "p houses rests on ancient foundations. Nibby explored these substructures in 183.5 and saw traces of the round halls and exhedrai which occupied the mid- dle of the portico. Its original name was preserved in the ]\Iiddle Ages, un- der the diminutive form of crypticula or craticulu. When Baldassare Pe- ruzzi took its plan at the end of the fifteentli century the crypt was almost intact. The arcades were occupied by butchers, sellers of copper vessels (caccabarii), and candlemakers (cande- lottari), by the hoixses of the Santa- croce, and by the church and cemetery of S. Salvatore in Cacaba- riis. The best plan is that of Palladio, in portfolio xi. sheet 1 of the Burlington-Devonshire collection. The best elevation is that of Sangallo the elder, in "Barberin.," f. 1, which I reproduce here at one fifth of the original. The paved square around the theatre was ornamented with sev- eral fountains. One of the basins, of white and black granite, over twenty-two metres in circumference, discovered about 1750 in the Piazza di Branca (now Cairoli), was purchased by Cardinal Ales- Fig. 194. — Remains of the Cr}'pta Balbi, designed by Sangallo the Elder. 496 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV sandro Albani, and removed to his villa on the Via Salai'ia. Another, smaller in size, was discovered on the same spot in 1887, and has been set up in the garden of the Piazza Cairoli in front of the Santacroce palace. Here also was found in the seventeenth century the beautiful statue of the sitting Ares now in the Ludovisi- Boncomj)agni museum, described by Helbig, " Guide," vol. ii. p. 115, n. 883. Literature. — Hochte, De L. Cornelio Balbo, 1882. — Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 586. — Beschreibung Ronis, vol. iii. 3, fiO. — Notizie Scavi, 1887, pp. 114, 144, 230, 276, 327. — Antonio Sangallo the elder, Barberin., f. 1, 2, 4', 14'. — Baldassare Penizzi, Uffizi, n. 486. — Fra Gioeondo (?), {bid. 125. — Piranesi, Antichita, vol. iv. pi. 46; and Cumpo Marzio, pi. xv. LII. Odeum. — Becker refers the building of this theatrical hall, capable of containing 10,600 (7000) spectators, to the insti- tution of the Agon Capitolinus, a competition for the world's championship in gymnastics, equestrian sports, music, and poetry, established by Domitian at the beginning of his reign. It was probably restored by Trajan, Ammianus Marcellinus numbers it among the most beautiful monuments of the Urbs sterna. Topographers place it on the site of the present Palazzo Massimi, Corso Vittorio Emmanttele, on account of the discovery of great architectural fragments from a " curved " edifice made in its foundations. This surmise seems to be substantiated by quite recent finds of the same nature. Literature. — Suetonius, Domitian, 4. — Dion Cassius, Ixix. 4. — Ammi- anus Marcellinus, xvi. 10. — Luigi Canina, Indicaz. topogr., p. 394. — Ridolfino Venuti, Antichita, \i. lf)%. — Stefano ^lorceWi, SuW Agone capitolino. Milan, 1816. — Joachim Marquardt, Handbuch der ramiscJien Altertlmmer, vol. iv. p. 453. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 280. LIII. Stadium. — The Romans were so insatiable for spectacu- lar performances of every description that, in spite of the many buildings permanently erected for this purpose, temporary ones (subitaria) were very often raised to meet extraordinary emergen- cies. In ch. 39 of Csesar's Life, Suetonius mentions a stadium ad tempus extructum in the Campus Martins, for athletic competitions which lasted three days ; Dion Cassius (liii. 1) another, ^vXivov (wooden) erected in the same jilace under Augustus. A memento of this last was discovered in 1547 in the Piazza di S. Apollinare, opposite the palace of Cardinal Ridolfi, in the shape of two marble pedestals, commemorating the " votive games " performed in it in the years 13 and 7 b. c, on the return of Augustus from the Spanish THE STADIUM 497 and Gallic wars. There were also five scenic masks cut in marble, in the shape of those preserved in the theatre at Ostia. Domitian built a permanent stadium, in which the gladiators fought whenever the amphitheatre was closed for repairs. The Fig. 195. -Remaius of the Stadium discovered in 1869, at the South End of the Piazza Navona. stadium, capable of containing 30,088 spectators, was restored by Severus Alexander ; hence the name of " Circus Alexandrinus " given to it in the Middle Ages. The stadium is now represented in size and shape by the Piazza Navona, on which the Roman muni- cipality lias imposed the doubly wrong name of " Circo Agonale." The houses, palaces, and churches by which the piazza is sur- 498 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV rounded are all standing on the well-preserved ruins of the seats and corridors. The only part accessible to students is the " for- nices" under the church of S. Agnese, where the lovely young martyr is said to have been publicly exposed after her torture, and to have struck with blindness the first person who saw her degra- dation. This account is substantiated in its main lines by the well-known passage in the " Vita Ileliogab.," 26 — '• onines de circo, de theatre, de staclio . . . nieretrices coUegit." Another fragment of the substructures is to be seen in the court of the house No. 31 Via delle Cinque Lune. The first accounts of excavations date from 1511, when some richly carved bases and friezes were found "under a church (S. Agnese de Cryptis Agonis) near the palace of the countess of Massa." Pius IV. is responsible for the destruction of the east side between the Piazza Navona and the Piazza Madonna, whicli lie undertook in August, 1561, to provide building materials for his casino in the Vatican gardens. Other sections were demol- ished by Du Jardin, the architect of S. Nicolo dei Lorenesi ; by Rainaldi, the architect of the Palazzo Pamfili ; and by Morelli, the architect of the Palazzo Braschi. I have myself seen the remains of the Stadium excavated twice : on October 13, 1868, at the curved end, towards S. Apollinare; and on December 10, 1869, at the opposite or square end, by the Via della Cuccagna, when the plio- tograph was taken which is here reproduced (Fig. 19.5). The custom of flooding the Piazza Navona on Sundays in July and August, instituted in 1652, was given up in 1867. LiTEKATUEE. — Corpus Inscr., v(i]. vi. n. .385, 380. — Cod. Vatic, 5253, f. 362; and 60-39, f. 246, 247. — Antonio Sangallo, Uffizi, n. 1-321.— Santjallo il Ciobbo, ibiiL, 1552.- — Francesco Cancellieri, II mercato, il lago, etc. Rome, 1811. — Gio. Battista Piranesi, Camp. Mart., tav. xxxvii. — Bianconi, Dei Circlii, pp. 8,18, 84. — Eniiliano Sarti, Arch. Societa .er channel. As the Pons Sublicius can be compared to a certain extent with London Bridge, so the Vicus Alexandri may be called the Gravesend of ancient Rome. The Pons Sublicius, by preventing vessels furnished with masts from reaching the wharves up stream, divided tlie navigation of the noble river into two sections, the maritime and the fluvial. Bargees, porters, lightermen, pilots, sailors, skippers, underwriters, etc., connected with the maritime section were probably called infernates, an adjective which is better explained in tlie " Corpus Inscr.," vi. n. 1639, by the phrase " infra pontem sublicium." below bridges ; those connected with the section above bridges were probably called supernates. These rowdy crowds lived mostly in the slums of the Trastevere, under the watch of tlie vigiles. Sailors from foreign lands placed their interests in the hands of their respective consuls or ttp6i,evoi, of whom many records have been found at Porto, at Ostia, and in Rome itself. These foreigners were also allowed to worship their own gods. 0eo! irarpuoi. in places appointed by the Harbor and 510 URBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV Docks Commissioner. We find, therefore, some of the consuls in- vested at the same time with commercial and religious functions. The copious and highly interesting epigraphic material collected in vols. vi. and xiv. of the " Corpus " on the subject of the harbor of Rome, and of the motley crowd which thronged its .quays, has not yet been examined synthetically. Such a study would make us acquainted with many details regarding the various lines of navigation, the quantity and quality of merchandise imported and exported, the corporations of tradesmen haunting the wharves (portits, ripce) and the warehouses (liorreci), the police of the river, etc.i Fi"om the point of view of topography and of existing remains, we must confine ourselves to the following brief considerations : — The left bank of the river, within the limits above stated, was divided into sections or wharves, called portus or harbors. The wharves did not protrude into the river : they were simply sections of the quay or embankment, provided with landings, stairs, or inclines, and niooring-rings, parallel with the stream, and destined for a particular kind of trade, — for marbles, wine, oil, lead, pot- tery, building-materials, fish, fuel, timber, iron, and so forth. They were named from their special appropriation, as the Portus vinarius, lignarius, etc. ; or from the owner of the wharf, as the Por- tus Licinii, Portus Vargse ; or from the seaport with which the trade was carried on, such as the Portus Neapolitanus, etc. The name portus for a wharf has survived to the present day, although their number has been reduced to two (Porto della Legna and Porto della Pozzolana). The classic name of r-ijja for a quay or embankment would also have survived, had it not been officially 1 Inscriptions speak of " mei'catores frumentarli et olearii Afrarii," im- porters of wheat and oil from Northern Africa (n. 1620); of " negotiatores olearii ex Ba;tica," importers of oil from Andalusia (n. 1025, b), also called ■ " mercatores olei hispani ex provincia Bsetica " (n. 19.'54) ; of "negotiantes vini Ariminensis," importers of wine from the Northern Adriatic coast (n. 1101); of "negotiantes boarii qui invehent." importers of cattle (n. 1035), and , so on. Engaged in the river trade and in harbor operations were the " codi- carii," also called "codicarii navicularii," forming the crew of light ships em- ployed in transporting the corn from Ostia to Rome (Marquardt, Staatsveru\, ii. 110); the "curatores navium amnalium et marinarum," whose duties in ref- erence to river barges and sea-going vessels are not well defined; the " leuun- . cularii," patrons of skiffs; the "lenuncularii traiectuum," specially engaged in ferrying men and merchandise from one bank to the other; the "fabri navales," shipbuilders or repairers; the " stuppatores " or calkers ; the "saburrarii," loaders and unloaders of ballast; the "scapharii," boatmen and bargees; the " urinatores," divers, etc. See Corpus, vol. xiv. p. .581. THE FORUM HOLITORIUM 511 substituted by that of " Lungo Tevere." Aud we have come to the point of having a section of the embankment called " Lungo Tevere Ripa " ! A''egetables, imported by land or water, were put for sale in a special market called the — LIX. Forum Holitorium (see p. 458). — Its site corresponds with that of the Piazza Montanara. It was surrounded by stately buildings, like the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple of Apollo, the Porticus Minucia, and the four temples of Juno (Sospita?), of Janus, of Spes, and of Pietas. Remains of the Porticus Minucia can be seen under the houses Nos. 27 and 34 on the east side of the piazza, and also in the Via della Bufola, under the house No. 35, belonging to Augusto Castellani. Others were discovered and destroyed in December, 1879, during the demolition of a block of houses at the south end of the Piazza INIontanara. The Porticus Minucia is built of travertine, and its jiilasters are crowned with Doric capitals. Opposite the portico and in a j^arallel line with it, under, within, and around the church of S. Nicola in Carcere — so named from the Byzantine state prison of Rome, which opened on the adjoin- ing street of Porta Leone (Pierleoni) — are the remains of three temjiles of the time of the Republic — two of the Ionic, one of the Doric order. The Temple of Hope, built about 253 b. c. by Aulus Atilius Calatinus, in fulfillment of a vow made during the Spanish cam- paign, is the nearest to the Theatre of JNIarcellus. The middle temple, the largest of the three, of Ionic architecture like the pre- ceding one,i is considei-ed to be the Templum Pietatis vowed by Manius Acilius Glabrio at the battle of Thermopylae, and built and dedicated by his son in 181 b. c. The question has been asked whether or not the name of Piety was connected with the legend of the pious daughter who, with the milk of her breast, kept alive her father, sentenced to death by starvation in the prison built by Appius the decemvir. The legend, however, is much later than the temple itself. In the excavations made in 1808 by the archi- tect Valadier the pedestal of an equestrian statue was found at the foot of the stairs in front of the temple ; the same, most likely, as that mentioned by Livy. 1 The volutes of the capitals of the columns differ from the ordinary tj'pe, and attracted the attention of Rapliael by their singularity. Compare Winckel- mauu's Storia delle Arti, vol. iii. p. 59. 512 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV The third and smallest temple, of the Doric order, is considered to be the one vowed to Juno Sospita by CnPBus Cornelius Cethegus during his encounter with the Insubrian Gauls in 197 B. c. To study these interesting remains, it is necessary to make the tour of the block of houses within which the church of S. Xicola is con- fined, and also to descend into the crypt, where some interesting- details can be seen. (Apply to the sacristan.) When Byron was in Rome, the crypt was shown to him as the real prison of Appius the decemvir, and to it he dedicated the well-known stanza commencing with the verse, " There is a dun- geon in whose dim drear light." The name of S. Pietro in Carcere appears for the first time in the Life of Urban II. (1088- 99), but it is of earlier origin. Compare Duchesne, " Liber pontifi- calis," vol. i. p. 515, n. 13 ; and vol. ii. p. 295, n. 12, 13. The area of the Forum Holitorium between the three temples and the Porticus Minucia is paved with slabs of travertine. Valadier saw the pavement in 1808, and I traced it myself for a length of 30 or 40 metres on November 20, 1875. In the middle of it stood the Colunma Lactaria, where infants were exposed and abandoned to public charity. Here also auctions were held. No traces are left of the " Templum Jani apud Forum Holitorium " built by C. Duilius, reconstructed by Tiberius, the anniversary feast of which fell on August 17. Literature. — Pietro Bellori, Veatiff. vet. Romxe, p. 1. — Corjyus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 562, 979, 1113, 29,8-30. — Adolf Becker, Tojwr/raphie, pp. 259, G02. - Antonio Nibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 17. — Nofizle degli Scavi, 187fi, p. 138; 1879, p. 314. The fundamental designs for the whole group are by Baldassave Peruzzi, marked 477, 478, 536, 537, 573, 631 in the Uffizi collection. See also Piranesi, Camp. Mart., y>1. xiv. — Bt'srln-eibiuir/, vol. iii. 3(6-13). — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1875, p. 173. — Otto IlirsehtVld, Verwaltungsgeschichte, p. 134; and Philologus, xxix. 63. — Theodor Mommscn, Staatsrecht, ii^, p. 1053. LX. Forum Boarium (the cattle wharves and cattle market). — A remarkable inscription discovered in 1892 on the Via Prpenestina speaks of a cattle-dealer as one of the celebrated men of the age : " To the memory of M. Antonius Terens, from Misenum, elected to the highest offices in his native city, a most famous importer of pigs and sheep " (negotlatofi celeherrimo suarice et pecuarice), etc.^ The supplies for the daily maintenance of the population of Rome were not brought in and sold promiscuously in one or more mar- kets (the Macella were used for retail trade only), but each whole- 1 The tombstone is exhibited in the Museo delle Terme, on the east wing of the cloisters. See Bull, com., 1891, p. 318. THE FORUM BOARIUM 513 sale trade had its own special place. The Forum Boariiim was set apart for dealers in horned cattle, the Vinariuni for wine merchants, the Piscarium for fishmongers, the Ilolitoriuni for green-grocers, the Pistorium for importers of grain ; candles, paper, spices were sold in the Horrea Candelaria, Chartaria, Piperataria ; the trade in boots and shoes had its centre in the Vicus Sandali- arius ; that of perfumes in the Vicus Tuscus. Goldsmiths had taken possession of the Porticus Margaritaria on the Sacra Via, booksellers of the Argiletum, copyists or antiquaries of the Forum Julium. The streets, or \dci, Lorarius, Vitrarius, Argentarius ; the squai-es, or areae, Pannaria, Lanataria, had pi'obably been so named from the saddlers, glaziers, money-changers, and dry-goods merchants who had their shops in them. M. Antonius Terens must have become celebrated in the pig market, Forum Suarium, the place of which is still marked by the church of S. Nicolao in Porcilil)us, Via dei Lucchesi ; and in the sheep market. Campus Pecuarius, the site of which is not known. Both places were subject to the jurisdiction of the pi-efect of the city. Dealings were regulated by strict rules engraved on marble in a double copy : one was posted in the Porticus Tellurensis, the official ad- vertising place of the Pra^fectura Urbis ; the other on the market itself. We possess the original regulations issued in a. d. 8;i9 by the Prefect Apronianus : one concerning the dealers in pigs, one the dealers in sheep. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 1770, 1771.) The situation of these two markets in or near the centre of the city gives rise to this question. Were they really destined to actual trade in cattle? and if so, how was the daily passage of cattle through the city regulated? The inscription on the so-called " Arco degli Argentieri " at S. Giorgio in Velabro leaves no doubt that cattle were actually bouglit and sold on the spot — " negotiantes Boarii hvivs loci qui invehent." ^ Contracts are usually made in such places in the presence of the live animal, which is touched and felt and valued at a glance by the importer, the butcher, and the mediator. The same practice must have been followed in the Forum Suarium. Now it seems impossible that some of the main thoroughfares of the Imperial " city, and three or four bridges, should have been periodically closed to traffic, for the accommodation of importers of cattle driving their stock from one market to the other. I believe that the oxen came to the Forum Boarium by the river, by barge-loads, but for the other animals I can make no sugges- tion. * 1 Cui'jms Inscr., vol. vi. n. ]0:!5. 514 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV The Roman fova and campi of this kind differed from modern shambles and slaughter-houses in this respect, that cattle were only bought and sold in their precincts, not slaughtered. The slaughter took place in the premises of each butcher, a habit which lasted up to Gregory XVI. (1838). Roman inscriptions speak of a Corpus Confectuariorum,^ makers and packers of sausages and pig's meat, spread all over the city. Butchers also had no special quarters, except perhaps in the region of the Piscina pu.blica, where the " lanii piscinenses " formed a powerful corporation.^ It is probable that the wholesale slaughter of oxen may have taken place in this remote district. The Forum Boarium is very interesting from a monumental point of view. It was surrounded by stately buildings, most of which exist still in a tolerable state of repair. These buildings ai-e the temples of Fortuna Virilis, of Mater Matuta, of Ceres, Liber, and Libera (of Pudicitia Patricia, of Hercules Victor destroyed by Sixtus IV.), the Janus, the so-called '" Arco degli Argentieri," and the " Loggia dei Mercanti " of ancient Rome. LXI. Templum Fortune, miscalled Virilis, built of stone coated with stucco, in the Ionic style, on the gradient leading from the Forum Boarium to the jl<]milian bridge. Antiquailes agree in identifying it with the temple originally built by Servius TuUius about .557 b. c, and reconstructed after a fire in 214. If they are not mistaken, this would be one of the most ancient of the Roman temples existing, at the same time the best preserved of all. It shows the manner in which such edifices were con- structed of the native stone of the country, before marble was introduced. Not only, therefore, have we evidence of the date given by the material ; but the style, the purest and simplest example of the Ionic order in Rome, proves the edifice to have been built at a time when the Romans had not commenced to debase the fair proportions of Greek orders by attempting to improve or to embellish them. It was converted into a church in 872 by a certain Stephen, who walled up the open intercolumnia- tions of the pronaos to increase its size. In the time of Pius V. (1566-72) it was given to the Armenians, and from that time has been called Santa Maria Egiziaca. The temple was excavated for the first (?) time in 1551, when the inscriptions given in " Corpus," vol. vi. n. 897, 898, came to light. The best-known 1 Corpm Inscr., vol. vi. n. 1690. ■- Wilhelm Henzen, Scavi ufj hoxco ilfijli Arrali. Rome, 18C8, p. 10.3. THE TEMPLE OF FORT UNA 515 Fig. 200. — Temple of Fortuna ; Details of the Order. ornament of the ancient sanctuary was a wooden statue of king Servins Tullius, dressed in a double toga, held in great veneration by the Romans. LiTEKATURK. — Aiitoiiio Xibbv, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 17. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. 11.897, 898. — Sallustio Peruzzi, Uffizi, 664. — Antonio Dosio, ibid., 2027. — Giovanni Alberti, Cod. S. Sepolcro, f. 67', 68; and Cherubino Alberti ibid., f. 26, 27, 42. — Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin, f. A, 376, C. LXII. Templum Matris Matut.e (the so-called Temf)le of Vesta). — No less than ten names have been attributed to this graceful round temple, on the west side of the Forum Boarium. The most acceptable of all seems to be that of Mater Matuta, an old Italic goddess of the dawn (mane, matutina), also w^orshiped as a goddess of the sea and of harbors, like Ino Leucothea, with whom she was identitied. No better location could have been selected by Servius, the sujiposed builder of this temple, on the bank of the Tiber, and at the head of its harbor and quays. The temple was rebuilt by the dictator Camillus after the capture of Veii ; but the one the picturesque remains of wliich form the lead- ing landmark of the pi'esent Piazza della Bocca della Verita dates 516 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV probably from the time of Augustus. It is perypterous, formed by twenty Corinthian columns, of which only one is wanting. As in the case of the Temple of Fortune, we owe its preservation to its having been dedicated to Christian uses. The Savelli, by whom it was offered to S. Stefano (delle Carrozze), walled up the spaces between the columns. In 1500 the name was changed to that of S. ]Maria del Sole. At the beginning of this century the inter- coluniniations were reopened, the building was restored and pro- tected by railings, and the roof was repaired. At the same time the accumulation of soil between the tw^o temples (of Matuta and For- tuna) was removed, and the steps were exposed to view. These excavations are described by Guattani in " Roma antica," vol. i. p. 93, note. It was then ascertained that the Augustan marble temple rests on the Republican structure, the foundations and steps of which were not removed or taken away, but simply covered by the new superstructure of marble. No better example of such a con- tingency, I mean, of the chronological vicissitudes and of the archi- tectural transformation of a temi^le, can be found within the walls. The temple ran a certain risk in 1827 when a visionary — repre- sentative of a race which is not yet extinct — obtained from the government of Leo XII. permission to cut a deep hole inside the cella to discover a buried treasure of the Savelli. The following illustration of this extraordinary search is taken from a sketch made by Valadier while it was going on (Fig. 201). Needless to add, no treasure was found. The Temjile of the Mater Matuta is often mentioned by Livy : first in 394 b. c, when Camillus " fedem Matutte matri refectam dedicavit " (v. 19, 23) ; again in 21.5, wdien the whole quarter " inter Salinas et portam Carmentalem " was destroyed by fire, its damages being repaired the following year (xxiv. 47 to xxv. 7) ; and lastly in 198, when L. Stertinius raised two arches in the Forum Boarium with the spoil of the Spanish war : one opposite the Temple of Fortune, one opposite that of INIater Matuta. The cella of this last contained among other things the •' elogium " of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and a plan of the island of Sardinia. Literature. — Adolf Becker, Topographic, p. 483. — Heinrich Jordan, To- poc/raphie, vol. i. part ii. p. 484. — Antonio Sangallo, Cod. Barberin., f. .37. — Sailustio Peruzzi, Uffizi, 655, 689.— Antonio Dosio, ibid., 2024. — Palladio, Vatican., 9838, p. 3.—Notizie Scavi, 1895, p. 458. LXIII. Templum Cereris Liberi Liber^eque (Temple of Ceres, Bacchus, and Proserpina), vow^ed by A. Postumius, dictator •>5*1, f .1, V V • I f r 518 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV 497 B. c, while j^ressed by famine in the Latin war, and dedicated by Spurius Cassius, consul 49-1: b. c. It was designed in Tuscan style, and built mostly of painted terra-cotta panels nailed on a wooden frame, the joint work of Damophilos and Gorgasos. Taci- tus includes it among the sacred edifices the restoration of which, begun by Augustus, was finished by Tiberius in a. d. 17. Vitruvius says it was areostyle, with wooden architraves resting on columns of the Tuscan order. It was destroyed by Pope Hadrian I. to please the Greek colony settled in the neighborhood (Schola Gr?eca, 772- 795), as it threatened to crush in its fall their national chiu'cli of S. Maria in Cosmedin. There are only two fragments of the walls of the cella left standing : one in the crypt of the church just men- tioned, one in the courtyard of the sacristy. (See Fig. 203.) Literature. — Corpus Inscr., 2181, 2182. — Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxv. 45. — Mario Crescimbeni, Z)/rtCOB/rt (/*' S.Maria in Cosmedin. Kome, 1715. — Bull, com., 1876, p. 181. — Antonio Xibby, Roma antica, vol. ii. p. 654. — Gio. Bat- tista Giovenale, Annuario, 1895, dtW associazione arllstica fra i cultori di archi- tettura in Roma^ p. 1.3. LXIV. The Jaxus and the Arch of Severus and Cara- CALLA. — Near the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro stands a four- faced arch of considerable size, entirely built of marble in the style of the decadence prevailing at the beginning of the fourth century^ believed by the common people to be that of the four-headed Janus represented on the coins of Nero. Each of the four piers is deco- rated with twelve niches, apparently intended for the rece^jtion of statues. Of these niches eight are complete, four left unfinished. In one of these is a dooi'way leading iip a narrow staircase to a suite of chambers and corridors, scientifically explored for the first time by Angelo Uggeri at the time of the French invasion. The brick part of the structure is very bad, and in the thickness of the vault thei-e are earthen vases (picpiatte) to lessen its weight, like those in the circus of Romulus and in the mausoleum of Helena, called for this reason Torre Pignattara. This singular building belongs to a class rather common in Rome, that of jalaces of shelter raised in public markets for the convenience of money-lenders and changers, merchants, scribes, etc. That this forum was actually used for transactions in the horned cattle trade is proved by the inscription engraved on the frieze of the graceful little arch near by, upon one pier of which the campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro is raised. The inscription states that it was built in the year 204, in honor of Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Geta, and Julia Domna, by the " argentarii et negotiantes boarii Jiulus loci qui invehent." THE JANUS AND THE ARCH OF SEVERUS 519 (See Corpus, vol. v. n. lOoo.) The ai'chitects of the Renaissance gave the most curious names to this structure. Cherubino Alberti calls it " r arco di la vacha el toro," the arch of the cow and the bull, presumably because of the figures of these animals which '7>rrTQ Fig. 202. — The Janus of the Forum Boarium, the Arch of Severus, and the Church of S. Giorgio, from a Sketch by M. Heemskerk. appear in the bas-relief ; and Giuliano da S. Gallo " larcho didecio," the arch of Decius, a title which remains inexplicable. The ac- companying view of both structures (Fig. "202) was takeii in 1.536 by Martin Heemskerk. LiTEUATur.K. — Kmiliano .Sarti, lu Archiv. Societd storia jmtria, vol. ix. p. 500. — Heiiirich .Jordan, Topofjraphle, vol. i"-2, p. 470. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Ancient Rome, p. 2!»r); and Bull. Inst., 1871, ]). 9. LXV. Statio Axxox.e, the residence of the prtefectus Annonse, the headquarters of the administration of public supplies, and the " loggia dei Mercanti " of ancient Rome. Discoveries made at various times had already indicated the neighborhood of S. Maria in Cosmedin as the probable seat of tliis department. When the Piazza della Bocca della Yerita was lowered in 1715, a pedestal dedicated to C'onstantine by ]Madalianus, prfefectus Annoufe, was discovered in front of the church. The banks of the Tiber on either side of the piazza were occupied by public buildings con- nected with, and dependent on, the statio, which must have been 520 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV a great edifice iu itself, with a large staff of officials of the " fiscus frumentarius," of the " tabularium," etc. The statio must have been established here in the remotest period of Roman history, at least since the famine of 437 b. c, when L. Minuciiis was created prsefectus Annonae (Livy, iv. 13), because the monument commem- orating his services was erected precisely in this neighborhood. The monument took the characteristic shape of a column, made — n n ■ ) O b 2 STATIO q S ANNONAE ; ; URBlS ROMAEja ^X X X, .>x ,-■-- '-'^-l-'-J jW'Ei ]3' !3 mm m Porch of jo ^ QJ 1718 Piazza dclla 1°. p}, Bocca della \'erita Fig. 203. — Plan of S. Maria iu Cosmedin. with stone mortars for grinding corn, placed one above the other. The same motive of decoration is to be found in the torn!) of the prince of Roman bakers, M. Vergilius Eurysaces, discovered in 1838 outside the Porta Maggiore. The remains of the statio An- THE ST AT 10 ANNONj^E 521 noiia> were brouglit to light in 1893 under rather curious circum- stances. Architects and topographers were unanimous in admitting that tlie church of S. JVIaria in Cosmedin occujiied the site of the Temple of Cei'es, described above. A committee of the Society of Roman Architects having been asked to inquire into the possibility of restoring the church to its original type, doing away with the barbarous restorations of the eighteenth century, the most careful search was made to ascertain the age of the various parts of the building. The result of the search is illustrated by the following plan, which proves that the building contains — (a) Remains of the foundations of the temple, two thousand four hundred years old. {h) A hall of the fourth century after Christ, with an open colonnade on three sides, resembling the " loggie dei Mercanti " of Fig. 204. — S. Maria in Cosmediu in the Sixteentli Century. our media?val cities. This was probably the corn exchange of ancient Rome, forming part of the offices of the prefect of the An- nona. The columns and their capitals and bases are of uneven size ; the style of the stucco decorations, in the arches above the columns, is exactly like that of the Christian structures of tlie fourth century ; and so is the style of masonry, made up of bricks and chips of stone with no regularity in the lines of the layers, (c) Remains of the original Diaconia, believed to be contemporary 522 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV with the reigns of Theodoric and Athalaric. The Diaconia occu- pied part of the corn exchange, without trespassing on the area of the temple, {d) Remains of the church rebuilt and enlarged by- Pope Hadrian I. about a. d. 780. The colony of the schola gneca (the name is still attached to the street parallel with the south side of the church) having increased in number after the outbreak of the iconoclastic persecution of 725, their national church " in Cos- medin " became insufficient for their use. The " Liber pontificalis " describes it as " dudum brevis, in aedificiis existens, sub ruinis posita," a small oratory nestled among ruined edifices. Hadrian I. spent one year in demolishing the Temple of Ceres, which is called " maximum monumentum de tiburtino tufo super eam (dia- coniam) dependens," and doubled the size of the church. Calixtus n. (1119-24) connected in better style the two halves of the fifth and the eighth centuries. Under Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) Cardinal Francesco Caetani, nephew of the pope, repaired the edifice, reducing it to the form which appears in the above sketch of the sixteenth century, which I found in the Kupferstich Kabi- net at Stuttgart (Grosse Sammlung, f. 81, n. 209). Clement XI., between 1715 and 1719, leveled the piazza and built the curious fountain from the designs of Carlo Bizzaccheri. The pope's nephew, Annibale Albani, built the present fa9ade and spoilt the beautiful bell-tower by concealing some of the finely cut windows with an enormous clock. The last damages done to the building date from 1758. Literature. — Corpus Inscr., vi. 1151 (xiv. 135). — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Le horrea sotto V Aveniino e la statio Annonce urbis Romm, Ann. Inst., 1885, p. 223. — Theodor Mommsen, Staatsrecht, 2d ed., vol. iii, p. 468. — Marquardt, Staatsverui., u. 'p.l^a. — Mario Crescimbeni, Z' wto/'/a . . . di S. Maria in Cos- medin. Rome, 1715. — Sallustio Peruzzi, Uffizi, n. 660. — Annuario deW asso- ciazionefra i cultori di architeitura in Roma, anno v., 1895, pp. 13-36. — Huel- sen, in Dissert, accad. arch, jjont., 1896, p. 231. LXVI. The Horrea Publica Populi Romani (the grain wharves and warehouses). — The provinces bound to contribute to the maintenance of Rome with their staple products were Sicily, Africa, Mauretania, Egypt, Moesia, and Spain. Aurelian extended the same charge (canon urbicariuvi) to some regions of the Penin- sula, and to wine, oil, and wheat added the contribution of pork- meat. The prffifectus Annon?e in charge of this great branch of Roman administration was represented in every centre of produc- tion by one or more officers, like the " adiutor prsefecti Annonse ad oleum afrum et hispanum recensendum " stationed at Hispalis, THE GRAIN WAREHOUSES 523 Sevilla (Corpus Inscr., ii. 1180), to collect the oil from Andalusia and from the coast of Mauretania. The recei^dng officers stored these " contributions en nature " in cellars and granaries until the fleets hired or kept for this purpose were ready to sail. These pro- vincial storehouses are called " horrea populo Romano destinata " by Ammianus (xxviii. i. 7). Rusicade (Stora, near Philippeville), the harbor of Cirta (Constantina), was one of the great collecting ports, with extensive " horrea ad securitatem," or " ad utilitatem populi Romani," and with a statue symbolizing the Cienius Annonte sacraj Urbis. (See Corpus Inscr., viii. 7960, 7975, etc.) Among the fleets employed to convey the contributions to the harbor of Rome (see Pingonneau, De convectione urbane annonae, Paris, 1877), the best known is the Egj^ptian or Alexandrine, which car- ried a yearly tribute of 7,000,000 hectolitres, or 144,000,000 bushels, the approach of which was anxiously watched from the heights of Misenum and signaled at once to Rome.^ Second in importance to it was the classis Af ricana Commodiana Herculea. With favor- able winds and smooth sea, the crossing from Alexandria would require but eleven days, from the ports of Ba^tica seven, from the straits of i\Iessina five, from the gulf of Lyons three, from the nearest coast of Africa two. Grain-laden vessels were of large tonnage, like the one mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as having on board, besides its cargo, two hundred and fifty souls. We may judge of their number from the fact that during a fierce gale in the time of Xero not less than two hundred vessels were lost in the roads of Ostia. It seems that wheat was not transported in bulk, for fear of the cargo shifting to one side or the other, but in amphora; or earthen jars. A bas-relief of the Torlonia ^Museum, discovered in my presence at Porto, and described in " Ancient Rome," p. 2.53, represents the unloading of one of these ships. " There is a plank connecting the ship with the quay, and upon the plank a line of sailors and porters each carrying an amphora on the left shoulder, and a tessera or ticket in the right hand. The tesserae are collected by a customs officer or a scribe, sitting at a desk with the account-book before him." The length of the warehouses around Trajan's dock at Porto amounts to two miles and a half. At Ostia they cover one third 1 Literature. — Ferrero, L' ordinamento delle armate Romane, p. 160. — Marquardt, Handbuch, vol. v2, p. 489. — Corpus Inscr. Gr., 5973, etc. — Lan- fiani, Bull. Inst., 1868, p. 2.34. — Visconti, Bull, com., 1881, p. 52.— Vita Corn- mod., 17. 524 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV of the area of the city. In Rome the horrea Galbana alone occu- pied a space of 200 by 155 metres, and of these public warehouses there were two hundred and ninety in Rome. They were named either from their builder or owner, like the horrea Galbana, Petro- niana, Leoniana, Seiana, Agrippiana, etc., or from their contents, like candelaria, chartaria, pij^erataria, etc. In progress of time others had to be built in the suburbs, like the horrea Nervfe in the farm now called Delia Nunziatella, between the Via Ardeatina and the Via Ostiensis, the " f undum orrea via Ardeatina " of the " Liber pontificalis." ^ No traces of the horrea remain above ground in the region of Testaccio, between the cliffs of the Aventine and the river ; but many have been found in constructing the drains of the new quarters. AVith the help of these discoveries I have been able to reconstruct the complete plan of the horrea Galbte in sheet n. xl. of the Forma Urbis. The tomb of Sulpicius Galba, an ancestor of the Emperor of that name, and probably the founder of the horrea, discovered in situ in 1885, has been removed bodily to the Museo Municipale al Celio. Literature. — Preller, Die Regionen, p. 101. — Luigi Bruzza, Bull. Inst., 1872, p. 140. — Heinrich Jordan, Archceol. Zeitung, xxvi. p. 18; and Toyw- graphie, ii. pp. 68, 104. — Forma Urbis, pi. xliii. — Mommsen, Ephem. Epigr., vol. iv. p. 260. — Enrico Stevenson, Iscnzione relatlm alle horrea Galbiana (Bull. Inst., 1880, p. 98).— Gio. Battista de Rossi, Le horrea sotto I' Aveniino e la stntio AnnoncB (Ann. Inst., 1885, p. 223, s^.). — Giuseppe Gatti, Alcune os.^ervazioni sugli orrei Galbiani (Mittheil., 1886, pp.62, 65); and Frammento (V iscrizione conienente la lex Jiorreorum (Bull, com., 1885, p. 110). — Wilhelm Henzen, Iscrizione relativa alle horrea Galbiana (Mittheil., 1886, p. 42). — Rodolfo Lanciani, Iscrizione del sepolcro di Galba (in Bull, com., 1885, p. 166); Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 44; Ancient Rome, p. 250; Forma Urhis Romie, pl.xl. LXVII. The Marble Wharf and Sheds, ]\Iarmorata. — To the commercial transactions in the necessaries of life, we must add the trade in marbles, so brisk and active that, as Tibullus says, the streets of the city were always obstructed by carts laden watli transmarine columns and blocks, — columns measuring sometimes 1.97 metre in diameter and 17.66 metres in length, like those of Trajan's temple ; or blocks weighing sometimes 27 tons, like those belonging to the pediment of the Temple of the Sun in the Villa Colonna. When Marcus Scaurus was collecting in 84 b. c. the three hundred and sixty columns of lucullean marble required for 1 Vol. i. p. 202, ed. Duchesne. —Tounnasetti, Archimo Societd storia jjatria, vol. ill. p. 14-"{. THE MARBLE WHARF 525 the decoration of his theatre, the contractor for the maintenance of public sewers sued him before the magistrates for damages which would eventually be done to streets and drains. There were two quays for the landing and for the storage of marble, — one on the bank under the Aventine, which still retains the old name of Marmorata, another on the banks of the Campus Martius, a little above the Julian bridge. The first was rediscovered axid completely excavated by Baron Visconti in 1868-70. Literature. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Bull. arch, crlst., 1868, pp. 17, 47; 1870, p. 7; 1873, p. 147; 1876, p. 113; 1883, p. 81.— Leoue Xardoni, Bull. Inst., 1872, p. 72.— Luigi Bnizza, ibid., 1870, pp. 9, -37; 1871, p. 68; 1872, p. 134; 1873, p. 108; Sui marmi Lunensi (in Dissertaz. accad. arch., p. 389). — Rodolfo Lanciaui, Ancient Borne, p. 250. — Artluir Schneider, Bas Alte Bom, Leipzig, 1896, taf. X. n. 18. The second marble wharf — directly connected with the govern- ment office for the administration of quarries and for the sale of their products — was discovei-ed in April, 1891, 100 metres above the bridge of S. Angelo, in demolishing the teatro di Torre di Nona, which stood above it. The structure looked like a raised causeway, fourteen metres wide, protruding into the river for twenty-six metres, at an angle of 40° with the direction of the stream. On each side of the causeway there are spacious landings built of concrete and faced with a palisade. This palisade, a per- fect specimen of Roman hydraulic engineering, is made of square beams of quercus robiu- from six to eight meti-es long, ending in a point protected by a four-pronged cap of iron. The beams are fifty-five centimetres square, and fit into each other by means of a groove on one side and a projection on the other, shaped like a swallow's tail. Sheets of lead are nailed against the inner face of the palisade, so as to make it thoroughly water-tight. A line of piles runs in front of it, to protect it from the friction of vessels moored alongside the pier. This wharf answered a double pur- pose : for the landing of the great monoliths used in the buildings of the Canq)us ]Martius, of the Pincian and Quirinal hills, and for the supply of statuarian marble to the many artists' studios which had sprung up in Imperial times in the vicinity of the government marble office (statin rationis niarmorum) at S. Apollinare. During the transformation of Rome and the building of the Campus Martius accomplished by Augustus and his wealthy friends, the old marble wharf, at the other end of the city, could not have been used for the purpose of landing the materials des- 526 UBBS SACEA REGIONUM XIV tined for these constructions, because the transportation of columns, pillars, and obelisks through the narrow and tortuous streets of the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth regions would have been im- possible in some cases, difficult in others, and always costly to excess. And besides, there was no reason why preference should be given to transportation by land, when the vessels loaded with transmarine marbles could easily be brought within a short dis- tance of the buildings in course of construction. The blocks were evidently discharged on the side landings, level with the water's Fig. 205. — The Wharf for Landing Marbles on the Banks of the Campus Martins. edge, which have a water frontage of a hundred metres, and then raised by means of cranes (such as the one represented in the bas- relief of the Haterii, published, among others, by Parker in part iv. of the " Archaeology of Rome," plate xxiii.) to the level of the cause- way, and pushed on rollers (chmmdci) towards their destination. LiTERATUKK. — Domeiiico Marclietti, Di 1111" antico molo per lo sharco dei marmi (in Bull, com., 1891, p. 45, pi. iii). — Christian Huelsen, Mittheilungen, 1892, p. 322. — Francesco Azzurri, Bull, com., 1892, p. 175, pi. ix. — iVo«J2«e degli Scavi, May, 1890. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1890, p. 23. The discovery of this new topographic featui-e of ancient Rome THE MARBLE SEEDS 527 fits remarkably well with others previously made in connection with the sale, trade, and working of marbles in this portion of the Campus Martius. When the church of S. Apollinaris was modern- ized and disfigured in 1737-40 by Popes Clement XII. and Bene- dict XIV., ruins and inscriptions were discovered proving that there stood in old times the Statio Rationis Marmorum, that is to say, the central office for the administration of marble quarries, which were the private property and a monopoly of the crown. Around this office, and on each side of the avenue connecting it with the pier just discovered by the Tor di Xona, stone-cutters and sculptors had settled in large numbers. Wherever the ground is excavated between S. Andi-ea della Valle and the left bank of the river we are sure to find traces of these workshops and artists' studios, the site of which is marked by a layer either of marble chips or of that yellowish crystalline sand which is used to the present day for sawing the blocks. Pietro Sante Bartoli, Flaminio Vacca, Ficoroni, and Braun describe many such shops found under the Monte Giordano, S. Maria dell' Anima, the CoUegio Clemen- tino, the Chiesa Xuova, etc. It is difficult to explain why many of these should have been abandoned so suddenly tliat works of sculpture in an unfinished state have been found, together with the tools of the trade, — hammers, chisels, and files. A fact still more difficult of explanation is that, in the majority of cases, the unfinished statues represent Dacian kings or Dacian prisonei's, in the same characteristic attitude of. sad i-esignation which we notice in the prototj^es removed from the triumphal arch of Trajan to that of Constantine (p. 194). One of these figures of Dacians, discovered in the reign of Clement X. in the Via del Governo Vecchio, is now placed on the staircase of the Altieri palace ; a second was found in July, 1841, under the house Xo. 211 Via de' Coronari ; a third in January, 1859, under the house of Lnigi Vannutelli, near the Via del Pellegrino; a fourth in 1870, under the house of Paolo Massoli in the same Via de' Coronari. These curious facts lead us to believe that the jn-oduction of the article in fashion under the rule of Trajan, the conqueror of Dacia, must have been in excess of the demand. LXVIII. Salix.e (the salt-warehouses). — The oldest account we have of salt-works near the mouth of the Tiber precedes that of the foundation of Rome. The people of Veii had adapted to the production of salt one of the shallow inlets west of the mouth, and the quantity obtained ^- by natural evaporation — was enough 528 URBR SACRA REGIONUM XIV to meet the wants of the southern Etruscans as well as of the Sabines. Romulus gained temporary possession of the works. Ancus Marcius conquered the whole coast, and to insure the mon- opoly to the Romans, he founded Ostia, on the opposite bank of the river, and opened near it new works, surrounded and protected by water from possible hostile inroads. The event was celebrated by a popular distribution of 52,520 litres of salt in the form of a bounty. The Salinse ostienses supplied for a time the demand of the Romans and of the Sabines, the trade being so brisk that the main road uniting the two territories was named Salaria. Later on a larger supply became necessary, and the old salinse of Veil were again brought into use, only they changed their name and became the Salinae romana;. From about 500 b. c. to the tenth century after Christ no mention occurs of either works, except in a marble plinth of a statuette which a boatman of the marshes of Campo Salino had used for years for mooring his canoe, until a sportsman noticed its inscrii)tion in the winter of 1887. The valuable document, now exhibited in Hall I. of the Museo Munici- pale al Celio, mentions the corporation of the porters (saccarii snlarii), who carried the salt in sacks from the Camjaus Salinarum Romanarum (Campo Salino) to Porto and Rome ; besides some of their officers, and the two intendants of the Emperor who had the maiiagement of the monopoly. It dates from the time of Septimius Severus. The exact position of the salt-warehouses on the left bank of the Tiber in Rome is indicated by Frontinus (i. 5), " at the foot of the Clivus Publicius near the Porta Trigemina, which place is called Salinse." It is not difficult to identify the place. The warehouses — repaired from time to time — were kept thei-e from the time of Ancus Marcius to the spring of 1888. The glorious though unpretending edifice was pulled down to connect the new Quartiere di Testaccio with the city by a convenient thoroughfare. The same fate has befallen the salt-works at the mouth of the Tiber. Those of Campo Salino were abandoned in the sixteenth century ; those of Ostia in 187-1. Literature. — Marquanlt, Staatsre7'wa!timg, vol. ii. p. 154. — Antonio Nibbj', Analisi della . . . campa[/na romana, vol. ii. p. 368. — Lanciaui, Bull, arch, com., 1888, p. 8-3. LXIX. The Lead- Warehouses. — In Xovember, 1887, a mass of pig-lead, shaped like a punt, and weighing thirty-three kilos., was discovered in the bed of the river, near the place called " Porta I.,eone," opposite the Ripa Grande. It bore the stamp of the THE LEAD WAREHOUSES 529 company of the argentiferous mine of Mount ilvcr (sic), probably a mistake for ilvrco, and also the word galena, which indicates the kind of lead obtained from the smelting of silver ore. The discovery of this object is of topographical interest. The mass must have fallen overboard when the ship was unloading along- side the " lead " wharf. This, and the corresponding warehouses, both the property of the Crown, were therefore situated on the left bank, between the " marble " wharf and the Forum Boarium. A find, already mentioned, p. 432, gives an idea of the activity which pi'evailed under the Empire in the lead business, and which must have called into the harbor of Rome or Porto hundreds of Spanish vessels. The lead pipe which conveyed the water to the Forum of Trajan from a reservoir by the Porta Viminalis (frag- ments of which were found in 1877 in the Piazza del Quirinale, and in 1879 in the Piazza di Termini) was 1750 metres long, and weighed 1-33 kilos, per metre. The whole pipe must have re- quired 232,750 kilos, of metal, nearly 233 tons ; and of these conduits there were thousands in Rome. The one which brought the water to the Baths of Agrippa, discovered about 1620 in the foundations of S. Ignazio, is compai'ed by Donati with the largest guns (maiores bomhanUe) of the age. Another, discovered in 1650 by the Borghese in their farm at Acqua Traversa, measured 67 centimetres in diameter, and must have weighed 300 kilos, per metre. LXX. The Brick- Warehouses. — A curious document con- cerning the trade in the excellent products of Roman brick-kilns w^as discovered in 1877 in the catacombs of S. Sebastiano. It was written with a nail or a sharp stick on a tile — before the clay was dried and baked — and the tile was afterwards used in wall- ing up a loculus of the fourth century. The inscription says, " Beneventus has ordered of Julius 400 tiles, to be consigned, ready for shipment, at the Neapolitan quay." Other sheds, set apart for the same trade, were called Portus Licini, Portus Parrse, Portus Cornelii, etc. (See Corpus Inscr., vol. xv. 1, 408, 409, 412 ; and Notizie Scavi, 1892, p. 347.) LXXI. The Monte Testaccio. — The student wishing to survey the ground formerly occupied by these great establishments connected with the harbor of Rome must make the ascent of the Monte Testaccio, which rises to the height of 115 feet in the very heart of the region of the Horrea. The hill itself may be called a 530 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV monument of the greatness and activity of the harbor of Rome. The investigations of Reiffersheid and Bruzza, completed in 1878 by Heinrich Dressel, prove that the mound is exclusively formed of fragments of earthen jars (amphorae, diotfe), used in ancient times for conveying to the capital the agricultural products of the provinces, especially of Baetica and Mauretania. B?etica supplied not only Rome, but many parts of the western Empire, with oil, wine, wax, pitch, linseed, salt, honey, sauces, and olives prepared in a manner greatly praised by Pliny. Potters' stamps and painted or scratched inscriptions of Spanish origin, identical with those of Monte Testaccio, have been discovered in France, Ger- many, and the British Islands. It appears that the harbor regula- tions obliged the owners of vessels or the keepers of warehouses to dump in a space marked by the Commissioners the earthen jars which happened to be broken in the act of unloading, or while on their way to the sheds. The space was at first very limited ; in progress of time part of a public cemetery, containing, among others, the tomb of the Rusticelii (Corpus, vi-, 11,534), was added to it. At the beginning of the fourth century the rubbish heap had gained a circumference of half a mile, and a height of over a hundred feet. After the fall of the Empire masses of fragments were washed down the hill, and spread over a considerable part of the plain. In the sixteenth century quarries were opened on the north side, the material (coccio pesto) being used for maca- damizing the roads. In the saine century the south side was used by the Bombardieri of the pope as butts for gun-practice. The first wine-cellars, — the Grotte di Testaccio, — known for their apti- tude to improve the quality of the stock, were excavated through the heart of the mound about 1650. The consular dates discovered by Dressel on the handles and on the body of the amphorae range between a. d. 140 and 255. The upper strata, near the wooden cross (Croce del Testaccio), date from the first half of the fourth century. Another mound of the same nature, but much smaller in size, has been lately explored on the right bank of the river, above the Ponte Margherita, at a place called Monte Secco. LiTKRATURE. — Heinrich Dressel, Ricerche sul monte Testaccio (in Annal. Inst., 1878, p. 118; and Bull, com., 1893). — Otto Richter, Topographie, p. 129. Another place well worth a visit before leaving this commercial quarter of ancient Rome is the " Sponda della Marmorata," where there are still traces left of the great excavations of 1868-70. THE MONTE TEST AC CIO 531 Many blocks of marble discovered by Viscouti are to be seen near the cottage of the Custode. Some are roughly squared, others roughly shaped (cibhozzati) into columns or architectural pieces and even into statues and bas-reliefs. Their finishing must have been given up either on account of a defect discovered in the marble, or because it was found too hard or crystalline for the chisel or the saw. Sculptors' or stone-cutters' tools abound in the vicinity of the wharf. (See Venuti. Descrizione topogr., vol. ii. p. 45.) The blocks are all distinguished l)y one or more marks referring to the quarry from which they were extracted (e. g., ex metallic novis Ccesaris nostri) ; to the Emperor who owned the quarry at the time (e. g., imperatorum CcEsarum Antonini et Veri augustoruni) ; to the department to which the blocks were addressed (e. g., rationi urbicce) ; to the number of blocks of a special kind of marble quarried during the fiscal year ; to the date of the year ; and so forth. It seems that the crown did not own all the quarries of the Empire, but only those which could yield the great blocks and the great columns (of red and gray granite, africano, cipollino, pavo- nazzetto, portasanta, white marble, etc.) that were necessary for the decoration of Imperial buildings. Quarries of rare and peculiar marbles or breccias were opened and worked by private speculators. The Imperial " procurator marmorum " had representatives (ciirain agentes, /xeraWapxai) on the coasts of Asia, Greece, Egypt, Numidia, Mauretania, in the ^Egean Islands, etc. Their duty was to direct the shipment of the product of the local quarries to the harbor of Rome, where it was received by a " tabularius Portuensis rationis marmorum." The transportation, in ordinary cases, was effected by means of " naves lapidaria%" specially constructed by the ad- ministration for this kind of trade ; in extraordinary cases the ship was built in accordance with the size of the columns or obelisks which had to be landed at Rome. Such were the wonder- ful crafts constructed under Augustus and Caligula for the ship- ping of the obelisks of the Circus Maximus and of the Circus Vaticanus respectively ; such, and even larger, the one built under Constantius for the transportation of the obelisk now in the Piazza di S. Giovanni. Caligula's ship, which carried 120,000 " modii " of lentils for ballast, was sunk at the entrance of the Claudian harbor at Porto, to serve as foundation for the break- water (nniemurale) and lighthouse. Quarries were usually worked by convicts, the "danniatio ad 532 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV opus metalli " being one of the ordinary punishments sanctioned by the Roman code. Tlie jails connected with the single quarries were intrusted to the care of a body of warders under special officers, independent from the military comando of the province. Letronne quotes the inscription of an Annius Rufus, captain of the XV Legio Apollinaris, detailed to act as " prgepositus operis mar- morum monti Claudiano " (superintendent of the quarries of the Claudian mountain). The same ai'chaeologist found in the chapel attached to the mining works of Khardasy, Nubia, an inscription which seems to prove that chaplains were attached to these penal establishments, and that divine service was occasionally celebrated for the benefit of the convicts. The Roman Marmorata has been excavated, almost without intermission, for four hundred and fifty years, and yet its wealth in blocks and columns of the rarest kinds of breccias seems to have hardly diminished. There is another marmorata on the banks of the Canale di Fiumicino, the ancient " Fossa Traiana." Blocks were landed here when the river was too shallow for the "naves lapidarise " to reach the harbor of Rome. The unloading of these ships, and the transferment of their cargo to barges and pontoons of lighter draught, and the navigation up the river was (probably) the privilege of a powerful corporation called " corpus traiectus marmorum." Literature. — Garofalo, De antiquis marmorihu^. 1743. — Faustino Corsi, Delle pietre antiche. Rome, 184.3. — Letronne, Reclierches pour striir a I'his- toire de VEr/ypte, pp. 429-482. — Luigi Bruzza, Iscriziuni del marmi grezzi, in Ann. In^t., 1870. THE AVENTINE. (Regions XII and XIII.) The Aventine, and its southeastern appendix called the "pseudo or smaller Aventine " (Monte di S. Balbina), count among the few regions of ancient Rome which have escaped "moderniza- tion." The panorama of the hill from the terrace of the so-called " Castello di Costantino " (a popular restaurant, Via di S. Prisca), from the belfry of S. Alessio, from the tower of S. Balbina, or from the upper portico of S. Saba, is perhaps the freshest and loveliest wdthin the walls. Yet, with the exception of churches of monumental interest, there is very little left above ground to attract the classic student. The baths of Caracalla by SS. Nereo and Achilleo and those of the Decii in the Vigna Torlonia are the only ancient buildings which have escaped total destruction. THE BATHS OF CAR AC ALL A 533 LXXII. Therm.*; Axtoxixian.e. — Baths of Caracalla (Fig, 206), begun about a. d. '212, and opened for public use in the eai'ly spring of 216. Part of the ground which they cover probably belonged to the gardens of Asinius Pollio, the '• Plorti Asiniani " of Frontinns. As the level of the baths is higher than that of the gardens, these, and the buildings connected with them, were not destroyed, but made use of to support the new platform in the same way as the remains of the Golden House of Nero were made Fig. 207. — Part of the Building discovered by Guidi under tlie Baths of Caracalla. to support the platform of the baths of Trajan. A portion of the Asinian buildings was discov^ered by G. B. Guidi in 1860-67, under the southeast corner of the baths, and described by Angelo Pelle- grini, Orti di Asinie Pollione, in Bull. Inst., 1867, p. 109. (See Fig. 39, p. 101.) The excavations can still be seen by applying at Via di Porta S. Sebastiano. Xo. 29. Tliey belong to a noble liouse, the upper floor of which was demolished by Caracalla, while the ground ajrjartments were left almost iintouched. The rooms, opening on three sides of a square jieristylium, show traces of fresco-paintings ; their pavements are of white and black mosaic, with figures of sea-n^'mphs, tritons, marine monsters, etc. (Fig. 5o4 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV 207.) The best preserved room is the lararium, or domestic chapel, with figures of Arpokras and Aiiubis on each side of the door, and of three Capitoline deities above the altar. Guidi, however, was not the first explorer of this house : pre- vious excavations are recorded by Ficoroni (]\Iem. Ill) as having taken place towards the middle of last century. The terra-cotta panels representing the three Capitoline gods, the labors of Her- cules, a triumphal arch, etc., now in the Kircherian museum, are described among the finds. Ancient writers give the most enthusiastic accounts of Cara- calla's baths, which were completed by Heliogabalus and Severus Alexander. Like those of Trajan and Diocletian, they consist of a central building with halls of great size, surrounded by a belt of gardens, the whole space being inclosed by an outer quadrangle of smaller buildings. The central block measures 216 metres by 112, the outer quadrangle 353 metres by 335; the area amounts to 118,255 square metres. (Baths of Diocletian, 130,000 sq. m.) The present entrance to the baths is by the hall next to the north peristyle (Via Antoniana). No descri23tion can be given in detail of this magnificent suite of halls, nor can the object of each one be specified, except as regards the frigidarium, the tepidarium, and the caldarium, which occupy the central line ; and the peri- styles, which occupy the two ends. The frigidarium seems to correspond to the "cella soliaris " described by the biographer of Caracalla, ch. ix., the ceiling of which was the largest flat ceiling in the world. The biographer says that the architects of his own (Constantine's) time could not explain such a miracle of engineering, except by supposing that the whole roof was supported by girders of metal dexterously con- cealed in the thickness of the masonry. No trace of these girders of brass or copper (cancelli ex cere vel cupro) was found in the ^,^:^ excavations of the hall (1872-73), although many pieces of the roof were still lying scattered on the floor; but they appeai'ed to be pierced by iron bars, about one metre long, with the upper end bent like a liasp, and a cross piece at the lower end. Perhaps the girders were not exactly embedded in the roof, but the roof itself was hung, as it were, to the gird- ^ ■> ers by means of these iron crooks. The frigidarium is divided into three sections : two dressing-rooms at each end, and a swimming-basin in the centre; the pool, 53 metres long and 24 wide, was flooded by H30 cubic metres of rtm"n<3 I I'^K U h v-wiv tJo' <»-*ft>i4^j,j«*. ^V*«)>*iU f-IMI>~ U.7I-' Fig. 208. —A Leaf from Palladio's Sketcli-book (Baths of Caracalla). 536 URBS SACRA REG ION UM XIV water, which had to be renewed several times a day. The empty- ing and refilling of the basin was done in a wonderfully short time. The floor is inclined towards a sluice communicating with an emissaiium which slopes down at an angle of about 1.5°. The sluice being opened, all the water could run off in a few minutes. In the reservoir of the baths were stored 33,000 cubic metres of water, nearly twenty-two times the quantity necessary to flood the basin. The architectural decoration of this hall was rather peculiar. Besides the eight large pillars of gray granite, which supported the entablature under the flat roof, each of the niches for statues was flanked by two smaller columns, supporting a pediment in the shape of a " tabernacolino." The student can better understand this arrangement by referring to the drawings and sketches of the Renaissance architects, who saw the building before the devasta- tions of Paul III. I reproduce here (Fig. 208) a page from one of Palladio's sketch-books, with a rough outline of the east wall of the frigidarium, which he calls "cortile senza loge," viz., without " loggie " or porticoes. The preservation of the baths must have been truly extraordinary in those days, when even precious vases of porphyry lay scattered on the ground. The one designed by Palladio was decorated with scenic masks, and handles in the shape of coiled serpents. " Queste vasi sono di porfido," he says, "e stanno ne le terme di antonino." Equally valuable are the draw- ings of Giovanni Antonio Dosio (Uffizi, 2563) ; and of Antonio da Sangallo the elder (Siena, 8, iv. 5, f. 7', reproduced in Memorie romane per le Belle Ai'ti, 1786, p. 242, n. iv.). The frigidarium, which is only 2.23 metres narrower than the great nave of S. Peter's, was used last century for the " giuoco del Pallone." The tepidarium occupies tlie centre of the building. Its vaulted ceiling was supported by eiglit granite columns, nearly two metres in diameter, of which but one fragment is now to be seen. It lies on the mosaic floor of one of the adjoining dressing-rooms. At the beginning of the sixteenth century two whole columns were left standing, viz., the first and the third on the northeast side (Dosio, Uffizi, 2563). The one at the corner was removed to Florence by the grand duke Cosimo in 1564, set up in the Piazza di S. Triuita, and crowned with a bronze statue of Justice. The fate of the other is not known. Both bore the label of the Imperial quarry, admin- istered by a freedman of the name of Diadumeniis. (See Codex Vatic, 6039, p. 242.) The weiglit of the ceiling had been consid- erably lessened by the architect, by making use of pumice-stone, THE BATHS OF CAR AC ALL A 537 instead of bricks or chips of tufa. The tepidariiim has three re- cesses on each of the longer sides, two of which contain a piscina set deep in the pavement. These basins, incrusted with precious marbles, were divided from the main liall by a line of columns of porphyry, many fragments of which were discovered by Guidi in 186S. One of their capitals, of ultra-composite invention, is repre- sented below (Fig. 209). Ficoroni mentions four bases, also of red porphyry, as belonging to the same decorations. They measured 4.68 metres in circum- ference One of them was to be seen opposite the door of SS. Fig. JOO. — Capital of the Composite Order from the Tepidarium of Caracalla's Baths. Nereo ed Achilleo ; the second within the same church ; the third near the shop of a certain de Marchis in the Vicolo Scanderbeg. The last was purchased by Ficoroni liimself for forty sequins, cut into slabs to serve for tables, and sold or given to the king of Poland. Fra Giocondo da Verona (Uffizi, 1538) asserts that he saw and sketched part of the entablature of tlie tepidarium, " a gustin gissi," in the garden of the wealthy banker Agostino Chigi. 538 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV The caldarium was a noble circular hall projecting halfway into the inner garden. Its dome rested on eight pilasters of great size, each pierced by a narrow staircase. There are only two left stand- ing : the basements of the others were excavated partly in Novem- ber, 187.8, partly in the spring of the present year. At the foot of one of the stairs several bricks were found, inscribed with the motto -\- rrr/(nante) f/(omino) n(ostro) Theoderico, bono Rom(a,)e, the first intimation of repairs having been made in the baths by that provident king. The peristyles or palestrae at each end of the tepidarium con- tained a portico of precious columns, paved with polychrome mosaic, and opening on a court ; and a hemicycle or tribune, the pavement of which was divided into squares and parallelograms, each containing a full-sized figure or bust of an athlete. These valuable mosaics, discovered by Count Velo in 1824, were removed to the Lateran Museum by Gregory XVI. Consult Pietro Secchi, >' II musaico antoniniano rappresentante la Scuola degii Atleti," Rome, 1813; Ilelbig's "Guide," vol. i. p. 507, n. 704; and the " Corpus Inscr.," vol. vi. n. 10,155. A marble frieze in l)old relief, with festoons and hunting scenes, ran the whole length of both peristyles. Of this frieze, once over a thousand feet long, one fragment alone remains (north side of south peristyle) to tell the tale of destruction : the lime-kilns have absorbed the rest. Another piece with the figures of two gladiators must be preserved in the Villa Albani, where it was removed by Cardinal Alessandro about 1767. Piranesi claims to have seen (in the course of the Albani excavations ?) jiieces of the gates of gilt bronze, which still clung to the posts of the passages leading to the frigidarium. To appreciate the number and the value of the works of art with which Caracalla, Alexander, Heliogabalus, Valentinian and Valens, King Theoderic, and several prefects of the city in the fourth cen- tury lavishly decorated these baths, we must consult the accounts of the excavations made at the time of Paul III. (1546), and also the catalogues of the Museo Farnese, the contents of which were removed to the Museo Borbonico (Naples) in the second half of last century. " The search made in the Antoniana at the time of Paul III.," says Bartoli (Mem. 78), "turned out so rich in statues, columns, bas-reliefs, architectural marbles, cameos, intaglios, bronzes, medals, lamps, that a museum (the Farnesiano) was formed with them. The enormous quantity of heads, busts, and bas-reliefs, which fill two large rooms in the ground floor of the THE BATHS OF CAR AC ALL A 539 palace, were also found at tlie Antoniana." And yet the excava- tions of Paul III. were preceded and have been followed by many others, the product of which was always considerable. In the " Storia degli Scavi di Roma," the first volume of which will be published, I hope, early next year, forty excavations at least are recorded in the " Antignano," from the time of Paschal I. (817- 824) to the present day. Among the Farnese finds Ulisse Aldo- vrandi mentions the group of Dirce tied to the horns of the bull, the colossal Hercules of Glycon, Atreus with the son of Thyestes, the so-called Vestal Tuccia, a colossal Pallas, a Flora, a Diana, four other figures of Herakles, a Venus, an Hermaphrodite, some busts of Antoninus Pius, and many torsos and heads not identified, a l)edestal (" Corpus," n. 749), and one of the two large granite basins which now adorn the fountains of the Piazza Farnese. The other, seen by Ruccellai in 1450, " in una vigna presso alle terme," was first removed by Pius II. to the Piazza di Venezia and again to its pi'esent location by Cardinal Odoardo Farnese in 1612. Another dilettante, Messer Mario Maccarone, whose house still exists b}' the Macel de' Corvi, found pieces of an equestrian group and a statue of Caracalla, which was destroyed by his own workmen. Flaminio Vacca mentions the discovery of a large block of marble representing an island on the surface of which were left the foot- prints of several human figures (moiti pie di fgure attaccate nelV isfessa isola) ; a ship laden with passengers appeared to be steering for the island. This curious piece was pi'obably placed in the middle of the swimming-pond. Towards the end of last century two precious basins wei-e discovered in the direction of S. Cesario, one of green, one of reddish basalt ; both had been used for coffins in the Middle Ages. They are now placed in the Cortile de Bel- vedere. The three cathedrae or armchairs, also, of red marble, formerly in the cloisters of Vassallectus at the Lateran, are said to have been discovered in these baths. The last excavations of the ]iresent century were made by Count Velo in 1824, by Guidi in 1868, by Rosa in 1872, and by Fiorelli in 1879. These last led to tlie discovery of one of the furnaces or hj'jjocausts, still filled witli charcoal, and also of brick-stamps, with the legend opvs • do- LiARE • EX • PRvEDis • AVG □ N ' FIG • TERTi, remarkable for its allusion to the murder of Geta. brother of Caracalla (see p. 41). The service of this mighty establishment, which could accommo- date 1600 bathers at one time, was carried out underground by means of cry]:)toporticoes, lighted from glass-covered skylights. These subterranean corridors, many thousand feet long, are not 540 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV accessible at present, except for a small section under the Vigna Bernabd. Those within the government grounds were filled with rubbish at the time of Piranesi. A branch aqueduct of the Marcia (Marcia Antoniniana, Marcia lovia after the restoration by Diocletian) supplied the reservoir of the baths. The aqueduct crossed the Appian Way over the so- called Arch of Drusus. Its arcades in the Vigna Casali were destroyed during last century. Literature. — Coj79M« Inscr., vol. vi. ii. 749, 1088, 1170-73, 92-32, 10,155.— A. da Sangallo the elder, Cod. Barberin., f. 66', 67. — A. da Sangallo tlie younger, Uffizi, n. 1093, 1133, 1206, 1381, 1411, 1656 (?). — Aristotile da Sangallo, n. 1554, 15.55. — Baldassare Peruzzi, n. 476. — Fra Giocondo, n. 1538. — Al- l)erti Cherubino, Cod. Bori/o S. Sepolcro, vol. i. pp. 3', 4, 5. Codex Berolin., f. 43. — Heemskerk, Berlin, i. f. -59, 59'; and ii. f. 7. — Seventeen large draw- ings (by Simon Travail?) of much importance are preserved in the Kunstge- werbe Museum in the same city (large portfolio, A, p. 377, f. 20-46). — Etienne du Perac, Vedute, pis. 19-22. — Gio. Battistfe Piranesi, Antichila, vol. i. p. 23, n. 199. — Abel Blouet, Restaur, des thermes de Caracalla. Paris, 1823. — Luigi Canina, Edifizl, vol. iv. pis. 207-214. — Pietro Rosa, Relazione, pp. 83, 85. — Notlzie deyli Scavi, 1878, p. 346; 1879, pp. 15, 40, 114, 141, 314; 1881, p. 57. — Rodolfo Laneiani, Bid!. Inst., 1869, p. 236; and Ancient Rome, pp. 90-94. LXXIII. The churches of the Aventine — S. Balbina, S. Saba, S. Sabina, S. Prisca — vie in archaeological interest with the re- mains of classic monuments. S. Balbina occupies the site of the Domus Cilonis ; S. Saba that of the Statio Cohortis TV. Vigi- lum ; S. Sabina stands close to the Templum lunonis Reginfe ; while S. Prisca represents the Domus Aquilae et Priscpe of the Acts, between the Domus Licinii Siirse and the Domus Gai Marii Pudentis Corneliani. The Domus Cilonis is mentioned in the Imperial almanacs of the fourth century as one of the prominent buildings of the twelfth region. It was reconstructed at the time of Septimius Severus, and presented by that Emperor to Lucius Fabius Cilo, consiil a. d. 204, prefect of the city, and an intimate friend. The remains consist of some walls of reticulated work, which serve as foundations to the monastery (now a house of refuge for women), and of a hall, 23 metres long, and 16.44 wide, which forms the shell of the church of S. Balbina. The Servian w'alls run across the building and can be examined in the refectory as well as in the garden on the east side. S. Balbina, a xxnique specimen of a mediaeval fortified monastery, was modernized and whitewashed in 1884. The Domus Cilonis was excavated at the beginning of the sixteentli century. Tmo pedestals of statues dedicated to him by the cities of Ancyra and CHURCHES OF THE AVENTINE 541 Mediolanum were removed to the Museo Cesi ; two perished in the " Calcarara " at le Botteghe oscure. Other excavations were opened by Pius IX. (December, 1858, to November, 1859), an account of which is given by Carlo Ludovico Visconti in the "Bull. Inst.," 1859. They led to the discovery of nine marble heads and busts, two of which, alleged to represent Cains and Lucius, nephews of Augustus, are exhibited in Compartment XVII. of the Museo Chiaramonti, n. 117, 119 ; and of a water-pipe inscribed with the name of the owner (Zmcu/)abi chilonis PRAEF(eca) vrb(0- Literature. — Cor/JMi! Inscr. Lat., vol. vi. 1408-1410. — Coijms Inscr. fri'tec, n. 5896. — C. Ludovico Visconti, Bull. Jnst., 1859, p. 164. — Huiuricli Jordan, Forma, p. 4.3. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Nutizie Scavi, 1884, p. 2'2-3. Nothing is left above ground of the statio of the fourth bat- talion of the vigiles at S. Saba ; but many of the marbles used in the decoration of the church must pertain to it. A visit to this delightful spot and to the secluded mediasval cloisters, shaded by orange groves, cannot fail to please the student. The loggia above the vestibule of the church affords a good point of survey over the southwestern quarters of ancient Rome. Literature. — Gio. Battista de Rossi, Annal. Inst., 1858, p. 285. — Mariano Annellini, Chiese, 2d edit. p. 589. The church of S. Sabina, built in 4'25 by Peter, an Ill\Tian priest, with the spoils of some neighboring classic edifice, stands very near the site of tJie Templum lunonis Regina^, erected by Camillus after the capture of Veil. Livy (xxvii. 37) places it at the top of the Cli\ais Publicius, a steep lane still in existence, wliich leads from the church of S. Anna (Via della Salara) to the Via di S. Sa- bina (Vicus Armilustri ?). Further south stood the Temple of Jupiter Libertas, erected by Gracchus and restored by Augustus. Asinius Pollio added to it an atrium in w^hich a library, formerly belonging to Varro, was placed for public use in 36 b. c. On these sites a fortress was raised by the Savelli at the beginning of the thirteenth century, part of which was made over to the newly established Dominican brotherhood by Honorius ITT. (1216-27). The fortress is still in good condition, and can be visited by apply- ing to the gardener (Via di S. Sabina), first gate on the right. The remains of the ]"ialace of T^icinius Sura, a friend of Trajan, occupy the tableland of tlie Vigna Cavalletti by S. Prisca. There is a magnificent view from the terrace of the so-called " Castello di Costantino," a hostelry dear to the archfeological brotlierhood, which occupies the centre of the old palace. Other walls appear 542 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV under and close to the apse of tlie chm-ch jast named. The place is closely connected with the first preaching of the gospel in Rome. (See Pagan and Christian Home, p. 110.) LXXIV. The Therms Decian.e. — Trajan built for public use baths of great magnificence, which he named Balneae Surse or Thermte Suranse, from the. friend to whose residence they were contiguous. No trace is left of them above ground. Considerable remains, on the contrary, exist of another bathing-establishment of the Aventine, named Thernipe Decian*, fi-om the family of the Ca3cina? Decii Albini, who also resided on this aristocratic hill. The fariuhouse and the casino of the Vigna Torlonia (foi-merly Massimi, Maccarani, and of the Casa professa dei Gesuiti) are built over and within some of the halls. The place is entered from the gate opposite the church of S. Prisca, and the gardener generally allows students to visit the painted rooms in the cellars of his hoiise. The Thermae Decian?e, the plan of which I have lately discovered in one of Palladio's portfolios, and now publish for the first time (Fig. 210), have proved to their first explorers a mine of works of ai't. Bartoli mentions " nobilissime stufe e bagni " and " stanzoni immensi" adorned with paintings and stucco-reliefs of delicate workmanship. Their pavements lay very deep under the present level of the ground. The statue of the " Infant Hercules " in green basalt, now in the " salone " of the Capitoline Museum, and the bas-relief of Kndyiuion in the "sala degli imperatori " were dis- covered among the ruins, as well as many inscriptions, marked in the "Corpus Inscr." with n. 11.59-60, 1165, 1167, 1192, 16.51, 1671, 1672, a, h, and 1703. We gather from them that the Emperors Constantius and Constans " thermas vetustate labefactatas restau- raverunt ; " that statues were erected to them in memory of the event by Vitrasius Orfitus, prefect of the city in 353, and by his successor Flavins Leontius ; that the baths were profusely decorated with Creek works of sculpture removed from the semi-abandoned temples by Anicins Paulinus, Tanaucius Isfalangius, Pomponius Ammonius, and Fabius Titianus, all city magistrates about the middle of the fourth century; and lastly, that in 414, Ilonorius and Theodosius being Emperors, an illustrious descendant of the founders of the baths, Ca^cina Decius Acinatius Albinus, restored tlie " cella, te])i';''1'*-S':IV.'-M\5! J 544 UEBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV by General Lamoriciere in 1867, when the plateau of the Aventine was turned into an intrenched camp ; by Parker in 1869 ; and by Prince Torlonia in April, 1877. In all these excavations, brick- stamps of the time of Trajan were found in vast numbers. The question rises, therefore, whether the Thermse Suranse built by that Emperor were not connected toiaographically with the De- cianse, as in the case of those of Nero and Severus Alexander. LiTERATURK. — Heiiirich Jordan, Forma, n. 41, p. 59; and Topographie, vol. ii. p. 104. — Pietro Bartoli, Memorie, n. 125, 127, 129 (in Fea's MiscelL, vol. i.). Angelo Pellegrini, Le terme Suriane e Deciane (in Bull. Inst., 1868, p. 177). — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull. Inst., 1870, p. 74; and Bull, com., 1877, p. 266. THE GREAT PARKS ON THE WEST SIDE OF THE CITY. (Regio XIV — Transtiberim.) (Compare Map, Fig. 150, p. 394.) LXXV. The transtiberine quarter, of which Augustus made the fourteenth ward of the city, covered the eastern slope of the Jani- culum, and the plain between it and the Tiber. The plain, with its labyrinth of tortuous and narrow lanes, was the abode of rowdy crowds of bargemen, lightermen, fishermen, porters, tanners, Jews, etc. The Janiculum, on the contrary, one of the " seven wonders " of the capital, was occupied by a great public park extending from the first milestone of the Via Portuensis (Pozzo Pantaleo), north- wards as far as the Vatican ridge. The park was composed of four sections : the Horti C^saris, between the Portuensis and the Aurelia Vetus ; the Horti Get/E, between the Aurelia Vetus and the Aurelia Nova ; the Horti Agrippin^, between the Aurelia Nova and the Triumphalis ; and lastly, the Horti Domiti^, between the Triumphalis and the Tiber. Before giving an account of these delightful gai'dens and of the monuments for which they were famous, I must describe the only place of archaeological interest which the student can see in the Trastevere, the guard-house or outposts of the seventh battalion of the City Police, at the Monte de' Fiori. The EscuBiTORiuM Con • VII • Vigilum was discovered by Visconti in 1866 at the Monte de' Fiori, nearly opposite the church of S. Crisogono. The remains seem to belong to a large private house, bought or leased by the Administration as a police station for the fourteenth region. Such stations, called escuhitoria, I THE ESCUBITORIUM OF MONTE DE' FIORI 545 were distributed all over the city, one for each region, as "depend- ences " of the central barracks or stationes, of which there were only seven. The headquarters, the Scotland Yard of ancient Rome, were with the static of the first battalion, under the church of S. Marcello and the Palazzo Muti-Balestra. The escubitorium of Monte de' Fiori was garrisoned by the men of the seventh cohort, to which the care of the ninth and fourteenth wards of the city was intrusted. The main barracks have been located in the neighborhood of the transtiberine church of S. Salvatore in Corte (in cohoi-te), on no sufficient evidence, however, as the name curds (court-yard) has been connected with other churches in mediaeval Rome. The other escubitorium of the same cohort was at the Therm* Xeronianaj in the ninth region. The ruins at the Monte de' Fiori are made attractive by the ex- cellent preservation of some of the apartments and by the graffiti with which the walls are covered. These last number about one hundred, and have been published and illustrated by Ilenzen. They begin as a rule with a date ; then follow the number and name of the cohort, the name of the captain of the company to which the writer of the graffito belonged, the name of the writer, his special rank in the company, — if he had one, — and lastly, the reason which ])rompted him to scratch his sentences on the wall. The dates begin with a. d. 215, and end with 245, a lapse of thirty years. The Emperors named are Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, Severus Alexander (Mamma^a, his mothei'), and Gordi- anus TTI. In token of loyalty towards their sovereigns, the men call their cohorts Severiana, Antoniniana, Mamiana, Alexandriana, and Gordiana. Twenty-five names of captains are recorded. The writers are mostly common soldiers : a few sub-officers call themselves adiutores centurionis, adjutants of the captains ; quces- tionarii, examiners of prisoners ; carcerarii, warders of the prison ; aquarii, plumbers and keepers of fire-engines (siphones ?) ; balnearii, keepers of the baths attached to the barracks ; horrearii, attached to the commissariat, and so forth. The reasons given for the writing of the graffiti are mainly two : the first is to express feelings of loyalty, and wishes of welfare and long life for the reigning Emperor (vota decennalia, vicennalia, etc.) ; the second is to thank the gods, the Genius of the Escubi- torium, and the fellow soldiers, and to congratulate one's self on having finished the sebaciaria. What were these sebaciaria? 546 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV I shall not tire the reader by summing up all the conjectures advanced on this subject ; three points are certain : first, that the men intrusted with the sebaciaria were on duty for one whole month : " sevaciaria fecit ex Kalendas lulias in Ka(lendas) Augu- (stas) ; " secondly, that the sebaciaria were not exempt from a certain amount of danger, so much so that the men accompany very often their statement with tlie congratulatory " omnia tuta ! " " everything safe ! " thirdly, that the sebaciaria were a heavy and tiresome work : " Lassus sum : successorem date ! " " I am tired : let some one else take my place ! " Professor Henzen thinks that the mysterious words " sebaciaria f acere " mean to take care of the torches, lamps, and candles made of tallow (sebum) used by the policemen to light their barracks and to carry about in their night rounds. The explanation is not satisfactory. The part of the Escubitorium now accessible contains a court paved with mosaics in chiaroscuro, with a fountain in the centre ; and a chapel or lararium, one of the most perfect specimens of ornamental brickwork of the time of Severus and Caracalla. (See Ancient Rome, p. 231.) Some of the walls reach the height of the second floor of the modern houses of the Monte de' Fiori. LiTERATUKK. — Wilhehii Henzen, Bull. Inst., 1867, p. 12; and Anna I i Inst., 1874, p. 111. — Pietro Ereole Visconti, La coorte settima dei Vir/ili. Rome, 1868. — Corpus Inscr. Latin., vol. vi. n. 2998-3091.— Carlo Nocella, Sebacia- ria Emitulurius. Rome, Forzani, 1887. — Alessandro Capannari, Bull, com., 1886, p. 253. — Compare Bull, com., 1887, pp. 31, 77. LXXVI. HoRTi C^SARis, laid out by the Dictator, and be- queathed to the people by a codicil in his will (jiovissimo testamento). They occupied the sites of the present Villa Sciarra, vigne Mattel, della Missione, and di S. Michele, reaching south to the tufa quarries of Pozzo Pantaleo, and the beautiful uplands of the Monte verde. The view from these uplands over the harbor, the city, the campagna, the hills, the Apennines was, and is now, celebrated : — " Hinc septem dominos videre montes et totam licet «stimare Romam." The slope of the hill was cvit into terraces supported by porticoes and colonnades, with shady glens and waterfalls to break the symmetry of the architectural masses. The low land at the foot of the slope was not all included in the park, a strip along the Via Portuensis being occupied by temples (of the Fors Fortuna, of the Sun), by tombs, by gi-anaries and warehouses, and by iirivate THE GARDENS OF CESAR 547 gardens. One of these last is described in a document of the sixth century (a. d. 577-78) as the " Ilorti Traiistiberini Eugenii notarii, foras niuros iuxta portani Portuensem qui fuerunt ex iure quondam Micini cancellarii inlustris urbanai sedis patris eius " (Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 8401). Although no remains of the Horti Csesaris appear above ground, works of art are occasionally discovered within their boundary line even after four centuries of plunder. The first excavations of which we have a written account took place about 1550 in the Vigna Vittori, opposite the Marmorata. Several statues, busts, and heads of poets, philosophers, and Emperors were found concealed in two rooms. Some were bought by Cardinal Alessandro Earnese, others were placed in the Museo Vittori. About the same time tlie celebrated group of Menelaos and Patroklos, known as " il Pas(iuino," came to light from the Vigna of Antonio Velli, half a mile outside the Porta Portese. Duke Cosimo, who liappened to be in Rome at the time, bought it for 500 scudi, and placed it in the Loggia de' Lanzi.^ In 1822 the following works of art were dug up in the Vigna della Missione : an exquisite polychrome mosaic pavement with masks, fish, fruit, and flowers (it was cut into squares and sold partly to Earl Russell, partly to Lord Kinnaird) ; a statue of Diana ; another of Neptune, which stood in the niche of a foun- tain ; a Cupid ; and the figure of a stag in nero antico, larger than life-size. Some of these marbles are exhibited at present in the Lateran Museum. The search was resumed in the year 1825, the only work of art I'ecovered being the statue of ^-Esoulapius kept until late years in the " Casa dei Signori della Missione " at the Monte Citorio. Giovanni Battista Guidi excavated in 1860 the palmyrene temple of Helios, discovering among its ruins the Venus now in the Her- mitage at St. Petersburg. Schnetz, then president of the French Academy in Rome, and Visconti, then director of the excavations, proclaimed the statue superior to the Venus of tlie Medici ; but theii" judgment, expressed under the excitement of the find, has not been sanctioned by experts. In the following year a precious vase of porphyry, with handles in the shape of snakes, was discovered in building the Civitavecchia 1 Flaminio Vacca, Mem. 96, 97 (in Fea's Miscell., vol. i. p, xciv.). — FranceKCO Cancellieri, Notizie sulle statue di . . . Pasr/uino. Rome, 1779. — Winckelmann, Sfnrin rielle Arti, vol. i. p. xxvi. — Urlichs, Ueber die Gruppe des Pasquino. Bonn, 1867. 548 UEBS SACEA EEGIONUM XIV railway station, outside the Porta Portese. Baron Pontalba, one of the railway officials, made a present of it to Seiior Solar. It is now in Spain. The Archaeological Commission again searched the slope of the Vigna della JNIissione in 1884, and found a bust of Anakreon, inscribed with his name (ANAKPEnN ATPIK02), which is now on exhibition in the Palazzo dei Conserv^atori. Students can get access to the upper plateau of the Horti Ca\saris on the occasion of the annual feast celebrated in the cata- combs of Pontianus in the Vigna della Missione. LiTEKATUKE. — Corpus Inscr., Yo\. vi. n. 642, 817, 8401. — C. Ludovico Viscoiiti, ^-l«?ja/. Inst., 1860, pp. 415-450, pi. R. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull.com., 1884, p. 25; and Notizie Scavi, 1866, p. 52. — Luigi Borsari, Bull, com., 1887 p. 'JO. — Helbig, Guide, vol. i. p. 443, n. 599; p. 479, n. 646. LXXVII. Horti Get^e, laid out by Septimius Severus under the name of his youngest son, on the plateau and on the slope of the Janiculum, in the space now occupied by the Villa Corsini, the convent of S. Onofrio, and the Villa Lante. There are remains of a reservoir on the left of the gate of the modern park, under the wall of the Villa Heyland. A bronze statue of Septimius Severus was found here by Pope Urban VIII., while biailding the new walls of the city. Three halls with beautiful marble pave- ments were discovered by Prince Corsini in January, 1857 ; columns of cipollino, Corinthian capitals, and part of a sitting female statue, by the Commissioners of the Hospital of S. Spirito in 1883. Literature. — Pietro Bartoli, Mem. 117 (in Fea's Miscell., vol. i.). — Maffei, Eaccolta di statue, pi. 92. LXXVIII. The Horti ACtRippin.e. — The early history and topography of the Vatican district have been beautifully illustrated by Prof. Anton Elter, in the " Rheinisch. Museum " of 1891, p. 112. There were four roads departing from the transtiberine end of the Pons Neronianus or Vaticanus by S. Spirito : the Aurelia Nova on the extreme left, the Cornelia and the Triumphalis in the mid- dle, and the Via di Porta Castello (classic name unknown) on the right. (See plan, Fig. 150, p. 394.) The space between the first two roads was occupied by the gardens laid out by Agrippina the elder, mother of Caligula, which became in due course of time crown property, and a favorite resort with young profligate Em- perors, like Caligula himself, Nero, and Heliogabalus. The gar- dens contained a portico on the river-side, and a circus, named "Gaianum " from its founder (Gains Csesar, Caligula), the north side of which was made use of by Constantine as a foundation to the THE GARDENS OF AGRIPPINA 549 south half of S. Peter's basilica. (Compare plan and description in "Pagan and Christian Rome," p. 128.) The obeli.sk which once marked the middle line of the Circus and now stands in front of the basilica is the only relic left of the Horti Agrippinse. It is a monolith of red granite, without hieroglyphs, brought over firom Heliopolis, the only one which was not thrown down after the fall of the P^mpire. Its close proximity to the tomb of the Apos- tle, and to the mausoleum of the Christian Emperors of the foiu-th century (Mosileos, S. Petronilla), saved it from sharing the fate of the others. It measiu'es 2.5.36 metres in height, without the pedestal, made of four blocks of the same granite. The name oyulia {gurjlia, aif/uille, needle) is given to it for the first time in a bull of Leo IX., A. D. 1053, in which the pope calls it also the toml) of Julius Cfesar. The belief that the l)ronze globe on the jiinnacle contained the ashes of the Dictator was widespread in the Middle Ages; in fact, a whole cycle of legends was formed about the obelisk in the early dawn of the Renaissance. Giovanni Dondi dell' Orologio (f 1389) asserts having 'seen engraved in the middle of the monolith the distich — "ingenio, Bvizeta, tuo bis quiuque puella- appositis manibus, banc erexere columnam." Another even more absurd inscription is given by Giambullari ap. Mercati, " Obelischi," p. 139. A third appears in the early epigraphic manuals of Metello, Lilius the gouty, Ferrarino, etc. — "orbe sub hoc parvo conditur orbis Hems, si lapis est umis, die qua fuit arte levatus, et si sunt plures, die ubi contigui." INIercati thinks that the lower portion of the obelisk was cov- ered with sheets of gilt bronze, described by Petrarch (?),and that they were stolen during the Sacco del Borbone. There seems to be no doubt that those brutal lansquenets fired several shots and hit the globe in more than one place. The removal, accomplished by order of Sixtus V., by his architect Domenico Fontana, is an event too well known to be described in these pages. The official minutes of the religious ceremony of September 2(i, 1.586, which preceded it, are to be found in Grimaldi's Diary, p. 212' of the Bar- berihian copy. Thirty-seven thousand scudi were spent on the operation, nearly 7000 being for ropes alone. The timber for the scaffoldings erected to lower and then raise it into its new position was cut in the woods of Xettuno and Campomorto, each beam being drawn bv fourteen buffaloes. The metal ornaments were cast by 550 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV G. B. Laurenziano and Francesco Censori, the brass-founders of the " Fabbrica." The four lions were modeled by Prospero Bres- ciano and Cecchino da Pietra Santa, cast and gilt by Ludovico Torrigiani. Altogether, 5694 pounds of bronze and 10,802 of iron were made use of in the operation. The lowei'ing took place on May 7, 1586, the removal on June 13, the reerection on September 10, the same day on which the Duke of Luxembourg and De Pisany, ambassadors of Henry III., made their solemn entry through the Porta Angelica. The successful architect was serenaded by all the trumpeters of Rome ; the pope made him a nobleman, and offered him the insignia of knighthood, a magnificent work of the goldsmith Ottavio Vanni, also a pension of 2400 scudi, and all the material used in the transportation. The best description of the event is to be found in vol. ii. p. 128 of Baron Hubner's " Sixte-Quint," and the best representation in a copper plate de- signed by Fontana and engraA'ed by Natale Bonifazio da Sebenico. The reconstruction of the Basilica of S. Peter, begun by Julius 11. and finished by Paul V., led to the discovery of important remains of the Circus, the foundations of which were built on palisades of a hard kind of wood which had become fossilized. Grimaldi says that in digging the foundations of the southeast corner of the fa(,"ade the masons discovered those of the Circus at the depth of 6.69 metres, the pavement of the Via Cornelia at 11.15, a bed of loose ground at 20.07, and lastly a bed of clay at 30.01. The southeast corner, therefoi-e, is sunk to the depth of over a hundred feet. Grimaldi also tells us that the shell of the Circus was composed of six parallel walls of reticulated masonry, three on each side, upon which the seats were placed, the width of the arena being 51.29, while the Circus itself was 73.59 wide, and 323 long. The name Gaianum was transferred in the Middle Ages to another circus-like edifice of the gardens of Domitia, the remains of which were dug up in 1743 a little to the north of the Mauso- leum of Hadrian. In a deed of April 6, 1506, which T have found in the Capitoline Archives (vol. xxii. f. 103), Matteo di Bartolomeo sells to Domenico da Sutri, a goldsmith, a vineyard and a cane-field located " extra portam Castelli in loco qui dicitur Gaiano." Another deed, of August 12, 1512 (vol. dcccxciv.), mentions a vineyard of Sisto de' Mellini " extra portam Castelli in loco dicto Gaiano." The Via Cornelia, bordering on the north side of the Hoi-ti Agrippinas, was lined with pagan and Christian tombs. To the THE GARDENS OF AGRIPFIXA 551 pagan group belong the sarcophagu.s of Claudia Ileruiione Arclii- mima, discovered in 161'2 under the atrium of S. Peter's ; the tombstones of ^Elius Eutacius and ^Elia Valeria, discovered in 1611 under the front steps ; those of Majsia Titiana and Pomponia Fadiula, discovered in 1615 in the foundations of the " Confes- sione ; " and many others described in '• Pagan and Christian Rome," p. 129. The early Christian tombs were clustered around the grave of the Apostle ; those of a later age were scattered also under the church and its neighborhood. The most important bore the exact indication of the spot to which they belonged ; for instance, " ad sanctum Apostolum Petrum, ante regia(m portam) in porticu, columua secunda quo modo intramus, sinistra parte viroruni." Parallel with the uortli side of the Circus, and under the clay cliffs of the Vatican hill, was a portico, resting on square brick pilasters painted with flowers, birds, and vines on a white ground. These arcades, discovered in 1607, ran fron'i the Altare del Sacramento to the end of the atrium, a distance of 2o0 feet. LiTKKATUKE. — Oil the Obelisk. — Doineiiico Fontana, Delia transportatione dell' obeltsco vatic. Rome, 1590. — Micliele Mercati, Detjli ohelischi di Roma, pp. 239, 365. — Gio. Battista Cipriani, Sui dodicl obelischi t'jizi, Rome, 1823, p. 13. — Platiier, Beschreibunson, Dipinti di SiMo I'., i>. 9, n. 2, pi. iii. — Andrea Busiri, L' obeli.'icti nit. Rome, 1886. — Carlo Fea, in Winckehnann's Storia ddle Arti, vol. iii. p. 291 ; and Miscellanta, vol. ii. p. 5. — Corpus /user., vol. vi. n. 882. — .Sangallo, Cod. Barber., xlix. 33, pi. 28; and Cod. Siena, 8, iv. 5, pi. 9'. — Heeniskerk, BeroL, pis. 7, 9, 22. — Dosio, l^ffizi, 2535, 2.536, 2555,2580.— Baldassare Peruzzi, Uffizi, 631. — Giaconio Grimaldi, Cod. Barber., passim. On the tombs of the Via Cornelia. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Parjan and Christian Rome, Y>. 270. — Flaminio Vacca, Mem. 61 (in Fea's Miscellanea, vol. i.). — Giaconio Lombroso, ^fem. di Casslano dal Pozzo, p. 48. — Corpus Inscr., vol. vi. n. 9797, 9971, 10,048, 10,0-52-10,054, 10,0.56, 10,106, 10,215, etc. On the Circus near Hadrian's MausokMim. — Procopius, Goth., ii. 1. — Kfvillas, Atti arrad. pontif. arch., vol. .x. p. 455. — Beschreibiiii;/, vol. iii, p. 17. — Luis,n Canina, Atti arrad. pontif. arch., vol. x. p. 433; and Edijizi, vol. iv. pis. 191, 192. — Gio. Battista de Kossi, Piante di Roma, p. 85. LXXIX. The gardens of Domitia extended from the Via di Porta Castello eastward as far as the Palazzo di Giustizia and the Ponte Umberto.^ The only monument left standing is the Mausoleum sen ^loles Iladriani (Iladrianium, Antonineum, jNIole Adriana, Castel S. Angelo). Xerva was the last Emperor buried in the mausoleum of 1 LiTEEATiiJF. — Kndolfo Lanciani, Bull. com.. 1S89, p. 173. 552 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV Augustus. Trajan's ashes were laid to rest in an urn of gold under his monumental column (?). Hadrian determined to raise a new tomb for himself and his successors, and, like Augustus, selected a site on the green and shady banks of the Tiber, not on the city side, however, but in the gardens of Domitia, which, with those of Agrippina, foi-med a crown property called by Tacitus (Annal., xv. 39) " Horti Neronis." The mausoleum and the bridge which gave access to it were substantially finished in a. d. 136. Fig. 211. — Capital from the Basement of Hadrian's Tomb. Antoninus Pius, after completing the ornamental part in 130, transferred to it Hadrian's ashes from their temporary burial-place in the former villa of Cicero at Puteoli, and was himself afterwards interred there. It has been conjectured that the i:)oi"phyry sarcophagus which contained the remains of Hadrian, and was placed in the recess of the sepulchral chamber opj^osite the entrance door, is the one removed by Pope Innocent II. to the Lateran in order that it might serve as his own tomb, and destroyed there by fire in 1360. The cover, however, was saved, if we care to believe the same tradition, and made use of for the tomb of the Emperor Otho II., THE MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN 553 in the atrium of S. Peter, until Pope Albani removed it to the first chapel on the left of that church and turned it into a baptismal font. This story is groundless : that porphyry coffin, of colossal size, may have been placed in the mausoleum by a late Emperor, but cannot have contained the remains of Hadrian, because this prince was cremated and not inhumated. Besides the passages of the " Vita Hadi'iani," 19 ; and of Dion Cassius, Ixxvi. 15 ; Ixxviii. 9, 24, two descriptions of the monument liave come down to us, one by Procopius, the other by Leo I. From these we learn that it was composed of a square basement of moderate height, each side of which measured 247 feet. It was faced with blocks of Parian marble, with pilasters at the corners, crowned by a capital of which I give a reproduction from the original now in the INIuseo delle Terme. (Fig. 211.) Above the pilasters were groups of men and horses in bronze, of admirable workmanship. The basement was protected around by a sidewalk and a railing of gilt bronze, supported by marble pillars crowned with gilded peacocks, two of which are in the Giardino della Pigna, in the Vatican. A grand circular mole, nearly a thousand feet in circumference, and also faced with blocks of Parian marble, stood on the square basement and sup- ported in its turn a cone of earth covered with evergreens, like the mausoleum of Augustus. Of this magnificent decoration nothing now remains except a few blocks of the coating of marble, on the east side of the quadrangle, near the Bastione di S. Giovanni. All that is visible of the ancient work from the outside are the blocks of peperino of the mole which once supported the outer casing. The rest, both above and below, is covered by the works of fortification constructed at various periods, from the time of Ilonorius (39:5-403) to oiu- own days. In no other monument of ancient and mediajval Rome is our history written, moulded, as it were, so vividly, as upon the battered remains of this castle-tomb. Within and around it took place all the faction fights for domin- ion with which popes. Emperors, barons, barbarians, Romans have distracted the city for fifteen hundred years. I must refer the reader on this point of history to Gregorovius. '' Geschichte d. Stadt Rom ; " ^ to Nibby's excellent article in vol. ii. of the " Roma antica," p. 488 ; and to Mariano Borgatti's " Castel Sant' Angelo," 1890. Of the internal arrangement of the monument nothing- was known until 182.5, when the principal door was discovered in the middle of the square basement facing the bridge. It opens 1 P. 67 of index of Italian edition, Venice, 1876. 554 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV upon a corridor leading to a large niche, which, it is conjectured, contained a statue of Hadrian. The walls of this vestibule, by which modern visitors generally begin tlieir inspection, are built of travertine, and bear evidence of having been paneled with Numidian marble. The pavement is of white mosaic. On the right side of this vestibule, near the niche, begins an inclined spiral way, 30 feet high and 11 wide, leading up to the central chamber, which is in the form of a Greek cross. The inscrijitions of the members of the Imperial family buried in the mausoleum, of which we have a copy, were set in the front of the basement towards the bridge, in the following order (see Huelsen in Mittheilungen, 1891, p. 142) : — I. Inscription of Hadrian and Sabiua put up in a. d. 139 above the entrance door (Corpus, n. 984). II. Of Antoninus Pius, d. 161 (n. 986). III. Of Faustina the elder, d. 141 (n. 987). IV.-VI. Of n III IV v VI viiyiii ix J L Fig. 212. — Diagram showing the Order in wliich the Imperial Tombstones were placed in the Mausoleum. M. Aurelius Fulvus (n. 988), of M. Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (n. 989), and of Aurelia Fadilla (n. 990), sons and daughter of Antoninus Pius. VII.-IX. Of T. Aurelius Antoninus (n. 993), of T. .Elius Aurelius (n. 994), and of Domitia Faustina (n. 99.5), sons and daughter of M. Aurelius. X. Of L. iElius Cfesar, d. 138 (n. 98.5). XI. Of L. Verus, d. 169 (n. 991). And lastly, XII., of Corn- modus, d. 192 (n. 992), placed above it. The position of this last shows that the panels destined by the designer for the reception of funeral tablets were all filled before the death of Com modus, and that a new line of epitaphs was begun at a higher level. AVhen Bernardo Gamucci described the Castello towards 1565, inscrip- tions XI. and XII., as well as part of the frieze ornamented with bucranii and festoons, were still to be seen in situ. Gregory XIII. laid his hands on these historic marbles, and cut them in slabs for the decoration of his " cappella Gregoriana " in S. Peter's. The date of this wanton act of destruction is July, 1579. Giovanni Alberti, who happened to be in Rome in those days, wrote the following memorandum in his sketch-book (f. 25', 26) : THE MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN 555 "This frieze with wreaths and bulls' heads (marked A), this archi- trave (marked B), and this basement (marked C) are being ex- tracted at the present moment from the mausoleum of Hadrian, and precisely from the front which faces the river, where there is a great inscription above the door. They were all large pieces of mai'ble, wrenched from their sockets by order of our lord pope Gregory XIII. and worked anew for the Gregorian chapel in S. Peter's. (I took these drawings) on July 20, 1579." We know from other sources that the demolition had begun in the month of February of the pi-eceding year.i There is no doubt that the tomb was adorned with statues. Procopius distinctly says that, during the siege laid by the Goths to the castle in 537, many of them were hurled down from the battlements upon the assailants. On the strength of this passage topographers have been in the habit of attributing to the mau- soleum all the works of statuary discovered in the neighborhood : like the Barberini Faun now in Munich, the exquisite statue of a River God described by Cassiano dal Pozzo,- etc., as if such sub- jects were becoming a house of death. The statues must have represented the ^l*]lian and the Aurelian princes and princesses ; and I believe that the only two marbles which may be attributed to the series are the colossal head of Hadrian now in the Rotunda of the Vatican, No. 548, and that of Antoninus which stood by it before they were removed from the Castel S. Angelo. (See Helbig, Guide, vol. i. p. 211, n. 298.) The mausoleum is crowned by the statue of the angel sheath- ing the sword. He seems to protect it with his outspread wings. The figure appears for the first time in a miniature of Nicolo Polani of 1459, discovered by Geffroy in MSS. CC, 12 of the Bibli- otheque de Sainte Genevieve in Paris.^ Next in chronological order comes the fresco of Benozzo Gozzoli at S. Geminiano (1465), published by Stevenson, winch also represents the angel in his typical attitude ; and both as a statue, not as an allusion to the legend of Gregory the Great (a. d. 590). The statue — of gilt wood with a framework of copper — had been set up on the pin- nacle of the castle in January, 1453, by order of Nicholas V. A restoration is mentioned in 1475. Sigismondo de' Conti (Raphael's 1 See Laurentius FrixoHus, Sacellnm Grec/oriannm. Rome, 1581. 2 Lombroso, Mem. di Cassiano dal Pozzo, p. 49. 8 References for the angel's statue. — Auguste Geffro_y, Melanges de I' E cole francaise, vol. xii. (Une rue inedite de Rome en 1459.) — Eugene Miintz, Les Antigiiites de la viUe de Rome, Paris, 1886, p. GO, ii. 1. 556 URBS SACRA REGIONUM XIV friend, from whom the divine painter received the order in 1511 for the celebrated IMadonna di Foligno) says that under Pope Borgia (1497) the statue was blown up by the explosion of the povvdei'-magazine, " cuius frusta etiam in Exquiliis sunt inventa ! " A new one was substituted in 1499, stolen in iry27 by the lansque- nets of Charles V., and a fourth in the time of Paul III., which is THE MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN Obi now set up in a niche at the hist .turn of the stairs. It is the work of Ratt'aello da ]\Iontelupo. The present bronze statue, modeled by Wenschefehi, dates from the time of Benedict XIY. Among the other duties to which the mausoleum has been con- demned, that of sei'ving as a framework for the Girandola (a world-known display of fireworks on Easter Sunday and S. Peter's day) was certainly a picturesque one. See Fig. 213. The mausoleum of Hadrian formed part of one of the largest and noblest cemeteries of ancient Rome, crossed by the Via Tri- ninphalis. (See Pagan and Christian Rome. p. 270.) The tomb next in importance to it was the so-called " Meta," or " sepiilcrum riie Mausoleum of Hadrian and the Meta in Raphael's Constantine." Romuli," or " sepulcrum Xeronis," a pyramid of great size, which stood on the site of the chiu'ch of S. Maria Transpontina, and was destroyed by Alexander VI. in 1499. There are many representa- tions of tlie p^Tamid in works of art of the early Renaissance con- nected with the martjn-dom of S. Peter and with his basilica ; sucli as Giotto's fresco in the sacristy, Antonio Filarete's bronze doors, a panel of a ciborum in the sacre grotte Vaticane, and a vignette of the "Liber ystoriarum romanariim," recently juiblished at the 560 URBS SACRA REGION UM XIV expense of the city of Rome from the original of the thirteenth century.^ I reproduce on page 557 the view of these tombs, which forms the background of Raphael's fresco, the '• Vision of Constan- tine " (Fig. 214). The " Prati di Castello," the modern representatives of the classic " Horti Neronis," have suffered more than other districts of the city from its transformation since 1870. The two jireced- ing views represent the " prati " as they appeared twenty-five years ago (Fig. 215) and as they appear now (Fig. 216). Literature. — Beschreibnng, vol. ii', p. 404. Luigi Ca.mn&, Edifizii, vol. iv. pis. 284-286. — Rodolfo Lanciani, Bull, com., 1888, p. 129. — Christian Huelseii, Mitthtil., 1890, p. 137 ; 1893, p. 321. — Luigi Borsari, Notkie Scavi, 1892, p. 411. 1 Ernesto Monaci, in Archiv. tiucitta rom. stwiu patria, vol. xii. COXCLUSIOX THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY AVe have seen that buildings for the habitation of citizens in ancient Rome were of two kinds, private houses or palaces for the residence of one family, with a more or less copious retinue of servants (domus), and lodging houses or tenement houses many stories high, and adapted to the reception of several families and of single individuals (insulce). We have seen, furthermore, that at the time of its greatest development the city numbered 1790 pahices and 4(5,002 lodging houses, the population being about 1.000,000 souls. These statistics refer to the city limits only, marked approximately by the walls of Aurelian ; but the habita- tions extended beyond the walls for a radius of three miles at least. This suljurban belt of houses and lodgings, with gardens and orchards between them, was called the belt of expatkuitki tecta. Tenement houses, unknown in villages, very rare in provincial towns (like Pompeii, Ilerculaneum, Ostia, and Velleia, consid- erable portions of which have been excavated), were introduced in Rome in 455 b. c, as related by Dionysius : " The Plebeians agreed to divide among themselves bona fide the building lots on the Aventine, each family selecting a space in proportion ^^•^th the means at its disposal ; but it happened also that families, not able to build independently, joined in groups of two, three, and more, and raised a house in common, one family occupying the ground floor, others the floors above." This passage throws considerable light on the history of human habitations in Rome, about which such scanty information has l)een left by classics. It seems that, from the time the city was built on the Palatine hill to the reign of the Tarquins, the Romans dwelt in huts, not unlike those which to the present day give shelter to the shepherds of the Campagna. They are composed of a framework of timber, or boughs, with thatched walls and conical roofs, and a ring of stones. A piece of ground, called the ancestral field or the familv estate, was attached to each hut. its 562 THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY limits being marked by trees sacred to Term inns or Silvanus. It measured 54,285 square feet, namely, one acre and thirty-nine perches, a space obviously insufficient to support and nom'ish the family, but very useful as a domestic garden or orchard. It con- tained also the family tomb. In spite of the extension of the city limits under Servius Tullius, in consequence of which the whole circuit of the seven hills was included in the new line of walls, space began very soon to have a marketable value. Wealthier citizens built extensions to their houses, like shops furnished with bedrooms, and small apartments for the use of the poorer ones. These groups, composed of the mansion of the landlord and of the cottages and small buildings around them rented to outsiders, were called insulm (islands) be- cause, according to the ancient law, they were surrounded by a narrow strip of free ground, called ainbilus, isolating them from the neighboring estates. As long as the pi'ehistoric system of habitations lasted, houses were restricted to the ground floor ; but when stones and tiles began to take the place of boughs and lioards and thatched roofs, the height of buildings increased. Livy describes Tanaqiiil ad- dressing the people thi-ough the windows from the upper part of the house, but she was a lady of royal bii-th and the style in which she lived was exceptional. No better evidence can we get of the fatal law which divides men assembled in cities into a few who possess a large property and many who possess nothing, than the manner in which the few and the many are lodged. There were hardly eighteen hundred families of wealth and rank in old Rome enjoying the luxuries of a palace and of a private mansion, while about one liundred thousand families were massed in lodgings or tenement houses hardly fit for human hal)itation. We know that the tenement houses were not well built : their foundations were not sunk to the proper depth on account of the swampy nature of the subsoil ; their front walls were only a foot and a half thick, and patched up with sun-dried bricks. Such houses were only capable of one story above the ground floor. At the time of Vitruvius, about 15 b. c, their construction had undergone some improvement, thanks to the energetic action of Augustus, and thanks also to the increase in the value of space which compelled builders to gain in height what they were losing in surface. Vitruvius describes the new tenement houses as composed of a framework of solid stone with partition walls of brick or concrete, attaining a consideral)le height, and THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY 563 capable of accommodating as many families of tenants as they had floors. Yet, even in the golden age of Angustus, cheap building was not given up altogether. In the inundation of 5i b. c. many houses collapsed because the waters had dissolved the sun-dried bricks of their walls. Augustus was compelled to dredge and clear out the bed of the river because it was choked up by the buildings which had fallen. The inundation of A. d. 69 under- mined hundreds of houses even in inland quarters ; and the Em- peror Otho, who was then marching against Vitellius, found his way barred for over twenty miles by the ruins of buildings on either side of the Via Flaminia. The spontaneous collapse of the tenement houses was such a common occurrence that nobody paid attention to it, although it is an event which would fill our news- papers with a thrilling subject for days. The fall of some cot- tages, attended with loss of life, is related by Cicero as an item hardly worthy of serious remark. Seneca depicts the tenants of popidar dens as fearing at the same time to be buried or burnt alive. There were companies formed for the purpose of propping and sustaining " in the air " houses, the foundations of which had to be strengthened. Jordan, Richter, De Marchi, and others have tried to discover in more than one way what was the average size of a Roman insula, and how many tenants it was capable of containing. Sui> posing the population to have been 1,000,000, and supposing that a private palace counted IdO inmates, including master, servants, and slaves, we find that 179,000 people livetl in palaces, 821,000 in tenement houses. This would give about 18 tenants for each of the 46.602 houses. As regards their size, Jordan suggests 3.50 square metres, Richter 282, while De ]\Iarchi reminds us that in the oldest quarters of Milan, which have as yet resisted civiliza- tion, the area of such houses varies from a minimum of 112 to a maximum of 270 square metres. We must be very careful, how- ever, in forming our judgment by comparing modern with an- cient cities, as the consequences may be misleading. Many points which we consider now as absolutely necessary to the health and welfare, nay, to the very existence of a city, were considered in by-gone days a matter of luxury, or were perhaps utterly ignored. It is not so very long ago since a municipal law of the city of Milan ordered that no more than fourteen people should sleep in the same room ! The problem is very complex, and the figures obtained by comparing our own municipal statistics with those of the Curiosum and Xotitia mean little or nothing. My opinion is 564 THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY that the ignoble quarters which disfigured, and partly disfigure still, the neighborhood of the Ponte Sant-Angelo, of the Ghetto, of the Regola, may be taken as the nearest representatives of the old plebeian quarters of the Subura and of the Trastevere, and I agree with Xiebuhr (Vortriige iiber Romische Alterthumer, p. 628) when he contends that the houses built three or four hundred years ago in the above-named quarters are good specimens of an old Roman insula. The comparison is proved correct, first, by the number of inmates, which varies from 15 to 20 ; secondly, by their surface not exceeding 200 square metres ; thirdly, by their great height in comparison with their width ; fourthly, by the fact that they contain as many families as there are floors ; in the last place, by their resemblance to the celebrated view of a Roman popular street, discovered by Rosa in the house of Germanicus ou the Palatine (p. 149). The fragments of the plan of the city, en- graved on marble under Septimius Severus and Caracalla, show many blocks composed entirely of insula^ and surrounded by nar- row and tortuous streets. Archpeologists have collected the following information as regards house rents in Athens and Rome. In Athens, lodging houses wei'e let mostly to foreigners who came there on business. Pasion, the banker, had one valued at 100 minas, or $2000. City property, yielding a return of rather more than 81 per cent on the purchase money, is mentioned by Isseus. Boeckh says that rents varied from a minimum of 3 minas, or $60, to a maximum of 120 minas, or .f2400, according to size, location, and comfort of house. Rents were commonly paid by the month. Lodgings were fre- quently hired on speculation by persons called favKKrjpoi, who made a profit by underletting them, and sometimes for not very reputable purposes. Rents in Rome were equally liigh, even for a miserable garret. Persons in the lowest conditions of life ajipear to have paid 2000 sesterces, or $85, at the time of Julius C?esar. Coelius is said to have paid 80,000 sesterces, or $1330, for a third floor in the insula of Publius Clodius. Hence, it became a profitable speculation to build or to hire a whole insula, or a whole block, and to sublet the cenaciila, single rooms, or suites, to different tenants, the whole establishment being placed under the care of a manager and collector of rents, called i7isiilarius. Noblemen, own- ing a large town property, counted among their clerks a procurator insularum. We come now to the question of the height of buildings. We must divide them into three classes : insula?, palaces, and public THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY 565 buildings. The excessive height of tenement houses is noticed for the first time, I believe, in Cicero, who compares Rome " suspended in the air " to Capua lying comfortably down in the plains of Campania Felix. Seneca complains of the impunity which build- ers of tall tenement houses were allowed to enjoy, because the poor tenants, perched in those heights, had no possible escape from fire or from the collapse of the building itself. We know from Sue- tonius that Eutilius Lupus, who died after 77 b. c. had written an oration " on the height of public and private buildings," a fact which pi'oves that excesses in this line of speculation had already aroused the suspicions and fears of persons intrusted with the care of public interests. There is no doubt that towards the end of tlie Republic Rome had higher houses than some large modern cities. While the Building Act promulgated in Berlin in 1860 admits a maximum height of 36 feet only — provided the street is of the same width — and a greater height only in case the street should be considerably broader ; while the Viennese Building Act allows 45 feet (four stories at the utmost), and the Parisian 63^ feet, if such or more is the breadth of the thoroughfare, in ancient Rome higher figures were allowed with no consideration whatever for the width of the street. Augustus, to obviate disaster, limited the height of new houses to 70 Roman feet (20.79 metres), at least on the street side, and recited on this occasion the oration of Rutilius Lupus to prove that such a momentous question for the welfare of the city had been taken into consideration since the time of the Republic. Tliis fact proves, first, that the height of 20 metres had been generally surpassed before tlie time of Augus- tus; secondly, tliat the new regulations concerned street fi'onts only, and not the back part of houses opening on yards, alle3's, or narrow lanes ; thirdly, that they concerned new structures alone, and not those already existing. In spite of the boast attributed to the founder of the Empire, that he would leave built of marltle the city which he had found built of bricks, there is no doubt that the crowding, the unhealthi- ness, the congestion of popular quarters, and their want of air, light, and space, remained very much as they had been before. The merit of having put an end to this wretched state of things, of having renewed the aspect of the metropolis, altering its plan in accordance with the principles of sanitation and art, belongs to Nero. He set the whole city into a blaze of fire, and did it so cleverly that, of the fourteen wards into which Rome had been divided by Augustus, three were annihilated, seven for the greater 566 THE GENERAL ASPECT OE THE CITY part destroyed, and yet not a single life was lost in the monstrous conflagration. Severus and Celer, the Imperial architects charged with the reconstruction of the city, showed themselves equal to their task. In tracing the new streets and avenues through the smoking ruins, they followed the straight line and the right angle, as far as could be done in a hilly and deeply furrowed region. Hasty and irregular constructions were forbidden ; large squares were opened, in place of filthy and densely inhabited quarters, and the height of private houses was limited, it seems, to double the width of the street. Porticoes were to be built in front of each dwelling to give the passer-by protection from rain and from heat ; lastly, wooden ceilings were excluded, at least from the lower sto- ries, and isolation of houses on every side was made compulsory. A new building act fixing the height of tenement houses at 60 feet (17.83 metres) was issued by Trajan. This incessant renewal of regulation after regulation shows how little respect speculatoi'S paid to them ; and, besides, the Imperial ordinances concerned, as I said, only the front of houses, not their interior parts opening on courtyards or alleys. No doubt these back sections attained a greater height. Martial speaks of a poor man, a neighbor, who had to mount two hundred steps (ducentas acalas, viz. gradus) to reach his garret. Giving to each step 0.15 metre, that garret must have been perched 30 metres, or 100 feet, above the level of the street ; but Martial uses perhaps a hyperbolic expression. The same poet says in another place, " scalis habito tribus, sed aids," " I live in the third floor, but high above ground," which seems to indicate that ceilings must have hung very low in ordinary lodging houses (rooms have been found at Pompeii only 1.95 metre high). Juvenal mentions the case of a fire which had already attained the third floor of a building, without being noticed by the poor tenants living in the topmost stories under the roof. Tertullian compares the numberless stories of a tenement house to the " zones " of heaven imagined by the Gnostics. An inscription discovered on October 8, 1819, opposite the church of S. Eligio dei Ferrari (near the Piazza della Consolazione) describes a tenement house belonging to a Sertorius, as composed of ten shops and six floors above. We must remember, furthermore, that the maximum height was allowed by law independently from the bi-eadth of the street, so that in this respect Rome must be placed far behind the large modern cities. While in Berlin the medium width of all the streets is 22 metres, that of the principal living streets in Rome reached only from 5 to 6 metres, inferior to the Parisian mini- THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY 567 mum of 7.80 metres ; yet while in sucia cases the Parisians can raise tlieir structui'es onl}^ 11.90 metres above the level of the street, the Komans were permitted to reach three times that height. We must not wonder too much at such a state of things. There are actually in Rome — in Rome, the rejuvenated capital of the kingdom of Italy — two important thoroughfares, the Via degii Astalli and the Via delle Colonnelle, one measuring eight feet, be- tween the Palazzo Muti and the Palazzo della Fabbrica di S. Pietro, so that hardly a ray of light can force its way between the eaves of their roofs ; the other ten feet, between the church of la Madda- lena and the opposite tenement houses. Pliny says that no city in the world surpasses Rome if the height of houses be also taken into consideration. Juvenal calls the housetops *■ sublime," and says that the windows are apt to nuxke one giddy. In justice to Rome, we must also remark that houses three and four stories high are mentioned in Babylon by Herodotus, four to five in Naples by Philostratos, six in Carthage by Appianus, eight in Motya by Diodorus. The houses of Tyre were liigher than those of Rome. The Emperor Zeno, referring to an older building act of Leo, which fixed at 100 feet the maximum height of houses in course of reconstruction after a fire, extended the privilege to all new structures, provided they should be separated one from the other in every direction by an interval of 100 feet. The law ad- mitted, however, one exception, that no one could take away from his neighbor the view of the sea. So far as regards the tenement houses. Palaces and private mansions may be left aside, because, as a rule, they were but two stories high. The Imperial palace makes an exception. The wing built by Caligula at the north corner of the Palatine hill, overlooking the Forum, rose 150 feet above the level of the Nova Via, which street was only 12 feet across! The palace of Septimius Severus, at the opposite corner of the hill, rose 180 feet above the level of the Via Triumphalis. Public edifices were built on an equally grand scale. Let me mention again the Temple of the Sun, erected by Aurelian, after his conquest of Palmyi'a, in that part of theQuirinal which is now occupied by the Villa Colonna (see p. 428). Its columns measured 1.95 metre in diameter, and 17.06 metres in height, not including the capital, which alone measured 2.47 metres. The entablature measured 4.88, and was composed of blocks of marble 5 metres long : total height of order, 2(i metres ; of temple, including steps, pediment, and acroteria, 35 metres ; to which we must add the 568 THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY height of the cliff on the edge of Avhich the temple rose. The Cfelii Saturnini, v>'ho lived at the foot of the clitt' in a noble man- sion discovered in 1854 (under the Palazzo Filippani, Piazza della Pilotta), must have seen the chariot of the god glittering in the morning sun 200 feet above their heads. The reader may ask at this point why, in treating the subject, I bring forward only the evidence of classics, and not that of per- sonal experience, and of actual discoveries made in Kome in the course of the last quarter of a centur3^ The fact is that no insulse have been found which could be excavated systematically ; and even if they had been found, we could have studied only their ground plan, not their elevation. The Insula Sertoriana, opjiosite the church of S. Eligio dei Ferrari, has never been excavated, the only portion discovered being two shop doors opening on the ])ublic street. The Insula Bolaniana, discovered in March, 1743, in the foundations of the monastery of S. Pasquale Baylon, Traste- vere, was also left unexplored, the only part described being the well which occupied the centre of the court. A third insula named Vitaliana was found in the spring of last year near the apse of S. Pietro in Vincoli, under cii'cumstances that made a search im- possible without damage to the houses above. The only fact that I can point out to specialists interested in the question is this : In describing the attack made by the partisans of Vitellius on those of Vespasian, who had intrenched themselves in the Capi- tolium, Tacitus distinctly affirms that the roofs of houses which surrounded the sacred hill were level Mith the platform of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The j^latf orm of the temple, still visible in the gardens of the Caffarelli palace, now occupied by the German Embassy, rises 31 metres above the level of the ancient street which skirts the foot of the cliffs on the north side ; therefore, the houses built against the cliffs were at least 31 metres high. The account of Tacitus is confirmed by existing ruins. Near the apse of the church of La Beata Rita, Via Giulio Romano, there are remains of an insula, of which only four stories are left standing, one half perhaps of the original number. That insula when perfect must have reached the level of the Arx now repre- sented by the church of the Aracoeli. Such are the facts connected wdth the question of the general aspect of the city of the Cfesars. The Romans went undoubtedly beyond the line ; but they had at least two excuses in their favor. The first is alluded to by Tacitus — in describing the reconstruc- tion of the city after the fire of Nero, with large avenues, and THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY 569 large streets crossing each other at right angles, lined with houses of moderate height — when he says that in cities of southern latitudes (and snbject to malaria) shade is more agreeable and desirable than the fiery rays of the sun ; and that the health of the inliaV)itants in malarious regions is favored by agglomeration more tlum by dissemination over a large area.^ Tlie second excuse lies in the want of proper means of locomotion from one part of the city to another. It makes very little difference to a Londoner to lodge miles away from his club, from his office, from his shop, because he can reach his destination quickly, comfortably, and cheaply at all hours of the day and night. The old Romans, on the contrary, had no means of contending with distances ; there- fore they increased the height of their insulae in the central quar- ters instead of building new ones in the outlying districts. 1 In the city of the iiopes the healthiest district was the overcrowded and overbuilt Giietto, in whicli six thousand Jews were massed in houses of ex- ceptional height. APPENDIX A. Comparison between Years of the Christian and of THE Roman Eras. (V. c.) (V. c.) /■d ^ \ (A.D.) (V. c.) i* .D.) (V. C.) Anni ab Urbe Condita. (b. c.) Anni Ante Christum. Anni ab Urbe Condita. (B. C.) Anni Ante Christum. Anni a Christo Nato. Anni ab Urbe Condita. Ai Ch N mi a Anni ab risto Urbe ato. Condita. 1 753 325 429 1 7.54 25 1078 10 744 350 404 10 763 i50 1103 20 734 375 379 20 773 !75 1128 30 724 400 3.54 30 783 ' too 1153 40 714 425 329 40 793 t25 1178 50 704 450 304 .50 803 150 1203 60 694 475 279 60 813 t75 1228 70 084 500 254 70 823 )00 12 53 80 674 525 229 80 833 90 664 550 204 90 843 100 6.54 575 179 100 853 ]2.5 629 600 1.54 125 878 1.50 604 625 129 1.50 903 175 579 650 104 175 928 200 .554 675 79 200 9.53 225 529 700 54 225 978 250 504 725 29 2.50 1003 275 479 750 4 275 1028 .300 454 7.53 1 300 10.53 B. C. 48. B. Chronological List of Roman Emperors. Citiu.'' Julius Cesar, son of C. Caesar and of Aurelia, born 100 b. c, pont. max. 63, dictator 48, assassinated March 15th, 44. His wife — Cornelia, dau. of L. Cinna, d. 68. Caius Octavius C(esar Augustus (Ocfarinnus), .son of C. Octavius (died .58) and Atia, niece of .Tulius Cassar, b. 6-3, de- clared Emperor 29, obtained the name of Augustus 27, d. Aug. 29th, A. D. 14. His wives — 1. Clorlia, dau. of Clodius and Fulvia. 2. Scribonia, married 40 b. c, divorcenisus Junior, b. 13, poisoneil A. D. 23. 2. Julia, dau. of Augustus, d. a. d. 14. Drusus Senior, his brother, b. 38 b. c, d. a.d. 9. Married — Antonia, b. 38 b. c, poisoned a. d. 38. Their son — Germanicus, b. 15 B.C., Cwsar a.d. 4, poisoned a.d. 9. Married — Ayrippina Senior, dau. of M. Agrippa and of Julia, dau. of Augustus, b. 15 B. c, starved to death a. d. 33. Their sixth child — 37. Gaius Ccesar Caligula, b. \. D. 12, murdered Jan. 24th, 41. Married — 1. Claudia, d. 30. 2. Orestilla, consort of ("n. Piso. 3. Lollia Paulina. 4. CcBsonia, killed 41. 41. Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus, son of Drusus Senior and Antonia, i). 10 li. (., poisoned a. d. 54. Mar- ried — 1. Plcetia Urr/ulauilla. 2. yElia Pa'tina. 3. Valeria Messallina, killed is. Their son — Britanniciis, b. 42, poisoned 55. 4. Afjrippina Junior, dau. of Germanicus and Agrippina Senior, ni., first Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, secondly Crispus Passienus, thirdly Claudius. 54. Nero Claudius Ccesar Drusiis Germanicus, son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agripjiina Junior, b. 37, Caesar 50, killed himself 08. INIarried — 1. Octavia, dau. of Claudius and Messallina, b. about 42, killed her- self 62. 2. Poppcva Sabina, wife of Otho, d. 66. 3. Statilia Messallina. 68. Ser. Sulpicius Galba, b. Dec. 24th, 3, murdered 69. 69. ]\f. Salrius Otho, b. 32, Emperor Jan. 15tli, 6i), killed himself April 16th, 69. ()9. A. VlTELI-IUS, son of L. Vitellius (d. 49), b. 15, Emperor Jan. 2d, 6-9, killed Dec. 22d. 69. His brother — L. Vilellius. CHROXOLOGTCAL LIST OF ROMAN EMPERORS 573 69. T. Flavins Sahiniis Yespasianus, b. Nov. ITth, y, d. June 2-lrth, 79. Married — Flavin DomitiUu. Their dau. — Domitilla, ni. Flavius Clemens. 79. Titus Flavius Sabinus Vesjjasianus, son of Vespasian, b. Dec. 30th, 40, C*sar G9, Emperor with his father 71, d. Sept. 13th, 81. Married — 1. Arrecina Tertulla. 2. Marcia Furnilla. Tiieir dau. Julia married Flavius Sabinus, nephew of Vespasian. 81. T. FUnniis Domitianus, son of Vespasian, b. 51, C;i?sar 69, assassinated Sept. 18th, 96. Mar- ried — Domitia, dau. of Domitius C'drbulo, d. 140. Their son — An on y mil, 1. , 96. ^1/. Cocceius Xkkva, b. 32, d. Jan. 27th, 98. 98. Marcus Ulpiiis Tha.taxus, b. Sept. ]8tii, .52 or 53, associated in Empire witii Nerva, 97, d. Aug. 117. Married — Poinpeia Plotina, d. 100. Marciana, his sister, mother of — Matidia. 117. P. uElius Hadrianus, b. 76, adopted by Trajan 117, d. July 138. ^Married — Julia Sabina, dau. of Matidia, killed herself 137. 138. T. ^Elius Iladritinus Antoxim s Tius, I). Sept. 19th, 86, adopted l)y Hadrian 138, d. March 7th, 161. Mar- ried — Annia Galeria Faustina Senior, b. 105, d. 141. Their son — Galerius Antunliius. 161. M. AuRELius Antoninus, son of Hadrian's sister Paulina, b. April 20lh, 121, adopted by Anto- ninus 1.38, d. March 17th, 180. Married, 138 — Annia Faustina Junior, dau. of Antoninus I'ius and Faustina, d. 175. Their children — 1. Annius Verus, b. 163, Ca;sar 166, d. 170. 2. Annia Lucilla. Married — I.ncius Aurtlius Verus, son of L. Ceioni'is Commodus, adopted by Antoninus 138, associated in Empire 151, d. 169. 180. L. Aurelius Comxodcs, I). 161, CiBsar 166, Emperor 176, strantjled Dec. 31st, 192. Married — Bruttia Crisjnna, d. 183. 193. P. Ilelrlus Pertixax, b. 126, murdered March 28th, 193. Married — Flaria Titiana. Their son — P. Helvius Pertixax. 574 AFPENDIX A. D. 193. M. DiDHis Salvius Iulianus, b. 133, Emperor March 28th, 193, murdered June 1st, 193. Married — Manila Scantiila. Their dau. — Didia Clara. 193. C. Pescennius Niger, .■saluted Emperor by the legions in the East 193, killed 194. 193. Clodius Albixus, named Ciesar by Septimius Severus 193, took title of Emperor 196, killed 197. 193. L. Septimius Severlts, b. 14(5, d. Feb. 4th, 211. Married — Julia Dmnna, starved herself to death 217. Their son — . Septimius Gein, h. 189, Ca?sar 198, Emperor with Caracalla 211, assas- sinated 212. 211. Mai-cus Aurdius Antoninus Cakacalla, son of Severus, b. 188, C;vsar 196, Augustus 198, sole Emperor 212. Married — Fulvia PlaiifUla, dau. of Fulrius Pluutianus. Murdered 217 by — 217. M. Opeliins ^Iackinus, b. 164, killed 218, with his son — M. OpelliuS DiADUMKNIANU.S. 218. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Elagabalus, or Heliogabalus, son of Varius Marcellus and Julia Soumias Bassiana, and grandson of Julia Msesa (sister of Julia Domna), b. 205, killed 222. Married — 1. Julia Cornelia Paula, divorced 200. 2. Aquilia Severa. 3. Annia Faustina. 222. M. Aurdius Severus Alexander, son of Gessius Marcianus and Julia Mamnuea, dau. of Julia Mfesa, b. Oct. 1st, 205, adopted bj' Elagabalus as Ca?sar 221, murdered 235. Married — 2. Memmia. 3. Herennia Sallustia Barhia Orhiann. 235. C. .Julius Verus Maximixi:s, b. 173, assassinated 238. Married — Paulina. Their son — C. Julius Verus Maxi Jtus, Ca\sar 238, killed 238. Married — Juma Fadilta. 238. M. Antonius Gordianus Afrtcanus I., son of Metius Marullus and Ulpia Gordiana, b. 158, killed himself 238. Married — Fabia Orestilla. Their son — Gordianus Africanus TI., b. 192, Emperor with his father for fortv (lavs, killed 238. 238. Z). C(e//«s Balbinus, b. 178, and Maximus Clodius PrriEXus, b. 164, joint Emperors for three months, murdered June, 238. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF ROMAN EMPERORS 575 238. GoRDiAxus Plus III., grandson of Gordianus I., b. 222, Ctesar 238, assassinated 244. Married — Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, dau. of Temesitheus. 244. M. Julius Philippus, b. 204, killed 249. Married — Marcia Otacilia Severn. Their son — M. Julius Philippus, b. 237, CiBsar 244, Augustus 247, killed 249. 249. C. Messius Quintus Trajanus Dkcius, b. 201, drowned 251. Married — Herennia Cupressenia Etruscilla. Their sons — 1. Q. Herennius Etruscus, Csesar 249, Augustus 251, killed 251. 2. C. Valens Hostilianus, Ca?sar 249, Emperor with Gallus 251, d. same year. 251. C. Viljius Trebonidnus GAt,L,U!i, killed 254. Married — AJinia Gemina Bebtana. Their son — C. Vibius VoLUSiANUs, CiBsar 251, Emperor 252, killed 254. jEmilius ^Emilianus, b. 208, Emperor in Moesia 253, killed 254. Married — Cornelia Supera. 253. P. Licinius Valerianus, b. 190, taken prisoner by the Persians 200, d. 203. Marininna, his second wife, motlier of — Vdlevinnus }\.m\or, killed 2C8. P. Licinius Valerianus Egnatius Galliexts, son of Valerianus by his Krst wife. Emperor 253, assassinated 268. Married — Cornelia Salunina. Tetkicus pater, Emi)er(ir in Gaul 207, defeated by Aurelian 274. His son — Tetririisfilius, (';vsar in (Jaul 207. 2G8. M. Aurelius Claudius (jothicus, b. 214, d. 270. His brother — Quintilhis, Emperor at Aquileia, 270. 270. L. Domitius Aurelianus, b. 207, assassinated 275. Married — Vlpia Severina. 275. M. Claudius Tacitus, assassinated April, 276. His brother — 276. M. Annius Floeiaxus, b. 232, Emperor for two months, killed 276. 276. M. Aurelius Probus, b. 232, massacred 282. 282. M. Aurelius Carus, b. 2-30, killed by lightning 283. His sons — M. Aurelius Carixus, b. 249, C»sar 282, Emperor 283, killed 284. His son — Nl(/ri)iianus. 57 G APPENDIX ■282. M. Aurelius Numerianus, b. 254, Csesar 282, Augustus 283, d. 284. 284. C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, b. 245, abdicated 305, d. 313. Married — Prisca, executed by order of Liciuius, 315. ^f. Aurelius Valerius Maximianus I., styled Herculius, associated in the Empire with Diocletian 28G, abdi- cated 305, retook the Empire 306, abdicated again 308, Emperor again 309, strangled himself 310. Married — Eutropia. Their son — M. Aurelius Valerius Maxentiu.s, b. 282, Emperor of Kome 30(i, drowned in tlie Tiber 312. Mar- ried — Valeria Maximilla. Their son — Romulus, b. 300, CiBsar 307, d. 309. 305. Constantius Chlokus, b. 250, Ca-sar 292, d. 300. His wives — 1. Helena, d. 328. 2. Theodora. His children — Constant ia, d. 330. ^Married — IJcinius senior, b. 263, associated in the Empire with Galerius Maximianus 307, put to dealii by (Nmstantine 323. Eutro2)ia. .Julius Constantius. Married — 1. Galla. 2. Basilina. Galerius Valerius Maximianus Armentarius, adopted and named Cstsar by Diocletian 292, Augustus and Eni]ieror 305, d. 311. His second wife was — Galei'ia Valeria, dan. of Diocletian and Prisca, executed by order of Licinius 315. 300. Flariiis Valerius Con.stantinus Magnus, son of C. Chlorus and Helena, b. 274, named Civsar and Augustus 306, converted to Christianity 311, sole Emperor 311, changed the seat of Government to Byzantium (Constantinople) 330, d. 337. Mar- ried — 1. Minervina. Their son — Flavitis Julius Crisjms, b. 300, Ca?sar 317, juit tn death by order of his father 326. Married — Helena. 2. Fansta, dan. of Maximian, smothered by order of her husliand 326. Their son — 337. Flavins Julius Constantinus H., b. 310, Cffsar 317, killed 340. His brother — CONSTANS I., b. 320, Cassar 333, Emperor of the East 346, assassinated 350. His brother — Constantius II., b. 317, C»sar .323, Augustus .337, Master of all the Empire 3.50, d. 301. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF ROMAN EMPERORS 5. i A. D. 337. Fhirlus Popilius Magnentius, b. 303, Emperor at Autun 350, killed himself 353. His brother — Decentius, Cfesar 351, killed himself 353. Constantius Gallus, son of Julius Constantius and (ialla, b. 325, Csesar 351, executed 354. Married — Constantina, wife first of Hannibalianus, d. 354. 3G0. Flavins Claudius Julianus, surnamed the Apostate, son of Julius Constantius and Basilina, b. 331, CiBsar 355, Emperor at Paris 360, sole Emperor 3G1, killed in battle against the Persians 3f)3. Married — Helena, dau. of Constantine. 303. Flavins Claudius AitviASva, b. .331, d. Feb. 17th, 364. 364. Valentinianus II., son of (iratianus, b. .321, d. 375. Married — 1. ]'a!eria >SVcf/'rt, mother of — GUATIAXUS, b. .3.50, Augustus at Amiens 3fil, I'.niperor 375, slain 389. Married — 1. Constanfia, dau. of Constantinus II., d. 383. 2. Justina, mother of — 383. Vai.entinianus II., b. 371, Augustus 375, Kinjieror of tlic West 383, assassinated 3!l-_'. Valens (East), brother of Valentinianus I., 1). 328, associated in the Enii)ire and Au- gustus 364, burnt alive 378. 37!t. Theodosujs Magnus I. (East), b. 346, Augustus and associated in the Empire by (iratian 37'J, d. Jan. 17th, 39.5. Married — 1. Flaccilla, d. 388. 2. Galla, dau. of Valentinian I. Eufjenius, rhetorician, proclaimed Emperor by Arbogastes 392, de- feated and slain by Theodosius 394. Arcadius, son of Theodosius, b. 377, Augustus ;i83, l'".ni|irnir of the East 395, d. 408. Married — Eudoxia, d. 404. Their son — Theodosius IL, b. 401, Augustus 4()2, Enijieror of the East 418, d.4.50. 395 Flavius Honokius, youngest son of Tluuddsius and Flaccilla, b. 384, Augustus 393, d. 423. Married — Maria, dau. of Stilicho. Constantius III., Augustus and associated in Empire of the West 421, d. the same j-ear. Married 41 7 — Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius, widow of Ataulf. king of the (ioths, died 423. Priscus Attalus, made Emperor by Ahii'ic at Rome 409, deprived of that title, reassumed it in (iaul 410, died in the island of Lipari. 578 APPENDIX A. D. 425. Placidus Valentinianus III., son of Constantius III. and Galla Placidia, b. 419, slain by Petronius Maximus 455. Married — Licinia Eudoxia, dau. of Theodosins II. Their dau. — Eudoeia, married Hunneric, son of Geuseric, king of the Vandals. 455. Petronius Maximus, b. 395, slain after a reign of three months. Married — Licinia Eudoxia, widow of Valentinianus III. 455. Flavius Ccecilius Avitus, deposed 456. 457. Julius Majorianus, compelled to abdicate 401, died five days after. 4(51. Libiiis Seykrus, d. 465. 467. Anthemius, son of Procopius, slain by his son-in-law Ricimer 407. Married — Eujjhemia, dau. of the Em])eror Marcianus. 472. Olybrius, Anicius, a Roman Senator, d. 472. Married — Placidia, dau. of Valentinian III. and Eudoxia. 474. JuLiu.s Nepos, retired to Dalmatia 475, assassinated by Glycerins 480, married a niece of the Empress Yerina. 475. Romulus Augustui.us, son of Orestes, a i)atrician, dethroned by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, 476, who assumes the title of King of Italy. C. Chronological List of the First Kings of Italy. 476 Odoacer 540 Theodebald 493 Theodoric 541 Eraric 526 Athalaric 541 Totila or Badiula 534 Theodatus - 552 Theias 536 Vitiges D. Chronological List of the Popes. St. Peter to Hadrian I. (From Duchesne - - Lilier Pon tificalis. vol. i. p. cclx.) Date of Election. Date of Death. Name. ? Feb. 22 67 .Tune 29 Petrus *67 Linus *78 Anencletus (Cletus) *91 Clemens I. *96 Evarestus * Approximate dates. LIST OF THE POPES 570 Date of Election. Date of Death. Name. »10'J Alexander *119 Xystus I. *127 Telesphorus *139 Hyginus *142 Pius *157 Anicetus *168 Soter *177 Eleutherus *193 Victor I. *202 Zephyrinus *219 Callistus I. *22:3 Urban us I. 230 July 21 discinctus 235 Sept. 28 Pontianus 235 Nov. 21 236 Jan. 3 Anteros 236 Jan. 10 250 Jan. 20 Fabianus 251 Mar. 253 June Cornelius 253 June 25 254 Mai-. 5 Lucius 25-4 May 12 257 Aug. 2 Stephanus I. 257 Aug. 30 258 Aug. 6 Xystus II. 259 July 22 268 Dec. 26 Dionysius 269 Jan. 5 274 Dec. 30 Felix 275 Jan. 4 283 Dec. 7 Eutychianus 283 Dec. 17 296 April 22 Gains 296 June 30 304 Oct. 25 ■ Marcellinus 308 May June 27 (or 1 26) ) 309 Jan. 16 Marcellus 309 or / 310 April 18 ( 309 310 or Aug. 17 1 Eusebius 311 July 2 314 Jan. 11 Miltiades 314 Jan. 31 335 Dec. 31 Silvester 336 Jan. 18 336 Oct. 7 Marcus 337 Feb. 6 352 April ; 12 Julius 352 Jlay 17 366 Sept. 24 Liberius 366 Oct. 1 384 Dec. 11 Damasus 384 Dec. 15 / or 22 or 29 j 399 Nov. 26 Siricius 399 Nov. 27 401 Dec. 19 Anastasius I. 401 Dec. 22 417 Mar. 12 Innocentius I, 417 Mar. 18 418 Dec. 26 Zosinius 418 Dec. 29 422 Sept. 4 Bonifatius I. 422 Sept. 10 432 Julv 27 Cffilestinus I. 432 July 31 440 Aug. 19 Xystus III. 440 Sept. 29 461 Nov. 10 Led. 461 Nov. 19 468 Feb. 29 Hilarius 468 Mar. 3 483 Mar. 10 Simplicius 483 Mar. 13 492 JIar. 1 Felix III. 492 Mar. 1 496 Nov. 21 Gelasius 496 Nov. 24 498 Nov. 19 Anastasius II. * Approximate dates. 580 APPENDIX Date of Election. 498 Nov. 22 514 July 20 523 Aug. 13 526 July 12 530 Sept. 22 533 Jan. 2 535 May 13 536 June 1 or 537 Mar. 2S) 556 April 16 561 July 17 575 June 2 579 Nov. 26 590 Sept. 3 604 Sept. 13 607 Feb. 19 608 Aug. 25 615 Oct. 19 619 Dec. 23 625 Oct. 27 640 May 28 640 Dec. 24 642 Nov. 24 649 July 654 Aug. 10 657 July 30 672 April 11 676 Nov. 2 678 June 27 682 Aug. 17 684 June 26 685 July 23 686 Oct". 21 687 Dec. 15 701 Oct. 30 705 Mar. 1 708 Jan. 15 708 Mar. 25 715 Mav 19 731 Mar. 18 ' 741 Dec. 10 752 Mar. 26 757 May 29 768 Aug. 7 772 Feb. 9 Date of Death. 514 July 19 523 Aug. 6 526 aiay 18 530 Sept. 22 532 Oct. 17 535 May 8 536 April 22 537 Mar. 11 delectus 555 June 7 561 Mar. 4 574 July 13 579 July 30 590 Feb. 7 604 Mar. 12 606 Feb. 22 607 Nov. 12 615 May 8 618 Nov. 8 625 Oct. 25 638 Oct. 12 640 Aug. 2 642 Oct. 12 649 May 14 653 June 17 delectus 657 June 2 672 Jan. 27 676 June 17 678 April 11 681 Jan. 10 683 July 3 685 May 8 686 Aug. 2 687 Sept. 21 701 Sept. 8 705 .Jan. 11 707 Oct. 18 708 Feb. 4 715 April 9 731 Feb. 11 741 Dec. 10 752 Mar. 22 or 23 757 April 26 767 June 28 772 Feb. 3 795 Dec. 26 Name. Symniachus Hormisdas Johannes I. Felix IV. Bonifatius II. Johannes II. Agapetus I. Silverius Vigil ius Pelagius I. Johannes III. Benedictiis I. Pelagius II. Gregorius I. Sabinianus Bonifatius III. Bonifatius IV. Deusdedit Bonifatius V. Honorius Severinus Johannes IV. Theodorus I. Martinus Eugenius I. Vitalianus Adeodatus Donus Agatho Leo II. Benedictus II. Johannes V. Conon Sergius I. Johannes VI. Johannes VII. Sisinnius Constantinus I. Gregorius II. Gregorius III. Zacharias Stephanus II. Paulus I. Stephanus III. Hadrianus I. LIST OF THE POPES 581 HadKIAN I. TO Lko XIH. (From Nibby's Roma aniica, vol. i. p. 314.) Date of Date of Name. Leo III., Rome. .Stephanus V., Koine. Paschalis I., Rome. Eugeiiius II., Rome. Valentiniiti, Rome. Gregorius IV., Rome. Sergiiis II., Rome. Leo IV., Rome. Benedietus III., Rome. Xieholaus I., Rome. Hadriaiiu.s II., Rome. Johaunes VIII., Rome. Martimis II., Gallese. HadriaiiUf; III., Rome. Stei)liaiuis VI., Rome. Formosus, Ustia. Bonifatius VI., Tuseauy. Stephanus VII., Rome. Romanus I., Gallese. Theodoras II., Rome, .lohaniies IX., Tivoli. Benedietus IV., Rome. Leo v., Ardea. Christophorus, Rome. Sergius III., Rome. Anastasius III., Rome. Lando, Sabina. .Joliannes X., Ravenna. Leo VI., Rome. Stephanus VII., Rome. Johannes XL, Rome. Leo VIL, Tuseulum. Stephanus VIII., (Jermany, Martinus III., Rome. Agapetus II., Rome. Johannes XIII., Tuseulum. Benedietus V., Rome. Johannes XIII. , Narni. Benedietus VL, Rome. Domnus II., Rome. Benedietus VIL, Rome. Johannes XIV., Pavia. Johannes XV., Rome. Election. Death. 795 816 816 817 817 824 824 827 827 827 827 844 844 845 845 857 857 858 858 867 8«7 872 872 882 882 884 884 885 885 891 891 896 896 896 896 897 897 897 897 898 898 900 900 903 903 903 903 904 904 911 911 913 913 913 913 928 928 929 929 931 931 936 936 939 939 943 943 94(; 946 956 956 964 964 965 965 972 972 974 974 975 975 983 983 985 985 906 582 APPENDIX Date of Date of Ebction. Death. 996 999 999 1003 1003 1003 1003 1009 1009 1021 1021 1024 1024 1033 1033 1046 ]04(> 1047 1047 1048 1048 1049 1049 1055 1055 1057 1057 1058 1058 1061 1061 1073 1073 1086 1086 1088 1088 1099 1099 1118 1118 1119 1119 1124 1124 1130 1130 1143 1143 1144 1144 1145 1145 1150 1150 1154 1154 1159 1159 1181 1181 1185 1185 1187 1187 1187 1187 1191 1191 1198 1198 1210 1216 1227 1227 1241 1241 1243 1243 1254 1254 1261 1261 1264 1264 1271 1271 1276 1276 1276 1276 1276 Name. Gregorius V. (Bruno), Saxony. Silvester H. (Gerbert), Auvergne. Johannes XVI., Rome. Johannes XVII., Home. Scrgius IV., Rome. Beuedictus VIII., Tusculum. Johannes XVIII., Tusculum. Benedictus IX., Tusculum. Gregorius VI., Rome. Clemens II. (Snidger), Saxony. Damasus II. (Boppa) Bavaria. Leo IX. (Bruno), Alsace. Victor II. (Gebhard), Bavaria. Stephanus X., Lorraine. Nicliolaus II. (Gerard), Burgundy. Alexander II. (Badagio), Milan. Gregorius VII. (Hildebrand or Aldobraudeschi), Soana, Tuscany. Victor III. (Epifani), Benevento. Urbanus II., Reims. Paschalis II., Bieda. Gelasius II. (Giovanni Caetani), Gaeta. Calixtus II., Burgundy. Honorius II., Bologna, lunocentius (Papareschi), Rome. Ga^lestinus II., Cittii di Castello. Lucius II., Bologna. Eugenius III. (Paganelli), Pisa. Anastasius IV., Rome. Hadrianus IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare), Langley, England. Alexander III. (Bandinelli), Siena. Lucius III., Lucca. Urbanus III. ((Jrivelli), Milan. Gregorius VIII. (Di Morra), Benevento. Clemens III. (Scolari), Rome. Cielestinus III. (Buboni), Rome. Innocentius III. (Conti), Anagni. Honorius III. (Savelli), Rome. Gregorius IX. (Conti), Anagni. Cielestinus IV. (Castiglioni), Milan. Innocentius IV. (Fieschi), Genoa. Alexander IV. (Conti), Anagni. Urbanus IV. (Pantaleo), Troyes. Clemens IV. (Foucauld), Narbonne. Gregorius X. (Visconti), Piacenza. Innocentius V., Savoy. Hadrianus V. (Fieschi), Genoa. LIST OF THE POPES 583 Johannes XIX. or XX. or XXI. (Giuliano), Lisbon. Xicholaus III. (Orsini), Rome. Martinus IV., Champagne, Montpiti^. Honorius IV. (Savelli), Rome. Nicholaus IV. (Masci), Ascoli. Ciclesthius V. (Pietro da Morrone), Isernia. Bonifatius VIII. (Benedetto Caetani), Anagni. Benedictus XI. (Boccasini), Treviso. Clemens V. (de Goiith), Bordeaux. Johannes XXII. (Jacques d'Euse), Cahors. Benedictus XII. (Jacques Fournier), Foix. Clemens VI. (Pierre Roger de Beaufort), Limoges, lunocentius VI. (F.tienne Aubert), Limoges. Urbanus V. (Guillaume de Grimoard), Mende. Gregorius XI. (Roger de Beaufort), Limoges. Urbanus VI. (Bartolommeo Prignani), Naples. Bonifatius IX. (Pietro Tomacelli), Naples. Innocentius VII. (Migliorati), Sulmona. Gregorius XII. (Angelo Correr), Venice. Alexander V. (Petrus Phylargius), Candia. Johannes XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), Naples. ;\[artinus V. (Oddone Colonna), Rome. Eugenius IV. ((ialjriele Condolmiere), Venice. Nicholaus V. (Tommaso Parentucelli), Sarzana. Calixtus III. (Alfonso Borgia), Valencia. Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini), Pienza. Paulus II. (Pietro Barbo), Venice. Sixtus IV. (Francesco della Rovere), Savona. Innocentius VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo), Genoa. Alexander VI. (Roderigo Lenzoli Borgia), Spain. Pius III. (Antonio Todeschini Piccolomini), Siena. Julius II. ((Jiuliano deila Rovere), Savona. Leo X. (Giovanni de' Medici), Florence. Hadrianus VI. (Adrian Florent), LTtrecht. Clemens VII. (Giulio de' Medici), Florence. Paulus III. (Alessandro Farnese), Rome. Julius III. (Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte), Rome. Marcellus II. (Marcello Cervini), Montepulciano. Paulus IV. (Giovanni Pietro Caraffa), Naples. Pius IV. ((liovanni Angelo de' Medici), Milan. Pius V. (IMichele Ghislieri), Bosco Ligure. Gregorius XIII. (Ugo Boncompagni), Bologna. Sixtus V. (Felice Peretti), Montalto. Urbanus VII. (Giovanni Battista Castagna), Rome. Gregorius XIV. (Nicolo Sfrondati), Cremona. Innocentius IX. (Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti), Bologna. 1592 1605 Clemens VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandiui), Fano. Date of Date of Election. Death. 127(5 1277 1277 1281 1281 1285 1285 1287 1287 1292 1292 1294 1294 1303 130.3 1305 1305 1316 1316 1334 1334 1342 1342 13.52 13.52 1362 1362 1370 1370 1378 1378 1389 1389 1404 1404 1406 1406 1409 1409 1410 1410 1417 1417 1431 1431 1447 1447 1455 14.55 1458 1458 1464 1464 1471 1471 1484 1484 1492 1492 1503 1503 1503 1503 1513 1513 1522 1522 1523 1.523 1534 1534 15.50 15.50 15.55 1.5.55 1.555 1555 15.59 1559 1566 1566 1572 1572 1.585 1585 1590 1590 1.590 1590 1.591 1591 1.592 584 APPENDIX Date of Date of Election. Death. 1605 1605 1605 1621 1621 1623 1623 1644 1644 1655 1655 1667 1667 1070 1670 1676 1676 1689 1689 1691 ]691 1700 1700 1721 1721 1724 1724 1730 1730 nio 1740 1758 1758 1769 1769 1775 1775 1800 1800 1823 1823 1829 1829 1831 1831 1846 1846 1878 1878 Name. Leo XI. (Alcssandro Ottaviaiio de' Medici), Florence. Paulus V. (Camillo Burghese), Kome. Gregorius XV. (Alessaudro Ludovisi), Bologna. . Uibaiuis VIII. (Matteo Barberiui), Florence. Innocentius X. (Giovanni Battista Pamtili), Rome. Alexander VII. (Fabio Cliigi), Siena. Clemens IX. (Giulio Kospigliosi), Pistoja. Clemens X. (Giovanni Battista Altieri), liome. Innocentius XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi), Como. Alexander VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni), Venice. Innocentius XII. (Antonio Pignatelli), Naples. Clemens XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albani), Urbino. Innocentius XIII. (Michelangelo Conti), Rome. Benedictus XIII. (Pietro Francesco Orsini), Rome. Clemens XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), Florence. Benedictus XIV. (Prospero Lambertini), Bologna. Clemens XIII. (Carlo Rezzonico), Venice. Clemens XIV. (Lorenzo Francesco Ganganelli), S. An- gelo in Vado. Pius VI. (Angelo Braschi), Cesena. Pius VII. (Gregorio Barnaba Ciiiaramonti), Cesena. Leo XII. (Annibale della Genga), Spoleto. Pius VIII. (Francesco Saverio Castiglioni), Cingoli. Gregorius XVI. (Manro Cappellarij, Belluno. Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), Siuigaglia. Leo XIII. ((iioachino Pecci), Carpineto. E. Alphabetical List of Painteks, Sculptors, and Archi- tects MEXTIONED IX THIS BoOK. PAINTERS. Albani, Francesco, of Bologna . . . . . . . 1578-1660 Alberti, Clierubino 1.552-1615 Alberti, Giovanni 15.58-1601 Allegri, Antonio da Correggio 14!)4-1534 Barbieri, Gio. Francesco da Cento ...... 1590-16(16 Battoni, Pomjieo, of Lucca 1708-1787 Berettini, Pietro da Cortona 1596-1669 Bril, Paul, of Antwerp 1556-1626 Buonarroti, INIiclielangelo 1474-1564 Caldari, Polidoro, da Caravaggio 1495-1542 Caliari, Paolo, Veronese 1532-1588 Caracci, Agostino, of Bologna ....... 1558-1601 Cesari, Giuseppe, of Arpino ....... 1-560-1640 Clovio, Giulio, of Grisone, Croatia ...... 1498-1578 Duguet, Gaspard (Poussin) ..... o. . 1613-1675 LIST OF PAINTERS, SCDLFTORS, AND ARCHITECTS 585 Gelee, Claude, called Lorraine 1600-1682 Giotto di Bondone, of Vespiguauo 1276-1336 Periizzi, Baldassare, of Siena . 1480-1536 Pierin del Vaga (Buonaccorsi) 1500-1547 Pinturicchio, Bernardino, of Perugia 1454-1513 Piombo, Sebastiano del (Luciano), of Venice .... 1485-1547 Pippi, Giulio, of Konie 149-2-1546 Poussin, Niccolo, of Andelys 1574-1665 Keni, Guido, of Bologna 1575-1642 Kicciarelli, Daniele da Volterra 1500-1557 Roncalli, Cristoforo delle Pomarance 1553-1626 Rosa, Salvatore, of Nai>les 1615-1673 Sanzio, Raft'aele, of Urbino 1483-1520 Sarto, Andrea del (Vanucchi), of Florence .... 1488-1530 Van Dyck, Antonio, of Antwerp 1509-1641 Vanni, Francesco, of 8iena . . 1565-1609 Vasari, Giorgio, of Arezzo 1512-1574 Vecellio, Tiziano (Cadore) 1477-1576 Venusti, Marcello, of Mantova 1580 Vinci, Leonardo da, Tuscan 1452-1519 Zanipieri, Domenico, of Bologna 1581-1641 Zuccari, Federico, of Urbino 1543-1609 Zuccari, Taddeo, of Urbino 1529-1566 SCULPTORS. Algardi, Alessandro, of Bologna 1602-1654 Bernini, (iio. Lorenzo 1598-1680 Buonarroti, Michelangelo, Florentine 1474-1564 Canova, Antonio, of Possagno 1757-1822 Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine 1500-1570 Cordieri, Niccolo . 1612 Donatello (Donato Bardi), Florentine 1466 Ferrata, Ercole, of Pelsotto 1610-1686 Gros, Pietro le, of Paris 1666-1719 Houdon, of Paris 1740-1820 Lorenzo detto il Lorenzetto, Florentine IS'^O Oliviero, Pietro Paolo, Roman 1551-1599 Porta, Gugliolmo dclla, Milanese Porta, Gio. Battista della, Milanese 1542-1597 Quesnov, Francesco, Belgian 1594-1643 Sanzio," Raffaelle, of Urbino 1483-1520 Vacca, Flaminio, Roman 1600 ARCHITECTS. Alberti, Leon Battista, F'lorentine 1392- Algardi, Alessandro, of Bologna 1602-1654 Ammanati, Bartolommeo, Florentine 1511-1586 Barozzi, Giacomo, of Vignola 1507-1573 586 APPENDIX Berettini, Pietro, of Cortona 1596-1669 Bernini, Gio. Lorenzo 1598-1680 Bibblena, Galli Francesco, of Bologna 1659-1739 Borromini, Francesco, of Bissone 1599-1667 Buonarroti, Michelangelo, Florentine 1474-156-4 Desgodetz, Antonio, of Paris 1653-1728 Fontana, Carlo, of Bruciato 1634-1714 Fontana, Donienico, of Mill 1543-1607 Fuga, Ferdinando, Florentine 1699-1780 Galilei, Alessandro, Florentine 1691-1737 Giamberti, Giuliano, Sangallo il Vecchio 1443-1517 Giocondo, fr., of Verona 1435- Lazzari, Braniante, of Urbiuo 1444-1514 Ligorio, Pirro, Neapolitan . . 1580 Liinghi, Onorio, ^lilanese 1569-1619 Maderno, Carlo, of Bissone 1556-1629 Maiano, Giuliano da, Florentine 1407-1477 Olivieri, Pietro Paolo, Roman 1551-1599 Palladio, Andrea, of Vicenza 1518-1580 Peruzzi, Baldassare, of Siena 1481-1536 Picconi, Antonio, da Sangallo 1546- Pintelli, Baccio, Florentine 1420-1480 Ponzio, Flaminio, Lombard 1555-1610 Porta, Giacomo della, Roman 1539-1604 Posi, Paolo, of Siena 1708-1776 Rainaldi, Carlo, Roman 1611-1691 Sanzio, Raffaelle, of Urbino 1483-1520 Serlio, Sebastiano, of Bologna 1552 Vanvitelli, Luigi, Roman 1700-1773 F. Roman Coins. Copper Coinage of the Republic. For nearlj' five hundred years after the foundation of the city the Romans coined no metal except copper. If any gold or silver pieces were in circula- tion, they must have been of foreign stamp. The ordinary copper coins of the Republic were six' in number, each being distinguished by a particular device, which is preserved with almost perfect uniformity. The names of these coins were : — On the Obverse a Head of 1. As Tanus. 2. Semis, the half As Jupiter. 3. Triens, one third of tlie As .... . Minerva. 4. Quadrans, the quarter As Hercules. 5. Sextans, the half Triens Mercury'. 6. Uncia, one twelfth of the As Minerva. The device on the reverse is the same in all, being a rude representation of ROMAN COINS 587 the prow of a ship. On the As we find tlie numeral I, on the Semis the Let- ter S, while on the rest round dots indicate the number of Unci:e ; thus the Triens is marked oooo, the Quadrans ooo, the Sextans oo, the Uncia o. Many of them have the word koma, and it gradually became common for the magistrate under whose inspection they were struck to add his name. Silver Coinage. According to Pliny, silver was first coined at Rome in 269 b. c, five years before the commencement of the first Punic War, in pieces of three denomi- nations : — 1. The Denarius, ecjuivalent to 10 Asses. 2. The Quinarius " " 5 " 3. The Sestertius " " 21" But when the weight of the As was reduced in 217 b. c. to one ounce, it was ordained at the same time that — The Denarius should be equivalent to 16 Asses. The Quinarius " " 8 " The Sestertius " " 4 " and this relation subsisted ever after between the silver coins bearing the above names and the As. The Denarius and the Quinarius continued to be the ordinary silver cur- rency down to the age of Septiniius Severus and his sons, by whom pieces composed of a base alloy were introduced, and for several reigns entireh^ su- perseded the pure metal. Gold Coinage. Pliny asserts that gold was first coined in 207 b. c, and a few pieces are still extant which correspond with his description, but they are now gener- ally regarded as having been struck in Magna Grwcia. The number of gold coins, undoubtedly Roman, belonging to the Republican period is so small that the best numismatists are of opinion that this metal did not form part of the ordinary and regular currency until the age of Julius Ca;sar, the want having been supplied by Greek Philippi. The principal gold coin of the Empire was the Denarius Aureus, which is genei'ally termed simply Aureus, but by I'liny uniformly Denarius. The Denarius Aureus always passed for 25 silver Denarii. Half Aurei were also minted, but these are comparatively rare. Comparison of Roman with American Money. According to accurate calculations, based upon the weight and assay of the most perfect specimens of Denarii, the value of the silver Sestertius at the close of the Republic may be fixed at four cents. After the reign of Au- gustus the coinage underwent a sensible deterioration, both in weight and in purity, and we cannot reckon the Sestertius higher than three and a half cents from the age of Tiberius down to Septimius Severus. Taking the higher value the following table may be useful in converting sums from Roman into American currency : — 588 APPENDIX 1 Sestertius = « .04 10 Sestertii = .40 100 " = 4.00 1000 " = 40.00 10,000 " ^ 400.00 100,000 " = 4000.00 1,000,000 " = 40,000.00 10,000,000 " = 400,000.00 G. Roman Measures of Length. Digitus .... 1^ Digiti =Uncia or Pollex 4 " = Palmus 12 '* = Palnius Major (of late times) 16 " = Pes . 20 " = Palmipes 24 " = Cubitus 2.V Pes = Gradus or Pes Sestertius 5 " = Passus .... 10 u = Decempeda or Pertica 120 " = Actus (in length ). 5000 " = Mille Passuuni Decimals of a Metre. Feet. Inches. .0185 0.7281 .0247 0.9708 .0740 2.9124 .222 8.7372 .296 11.6496 .370 1 2.562 .444 1 5.4744 .740 2 5.124 1.48 4 10.248 2.96 9 8.496 .3.5..32 116 5.952 1480.00 4854 0.000 A meti'e is 39.37 English inches. An English foot is 0.3048 metre. H. Roman Weights. Avoirdupois Weight. Grammes. Oz. 6ra. Uncia 27.288 430.83 i \h UnciaB ^ Sesuncia or Sescunx . . 40.932 1 203.75 2 ^= Sextans .... 54.576 1 404.10 f 3 = Quadrans or Teruncius . 81.864 2 108.75 4 = Triens .... . ] 09. 152 3 270.83J 5 ' == Quincunx . 136.440 4 354.161 6 = Semis or Semissis . 163.728 5 337.5 7 = Septunx . 191.016 6 320. 33 J 8 = Bes or Bessis . 218.304 7 104.16§ 9 = Dodrans . 245.592 8 277.5 10 = Dextans .... . 272.880 9 270.83i 11 = Ueunx .... . 300.168 10 260.83i 12 = As or Libra . 327.456 11 237.5 LIST OF ANCIENT MARBLES 589 I. The Romax Calendar. At the period when Julius Ctesar attained to supreme power the Calendar liad fallen into great confusion. The Dictator, therefore, resolved to reform the whole system, and being himself versed in astronomy, with the aid of Sosigeues, a peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria, introduced, 45 e. c, that division of time which, with a few modifications, is still employed by all Christian nations, and received from its author the name of the Julian year. The solar year, or the period between two vernal eijuinoxes, was supposed to contain Z?>o^ days ; but to prevent the inconvenience which would have arisen from the use of fractional parts, three years out of four were regarded as consisting of -365 days, while every fourth j'ear had Mi\. The 3'ear had been of old divided into twelve months. This number and the ancient names were retained, but the distriI)ution of the days was changed. By the new arrangement Januarius, the first month, had 31 days, Februarius 28 in ordinary years, and every fourth year 29, Martius 31, Aprilis 30, Mains 31, Junius 30, Quintilis 31, Sextilis 31, September 30, October 31, November 30, December 31. Julius C;esar retained also the ancient divisions of the month by Calendae, Nonne, and Idus. The CalendiV fell uniformly on the first day of each month; the Idus on the 13th, except in JIarch, ila}', July, and October, when they fell on the 15th ; the Nona; were always eight (according to the Roman com- putation nine) days before the Idus, and therefore on the 5th, except in March, May, July, and October, when they fell on the Ttli. When an event did not happen exactly on the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month, the day was calculated by reckoning backwards from the next division of the month. Thus, if it happened between the Calends and the Nones, it was said to take place so many days l)eforc the Nones ; if it hap- pened between the Nones and the Ides, it was said to take place so many days before the Ides ; if it happened after the Ides, it was said to take place so many days before the Calends of the ensuing month. In the second place, these computations always included the day from which the reckoning was made, as well as the day to which it extended. Tluis the 3d of .January was called the third day before the Nones of January, the 10th of March the sixth day before the Ides of March, the 14th of Jun the eighteenth dav before the Calends of July. J. A List of Axciext Marbles. (From H. W. Pulleu's Handbook of Roman Marbles. Loudon, 1894.) I. Whitk or Statuary Marbles. Modern Name. Ancient Name. Quarries. Pario (grcco duro) Marmor parium Island of Paros Porino (grechetto duro) " porium Neighborhood of Olympia Pentelico (greco fino) " pentelicum ^Inunt Pentelikos Tasio (greco livido) '• thasium Island of Thasos Lunense (carrara antico) " lunense Fantiscritti, Carrara Imezio (greco rigato) " hymettium !Mount Hvmettus Palombino " ' coraliticum Coralio, Plnygia 590 APPENDIX Modem Name. Bianco e iiero Nero antico Bigio " lumacliellato " venato " morato Bardiglio Giallo antico " e nero antico Rosso antico III. Cipollino " verde " rosso " mandolato Cottanello Fior di persico Pavonazzetto Porta santa Lumachella Astracane Broccatello Occhio di pavone Br. di Aleppo " " Villa Casali " dorata " traccagnina " Quintilina " rossa brecciata " Serravezza " d' Egitto " corallina " Sette Basi " Semesanto " Africana II. Colored Marbles. Ancient Name. Quarries. M. proconnesiiun Procomiesos " la?narium Tajnarum, Laconia " batthium Probably North Africa " luculleum Island of Melos Carrara and Massa " nnmidicum Supposed in Numidia, Algeria " rhodium Island of Rhodes " ta?narium Tasnarum, Laconia Veined or Variegated Marbles. M. carystium Eubrea (Negroponte) Pyrenees and Cannes Moricone (Sabine Hills) Epirus Synnada, Phrygia Island of Jasos M. molossium " syunadicum " jassense IV. Shell Marbles. M. schiston Agra (supposed) Tortosa, Spain Bianco Fiorito A. giaccione V. Breccie. Aleppo M. lydium Lydia, Asia Minor Near Hamamat, Egypt " cbium Island of Chios VI. Alabasters. M. alabastrum Egypt LIST OF ANCIENT MARBLES 591 Modern Name. Ancient Name. Quarries. Marino Rosa Cotognino A. pecorella VII. Miscellaneous. Lapislazvili Lapis cyanus Scj'thia and China Malachite Molochites Arabia, China, Sweden, Siberia Spate fiuore Murrha Parthia Pietra di paragone Lapis lydius Lydia VIII. Serpentines. S. commune M. ligusticum Liguria " rosso di Levanto Between Spezia and Chiavari " verde ranocchio Lapis ophites Egypt and French Riviera " " antico " atracius Atrax, Thessaly IX. Porphyries. P. rosso Lapis porphyrites Egypt " pav^onazzo " verde " bigio " nero " serpentino " lacedsemonius X. Granites. Laconia, Peloponnesus G. rosso Lapis pyrrhopa'cilus Syene (Assouan) " del foro " psaronius " " " bigio " syenites (( (( " nero " hethiopicus Ethiopia " verde " della sedia XI. Basalts. B. bronzino Lapis basanites Ethio])ia " nero " ferrigno " bigio " verde INDEXES I. The Existing Remains of Ancient Rome described ALPHABETICALLY IN ARCHITECTURAL GrOUPS PAGE Admiralty, Neptunium, Porticus Argoiiaiitaniin 487 ^ides deorum, see Templa. ^der Impevatoria^, Palace of the Caesars 108 ^dicula", sacella, shrines : Febris, on the Palatine . . . . 117 Larum 39 Mercurii Sobrii, on the Cespian . . . . ' . . . 224 Minerva?, back of the Augustjeum 122 Orbona?, on the Palatine . • 117 Vestae, in the Forum 224 Vestae, on the Palatine 117 Victorise, on the Palatine 125 De;e Viriplaca?, on the Palatine 117 yErarium Saturni, civil treasurv 292 Agger Servii Tullii ..." 3:J, 39, 00-60, 116 Albanus lapis, pcperino 34 Almonis Hiinien, Alnione, Acquataccio, Marrana della Caffarella . 320 Amphitheatra: Castrense, by S. Croce in Gerusalemme . 72, 77, 3(i9, 385 Flavium, Coliseum 367 (Buildings connected with) ....... 383 Statilianiim, i\I(mte Giordano ....... 142, 368 Antemna; . 59, 110 Aqiue Albuja^, springs, baths ....... 35, 30, 175 Acjueducts, ancient 47 Alexandrina, Felice . . . ... . . 51, 56, 58 Alsietina (Augusta) 5.3, 56, 58 Anionis Novi 50, 51, 54, 56, 58 Anionis Yeteris 34, 49, 50-58 Antoniniana (Marcia) 49, 58, 540 Appia . . 33, 48, 51, 56-58 Augusta (Appia) 48 Augusta (]Marcia) -19 Claudia 50, 51, 53, 50, 58, 72 Claudia (Arcus Ccelimontani) 184 Herculaneus rivus, Fosso di Fioggio 54 .Tovia (Marcia) 50, 58 Julia, Alarrana ^Mariana 51, 52, 50, 58 Marcia, :Marcia I'ia 34, 49, 51, 54, 56, 58, 72 of the Pahitine ilill 184 594 INDEXES Aqueducts, ancient — continued. Severiana (Marcia) 49, 58 Tepula 51-53, 56, 58 Traiana, Paola 54, 56, 58 Virginis, Vergine 53, 55, 56, 58 Aqueducts, modern : Acqua Felice 51, 58 Acqua Marcia Pia 58 Acqua Paola 58 Ac([ua Vergine, di Trevi ........ 58 Arte, altars : Aii Locutii (so called) 117, 127 Consi, in the Circus Maximus 59 Ditis et Proserpinte 447 Febris, on the Esquiline 6 Febris, on the Palatine . . 6, 117 Febris, at the top of Vicus Longus 6 Herculis maxima, in the Forum Boarium .... 59 Martis, in the Campus Martius 449 Pacis Augusts, in the Campus Martius ..... 466 Victorise, on the Palatine 125 Archives of the Cadastre (Templum Sacrse Urbis) .... 211 Arcus Ca;limontani 184 Arcus, arches, triumphal, ornamental : Arcadii, Honorii, Theodosii, near the Vatican bridge 25, 260 Augusti, in the Forum 238, 256, 269 Constantini 191 Drusi (so called), on the Appian Way 540 Fabiorum, on the Sacra Via 215, 238 Gallieni, at the Esquiline gate . . . . ' . . 49, 64, 400 Gordiani III., at the entrance to the Praetorian Camp . . 439, 440 Gratiani, Valentiniani, Theodosii, near the yElian bridge . 25 Septimii Severi, by the Rostra 282 Septimii Severi, in the Forum Boarium .... 513, 518 Tiberii, near the Golden IMilestone 258 Titi, on the Summa Sacra Via 201, 238 Traiani, on the Appian Way 191 Valentiniani et Valentis, by the Ponte Sisto .... 25 Arco di Latrone 205 Arco di Portogallo 504 Ardea 112 Arese, squares, piazze : Apollinis, on the Palatine .... 141 Capitolina 296 Concordiffi 287 Flacciana, on the Palatine 117 Palatina 546 Saturni 292 Volkani 287 Argiletum 264, 388 Armamentarium 386 Arx, citadel on the Capitoline Hill . 126 Atria, courts : Libertatis, on the Aventine 142 INDEXES 595 Atria — continued. Miiierv£e, by the Senate House 2t>3 Vestae . ' 40, 9tj, 104, ISt!, 171, 174, 189, 226 Aventinus mons . 1, 3 Balinea?, Balnea, baths : Heliugabali 198 Liviie (so called) 162 X;vratii Cerialis, on the Es<[iuline 102 Balneum Imperatoris, on the Palatine 108, 181 Barracks, see Castra. Basilica?, law-courts : Jimilia 235 46, 204 235 121, 137, 188, 236, 242, 254, 257, 273 487 235 235, 263 235 314 Constantini Fulvia .... Julia Neptuui (so called) . Opimia Porcia .... Semprouia. Ulpia .... Baths, see Baline;v, Thernia-. BibliotheciV, libraries : Ajjollinis, on the Palatine .... 140 Porticus Octaviii' 469 Thermarum Diocletiani 317 Tiberiana, on tlie Palatine 146 Ulpia 316 Brick-kilns 40 Bricks, Teguhe, see Building materials. " Bridges, see Pontes. Building materials 32 La])is Albanus, peperino 30, .32, 34 Lapis Gabinus, sperone .30,-32 Lapis ruber, tufa ......... 32-34 Lapis Tiburtinus, travertino 32, 35 Marbles 42 Silex, seke 32, 38 Tegula?, bricks 38 liurial of Rome 98 Caballus Constantini, etiuestrian statue of Constantine . . . 249, 258 ( 'adius mons 335 ( 'iclioliis mons ............ 335 Canipi, commons : Agrippie, in the seventh region .... 471 Equirriorum, in the Campus Martins 450 Martins 442, 448 Capitoliuni, see Templuni .lovis Optimi Maximi. Capitolium Yetus 60 Career Tullianum, Mamertine prison 285 L'asa?, huts : at Antemna? Ill Caci, near the Ara ^laxiina 129, 130 Romuli, Tugurium Faustuli 112, 129-131 Romuli, on the Capitoline . . . ... . . 131 Tarquiniorum, near the Porta Mugonia 117 596 INDEXES Castra, barracks : Eqiiitum Sintrulariiim, near the Lateran Friniieiitarium, cm the C;eliaii ..... Misenatiuiii, of marines, near the Coliseum . Peregrinorum, of detective police, on the Cielian Prietoria, of the guards .... 40, 45, 70, Silicariorum, of roadmakers ...... Vigilum, of firemen, see Stationes. Cemeteries : Escjuiline prehistoric Esquiline republican of the Via Appia of the Via Latina of tlie Via Pinciana (Salaria Vetus) of the Via Salaria Nova ..... of the Via Triumphalis ad Spem Veterem, near the Porta Maggiore Chapels, (,'hristian : of Felicitas, near the Baths of Trajan of the Seven Sleepers, Vigna Pallavicini of S. Laurenti, in Fonte Circi : Haminius ........ Gaianus, in the gardens of Agrippina . Hadriani (?), in the gardens of Domitia . Maximus ........ Varianus, in the gardens of Heliogabalus Citadel, see Arx. Civitas Figlina, on the Via Salaria ..... Climate 3.36, 340 . 337 387 . 336 72, 75, 437 38 550, 441. 100 409 321 321 100 100 557 104 362 335 393 450 548 550 i, 91 395 42 Clivi, steep streets, ascents : Argentarius, Salita di Marforio ... 87 Capitolinus 289 Martis, on the Appian Way 99 Patricius ..." 390 Publicius, Salita di S. Sabina 48, 541 Sacer 194, 207, 238 Suburanus, Salita di S. Lucia in Selce 389 Victoria; 119, 120, 125, 146, 152, 154 Cloaca!, sewers, drains 28 of the Campus Martins 29 of the Circus Flaminins 30 Maxima 15, 29-31, 35, 124, 244 Collatia, Lunghczza 112 Colles, hills : Hortorum, Pincian 1, 3 Quirinalis 1, 3, 6, 61, 63, 103 Viminalis 1, 3 Colossi, colossal statues of Nero (of the Sun) 190 Columbaria : HylaB et Vitalinis, in the Vigna Sassi .... 327 cooperative, in the Vigna Codini ...... 328 by the Porta Maggiore 403 Coliunnse, monumental columns : Divi (Antonini) Pii .... 508 Divi Marci (Aurelii) 505 Phoca; 260 Rostrata, C. Duilii 254 INDEXES 597 Columnse — continued. Traiani 317 iiiomimental, on tlie Sacra Via 258 of S. Maria Maggiorc, from Constantiue's Basilica . . 204 Comitium 258, 263, 265 ('onstruction, Methods of 43 Corniculum, Moiitioelli 5 ( 'ourts, see Atria. < rypta Balbi 495 ( 'urite, halls of meeting : Athletarum, near the Baths of Trajan . 387 Hostilia, Julia, Senatus, Senate-House . 43,46, 137, 233, 262 Pompeiani theatri . 459 Curije Veteres 60 Diajtaj Mammiciana\ a wing of the Imperial Palace, built by Julia jMamnuva ' . , 108 Diribitoriuiu ............ 471 Docks, warehouses, see Horrea. Domus, palaces : M. vEmilii Scaiiri, on the Palatine .... 118 Anniae corniticiip, Vigna Maciocchi, on the Aventine . . .48 Anniorum, on the Ca?lian 344 Augustaua, on the Palatine 107, 110, 138, 184 Augusti, ad Capita Bubula, on the Palatine . . . 118, 138 Aurea Xeronis, on the 0])pian .... vi, x, 116, 190, 358 Avidiorum, on the Quirinal 101 A. Ca^cinse Largi, on the Palatine 117 Caligula?, on the Palatine 107, 146, 150 Catuli, on the Palatine 117 M. Cicoronis, on tlie Palatine 118 Q. Ciccronis, on the Palatine 118 Cilonis, at S. Balbina 540 Claudiorum, on the Quirinal 101 Clodii, on the Palatine 118 L. Cornelii Sisenna, on the Palatine 117 M. Crassi, on the Palatine 117 L. Cropereii Rogati; on the Cespian ...... 394 in the Farnesina Gardens 15 Flaviorum, o'lKla Ao/neriafoO, on the Palatine .... 109, 155 M. Fulvi Flacci, on the Palatine 117 Gai Marii Pudentis Corneliani, on the Aventine .... .540 Gelotiana, near the Circus Maxinuis .... 121, 126, 185 Germanici (Tiberii Claudii Neronis), on the Palatine 45, 144, 147, 184 Gregorii Magni, on the Cadian ....... 349 Q. Hortensii, on the Palatine 118, 138 .Tohannis et Pauli, on the Cielian ....... 348 Lateranorum (Sextiorum), on the Cadian .... 339 Licinii Surie 340, 341 M. Livii Drusi, on the Palatine 117 Q. Lntatii Catuli, on the Palatine 117 C. Marcii Censorini, on the Palatine ..... 117 L. Marii Maximi, on the Cselian 346 598 INDEXES Domus — continued. Philippi, on the Casliaii 346 Piidentis, on the Viiniual 390 -Regis Sacrificuli, on the Sacra Via 189 Sallustiana, in the gardens of Salliist 414 Scauri, ou the Palatine 118 L. Sergii Catiliniv, on the Palatine 118 Sessorianum, in the gardens of (HeliogabaUis, later of) Helena 397 Severiana, on the Palatine 99, 107, 178 of the Sj'mmachi, on the Ca?lian ....... 346 Tetriforum, of Pesuvius Tetricus, ou the Ca;lian . . . 344 Tiberiana, on the Palatine 107, 125, 144 Titi Imperatoris, on the Oppian 366 Valeriorum, on the C;eliau 345 Vectiliana, on the Cslian ....... 344 Atrium Vestae, of the Vestals 226 Vettiana, of Vettius Agoriiis Praetextatus, on the Esquiline . 230 discovered in the Via Montebello 70 discovered by Azara in the Villa Montalto .... 147 Drains, see Cloaciv. Emporium, on the harbor of the Tiber 509 Equi, equestrian statues : Marci Aurelii, at the Lateran .... 343 Constantini, in t)ie Forum 258 Domitiani, in the Forum 258 Traiani, in his Forum 313 Escubitorium Vigilum, guard-house of tiremen, at the Monte de' Fiori 46, 544 at the Baths of Nero 545 Esquilia', Esquiline hill vii Fagutalis mons 335 Falerii, S. Maria di Falleri 3, 343 Fasti consulares . 221 Ferries, see Traiectus. Ficana, Dragoneello 1, 9 Ficus Ruminalis, in the Comitiuni 266 Fidena', Villa Spada 112, 113 Figlin», brick-kilns 40 Flumina, rivers : Almonis, Acquataccio, Marvana della Caffarella . 320 Nodinus 29 Petronia 29 Spinon 29 Tiber Pontes, springs : Egeriie, Vigna Bettini 4? .Tuturnae 124 Lupercalis, sorgente di S. Giorgio 129 Tullianum 285 Forma Urbis, marble plan of the city 94, 214 Fornices, archways : Fabiorum, on the Sacra Via .... 215 Arco di Basile 376 Forums, fora, public squares : Augustum 236, 302 Boarium 512 INDEXES 599 Forums — continued. C'upedinis Holitoriuin 441, 458, Julium 236, Martis 236, NerviP, Trausitor in Pacis Palatimim Pervium, Transitorium Piscariuiii ........... Romamim Maguum 232- Suariiim Traiani Transitorium, Pervium, Palladium, Nervae .... Fountains, see Fontes. Gabii, Castiglione 112, Gabinus lapis, sperone Gaianuni, circus of Gains Caligula in the gardens of Agrippina . Gardens, see Horti. Gates, see Portie. Geology of Rome and the Campagna Germalus, Cermalus, one of the summits of the Palatine . . 107, Graecostasis, near the Senate-house 237, Gregoriopolis, Ostia .......... Harbors, see Portus. Heroon Romuli, on the Sacra Via Hills, see Montes, Colles. Hippodromos Palatii . Horologium, Solarium August!, sun-dial in the Campus Martins Horrea, storehouses, docks : Galbic Nerva;, on the Via Ardeatina of Ostia and Portus Augusti Piperataria, on the Clivus Sacer Publiea Populi Romani .... Horti, gardens, parks : Aciliorum, on the Pincian hill Adonea, on the Palatine Agrippinae, in the Vatican district Asiniani, near the Baths of Caracalla Ci«saris, on the -Janiculum .... Calyclanii, on the Esquiline Domitiae, in the Prati di Castello . Getje, on the Janiculum .... Lamiani et Maiani, on the Esquiline Liciniani, on the Esquiline Lolliani, on the Viminal .... Luculliani, on the Pincian .... Mseceuatiani, on the Esquiline Maiani et Lamiani, on the Esquiline Neronis, in the Prati di Castello . Pallantiani, on the Esquiline 39, 4-5, 96, 202, r<», 72, 175, 108, 404, 175, 86, 103, 64, 103, 201 511 300 301 307 214 144 307 235 261 513 310 307 113 32 548 5 178 239 81 209 168 464 524 .524 .523 238 523 419 165 548 533 546 405 551 548 406 400 412 419 409 406 560 vii 600 INDEXES Horti — contimted. Sallustiani, on the Pincian 72, 413 Tauriani, on the Esquiline 404 Variani, ad Spem Vetercni 395 Vettiani 405 Hospitium Adrasti (the keeper of the column of Marcus Aurelius) . 507 Inundations of the Tiber 10-15 Insula Tiberina, island of S. Bartolomeo 15, 19 Insulje, tenement houses 90, 91, 561 Bolaniana, in the fourteenth region 568 Felicles 99 Sertoriana, in the eighth region ...... 568 Vitaliana, in the third region 568 Janiculum 544, 548 Janus quadrifrons, in the Forum Boarium ...... 518 Labicum, monte Conipatri, Colonna 112 Lacus, fontes, salientes, fountains 56, 57 Curtius 124 Ganymedis 57 Juturmv 124 Meta Sudans 190 Orphei vii, 57 Pastorum 57 Promethei 57 Scari 57 Servilius ........... 57 Trium Silanorum 57 Lakonikon of Agrippa 486 Lapicidinfe, quarries 32 LatriniB 30, 31 LautumiaB, tufa quarries near the Career 32 Law-courts, see Basilicae. Libraries, see BibliotheciB. Lorium, la Bottaccia, near Castel di Guido 7 Ludi, athletic, gladiatorial schools 386 Liipanaria, near the barracks of the Cselian 339 Lupercal, near S. Anastasia 129 Macella, retail markets : Liviss, on the Esquiline vii Magnum, on the CiBlian 353 Malaria 6 Marble plan of the city, see Forma Urbis. Marbles 42 Marmorata, marble sheds, under the Aventine . . 15, 17, 120, 524, 530 in the Campus Martius 525 Marshes, see Paludes, Stagna. Mausolea : Augusti, in the Campus Martius 461 Hadriani, in the gardens of Domitia . . . .22, 46, 68, 551 Meta Sudans, near the Arch of Constantine 190 Milliarium aureum ........... 280 Montes, hills : Aveutinus 1, 3, 61, 62, 66, 103 INDEXES 601 Montes — continued. (smaller or pseudo-Aventinus) 62 Caelius 1, fil, 335 Caeliolus ••......,.. 335 Capitoliuus 1, 3, 11, 61, 63 Cespius, Cispius \ Monte Citorio 4 Monti della Creta . . . . . . . . . 41 42 Esquilinus 6 62 Fagutalis '335 Monte Giordano 368 Monte della Giustizia 4 Jauiculum 1, 4, 5, 20, 41 Monte Mario, mons Vaticanus 4 548 Oppius 1' 357 Monte d'Oro 4 320 Palatinus 1, 3, 6, 106-187 Querquetulanus 335 Superagius 62 Monte Testaccio 36 529 Muri Urbis, walls 59 of the Palatine city 32, 59, 121, 126 of the Capitoline 32 of Servius Tullius 34, 60-66, 88 Agger Servii 62 of octroi 71 of Aurelian and Probiis 66 INIiiro Torto 74, 423 of Honorius . 68, 72 Of Leo IV., Civitas Leoniana 80, 82, 85 Corridojo di Castello 81 of John VIII., .Tohannipolis 83 of ? , Laurentiopolis 84 of Paul III., Bastione del Sangallo 78, 84 of Urban VIII 86 of Ostia, Gregoriopolis 81, 83 Modern fortifications 86 Mnrus Terreus Carinarum 60 Naumachia Augusti, Transtiberim 53, 55 Nyniph:ea: Alexandri, on the Esquiline vii, 57 of the Horti Aciliani 424 of the Horti Liciniani ........ 401 of the Horti Sallustiani 415 of the Horti Variani 396 Obelisci, obelisks : of Augustus, in the Campus Martins (Piazza Montecitorio) ......... 464 of the gardens of Sallust (Trinitii de Monti) . . . .415 of Insula Tiberina .......... 19 of the Mausoleum of Augustus (Quirinal and Piazza dell' Esquiline) 462 602 INDEXES Obelisci — continued. of the gardens of Varius Elagabahis (Pincio) . . . 396 of the Vatican 549 Odeum Domitiaui, near the Stadium in the Campus Martins , . 496 Oppius mens 1, 357 Ostia, the harbor of Rome 2, 9, 10, 78, 81 Piedagogium, in the Domus Gelotiaua, Palatine 186 Palaces, see Domus. Palatium, Palatinus mons 59, 102, 110, 129, 178 Palazzo Maggiore 140 Palma (ad Palmam, north corner of the Forum) .... 239 Palndes, ponds, marshes : Caprse Palus ....... 1 Decenniae 1 Transtiberine 20 Velabrum 1, 59, 60, 117 Pantheon 11, 46, 473 Parks, see Horti. Peperino . . . , , 34 Pincius mons, Collis Hortorum, Hortulorum 1, 4 Piscinae, reservoirs . . . 53, 57 of Antemme Ill, 112 Aquae Traianae, at Vicarello 56 of Domus Aurea, Sette Sale 363 of the Imperial Palace 185 Palatii 53, 108, 127 Piscina Publica 29, 48 Plans of Rome (Forma Urbis), in the Villa d'Este at Tivoli ... 19 engraved on marble 94^ 214 Plutei, sculptured, in the Forum 254 Pomerium, of the Palatine city . 60 Ponds, see Paludes, Stagna. Pons Caligulae (so called) 121 Pontes, bridges 16 ^lius (Hadriaui, S. Angelo) 22, 82 ^milius (nitto, di S. Maria) 11, 20 Agrippa; 21, 443 Cestius 18 Fabricius 17 Neronianus 24 Sublicius 16 Valentinianus .......... 24 Ponte delle Forme Rotte 51 Garibaldi 27, 29 di S. Giovanni 51 dell' Inferno 51 Lupo 50 Population of Rome, ancient . 57, 91, 92 mediaeval 93 modern 57, 94 PortsB, gates, of the Palatine: Mugonia Ill INDEXES 603 Portfe — continued. Komanula .......... HI, 121 Scalis Caci 129 of the Servian City 62 Cselimontana 64 Capena 48, 04, 87 Carmentalis 63 Collina 62, 64 Esquilina 62, 64 Flumentaiia 63 Frontinalis 03 Nsevia 66 Navalis 66 Querquetulana 64 Ratiimena 63 Rudusciilana 66 Salutaris 64 Sanqualis 64 Trigemiua 66 Triumphalis 63 Viniinaiis ........... 64 of Aurelian and lionorius 73 Appia (S. Sebastiaiii)) 73, 77 Ardeatina 78 Asinaria, near the Porta S. Giovanni 71, 77 Aurelia (Pancratiana) 80, 80 Belisaria (Pinciana) 74 Chiusa 75 Flaminia (del Popohi) 71, 73, 74, 77 Latina 77 Metroni 77 Nonientana, near the Porta Pia 75 Ostiensis (S. Paolo) 73, 78, 84 Pinciana 74 Portuensis (Portese) 72, 80 Praenestina (Maggiore) 49, 51, 53, 72, 73, 75 Salaria . 71, 73, 74, 78 Septimiana 80 S. Pii'tri in Hadrianio ......... 22 Tilnirtina (S. Lorenzo) . . . 51, 69, 72, 73, 75, 78, 84, 100 of the Civitas Leoniana . 84 Angelica, S. Peregrin! 82, 83 S. Angeli 82, 83 Saxonum 83 S. Petri 82 in Tiirrione (Cavalleggeri) 83, 86 Porta della Donna (S. Agnetis) 75 Porta Fnrba (on the Via Tusculana) 54 Porta Pia 75 Porta S. (iiiivainii ......... 77 604 INDEXES Porticus, porticoes 445 iEmilia, on the harbor 44 Apollinis, in Palatio 138, 140 Argonautarum (Neptuni) 35, 487 Balbi (Crypta) 142 Eventus Boni 445 Catuli, on the Clivus Victorias 117, 125, 126 Deorum Consentium ......,, 292 Margaritaria, on the Clivus Sacer 207 Materiani ISO Maximje, in the Campus Martins 445 Milliariensis, in the gardens of Sallust 413 Octaviae 467 Philippi 445, 446 Pompeii 35 Sajptorum 207, 208 Tellurensis 513 Triumphi, in tlie Villa Publica 471 Vipsania 207, 208, 470 in the Vicus Patrieii 391 Portus, harbors, wharves : Augusti . . . • . . . 14, 40 Licinii . 510 Neapolitanus 510 Ostiae 2, 509, 523, 528 Traiani 14, 40 Vinarius . 450, 510 The harbor of Rome 509 Posterulae, posterns : dell' Armata, on the Tiber 26 Domitia, on the Tiber 26 by the Lateran 77 of the Leonine city 82, 83 S. Martini Ripetta 11, 26 by the Prsetorian Camp 74 diella Tinta, on the Tiber 26 Praeneste, Palestrina 4 Prata, fields, commons : Flaminia 441, 449 Neronis, Prato di Castello 42, G8 Pulvinaria, ad Circum Maximum . 141 Solis, on the Quirinal 428 Puticuli, in the Campus Esquilinus 33, 410 Quarries, lapicidinae, lautumiae 32 of Acqua Acetoso (silex) 6, 38 S. Agnese (tufa) 6 Balduina (clay) 5, 41 Barco (travertine) 6, 36 Borghetto (silex) 38 Capitoline hill (tufa) 32 Capo di Bove (silex) 38 Caprine (limestone) 5 Cervara (tufa) 33 INDEXES 605 Quarries — continued. Fideiite, Villa Spada (tufa) 126 Fornaci (clay) 5, 41 Gelsomiiio (clay) 5, 41 Marino (peperino) 35 Monte Falcone (silex) 38 Monte Verde (tufa) . 6, 33 Monti della Greta (clay) 41 Monti Parioli (travertine) G Palatine hill (tufa) 32, 132 Pozzo Pantaleo (tufa) S. Saba (tufa) Tre Fontane (pozzolana) Vigna Querini (cappelaccio), Querquetulanus mons, Cielian Quirinalis collis .... Kegia Regiones urbis I. Porta Capeua .... II. Cifilimontium III. Lsis et Serapis IV. Sacra Via . Esquilina .... Alta Seniita Forum Komanuni Circus Flauiinius Palatium 5, 33 . 6, 33 6 33 3.35 . 1,3 137, 189, 219 V. VI. VIII. IX. X. 320 . 335 357 . 388 394 . 428 232-319 . 440 106-187 XII. and XIII. Aventinus 532 XIV. Transtiberim 544 Reservoirs, see Piscinae. Rip* Tiberis 12, 13, 34, 62 Rivers, see Flumina. Roads, see Via?. Roma Quadrata 59 Rostra, Julia 268 Vetera 34, 243, 257, 258, 262, 278 25 Ruber lapis, tufa Sacella, shrines, chapels : Herculis (cubantis ?) near the Horti Caesaris Larum Minervse, post ^dem Divi Augusti Strenioe Deae Viriplacae, on the Palatine Sacra Via Sacravia Argeoruni Ssepta .Julia Salina?, salt-warehouses .... Saltisina, fortified farm on the Via Ardeatina Samiarum, near the Amphitheatre Scalae Caci Scholae, meeting-halls : Gra>ca of Octavia ...... 45 129 32 457 59 122 . 189 117 188-319 129 . 471 527 82 385 146 522 469 130, 606 INDEXES Scholae — continued. of the Quindecemviri 448 Xantha, so-called 281 Secretarium Senatus 265 Senatus, curia, senate-house 8, 9 Septizonium Seven 108, 109, 156, 181 Sepulcroe, tombs : Annia Regilla 46 Archaic, on the Esquiline ........ 33 C. Cestii (pyramid) 78 Claudiorum, so-called. Via Flaminia 63 of foreign Christians in the Vigna Codini .... 334 Q. Haterius .......... 75 of the Via Latina 46 under the Horti Liciniani 403 C. Poplicii Bibuli (Via Flaminia) 63 in the quarries of Pozzo Pantal^o 34 Scipiorum 35, 321 Semproniorum 64 of the Tibicines 35 on the Via Cornelia 550 in the Vigna Cremaschi, Via Latina 321 Sessorium, Sessorian palace 44, 397 Sette Sale, Capoccie, reservoir of the Domus Aurea .... 363 Sewers, see CloacsB. Shrines, see Sacella. Silex, selce 38 Solarium Augusti, Horologiuni ........ 464 Spinon, the river 29 Spoliarium, near the Amphitheatre 385 Springs, see Pontes. Squares, see Arete. Stabula quatuor factiouum sex 187, 454 Stadium : Domitiani in the Campus Martins 496 (so-called) on the Palatine 108, 172, 184 Stagna, ponds : Agrippje, in the Campus Martius .... 56 Neronis, in the grounds of the Domus Aurea .... 369 Stationes, public offices : Annonaj 519 Marmorum 527 Stationes Vigilum, barracks of firemen : of Cohors I., Palazzo Muti 545 of Cohors IV., on the Aventine 541 of Cohors v., on the Cslian 338 Statuae, statues : of L. yEmilius Paullus 216 of Atta Navius, in the Comitinm 266 of Bassaeus Rufus 216 of Cloelia, in the Summa Sacra Via (equestrian) ... 201 in the Comitium 266 of Constantine (equestrian) 249 from the Domus Cilonis 540 from the Domus Philippi 346 from the Domus Svmmachi 347 INDEXES 607 Statuse — continued. of Ennius the poet, in the tomb of the Scipios . . . 326 from the Horti Aciliorum 425 from tlie Horti Caesaris 547 from tlie Horti Getse 548 from the Horti Lamiani 407 from the Horti Liciniani 401 from the Horti Luculliani ....... 419 from the Horti Maicenatiani 411 from the Horti Sallustiaiii 416 from tlie Horti Tauriaui 406 from the Horti Variaui 397 of Laocoou 366 of Marsyas, iu the Forum 257 of Minerva 461 by the Rostra 235 of Sallustia Barbia Orbiana 398 of Scipio Africauus ........ 216 from the Temple of Concordia 286 from the Temple of Isis in the Campus Martius . . . 500 from the Temple of Isis on the Oppian 358 from the Temple of the Sun 430 from the Thermae Antoninianai 538 of Tria Fata . . • 235, 240 of Victory, in the Curia 263 of Vitrasius PoUio 216 of Vortumnus, at the beginnintc of the Vicus Tuscus . 119, 248 Streets, see Vici. Subura 388 Summum Choragium, on the Oppian 387 Tabernai, shops : of Galen 238 Nova; et Veteres 233 on the east side of the Forum 243, 259 (Ad) Tabulam Valeriam 234, 262 Tabularium, record office, archives 293 Tarentum, a mineral spring and pool on the Campus Martius . . 446 Tarquinii, Corneto 343 Templa, temples : Antonini et Faustina (Divi Pii) . . 35, 216, 247 Apollinis, near the Circus Flaniiuius 449 Apollinis, on the Palatine 140, 143 Augusti, on the Vicus Tuscus (Augusteum) . . 109, 119, 121-123 Castoris et Pollucis (Castorum) . . 124, 125, 150, 244, 256, 269 Castoris, in the Circus Flaminius ....'.. 441 Cereris, in the Pagus Triopius, S. Urbano alia Caffarella . 47 Cereris Liberi I>ibera'(iue, iu the Forum Boarium . 516, 521 Divi Claudii, Claudium, on the Cielian . . . 53, 54, 237, 350 Concordiie, on the Clivus Capitolinus .... 234, 286 Cybelis et Fonnia 132-135 Diana, on the Aventine 142 Eventus Boni 35 G08 INDEXES Templa — continued. Felicitatis, on the site of the Curia Hostilia Julia Fortunse, hj the Collina gate .... Fortunae, bj' the Forum Boarium ... Fortunae Equestris, hy the Circus Flaminius Heliogabali, on the Palatine ... Herculis Magni Custodis, by the Circus Flaminius Herculis Musarum, in the portico of Philippus Herculis Victoris (invicti), in the Forum Boarium Isidis, in the third region .... Isidis et Serapidis, in the Campus Martins Jani, in the Forum Holitorium Jani Quadrifrontis .... Jovis Libertatis, on the Aventine . Jovis Optimi Maximi, on the Capitoline Jovis Propugnatoris, on the Palatine Jovis Statoris, on the Summa Nova Via Jovis, in the Portico of Octavia Divi Julii Junonis, in the portico of Octavia Junonis Regin», on the Aventine Junonis Sospitse Juturna, near the Septa Divi Marci Martis, outside the Porta Capena Martis, in the Campus Martius Martis Ultoris, in the Forum Augustum MatidiiB Magnse Matris, on the Palatine . Matris Matuta?, in the Forum Boarium . Minervae, in the Forum Transitorium Minerv£e, on the Aventine Minervae, in the Campus Martius Minervag Medicae Neptuni, in the portico of the Argonauts Pacis Penatium, near the Summa Sacra Via Pietatis, in the Forum Holitorium . Romuli, son of Maxentius . Sacrae Urhis (Cadastre) .... Saturni, on the Clivus Capitolinus Solis, on the Quirinal .... Spei; in the Forum Holitorium . Trajani Veneris Erycina; (Sallustianw) . Veneris Genetricis, in the Forum Julium Veneris et Romae .... Vespasiani, on the Clivus Capitolinus . Vest£e Vestse, on the Palatine .... Victoriae 45, 95, 263 . 417 514 . 442 . 108, 159 34, 455 142 455 . 88, 358 31, 500 . 458, 512 237, 252 142 33, 237, 296 117, 126, 132, 135 117, 171, 198 467 . 267 467 142, 541 . 458, 512 . 443 505 73, 78 449 . 220 502 117, 129, 133 515 . 308 142 . 461 401 35, 487 . 88, 237 . 158 . 458, 511 . 209 205, 209, 211-215 . 142, 257 46, 99, 175, 428 . 458, 511 318 . 414 300 165, 190 . 257, 288 GO, 124, 221-224 . 140 117, 125, 146 INDEXES 609 Tenement-houses, see Insulae. Terraniare, di Castellazzo, di Fontanellato 113 Testaccio, moute, prati di, quartiere del 36, 38 Theatra, theatres : Balbi 142, 493 Marcelli 91, 491 Pompeii Magni 442, 459 Thermae, baths : Agrippinae 56, 175 Alexandrinte (of Severus Alexander) . . . .56, 486, 498 Antoniuianae (Caracalhe) 38, 46, 100, 533 Constantinianse 44, 100 Decianas 542 Diocletian^ 44, 46, 100, 432 Helenianai 398 Neronianae 498 Severianaj 49 Surana; 56, 542 TitiauiB 56, 363 Trajanaj 45, 365 near the Ecclesia Pudentiana 390 Tiber 1, 8-16, 30 Fish in 15 Mouth of 14 Inundations of 10-16 Objects of value in the bed of 26 Tiburtinus Lapis, Travertino 35 Tombs, see Sepulcra;, Columbaria, Mausolea. Traiectus, ferries 26 Travertine 35 (ad) Tres Fortunas, name of district 417 Treasurj', see ^Erarium Sat urn i. Tria Fata 240 Trigarium 21 Triumphal arches, see Arcus. Trofei di Mario, Cimbrum Marii 57 Tufa (quarries of) 32 Tugurium Faustuli 131 Tullianum (career) 48, 236, 285 Turris Mamilia (name of place in the Subura) 389 Turris Chartularia 171 Umbilicus Roma; 280 Valles, valleys : EgeriiB 47 Murcia 30, 111 Palatina 156 Sallustiana 29 del Gelsomino 41 dellaBalduina 41 delle Cave 41 delle Fdrnaci 41 deir Inferno .......... 41 Vaticanus : Ager 548 Mons . 4, 548 610 INDEXES Veil, Capi-acorum, Isola Farnese 82, 112, 113 Velabriim 518 Velia 59, 111 Vii«, roads : Appia 320 Ardeatina 82 Aurelia 41 Aiirelia Nova 41 Collatina ■ 34, 48 Cornelia 41 Flaminia . . . 63, 87, 174 Labicana 54, 56 Latina 51, 53, 320 Nomentana . . . .■ 75 Ostiensis 81, 84 Portueusis 33 Praenestina 56 Sacra 25, 188 Salaria Vetus, Piucia, Piuciana ..... 74, 111 Triumphalis . • . 41, 68, 83 Tusculana 54 Valeria 49 Vici, streets : -iEsculeti 441 Argiletum 29, 245 Armilustri 541 Caelimontana 53 ad Capita Biibula (Palatine) 138 Curiarum, ad Curias Veteres ...... 138, 167 inter Duos Lueos ......... 345 inter Duos Pontes 15 Hercules SuUanus ......... vii Isidis Patriciie vii ad Janum 252 Jugarius . . .' 277 Lata (Via) 11, 88 Longus ........... 29 Minerva Medica vii Mercurii Felicis (?) 40 Nova Via (infima, sumnia) 118,127,150,227 Patricii, Clivus Patricius 29, 390 aPilaAlta 40 Piscinje Publicse 48 Portae Collinie 417 Recta 441 Sacra Via 25, 188 Sobrius (Mercurii Sobrii) 389 ad Spem Veterem ■ . . 48, 49, 53 Subager (sub-aggere) vii Subura (maior, minor, clivus :